Abstract. This design case follows an ongoing collaboration between an instructional technologist and a high school literature teacher promoting reading ...
Designing customizable reading modules for a high school literature classroom By L. Roxanne Russell, University of Phoenix Online and Joshua Cuevas, University of North Georgia
Abstract This design case follows an ongoing collaboration between an instructional technologist and a high school literature teacher promoting reading comprehension through modules that provide visually interesting display of text on a computer screen along with cognitive tools. The modules were found to boost comprehension of specific content in even one use, and over time, overall reading skills were improved. Specific examples from the design and development process of this collaboration are shared here to illustrate decisions made in the face of common constraints—limited time, funding, and technical know-how—that emerged from theory and pilot studies. Teachereducators and their instructional-technology collaborators can use the information from this design and research process to harness the potential of ubiquitous software in affordable, replicable, and pedagogically sound ways. Keywords: K-12 reading, classroom technology integration, design-based research, PowerPoint, animated text, kinetic typography
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report published by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA 2007) reveals that reading scores are declining among high school seniors in the United States. Though the NEA’s last report in 2002 was criticized for only focusing on “literary reading,” this most recent study included evidence of decline in reading of any kind and, in particular, reading as a daily activity. Another study noted that by the 10th grade, only one third of U.S. Volume 58, Number 5
students read proficiently, with nearly half of all 17-year-olds unable to read at the 9th-grade level (Moss, 2005). Mainstream high school students often do not have the higher-order cognitive skills for comprehending advanced texts, with more than 90% of them functioning below the advanced level in reading (Alfassi, 2004). Middle- and secondary-level teachers, across disciplines, face the challenge of helping students acquire content knowledge through curricula still broadly based in textbook reading assignments, and they ask the question: How does a teacher keep the busy eyes of an adolescent or teenager trained to a page of static text? Researchers and practitioners have been working on the answer to this question for several years, and an abundance of technological innovations continue to be developed for the purpose of enhancing student ability and interest in reading. However, most of these innovations require costly purchases of software reading programs at the school, county, or state board of education level and also lock teachers and reading programs into the texts chosen by the software developers. In an effort to address the issue of promoting student ability and interest in reading courserelevant texts across disciplines, the authors, an instructional technologist and a high school literature teacher with advanced educational research training, undertook a project to design and develop reading modules founded on sound literacy practices and that attracted reader’s eyes and attention. Quantitative results were published previously and established that students using the modules outperformed
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those who only read print textbooks; they also increased their overall motivation to read (Cuevas, Russell, & Irving 2012). The iterative design, development, and research process described in this case brings to light the cyclical interplay between theory, ideas, and practical implementation that goes along with integrating technology into classroom reading instruction. Knowledge of the process will potentially aid educators interested in adopting this module system or creating something comparable since they can extend the method and enhance the benefits for their own students.
Design Context and Iterations Design participants were an instructional technologist and a high school literature teacher, both with post-graduate educational research training. Both design participants were also the researchers for this study. One of the design participants was the teacher of all of the classes in the design phase and three of the classes in the testing phase. These modules were designed for an American literature class at a large urban public high school of approximately 2,200 students located near Atlanta, Georgia. The school serves students in 9th through 12th grade and qualifies as a Title I school. The vast majority of students come from working-class and lowermiddle-class socioeconomic backgrounds, with 60% of the school’s students qualifying for free or reduced meals (Governor’s Office of Student Achievement, 2010). The year prior to the study, the school had a graduation rate of 78.6%, slightly lower than the state average of 78.9%. It had met annual yearly progress (AYP) requirements for two of the previous four years. The racial demographics of the school were as follows: 73% African American, 19% Caucasian, with 8% composed of other minorities. During the design process, four groups of user participants from 10th-grade classes used the modules during routine instruction with their usual instructor, and no individual identification information was collected. The multimedia platform Adobe Flash was originally chosen to develop these modules. The design participants spent two sessions in a computer lab experimenting with Flash text effects to determine how excerpts would be revealed. However, after the high school teacher shared more information about the restrictions on Web access in the high school computer lab, it became clear that Flash would not work. The instructional technologist then inquired about specifications on the individual machines in 72
the school lab and concluded that Microsoft’s presentation software, PowerPoint, was an acceptable option. The decision to use PowerPoint significantly impacted the design of the modules as it set up the instrumental parameters of the interplay between design decisions related to visual and cognitive theories. For example, part of the development process involved the instructional technologist first placing all of the text onto the slides in the correct layout so that the high school literature teacher would know which sections of text would appear on each slide. The PowerPoint screen-layout and font-size boundaries influenced decisions about how many vocabulary words and probe words to present per slide in order to avoid overwhelming the students with too many at one time. The use of PowerPoint also opened the door to making customized design of these modules feasible for a broader group of teachers and students. When the possibility of eventually training teachers and students to build these modules became part of the consideration in their design, it became necessary to focus more specifically on the user-friendly aspects of development. For example, the decision to display probe words in the center of the screen rather than in context made development of the modules significantly easier and less time consuming. The following examples describe the design as it evolved during the third, fifth, and sixth of six revisions of the design. The sustained reading module’s PowerPoint slides displayed black text on a white screen with moderately more than single-spacing between lines across the width of a screen with one-inch margins. Upon the participant’s action to advance a slide in the module, a series of probe words were displayed word by word—and in bold lettering with the click of a mouse—in the same places they were to occur in the full display of text (see Figure 1). After the display of the last probe word for the page, the full text of the excerpt faded in around the probe words (see Figure 2). The probe words remained in bold text. At the time of the study, the teacherresearcher had been using probe words as a strategy for improving comprehension for six years. Probe words are specific to the literature assigned and have clear connections to the central theme or main concepts of the material. They are attention-getting and powerful words that work in concert with the reading comprehension questions, but they are not the answers to those questions. Instead, the probe words heighten the readers’ ability to make connections and draw inferences—this better
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appreciation for the whole of the passage is what helps them in answering the comprehension questions. Vocabulary words, on the other hand, as identified in the textbook version and chosen by the literature teacher, were displayed in gray font and underlined (See “conceded” in Figure 2). Definitions were displayed in a smaller Screen Tips pop-up window when the mouse hovered over vocabulary words (see Figure 3). The next examples show slides from the fifth and sixth pilot modules in order to present the most significant revisions to the module design over the previous versions: (1) the addition of advance organizers (see Figure 4 on the next page) and questions (Figure 5) the display of probe words and phrases sequentially in the center of the screen instead of in the same places they were to occur in the full display of text (Figures 6, 7, 8 & 9). In the next section, we review influences on design decisions for the reading modules emerging from theoretical perspectives, instrumental and environmental restrictions and results of pilot sessions with users.
Figure 1. Sequential, contextual display of probe words as appeared even in early versions of module design.
Lessons Learned Instrumental and environmental restrictions influenced the design of the modules by making the design and development more compatible with integration in the classroom and more accessible for teacher customization. Findings from this design case reveal influences on design decisions emerging from theoretical perspectives, instrumental and environmental restrictions, and results of pilot sessions with users. Theoretical perspectives guided decisions on textual and visual communication and cognitive tools; pilot sessions provided both qualitative and quantitative data to influence the design based on user motivation and preferences. This multi-input iterative process has left the module paradigm in strong form, but educators implementing the system will find many opportunities to extend the interplay between theory, practical considerations, modification, and the new pedagogical ideas that arise in modification.
Influences from Theoretical Perspectives Within the first twelve months, the design participants each prepared a literature review to inform the design of the project and articulate their theoretical perspectives. Information gleaned from these literature reviews impacted decisions about the design of each new module. Volume 58, Number 5
Figure 2. Full text as appeared even in early versions of module design.
This case takes a more holistic at the design process of a user-customizable technology to improve reading performance and motivation in the high school classroom by describing formative stages in the design process—and those strategic choices for the reading modules being evaluated were influenced by relevant scholarly literature. The broader quasi-experimental study for which the reading modules under study were designed examined the differences in reading
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Figure 4. Advance organizers—fifth and sixth versions of module design.
Figure 5. Questions—fifth and sixth versions of module design.
Figure 6. Sequential, central display of probe words— fifth and sixth versions of module design.
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comprehension and motivation for high school students reading through a researcherdeveloped electronic format, those reading from textbooks and those not reading independently in the classroom. Research on the use of electronic reading formats with high school students is sparse (Slavin, Cheung, Groff, & Lake, 2008). A few studies have been conducted that compare reading in electronic formats to textbook reading at the early childhood level, and these studies found significant, positive differences for reading comprehension and motivation through the use of electronic reading formats (de Jong & Bus, 2002; Doty, Popplewell & Byers, 2001; Matthew, 1997). In conducting a comprehensive review of middle and high school reading programs, Slavin et al. (2008) found only eight experimental or quasiexperimental studies investigating computerassisted reading programs at the middle or high school level. The computer assistance in these studies were all from pre-packaged, commercial reading products that include literacy instruction, exercises and assessments. In a report on technology and reading for middleschool students, Pearson, Ferdig, Blomeyer and Moran (2005) performed a meta-analysis of twenty experimental studies related to the use of technology to enhance literacy in the classroom. They found that too few experimental studies were available, too few studies investigated variables beyond reading comprehension, and that pre-packaged commercial reading products were less effective than researcher-developed technologies (Pearson et al., 2005). We began this study with a firm commitment to increasing the amount of time and text that the high schoolers were reading. Hasselbring and Goin (2004) found that the factor that correlates most directly with reading comprehension level is the number of books read and the amount of time spent reading. In a longitudinal study that followed a group of students from 1st through 12th grade, researchers showed that while ability at the 1st-grade level was a significant predictor of reading comprehension in 11th grade, reading amount was also a strong predictor (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997). Ultimately, reading practice, especially practice in different genres, has been associated with high literacy achievement in adults (Tracey & Morrow, 2006). But while having students increase their time spent reading would appear to be the obvious way to address literacy shortcomings, the caveat lies in ensuring that students follow through with their reading. There is overwhelming evidence that the vast majority of students do not and will not read at home (Moss 2005). Yet
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in an extensive observational study, Goodlad (1984) came to the conclusion that there was a shockingly small amount of time in school that students were engaged in actual reading and writing. More than twenty years later, Moss (2005) noted that students continue to do little textbook reading, either in class or at home. If this is true, it would help to explain the current stagnation in literacy levels; students are simply not reading, either at home or in school, and they are not strengthening the parts of the brain that are activated during reading. Given the lack of control that educators have on behavior outside the classroom, a number of experts in the field contend that in-school reading can be used to help increase reading ability, which improves achievement across the board. Burke (2000) notes that sustained silent reading (SSR) is believed to be one of the most effective means of improving students’ reading capacity at any grade level. Moss (2005) maintains that involving students in SSR time has been shown to increase achievement. There is empirical support that increased in-school reading, particularly silent reading, has a large effect on subsequent text comprehension ability. In both elementary and high school students, amount of reading time significantly predicted and positively correlated with reading comprehension, even when previous achievement and prior knowledge were controlled for (Guthrie et al., 1999). In another study, Kelley and Clausen-Grace (2006) focused on SSR and noted that there is a strong correlation between time spent reading and reading achievement levels. More specifically, time spent reading in school was linked to higher performance on standardized measures of reading comprehension. Instead, independent silent reading (ISR) may be used; the method is similar to SSR, except that ISR may take place with assigned readings or with readings chosen by students and there may be an assessment component, whereas SSR is predominantly a free-reading period with no assessment, and as such is more narrowly defined. ISR can be more content-oriented than SSR, and students could be assigned material relating to a broader thematic unit tied into the larger curriculum, often a necessity in a high school classroom. The reading modules in this study were designed to be used as part of an Independent Silent Reading (ISR) initiative. The researchers wanted to combine their expertise—their knowledge of the literacy strategies along with the teacher’s awareness of contextual issues in his classroom and the instructional technologist’s familiarity with Volume 58, Number 5
Figure 7. Sequential, central display of probe words— fifth and sixth versions of module design.
Figure 8. Sequential, central display of probe words— fifth and sixth versions of module design.
Figure 9. Probe words in bold in full display of text— fifth and sixth versions of module design.
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practical interventions—to experiment with a more interactive form of ISR in the hopes of improving upon even that important increase in reading time. Another theoretical device that may assist in developing reading comprehension is the use of scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1986) or added layers of cognitive tools to assist in learning. Combining strategies during inclass reading in an attempt to create layers of cognitive tools was shown to be beneficial in improving the complexity levels of reading comprehension in mainstream 9th- and 10thgrade students (Alfassi, 2004). The question then becomes, what scaffolding layers should be used? There is broad support for four factors that are believed to be essential to improving reading comprehension in adolescents and adults: (1) improving vocabulary (Alfassi, 2004; Cromley & Azevedo, 2007; Leone et al., 2005); (2) prior knowledge and background information (Cromley & Azevedo, 2007; Guthrie et al., 1999; Snapp & Glover, 1990; Thompson, 1997; Thompson, 1998; Tracey & Morrow, 2006; Tyler, Delaney, & Kinnucan, 1983); (3) inferencing and prediction (Alfassi, 2004; Cromley & Azevedo, 2007; Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003; Hock & Mellard, 2005; Lea et al., 2005); and (4) cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Alfassi, 2004; Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003; Guthrie et al., 1999; Hock & Mellard, 2005; Kelley & Clausen-Grace, 2006; Snapp & Glover, 1990). While the literature on independent silent reading supported our belief that modules motivating students to spend sustained time reading in class may help improve students’ reading capacity, the literature on scaffolding helped provide guidance on how to take advantage of the technology to offer tools to improve reading comprehension. The original design of the module, which included only visually interesting display of text, was thus modified to include: (1) mouse-over Screen Tip definitions for attention to vocabulary (Figure 3 and all other figures are on the previous pages); (2) advance organizers to provide prior knowledge and background information (Figure 4); (3) probe words for inferencing and prediction (Figures 1 and 6); and (4) questions from reading comprehension tests to prompt students to practice cognitive and metacognitive strategies of generating questions, answering questions, summarizing, and paraphrasing (Figure 5). To decide how to approach these later developments in design, we turned to research on the relationship between visual characteristics of text on computer screens and user interaction. Mills & Weldon (1987) 76
provide a comprehensive literature review of early studies conducted on the readability of computer screens. They emphasize that their focus is not on legibility, but on “the effect on reading performance of the form and physical attributes of the text as displayed on computer screens.” The results of the studies included in Mills & Weldon’s literature review coincide fairly consistently with the basic visual design principles for text on computer screens still used today (Williams & Stimatz, 2005). The results relevant to the design of this project include: • Even though users’ performance may not be as good with computer screens as with paper, users may prefer computer screens. • More than minimal spacing between lines of text appears to facilitate reading performance. • Dark characters on a light background appear to be easier to read. • Presenting text on a computer screen in a way that emphasizes the linguistic structure may facilitate reading performance. (Mills & Weldon, 1987) These earlier studies laid the groundwork for what has become a rather lively conversation about manipulating text through size, color, or movement conveys messages in order to affect cognition. Researchers in this area have used different terminology: “kinetic typography” (Engel, Ditterline, & Yeung, 2000; Ford, Forlizzi, & Ishizaki, 1997), “dynamic information display” (Nishimura & Sato, 1985), “temporal typography” (Wong, 1996), “animated text” (Hemphill, 2007) and “dynamic text” (Back et al., 2001; Kang & Muter, 1989). This research focuses on the temporal, spatial and design aspects of simple text to the exclusion of visual and audio enhancements (Ford, Forlizzi, & Ishizaki, 1997). Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), a process by which words appear one at a time, usually at the same place on a screen, in rapid sequential order, makes up the largest subset of research within the study of kinetic typography. This method has been shown to significantly improve the reading speed of participants (Back et al., 2001; Mills & Weldon, 1987) and has been found to be a useful tool for cognitive scientists researching information processing (Chun & Potter, 1995). The design of the modules in this study was bolstered by other studies in kinetic typography that represent various methods for measuring the effect of text manipulation on interpretation and affective elements of learning. Engel, Ditterline & Yeung (2000) explored the relationship between kinetic typography and comprehension by testing whether subjects’ responses could be swayed with text manipulation. They found that interpretations could be encouraged through
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the use of kinetic typography. In preliminary findings of an ongoing study, Hemphill (2007) found differences in motivation and engagement for static and animated versions of a poem. As this project seeks to provide instructional technology solutions at the intersection of textual and visual communication, the goals and the design of the reading modules were also informed by theories of visual aesthetics. These theories provide a framework to explore whether (a) the visual aesthetics principles of control of direction, tension and unity may be manipulated in the display of text to support and enhance cognition, and (b) visually interesting text may mediate affective barriers to reading. The logic of visual aesthetics theory is not limited to visual images such as pictures, icons, or graphics. The aesthetic principles that guide visual logic are also at work in the simple display of text on a screen. The design of the reading modules was influenced by the consideration of the control of direction, tension and unity principles of visual aesthetics theory. The control of direction principle is at work even as your eyes move across this sentence, over this page and through this document. This principle allows creators to exercise some control over viewers’ visual interactions with their creations through clues, grouping, and tension (Dake, 2005). The principle of tensional relationships, the relationship between components in a display and the plane on which the display appears, is particularly important in the presentation of text (e.g. the white space around text and proximity between textual displays will impact a viewers’ interaction with the text). The unity sought in the design of this project was influenced by the Gestalt principles of proximity and continuation. The overall effect of separate components will be influenced by the unity of design (Dake, 2005). Although text carries meaning with it beyond the page, the unity and grouping of text visually on the page will impact a viewer’s interaction with and perception of the text. Brownie (2007) argues that although researchers working with new ways of displaying text claim there is no theoretical framework for their work, Gestalt psychology provides a useful starting point. In summary, historical research on the display of text on computer screens, current studies on kinetic typography, and visual aesthetics theories supported our initial sense that visually interesting display of text, without the use of additional images or sounds, may draw students’ attention to reading literary texts and may enhance reading Volume 58, Number 5
performance. Furthermore, discoveries about user preferences for display of text influenced decisions about font size and color, spacing, and layout. Decisions about the placement and display of probe words were influenced by visual aesthetics principles of control of direction, tension and unity; the decision to move probe words from contextual display to central display was influenced by the RSVP literature. This design revision also simplified development of modules because it was no longer necessary to try to line up the display of probe words exactly in the space they would be revealed in full text. Compare Figure 1 to Figure 6.
Making the Most of User Behaviors The concept for this project was prompted by an informal conversation about the realities of the literature classroom and the difficulty of maintaining students’ attention for even one 50-minute class session of sustained reading. The early stages of development were exploratory and experimental and methods for data gathering became more formal only as the project progressed. Just as teachers and technologists gather data informally through implementation in the classroom, qualitative data about the student’s interest and interactions with the modules in the classroom was gathered naturalistically through informal classroom observations and conversations with the users. Students expressed willingness and a preference for reading on the computers during early, middle, and late pilot sessions. For example, after piloting three modules, the high school literature teacher observed: These past two weeks students have been asking me if we get to go to the computer lab to do the reading on the computer and have been genuinely disappointed when I tell them we’re not. The teacher’s perception was supported by the technologist’s observation on the textbook reading observation day in the classroom. The technologist found off-task behavior of three of the six monitored users to be more pronounced during the textbook reading session in comparison to the reading module session. Three users each left their seats at least once and exhibited off-task behaviors such as texting, talking to neighbors or looking around the room on the textbook reading day. These same three users never left their seats during the reading module session and did not exhibit any of the previously listed off-task behaviors. These improvements are meaningful, given that very
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few interventions are attempted or successful with high school students who are chronically poor readers. A pedagogical tool that teachers can create and customize represents an important addition to the curriculum. The following user interactions were observed and found to be relevant to the implementation of the reading modules in the classroom: • Several users did not open the module in Slide View until prompted. • Some users, after prompted to use Slide View, reverted back as soon as they thought they were no longer being observed. • Users observed using the mouse to underscore reading during module sessions also used pens to underscore reading in textbooks. • Users who advanced slides with the mouse while reading were more likely to use the vocabulary feature. • Users who advanced slides with the keyboard arrows were less likely to use the vocabulary feature. • Some users advanced through probe words without reading them. • Some users sped past probe words, read the passage and then reversed slides and reviewed probe words before reading the passage again. • Students who encountered any computer setbacks were sometimes not able to complete the modules. Student feedback and interactions in the classroom were particularly useful in making adjustments to the animation style and speed of display of text and probe words. For example, after the fifth version’s adjustments to the speed of display on the probe words, the high school literature teacher observed: I would say most of the students read the probe words, even if they clicked through them quickly. So we went from less than 25% using them last time to probably 70% reading them this time. College-prep students reading from the modules achieved significantly higher scores on the reading comprehension test than college-prep students reading from the textbook. The level by treatment interaction effect found in the pilot study warranted further research on the cognitive and affective dimensions of the design. This study also offers guidance for strategic integration of the modules in the classroom. Pilot studies led us to discover that the design should include suggestions for classroom implementation to help overcome problems and capitalize on user interactions in this design: 78
• Teachers should introduce the modules in Slide View only. • Users should be required to use the mouse to advance slides. • Module reading selections should be carefully chosen according to class time available, allowing for possible setbacks. • Users should be encouraged to carry over their textbook reading habits to module reading. • Users should be allowed to self-select how probe words are used.
Future Research and Implementation The next phase of research on this design has begun and includes (1) asking pre-service teachers to create these modules with texts of their choice, and (2) developing Macros for PowerPoint to automate reading module creation tasks. This new design phase focuses on the usability of these modules as do-it-yourself creations. Information from this phase of research may prompt design modifications to optimize customizability and classroom integration. Experimentation with the use of these modules in the online classroom and display of these modules on smart-phones also shows promise for integrating this technique into e-learning and mobile learning initiatives. Finally, we plan to offer a website repository for open sharing of these materials in order to build a library for widespread use and collaboration. These reading modules complement the broader study on independent silent reading (Cuevas, Russell, & Irving, 2012), but findings about the effectiveness of these reading modules (Cuevas, Russell, & Irving, 2012) fall short of describing the environmental and instrumental restrictions that may influence the usability, scalability, and sustainability of integrating this design in the classroom. In order to work towards effective classroom technology solutions, more design cases, like this one, are needed that describe the influences on design decisions from theory, practice, and pilot-research methods. The advantages of this module system are its grounding in theory and sound pedagogy, its customizability and ease of use, and its affordability—the software is already ubiquitous. These attributes make for a framework that holds the potential of enduring applicability and appeal, and it is hoped that educators will build on the iterative process described here.
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L. Roxanne Russell is a consultant for three universities in the University System of Georgia and Online Faculty for the School of Advanced Studies at the University of Phoenix Online. Her professional and research focus is exploring educational collaborations to meet global challenges of sustainable and equitable development. Joshua A. Cuevas earned his Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from Georgia State University and currently serves as an Assistant Professor in the College of Education at the University of North Georgia. He has experience working as a high school language arts and journalism teacher, in state assessment through the University of Georgia Educational Research Laboratory, and in national assessment as a consultant in test development for the American Council on Education. Correspondence in regard to this paper should be addressed to: L. Roxanne Russell, University of Phoenix Online, 4887 Greenway Road, Norcross, GA 30071, rockirussell@ gmail.com.
References Alfassi, M. (2004). Reading to learn: Effects of combined strategy instruction on high school students. Journal of Educational Research, 97(4), 171-184. Back, M., Cohen, J., Gold, R., Harrison, S., & Minneman, S. (2001) Speeder reader: An experiment in the future of reading. Paper, education track, and demo, Emerging Technologies. SIGGRAPH 2001, ACM Press. Brownie, B. (2007) The potential for application of gestalt principles in sreen-based, kinetic and fluid typographic artefacts. Retrieved December 8, 2008 from University of Hertfordshire, Faculty for the Creative and Cultural Industries: http://www.fluidtype.org/texts/ Gestalt&FluidType1.pdf Burke, J. (2000). Reading reminders. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook Chun, M. M. & Potter, M.C. (1995). A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology 21(1), pp. 109-27. Collins, T. (2006). Culturally responsive literacy instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(2), 6265. Cromley, J. G., & Azevedo, R. (2007). Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 311-325. Cuevas, J. A., L.R. Russell & M. Irving (2012). An examination of the effect of customized reading modules on diverse secondary students’ reading comprehension and motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development. 60(3), 445-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11423-012-9244-7 Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 934-945. Dake, D. (2005). Aesthetics Theory. In K. Smith, S. Moriarty, G. Barbatsis & K. Kenney (Eds.) Handbook of visual communication: Theory, methods and media. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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de Jong, M.T., & Bus, A.G. (2002) Quality of book-reading matters for emergent leaders: An experiment with the same book in a regular or electronic format. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 145-155. Dewitz, P., & Dewitz, P. K. (2003). They can read the words, but they can’t understand: Refining comprehension assessment. Reading Teacher, 56(5), 422. Engel, B., Ditterline, P., & Yeung, Brian (2000) The effects of kinetic typography on readability. Retrieved November 24, 2009 from Carnegie Mellon University: http://crankyuser.com/kinetic/kineticTypography.pdf Doty, D., Popplewell, S., & Byers, G. (2001). Interactive CD-ROM storybooks and young readers’ reading comprehension. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(4), 374-84. Ford, S., Forlizzi, J. & Ishizaki, S. Kinetic typography: Issues in time-based presentation of text, CHI ‘97 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems: looking to the future, March 22-27, 1997, Atlanta, Georgia. Goodlad, J. (1984). A place called school. New York: McGraw-Hill. Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Metsala, J. L., & Cox, K. E. (1999). Motivational and cognitive predictors of text comprehension and reading amount. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3(3), 231. Hasselbring, T. S., & Goin, L. I. (2004). Literacy instruction for older struggling readers: what is the role of technology? Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20(2), 123-144. Hemphill, L. (2007). Poetry in motion. Presented at the 5th International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities, Paris, 17-20 July 2007. Working paper for presentation retrieved November 24, 2009 from: http:// www.libbyh.com/docs/iclsposter.pdf Hock, M., & Mellard, D. (2005). Reading comprehension strategies for adult literacy outcomes. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 49(3ov), 192. Kang, T. & Muter, P. (1989) Reading dynamically displayed text. Behaviour and Information Technology 8(1), pp. 33-42. Kelley, M., & Clausen-Grace, N. (2006). R5: The sustained silent reading makeover that transformed readers. Reading Teacher, 60(2), 148-156. Lea, R. B., Mulligan, E. J., & Walton, J. L. (2005). Accessing distant premise information: How memory feeds reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(3), 387-395. Leone, P. E., Krezmien, M., Mason, L., & Meisel, S. M. (2005). Organizing and delivering empirically based literacy instruction to incarcerated youth. Exceptionality, 13(2), 89-102. Matthew, K. (1997). A comparison of the influence of interactive CD-ROM storybooks and traditional print storybooks on reading comprehension. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 29(3), 263-275. Mills, C. & Weldon, L. (1987). Reading text from computer screens. ACM Computing Surveys, 19(4), 329-58. Moss, B. (2005). Making a case and a place for effective content area literacy instruction in the elementary grades. Reading Teacher, 59(1), 46-55. National Endowment for the Arts. (2007). To read or not to read: A question of national consequence (Research
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Learning, Problem Solving, and Mindtools: Essays in Honor of David H. Jonassen Editors: J. Michael Spector, Barbara B. Lockee, Sharon E. Smaldino, and Mary C. Herring
earning Problem Solving, L and Mindtools is inspired
by the substantial body of learning research by David H. Jonassen in the areas of mindtools and problem solving. The focus of the volume is on educational technology, especially with regard to how new technologies have facilitated and supported problem solving and critical thinking. Each chapter focuses on a particular aspect of learning with technology and elaborates the implications for the design and implementation of learning environments and activities aimed at improving the conceptualization of problems, reasoning and higher-order thinking, and solving challenging problems. This collection of scholarly essays provides a highly engaging treatment of using tools and technology to support learning in complex and challenging problem-solving domains; guidance for the design of instruction to support problem solving; a systemic account of the relationships between mental models, instructional models, and assessment models; and a look into the future of educational technology research and practice.
Report No. 47). Retrieved November 19, 2007 from NEA Web site: http://www.arts.gov/research/ToRead.pdf Nishimura, Y. & Sato, K. (1985). Dynamic information display. Visible Language, 19(2), 251-271. Pearson, P.D., Ferdig, R.E., Blomeyer, R.L., & Moran, J. U.S. Department of Education, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (2005). The effects of technology on reading performance in the middle-school grades: a meta-analysis with recommendations for policy (ED-01CO-0011). Illinois: Retrieved from http://www.ncrel. org/tech/reading/pearson.pdf Reeves, T.C., Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2005). Design research: A socially responsible approach to instructional technology research in higher education. Journal of Computing and Higher Education, 16(2), 97-116. Slavin, R.E., Cheung, A., Groff, C., & Lake, C. (2008). Effective reading programs for middle and high schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 43(3), 290-322. Snapp, J. C., & Glover, J. A. (1990). Advance organizers and study questions. Journal of Educational Research, 83(5), 266-271. Thompson, D. N. (1997). Practice effects of advance organization with older adult subjects. Educational Gerontology, 23(3), 207. Thompson, D. N. (1998). Using advance organizers to facilitate reading comprehension among older adults. Educational Gerontology, 24(7), 625-638. Tracey, D., Morrow, L.M. (2006). Lenses on reading. New York: Guilford Press. Tyler, S. W., Delaney, H., & Kinnucan, M. (1983). Specifying the nature of reading ability differences and advance organizer effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(3), 359-373. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge: MIT Press. Williams, B.O. & Stimatz, L. R. (2005). The origins of graphic screen design principles: theory or rhetoric? International Journal of Instructional Media 32(2), 181-194. Wong, Y. (1996). Temporal typography: Video. Proceedings of the 1996 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vancouver , 13-18 April 1996. Retrieved December 1, 2007 from CHI 96 Website: http://sigchi.org/chi96/proceedings/videos/ Wong/yyw_txt.htm
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TechTrends • September/October 2014
Volume 58, Number 5
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