considerable harmony between man and the environment particularly the ..... responsible for safeguarding their respective sections at a church gatherings.
DESSA’A PROTECTED AREA
An Assessment of Human Impact, Evolutionary Pattern and Options for Sustainable Management
A Research Report
Sponsored by UNESCO MAB (Man And The Biosphere) Programme Young Scientists Research Award Scheme
By Zenebe Gebreegziabher Tigrai Region Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources November 1999
Mekelle, Ethiopia
Table of Contents Page Summary Acknowledgements 1. Introduction 1.1. Background 1.2. Objectives of the Study 1.3. Methodology 2. Description of the Study Area 2.1. Location 2.2. Climatic Conditions 2.2.1. Altitude 2.2.2. Temperature 2.2.3. Rainfall 2.3. Farming System 2.4. Political System 3. Past and Present Situation 3.1. Historical Perspective
i iv 1 1 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6
3.1.1. Pre-1936 3.1.2. !936-1974 3.1.3. 1975-1991 3.1.4. Post-1991 3.2. Wildlife Situation 3.3. Causes of the Threat 4. Human Impact 4.1. Encroachment 4.2. Style of Housing Construction 4.3. Military Settlement 4.4. Forest Fire 4.5. Wood Sales 4.6. Charcoaling 4.7. Uncontrolled Hunting and Trapping 4.8. Social Occasions 4.9. Others 4.9.1. Wasteful Use of Forest Resources 4.9.2. Debarking 4.9.3. The Traditional “Tush” 5. Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework 5.1. Country (National) Perspective 5.2. Region Perspective 5.3. Local Perspective 6. Constraints and Issues 6.1. Erosion of Traditional Management Systems 6.2. Failure During Demarcation 6.3. Grazing Conflicts 6.4. Current Replanting Measures 6.5. Beehives in the Protected Area 7. Conclusion and Policy Implications 7.1. Conclusion 7.2. Policy Implications Bibliography Annex Table
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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Since their very existence human beings have been dependent on their environment, both biotic and abiotic for their livelihoods. During the early days of human history there was a considerable harmony between man and the environment particularly the biosphere. With the growth in human population in the course of time and hence the subsequent increase in the pressure exerted on the environment for survival, however, the nature of the relationship shifted to be more exploitative than creative (additive). This disharmony between mankind and the environment in general has resulted in adverse consequences such as loss (erosion) of biodiversity. Besides these worldwide phenomena agricultural modernization is also blamed to have contributed to the numerous genetic losses in the domesticated species of crops and livestock. Ethiopia is among the regions designated to be Vavilov Center (centers of origin) for the world’s genetic resources (Van de Laar 1988). These days, however, considerable plant and animal species that existed in the country have become extinct majorly due to the unwise intervention of mankind into the natural systems as well as the insufficient attention given (in the past time) to nature preservation. The country’s forest resources, which were covering about 40 % of the land at the turn of the century, have nowadays shrunk to only less than 3 percent of the total area (EFAP 1994). The unprecedented rate of population growth in the country which is currently 3.1 percent and associated increase in the demand for additional arable land, fuel wood, timber and transhumance are the ones which could in broad terms be described to be the root causes of the threat (UNDP 1994). Apart from the tremendous losses in the country’s wild fauna and flora, the other adverse effects of these deforestation and devegetation are soil erosion and deterioration of water resources (both surface and subsurface). Tigrai is the typical region of the country where the specter of these environmental threats is acute and intolerable. Most of the land in the region is completely degraded and left barren as a result of years of deforestation and de-vegetation. Currently, forests cover less than one percent of the land area of the region (TFAP 1996). These remnants are found in small patches dispersed over the region of which Dessa’a Protected Area is one. Dessa’a Protected Area is one of the 59 national forest priority areas (NFPAs) in the country at large (EFAP, 1994). This particular area deserved studying because, for one thing, it has a better concentration of biodiversity. Secondly, it is the largest natural reserve compared to the other few small patches found dispersed in the region. Thirdly, it can better explain (represent) the evolution and type of threats that prevailed in the region. Hence, the results of the assessment, the constraints and issues identified from the survey as well as the conclusion and policy implications drawn have been presented under the subsequent chapters.
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1.2. Objectives of the Study In general, the research was intended to look at the human impact, evolution and current status of the threats to biodiversity in the reserve. More specifically, the objectives of this study were: * to investigate the type and evolution (historical perspective) of the threats to biodiversity of the area (both fauna and flora). * to examine and analyze the nature of the human impact that prevailed in the area. * to explore the current status of the threats, existing policies, legal and statutory framework and, finally, come up with options and policy recommendations for the sustained management of the area, in particular, and the region in general. 1.3. Methodology After carrying out some literature review a questionnaire that was deemed to generate the desired data was constructed. Then a pre-testing of the questionnaire was made. In addition, a preliminary field assessment was carried out simultaneously with the questionnaire pretesting in order to identify issues that should be well considered during the actual fieldwork. Two kushets (villages ) were selected from within the study area for both the preliminary field assessment as well as questionnaire pre-testing. The selection of these two kushets was made simply based on the proximity and convenience that the villages have to undertake the job. Then from the observations made during the pre-testing and preliminary field assessment the questionnaire was modified and improved for final use. For the sake of the actual fieldwork, however, a total of 12 kushets were selected by systematic random sampling technique. These were about 20% of the 59 villages falling within the study area. Initially, all the villages falling within the boundary of the study area were arranged according to their alphabetical order and then the systematic sampling technique was applied to it. Respondents ranging from 6 to 12 persons, that is, both elderly people, farmers and women were interviewed in each of the sampled village. Respondents were selected both purposely and randomly. Semi-structured interviewing technique was used in the research work. This technique was preferred for the study because it allows a relaxed and free flow of dialogue between the interviewee and the interviewer. It also better explores what respondents think about the theme. A total of 80 respondents (informants) were covered through the actual fieldwork. The field interview was also substantiated through visual observations by transects walks inside the forest area. In addition, development agents (DAs) working in the area, professionals (experts) working at different levels and who at the same time have relevant experience with the area in question, as well as district executive body members (elected leaders) were consulted during the field work. Moreover, attempts were made to consult available literature pertaining to the topics of interest and the study area.
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2. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA 2.1. Location ‘Dessa’a Protected Area’ lies between 130 201 and 140 101 North latitudes and between 390 321 and 390 551 East longitude. It falls within two regions of Ethiopia. Namely the Tigrai and the Afar Regions. In Tigrai Region, it touches three woredas (districts); Saesie Tsaeda Emba, Atsbi Wonberta and Enderta. Administratively, the former two woredas (districts) are found in the Eastern zone of the region and the later one in the Southern zone of the region. And that part of the protected area falling in Afar Region touches the districts Shikhet, Berahle, and Dalol. However, considerable part of the area falls within Tigrai Region. It was in 1993 that the area was demarcated and designated as ‘Protected Area’. Its present boundaries were defined (delineated) during this time.. 2.2. Climatic conditions 2.2.1. Altitude Topographically the area exhibits moderately gentle to steep scarps. It forms a climatic buffer zone between the highlands of Tigrai Region and the lowlands of Afar Region by extending in an easterly direction along and down the northeastern escarpment (NEE). The altitude of the area ranges from 1,500m asl at the lower limit to 2,500m asl at the plateau. 2.2.2. Temperature Data collected from meteorological stations located adjacent to the study area indicate that the mean minimum and the mean maximum temperature for the area varies in the range of 7.5 0C to 19.3 0C and 22.6 0C to 33.40C, respectively. 2.2.3. Rainfall Generally, it is during the months of July and August that rain is observed in the area. The amount of rainfall during these months ranges from 116.3 up to 230 mm. This amount is very low when compared to that of the other parts of the region. Such an amount of rainfall is also marginal for the growth of trees. However, there is an argument that the forests collect (absorb) moisture from the clouds or mist which usually build up along the escarpment (EWNHS, 1996). 2.3 Farming System During the previous times particularly until the times before Atse (king) Haileselassie regime, there was a semi-pastoralist type of farming system in the area. The livelihood of the communities residing in the area was said to be largely dependent on livestock and livestock products. Rearing cattle and goats was the major way of life of the inhabitants. Milk, yoghurt, butter, honey, etc were mentioned to constitute the most important part of diet by that time, with the protected (forest) area being the main source of feed for their livestock. Both as grazing area and as source of fodder and browse trees/ shrubs. Collection of naturally existing honey was also being practiced in the area. The bee colonies were producing and reproducing by them selves naturally in a convenient hollow rock or hollow tree / wood found in the protected area. Anybody from the commoners were freely collecting and consuming this naturally existing honey. But later on people started to hang man made hives on the big
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trees. Crop production was said to have been of less significance by that time. Both in terms of the area cultivated as well as its contribution to the households income. A small plot of land was cultivated by hoeing and using ploughing ox was not as such widely known in the area. But grain was said to be plenty in the market and Birr was scarce by that time. Not less than 30 kg of grain was purchased with 1.50 Eth Birr. And livestock were the prominent sources of their income. Some of the elderly informants indicated that livestock was contributing up to two-third of the households’ income. However, the situation started to get reversed since the reign of Ats’e (King) Haile Selassie. Crop cultivation started to expand during this time. Drought was indicated to be the main cause (reason) of this phenomenon. With the occurrence of drought a number of animals died of the shortage of feed and the size of their livestock holding was considerably decreased. Then after crop cultivation started to expand and play an important role in the household economy. It seems with the intention of compensating (coping with) the livestock lost as result of the drought (Webb and Von Braun 1994). These days, however, it is the mixed (crop and livestock) type of farming system, which is prevalent in the area particularly to the highland side. But still pastoralist and semi-pastoralist type of farming system is in place to the lowland side of the protected area. 2.4. Political System The highest executive powers of the Federal Government of Ethiopia are vested in the Prime Minister and in the Council of Ministers. Council of Peoples’ Representatives from among its members elects the Prime Minister. And the state council is the highest organ of state authority. The highest organ of executive power is vested in the Regional States. Administratively, the regional states are subdivided into several zones. The basic unit of hierarchy of every region is the woreda (district). The Woreda Administration has the powers necessary to prepare, determine and implement, within its own boundaries, plans concerning social services and economic development, as well as to implement laws, policies and directives of the Federal Government and the Region (EWNHS, 1996). “Tabia” are the institutions that provide the local level of organization and administration below the woreda. In Tigrai’s context, a “tabia” consists of a group three or four “kushets” and a total of between 1000 and 15000 rural households. The elected “tabia council” locally known as “baito” which consists of a chairman, secretary and other members is the supreme governing body at the tabias.
3. PAST AND PRESENT SITUATION 3.1. Historical Perspective 3.1.1. Pre - 1936 This refers to the period prior to the Italian Occupation of Ethiopia (1936-1941). There were scattered settlements both within and around the now “protected area”. Since a very long time, there was also cutting of forest products for different purposes. Most of the respondents
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indicated that the extent of the human interference was minimal during this period. It seems to be due to the semi-pastoralist type of farming system that prevailed in the area. The livelihood of the people who resided there was largely dependent on livestock and livestock products and that arable farming was very limited particularly during the pre-colonial period. However, deforestation is not a recent phenomenon, for it has been there since the time of Axumite Civilization when viewed in a regional context (Wright 1984). During this Pre-1936 period, the area was densely covered with different indigenous forest species. In this regard putting the respondents’ explanations would better elaborate the relative richness of the area by that time. Some of them said that it was so frightening for somebody to pass through alone even during daytime. Some of them also indicated that it was not possible to see sunrays cascading inside the forest. The droplets of a rain shower of a given day was also said to stay until two to three days later on the leaves and branches as a result of the density of the canopy cover. Such droplets were also said to have been inhibiting easy entry into the forest. Still others said that it was too hard to search out any cattle lost inside the forest, etc. Several species of trees and shrubs were mentioned to have been there during that time. The most dominant ones being the species “tsihdi” (Juniperus procera), “awlie” (Olea europae), “kot” (Ekbergia capensis), “tetaelo” (Rhus natalensis), “cha’a”(Acacia abyssinica), “metere” (Budleja polystachya), “tselimo” (Diospyros abyssinica) and “dawabesha” (Rhus quartiniana). Species with edible berries or stem such as “kega” (Rosa abyssinica), “ango” (Caralluma penciliata) were also said to have been plentiful wherever you go. In addition, the famous traditional detergent “shebti” (Phytolacca dodecandra), as well as the species “gesho” or hops (Rhamnus prenoides) and “tseddo” (Rhamnus staddo), both of which are used in the preparation of local beverages, were mentioned to have been freely found as wild species in the forest area. Since this period the whole area was partitioned among different communities or groups of owners. Each of the communities act as collective owners and exercise exclusive control over a clearly delineated section of the forest area. These usufructuary rights were found to have their origin in the rist system (tenure) that prevailed in the area. Members of each community have a common cognatic descent and lineage to a certain pioneer father who originally established a recognized claim over that defined unit of land. The area was being managed through traditional coordinated access rules set by the respective communities. The commoners decide as to how the protection should be and elect a person who will be responsible for safeguarding their respective sections at a church gatherings. The person elected is traditionally called as Abo Gereb; meaning father of forest. And the utilization was in such a way that any member who is needy will stand at the church gathering and delivers his oral appeal to the commoners. The commoners discuss on the matter and decide on whether or not it should be permitted and on the quantity to be permitted. Cut permits were also given for outsiders particularly to communities in need of timber for church construction. Payments of certain sorts of fees or tributes were compulsory upon every harvest for both the commoners and outsiders. Most of the fees or tributes were paid to the church and were used for church services. The common access rules were also indicated to have provisions in cases when any member has got social occasions such as marriage and memorial feast ceremonies. Cares were also taken on the type of products when permits are given for utilization.
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During this period, there also were attempts of external intrusion by certain princes of that time. The objective of such intrusions was to clear a section of the forest using fire and to put that cleared land under a plough (Yeraswork 1997). Some of the attempts of intrusion were also mentioned to have been accompanying a number of people and oxen. However, such external intrusions have been strongly resisted by the communities (commoners). 3.1.2. From 1936 to 1974 This covers the period from Italian Occupation up to the end of Emperor Haileselassie regime. The colonial period was identified, by most of the respondents, for the beginning of a widespread intrusion into the forest ecosystem(s) in the area. Before the colonial period there was a somewhat controlled cutting or use of the resources by the virtue of the traditional management system (traditional common access rules) that was in place in the area. In addition, touching the forests as such was considered to be unlawful by the communities, before this period. There also was resistance by the commoners against intrusions from outsiders. Respondents, particularly the elderly ones from different sampled villages, mentioned that it was the Italian troops and their Eritrean bandits who started destructive cutting of trees as well as violations of the traditional rules in the area. It was also not possible for the community to resist as usual during this time for they were frightening everybody with their weapons. Besides such an unwise cutting of trees, it was the Italians who tried to introduce the colonial legacy of ‘policing the forest estate’ in the area. A legal curtain was established between the community and the forests. In other words, by freeing themselves to do whatever they like, the colonial troops were also prohibiting (denying) the community from access to the forest. This also seems true when one looks at the vested interest that the colonialists had in establishing sawmills and in extracting lumber and other forest products from the area. But, the communities were trying to loosen the impositions through diplomatic ways by sending elders with a petition to the higher authorities and sometimes by giving some gifts or appealing to the authorities near by. Sawmills were erected during the colonial period, that is, between 1936 and 1940. Organized charcoaling activity was also another important event which took place during the period between 1936 and 1974, particularly after liberation. Two charcoal making centers where installed in two different sides of the study area. One in a site named as Mendae of the village Menbere Kidusan and the other one in a site called as Golgol of the village Lugdae. Both of them were initiated in about a similar period between 1953 and 1955 G.C. and were owned by Italian entrepreneur(s) who received a concession from Ras Seyoum (Governor of Tigrai Province before 1960). However, the one installed in Golgol could not operate beyond three years, for it was strongly resisted by the communities who traditionally own the forests. But the other one was said to have functioned until early 1960 although owned by a local entrepreneur during the later periods. External intrusion attempts of local origin were also another manifestation of this broader period. These attempts of external intruders were of different contexts and have had different purposes. Some of them were in need of timber for church construction, some of them with the purpose of clearing a parcel of the forest and put it under plough, and still some of them
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were in need of getting exclusive control over the forest area. In some cases persons were being appointed as a forest authority. For instance, Ras Seyoum appointed Kegnazmach Asmerom as forest authority. Some of these attempts of intrusion were initiated by individual princes (elites) of that time, and the others were initiated by a group of people. The case of a community (group of people) who came from Haramat and who tried to cut trees during the night could be mentioned as an example in this regard. However, all these attempts of intrusion by outsiders were successfully resisted and repulsed by the communities. The communities were resisting such attempts of external intruders to the extent by going to the national capital Addis Ababa and by making appeals to the king of the time. In addition, there was an attempt of introducing taxation on the extraction of timber from the area. But, this too was far from being practical. Irrespective of all these problems the traditional management system was still in place. In areas outside the common property resources private property regime was still in place during this period. That is, because of the ‘risti system’ there was the tradition of “higua” and parcels of bush and grazing lands connected with the backyard of somebody were under private property regime. 3.1.3. From 1975 to 1991 This covers the whole of the period from the beginning to the end of the Derg regime. It can also be referred as the civil war period. With the downfall of the King Haile Selassee regime and the advent of the Derg regime, major changes took place in the country at large and the study area in particular. One of these changes was the abolition of private property in land and the previous system of tenancy. The proclamation of March 1975 (Proclamation No. 31,1975) was issued and a concomitant measure of land redistribution was taken allover the country (Tennassie, 1988). As a result, although the forestland was made to remain in tact as a common property resource, a redistribution of all the land outside to those who were eligible was carried out. Moreover, subsequent land redistribution measures were also taken by TPLF (Tigrai People Liberation Front) as far as the study area is considered. This later measure also left the forests intact as common property resources. But, it looks that the major changes introduced in the system of tenancy as well as the subsequent land redistribution made had never directly affected the forest area. But all these measures and particularly the initial land redistribution measure taken as per the proclamation had rather an indirect effect on the degradation of the forest resource in the area. According to the proclamation every citizen with eighteen years of age and above was eligible to get land not more than ten hectares (Tennassie 1988). And this situation enabled a number of youngsters and landless to have land. For it also brought about a radical and fundamental restructuring of the existing system of land holding, it was accompanied by the construction of housing units within one’s holding immediately after the redistribution and, hence, the aggravation of the degradation of the forest resources in the area. Respondents also mentioned that very significant forest resources have been devastated during that time. The subsequent land redistribution carried out by TPLF, however, were found to have no significant effect on the degradation of the forest resources for they didn’t embody the construction of housing units. The Derg regime was not in full control of the study area and part of it was under the control of the TPLF rebels. Hence, in order to have a full grasp of the situation of the protected area during this whole period, it is important to separately look at what was going on under the
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different conditions. In parts of the forest area, which were being under the control of the then TPLF rebels. Forest attendants locally known as ‘Abo Gereb’, were elected by the respective forest commoners. And the function of these ‘Abo Gerebs’ were to follow up and control that live trees are not unwisely cut or illegally cut out of permit; to administer the utilization of the forest resources; etc. The traditional arrangements (management system) and customary laws were more or less in operation in these areas. In parts of the forest area which were under control of the Derg, however, the traditional management system (customarily arrangements) were violated and paid forest guards were put in place. 3.1.4. Post-1991 This is to refer to the period from the downfall of the Derg regime up to now. In here emphasis is given to the current status of the reserve area and at some of the events which took place until the time the fieldwork was carried out. These days, the forest resources of the area had sharply declined to a frightening level both in terms of quality and quantity. Although it may not be said to have totally extinct, most of the species that long existed in the area are under a serious threat. ‘Awlie’ (Olea europae) is at the forefront of the most threatened species. The same thing holds true in the case of ‘tsihdi’ (Juniperus procera) although the threat seems more serious in the case of Olea europae. The species “gesho” (Rhumnus prenoidus), “shibti” (Phytolacca dodecandra) and “steddo” (Rhumnus staddo) which were easily found as wildy growing plant in the area have almost disappeared. Those with edible berries or stem such as ‘kega’ (Rosa abyssinica), ‘ango’ (Caralluma penciliata), ‘shafa’ (Ficus vasta), etc, which were plentiful everywhere have extinct from the area. Given the previous situation of the forest resources in the area, the judgement of the elderly informants indicate that what is remaining is in the range of below 33.3% in terms of forest cover. Fortunately, an inventory was made within the boundary of the protected area in the recent years in order to estimate the available resources for the preparation of management plan. The study classified all the protected area into different physiognomic vegetation types. This study describes that the percentage ground (canopy) cover in the relatively dense parts of the area is not more than 40%. This shows to what extent the forest resources are getting sparse when compared to the previous situation. Many trees were found to be dwarf and crocked in appearance. Dry and dead trees were also found to cover considerable parts of the area. For instance the study has found out 24 to 109 dead trees per hectare and 84 to 148 stamps per hectare in the different physiognomic vegetation types. While the original also economically important tree species are disappearing the area is becoming dominated by less important shrubs such as Dodonea angustofolia (Tesfaye et. al, 1997; TFAP, 1996). 3.2. Wildlife Situation In the study, it has been possible to identify the existence of different species of wildlife, including mammals, birds and reptiles in the area. In the past the area was said to have been rich in its wildlife resources. Larger mammals including lions and elephants were living in the area. Respondents from the villages Degeabur, and Ligudae, further indicated the then practices of hunting lions and elephants. Elephants were sighted until the recent past generation. But lions were not sighted since the 1960s. Moreover, respondents, particularly those from the village Ligudae, also elaborated about the lions which were caught from the
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area and kept in a zoo in Mekelle by Ras Mengesha (governor of the former Tigrai Province between 1960 and 1975). But, no indication of the existence of the species of lions and elephants was found during this survey. As per the witnesses obtained from the respondents: twenty species of mammals, thirteen species of birds and one species of reptiles were identified to be currently existent in the area. The mammals found were gray duiker, cheetah, leopard, klipspringer, hyena, porcupine, common jackal, apes, velvet monkey, abyssinean hare, ground squirrel, field rate, greater kudu, warthog, honey badger, rock hyrax, wild pig, dik dik, common bush buck, and “chihirya”. The details of their scientific name have been given in Annex Table. It was found to be uneasy to state something as regarding the population sizes of these species of wildlife. However, there seems to be a decline and revival in some of the species. For instance, in two of the sampled villages (Ussot and Barka), warthogs were mentioned to have disappeared for some years and to have revived nowadays. This could possibly be due to the migratory characteristics in search of food /water or escape from threat. The species leopard and gray duiker were said to have considerably declined in number and are found localized in some parts of the protected area. But, conversely, greater kudus were indicated to be increasing in number. It seems due to the recent protection measures and official ban of hunting. The birds that were found to be prevalent in the area were spur fowl, ostrich, pigeon, guinea fowl, wattled ibis, duck, white stork, “godifay”, African hobby, black-rumped buttom-quail, thick-billed raven, hawk-eagle. Particularly in the case of birds, the respondents were observed to face difficulty in identification. It was very hard for them to pin point their name although they were well aware of the existence of different bird species in the area. Except for few of them, it was through indirect description given by the respondents that the names of these species was arrived at. A previous study, which was the first inventory, made on birds indicates that a total of 42 bird species to have been found in the reserve. It also confirms that this area is the only know location in the country (Ethiopia) for the Near Threatened Cinereous Bunting. The study also identified that out of the 42 bird species found 15 of them belong to the Highland - biome. Three Somali-Masai biome species, that is, Yellow-billed Hornbill, Red-fronted Warbler and Purple Grenadier were found to occur in parts of the protected area with an altitude range below 1,800 m asl. The study also indicated that the Ethiopian endemic Black-headed Siskin of the Highland-biome to be found near the edge of its northern range. Furthermore, it confirms that the area (the eastern escarpment) is a distinct flyway for migrating eagles. As per observations made by this previous study on two consecutive days, about 40 on the initial day and at least 50 on the next day, the same species of eagles (that is, Steppe Eagles) were seen soaring some where over the escarpment (EWNHS, 1996). Among the reptile species, it was dragon that was mentioned by different respondents to be prevalent in the area. 3.3.Causes of the Threat As it could be understood from the preceding topics there has been a declining trend on the biotic resources of the area particularly during the past five to six decades. Some of the
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indigenous species, which were prevalent in the area, have totally disappeared. And still some others have considerably shrunk and hence are found under serious threat. The densely covered parts of the forests have nowadays come to be open. And the causes of these threats could broadly be classified into three categories: One, those related with the human factor; secondly, those associated with the natural factor; and, thirdly, those pertaining to policy (policy factors). A good deal could be mentioned particularly about the human factor. For human beings have long been dependent on nature and on the forest (biotic) resources for their livelihood, a variety of unwise interference or wasteful uses of the resources were traced to have paramount contribution to its deterioration. In this respect wasteful use of forest resources for housing construction, fuel wood for social occasions, encroachment, forest fire, etc could be cited as an example. Uncontrolled hunting was also the other human factor in the case of wildlife. However, a detailed account and analysis of the human impact has been made under the later chapter. Among the natural factors drought was found to be the prominent one. Drought was responsible for the drying and dying of trees and seedlings in the area. It was also mentioned to have had induced the migration of wildlife in search of water and food. Although drought is a recurrent phenomenon in the region in general and in the study area in particular, that of the 1985 was believed to be the most disastrous. Disease was also found to be the other cause of the threats to biodiversity of the area. For instance, respondents from the village Bohele mentioned disease as the cause of the dangers to bush bucks in their area. In addition, previous studies made in the area also found out that many of the trees particularly at the top of the protected area were heavily infected by a dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobinm juniperi-procerae (EWNHS, 1996). As regards to the factors pertaining to policy, the little attention to natural resource conservation by the previous regimes was the one which was almost unanimously mentioned by all the respondents. The land redistribution policy of the 1975 was also the one that contributed to the devastation of the resources in the area. Lack of environmental awareness during the previous regimes, absence of appropriate disaster prevention and drought mitigation policies during the previous times, absence of environment sensitive rural housing construction policy, etc were all the policy loopholes that could be attributed to the threats to biodiversity of the area. However, of all these factors, it is the human impact which was found to be significant as far as the study area is considered.
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4. HUMAN IMPACT 4.1. Encroachment Different types of human influences were identified to have contributed to the degradation of the biotic resources in the area. Encroachment into the forest ecosystems in search of land for farming was found to be one of the earliest problems. Respondents from three of the sampled villages indicated encroachment as an important cause to the threats in biodiversity of the area. Some of these respondents also further argued that encroachment to have been there since the time of Italian Occupation. During that time ploughing ox was highly scarce and very few of the households had either one or two oxen. Hence, the people were used to simply clearing a section of the forest land during the drier periods of the year, burn it with fire, and sow it annual crops. The remnants of stumps and stems, currently observed at about 3 to 5 km distances from the peripheries of the protected area, could also portray the extent to which it has been threatened during the past few decades. The growth in human population and the concomitant increase in the need for more land (even at declining productivity) was the main reason for the encroachment (Aklog, 1990; TFAP, 1996). But, in the context of the study area, the gradual shift towards cultivated agriculture as a result of the natural calamities (drought recurrence) must also have aggravated the problem of encroachment. It should also be noted that encroachment is an important cause for the sharp decline of the forest resources in the country at large and in Tigrai region in general. 4.2. Style of House Construction The style of housing construction in the area was also found too wasteful to be one of the cause of the threat. If the wall material is considered, 83.9% of all the hosing units in the study area, were found to be made from stone and mud. The remaining 12.6 % and 2.3 % are with wood and mud and wood and thatch walls, respectively. But, when one scrutinizes the type of material from which the roofs are made the traditional "hidmo" -the one with wood and mud roofing- was found to be the dominant style of housing construction in the area. Of all the housing units in the area 93.4 % are with wood and mud roofing. Each housing unit also consists of one bedroom, one grain-room, and a kitchen, including a barn (livestock shade) all with wood and mud roofing. It is only 1.3 % of the housing units that are roofed with corrugated iron sheet (CSA, 1995). The impact of this culture of housing construction on the degradation of the forest resources of the area would be more clear when one critically looks at the size of the different elements (wood materials) needed for each housing unit. For instance, an attempt was made to roughly estimate the volume of wood consumed in housing construction from the responses collected during the fieldwork. Accordingly, the traditional "hidmos", were found to require not less than 27.15 m3 of wood per housing unit. This volume is more than four-fold of the total wood requirement for the thatched roofed-wood and mud walled houses and probably more than double- to four-fold of the amount needed for houses roofed with corrugated iron sheet. Hence, one can imagine how devastating it is and to what extent it contributed to the degradation. In addition, a number of door posts, doors, pillars and other construction materials were been illegally exploited from the area and sold in the nearby towns up to Mekelle.
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When viewed in terms of the species preference, Juniperus procera was found to be the most preferred one particularly in the case of housing construction. Factors pertaining to the inherent qualities of the species such as its straightness, durability, its less susceptibility to natural decay as well as its less susceptibility to termite attack are the ones which make it to be top preferred. As a result, the juniper stands in the area have been severely degraded to the extent that no straight stemmed types are found except the bushy types (Aklog, 1990). 4.3. Military Settlement Respondents from the extreme north and southern sides of the protected area indicated military settlement as one cause of the threat. The situation also seems to be more pronounced particularly to the southern side. During the early 1940s there was a peasant uprising against the Imperial Haileselassie Regime around Quiha and Mekelle (the regional capital). And military troops of the Imperial Regime settled around Quiha town (an adjacent town to the southern side of the protected area) during that time to suppress the uprising. The subsequent large scale military settlement during the Derg Regime, also contributed to the extensive devastation of the forest resources in the area. It also seems likely to deduce that military settlement aggravates deforestation for a variety of reasons. Firstly, the troops need fuel wood for cooking. The larger the size of the troops settled, the greater the extent of intrusion into the forest ecosystems to satisfy their demand. Secondly, they were using wood to construct their military base. Even some of the respondents indicated that the military settlers to have been going to the extent of dismantling closed houses so as to take the wood material for the construction of their base. Thirdly, particularly the militia of the Derg regime who were made to settle around were never paid and hence they were cutting considerable amount of wood to support their lives by selling it or by giving it freely to their friends in the town. Fourthly, and, probably, more importantly, the troops were not interested on the existence of the forest itself for strategic reasons. That is, forests are usually suspect to be shelters for the rebels (TFAP, 1996; Zenebe et al, 1998). 4.4 Forest Fire Forest fire was also the other important threat to the biodiversity of the protected area. About five incidences of forest fire were mentioned to have occurred in the area in the years between 1958 and 1998. Of all the incidences, that of the 1970 was the biggest of its kind, which lasted more than 13 days to get off. According to rough estimates of the respondents, forest resources covering an area of about 1000 ha must have been completely destroyed by that fire incidence. The most recent fire incidence took place in 1998 and covered about 350 ha. The worst effect of forest fire is the fact that it curtails the regeneration of the important species by destroying the seed material (germplasm). The cause of these repeated fire hazards was found to be more of negligence in the use of fire inside the forest for different purposes. One area of negligence was in the use of smoke when extracting natural honey found inside the forest.
The other source of the problem was the use of fire in preparing farm implements. The forest area has been an important source of farm implements for the surrounding communities. By tradition farmers are used to heating their farm implements particularly the beam and the wooden handle parts of the ordinary ox-plow with fire at its initial preparation which is meant
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to increase its strength and longevity. Some of the farmers do this job of heating the implement while inside the forest, after cutting and shaping the desired type of species. Such sorts of fire burned inside the forest cause the hazard by expanding to different directions by means of the inflammable materials such as grasses and trashes. For instance, the cause of the above mentioned biggest hazard was found to be associated with the use of fire inside the forest for heating farm implement. The third cause of the forest fire originates from the forest-livestock interaction prevailing in the area. The surrounding community particularly the ex-commoners use the area for grazing purposes. ''Gare'' is the traditional livestock management system practiced in the area. It is a type of livestock husbandry where most of the livestock particularly the cattle except the ploughing ox (and probably one or two cows) are kept inside the forest for most part of the year. ''Gare'' involves a periodic shifting of the central station where the cattle are gathered during the nights. The persons who look after the cattle also stay there throughout being supplied the essential food staff by their families or the livestock owners. These herdsmen use fire to cook their food and to protect their livestock from wild animals particularly during night. The fire are burned simply on the ground and the traditional three-stone-stove is used while cooking. And these practices were found to harbor the hazard for there are failures in the use, in putting it off after use and in the intention to save some of it for use during the next day. 4.5. Wood Sales Fuel wood selling was the major aspect in this regard. Fuel wood sales, was identified among the important causes of the threat in half of the sampled villages. The impact was also found to correspond with the proximity of the area to towns. For instance, fuel wood sales was mentioned as the most serious problem in Hawile kushet in the northern extreme and in Menbere Kidusan kushet in the southern extreme of the protected area which in both case are most closer to towns. Respondents also traced to give different arguments with regard to the beginning of fuel wood selling. Some respondents, such as those of Bohele village, tried to relate the beginning of fuel wood trade with the development of towns. But respondents of Hawile village argued that the beginning and aggravation of fuel wood sales to be more correlated with the occurrence of crop failure and famine due to natural calamities. The second argument seems to be more likely and to have logical coherence with the empirical studies undertaken in some other parts of the region. These empirical evidences confirm that rural households involve in petty trade as a survival strategy to cope externally induced household food deficit with fuel wood sales being the major one among the activities of petty trade (Gebremedhine and Oyhus, 1995; BPED, 1995). Most of the respondents also confirmed that it was in the 1985/86 that fuel wood sales and by implication the degradation was more aggravated. This period corresponds with the period of occurrence of the worst drought (famine) in the northern part of the country including Tigrai region. Furthermore, when an attempt is made to look into the socio-economic background of the households involved in fuel wood sales most of them are found to be ox-less, land-less, and returnees who are incapable of sustaining their families with their ex-ante level of income. Hence, it may be deduced that poverty is also another important cause of the degradation. Moreover, besides fuel wood, construction materials such as posts, door posts, pillars and doors were also being exploited and soled in the nearby towns.
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4.6. Charcoal Making Charcoal making was also the other type of human interference into the forest ecosystem of the area. Two types of charcoaling activities were identified in the area. One was the organized large scale and the other one was the fragmented small holder charcoal making activities undertaken by residents from the nearby or adjacent villages. With respect to the large scale ones, two charcoaling centers were installed in two different sites of the protected area. One at the site Golgol of the village Ligudae and the other at the site named as Mendae of the village Member Kidusan. In these two charcoaling centers considerable number of daily laborers were employed for cutting the trees. Although the one that of Golgol could not operate beyond three years due to the strong resistance from the community, the other one was mentioned to have devastated significant area of forestland. In the later case two to three truckloads of charcoal was loaded every day. In both cases the charcoal was being loaded to Asmara. Like that of the fuel wood sales the small scale charcoaling was found to be a problem in parts of the forest area closer to towns. For instance, the fragmented charcoaling activity was mentioned to be a serious problem in the village Menbere Kidusan in addition to the large scale charcoaling. This could be attributed to the closeness of the area to Quiha and Mekelle towns, besides the socioeconomic problems of the individuals involved in it. Starting from cutting of the preferred trees the whole charcoaling activities were being carried inside the forest. As a result, particularly the places that were used for burning have remained barren. One can also imagine to what extent charcoaling devastates important forest resources, for it is the timber trees such as that of Olea europae and Rhus natalensis, which are most preferred for charcoal making. Moreover, empirical studies reveal that charcoal making technologies practiced in the country at large are inefficient and contribute to the inefficiencies in biomass utilization. It is the traditional Earth-Mound charcoal making technique which is dominant particularly at the smallholder level. This technique has a wood to charcoal conversion efficiency of about 15% (mass basis) or about 30% on energy basis (EESRC, 1995). 4.7. Uncontrolled hunting and Trapping It may be clear from the preceding discussions the area was rich in its wildlife resources during it previous days. Some travellers accounts also testify that Tigrai, in general, and the study area, in particular, was rich in wildlife resources during the ancient times. For instance, it has been documented that during the early 19th century Wajerat, that is, a place found south of the protected area, to have been teeming with elephants. These days, however, the elephants and lions have disappeared from the area. The rest of the wild life resources have also been threatened considerably. Among all others the uncontrolled hunting of the past several decades was found to be the most important cause of the threat. For instance some of the previous accounts confirm that particularly during the late 19th century more than 3000 elephants were killed annually in the region Tigrai (TFAP, 1996). The purpose for which the different species of games were hunted or trapped was found to be different. From among the larger mammals the species leopard (Panthera pardus) was being hunted and killed for its skin. The skin was being sold for Birr 1000.00 to 2000.00 at a black market in Asmara. Respondents also indicated that the skin of leopard was being taken and sold at black market in Djibouti. Warthog (Phacochorus ethiopicus) was being hunted for its
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horns. A warthog has four horns and each horn was sold for Birr 10.00. Others were being hunted for their meat particularly by the local elite, such as klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) and greater kuddu (Tragelaphus strepciceros). However, lions were being hunted and killed mainly because they were considered as a threat to the domestic animals. The hunting activity was undertaken by preparing a traditional trap at some central point or by using a bullet. In the case of the birds as well, the spur fowl (Pternistis cranchii) and guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum) were hunted particularly by the local elits for their meat. 4.8. Social Occasions Like that of any other part of the region, the communities in the study area do also have traditional social occasions, which include marriage, "teskar"; holidays, etc. "Teskar" is a memorial ceremony for a dead person in a family. These social occasions have been a threat to the biotic resources of the area for the past several years. They were found to have two types of implications on the forest resources of the area. Firstly, particularly in the case of marriage and teskar, for considerable number of people are usually invited to the occasion an extravagant amount of meals and local drinks are prepared to be served during the occasion. As a result a heavy amount of forest resources are consumed as fuel wood. Although the occurrence of these ceremonies seems to greatly depend on the seasonalities of crop harvest. Some studies made in this respect indicates that about 8 to 10m3 (solid) wood is consumed in a single occasion in the case of marriage (RVDS, 1996). Respondents also indicated that considerable number of trees have been devastated to be used as fuel during the major holidays such as Easter. When such holidays were approaching important trees such as the species Juniperus procera were being cut and dried in order to meet the increase in demand (more than double of the usual) for fuel by most of the households. Secondly, for considerable number of people are invited to avail themselves in the occasion preparation of a tent or shade like structure that can accommodate all the invited people is mandatory in the case of marriage and "teskar". But, since the tents are not known or too expensive for the rural people it is the forest resources, which are used to construct the shade. In this respect the species Juniperus procera was found to be the most preferred as posts and rafters for it has an erect stand. And the leaves of the species Olea europae were being used for covering the roofing and the different sides. Roughly, about 50 donkey-load, that is, about 2500 kg (wet) leaves were said to be needed for a single occasion. Similarly, about 16 in number with 2.5 m height and 12 in number with 6m height of pole size round wood of the species Juniperus procera were said to be needed as post and rafters respectively for a single occasion. Although there seem to be some attempts to circulate especially the round wood from one to the other because of its scarcity, respondents indicated that such an amount of new materials were used at every occasion. 4.9. Others 4.9.1. Wasteful use of Forest Resources Wasteful use of the forest resource was manifested in different ways in the use of forest products from the area for various purposes. One is wasteful felling of trees for fodder purposes. In the area there is an epiphytic plant which usually grows on old trees of Juniperus procera. This epiphytic plant is commonly used as fodder for livestock for its nutritive value
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and palatability. But, this plant grows on the upper part of the tree, which is outside the reach of cattle. Hence, instead of climbing and cutting the important part, whole trees were simply felled down in order to get that fodder material as well as to make it easy for the cattle to simply browse on it. Such practices were more pronounced particularly during the drought years. Nonselective cutting of trees and branches was also mentioned to be the other aspect of the problem. During the old days the awareness that the resources would deplete was very low (nonexistence). And people were used to go for subsequent cutting just one after the other when the initial cuttings look less interesting. Such a problem occurred more frequently when searching for straight (erect) trees for house pillars and for farm implements. Respondents also indicated that on the average ten trees might have been felled in order to get a single tree appropriate for a pillar. The same thing and even more than that was said to have happened in the case of searching woody materials for farm implement. This situation was also said to hold true even in the case of collecting wood for fuel. The third aspect of wasteful use observed in the area was in the use of wood for beehive fencing. Bee keeping is an essential activity practiced in the protected area. About 50 percent of the forest communities, particularly those at the edges of the protected area own beehives (Yearswork, 1997). For this purpose dispersed patches of beehive lots are found inside the protected area. The beehives were being fenced in order to protect the bee colonies from the attack of wild animals such as honey badger and probably to establish a claim over that particular lot. Hence, considerable amount of wood was being used in the past for fencing of the beehive lots. Because, for one thing, such fences need to be dense enough (strong) to preclude the attack of wild animals. In addition, there was also the practice of seasonally shifting of the beehives from warmer to the cooler parts of the protected area and vise versa depending on the weather (To) conditions of the year. Hence, an additional fencing materials from the nearby was being needed to avoid the shifting of the previous ones. 4.9.2. Debarking Debarking was also found out to be the other type of threat to biodiversity of the area. In addition, debarking was found to be special in a sense that it was very much species specific and deliberate human activity. The most important species identified to have suffered more from debarking were Olea europea, Juniperus procera, and Rhamnus staddo. The purpose for which these species of trees were debarked was also found to be interrelated in some case and completely different in another. For instance, respondents from the village Ussot indicated that Olea europea was subject to heavy debarking during the years from 1977 through to 1984. Its bark was being smuggled and sold in towns. It was used to bitter the local beverage prepared from honey for sale in the towns. Similarly the bark of Rhamnus staddo was also being used to bitter the local beverage. But, in the case of Juniperus procera the barks were being used for covering the traditional beehive so as to splash away the raindrop and to avoid any moisture leakage into the beehive. However, the issue of great concern in our case is the resultant effect of debarking. Debarking curtails translocation of photosynthesized plant food essential to the plant physiology and the plant will eventually die up. And hence, a gradual reduction of the various species under
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threat as a result. 4.9.3. The Traditional Tush Literally “tush” means smoke. “Tush” is something like smoke bath. Although there seems to be a declining trend nowadays, “tush” was also practiced in the area. “Tush” was a typical practice (tradition) as far as women in the area are considered. The one who took such a ‘smoke bath’ is locally said to have intered ‘tush’. “Tush” was said to be more important for marrying girl and for delivered mothers. But all married women whether coupled, divorced or widowed were also used to inter ‘tush’. Donkey loads of split wood usually Olea europae were being used for a marrying girl. She is also supposed to inter “tush” for about a month before her marriage ceremony. The traditional “tush” was meant to keep cleanliness and good aroma of their body. In addition, it is also argued that it gives strength particularly to delivered mothers and as protection against some diseases (Zenebe et. al; 1998).
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5. POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 5.1. Country (National) Perspective Government's attempt to intervene in the forestry sector in the history of the country has its origin in the reign of Emperor Menelik II. During the regime of Emperor Menelik II all forest trees were regarded as state property and a royalty payment was imposed upon every harvest of timber. However, official forestry legislation was issued for the first time after the liberation from the Italian Occupation. Although this first forestry legislation had a concern about generating revenue, it was also focused towards controlling the clearing of forests, which was highly aggravated during that time. But, more importantly, it was under the revised constitution of the 1955 that conservation of natural resources got a constitutional ground. Under this constitution, the land that is not owned by any physical or legal person was declared to be the property of the state. The protective forest proclamation of the three forest acts that were established in 1965 was also the other initiative of the pre - 1975 period (Aklog, 1990). The establishment of Peasant Associations (PAs) for the implementation of the radical land reform was one of the important undertakings during the period between 1975 and 1991. PAs were established within an area of 800 ha and were mandated to administer all the land (including natural resources) falling within their boundary. The Forests and Wildlife Conservation Proclamation of September 5, 1980 was also the other undertaking. Before 1980, much of the issues of forestry conservation and development were the responsibilities of the Ministry of Agriculture, although an agency which specifically cater to the issues of larger state forests was set up in the 1970s. With the aforementioned proclamation of September 5, 1980, i.e., Proclamation No. 192 a separate institution, Forestry and Wildlife Conservation and Development Authority (FaWCDA) was set up to cater the broader issues of forestry as well as wildlife and specific regulations were outlined. The former responsibilities of the Ministry of Agriculture were transferred to this institution. By the reorganization measure of 1985/6, however, (FaWCDA) was merged into the Ministry of Agriculture (Tennassie, 1988; Aklog, 1990). The Forestry Conservation, Development and Utilization Proclamation (Proclamation No. 94/1994), The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia, and the Environment Policy are the most important issues of worth consideration as far as the post-1991 period is considered. Under its article about "Protected Forests"(Article No 7) Proclamation No. 94/1994 emphasizes the need for "protected forests" to protect endangered endemic plant, animal and bird species and genetic resources in general; and to conserve unique and representative habitats or natural resources” (TGE 1994). Besides their role in conserving the soil from desiccation, erosion and degradation as well as maintaining and improving soil fertility; in protecting and improving the status of water bodies, sources of rivers and catchment as well as controlling flood. This proclamation also gave power to regions to designate protected forest. The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia also emphasizes the sustainable development and use of the country's biological diversity, both flora and fauna as well as its natural ecosystems for the over all socio-economic development of the country and for the integrity of the biosphere as well (NCSS, 1994; EWNHS, 1996). It has also included biodiversity as one of its eleven sectoral strategies. The recently approved environmental policy, that is, Ethiopian Environment Policy, and which at the same time emanated from the broader national conservation strategy (NCS), has
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incorporated the sustainability of basic ecological processes and life supports systems as one of its policy objectives. It also gives high priority to in situ conservation of biological resources particularly under its subchapter for genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity (EPA and MEDaC, 1997). In contrary to the policy and legal frameworks of the pre-1991 period where the role of the local communities was out of sight, the policy and legal frameworks of the post 1991 period seem to have given due consideration to the involvement of the local people. For instance, the biodiversity sector strategy of the NCS indicates the decisiveness of ensuring the participation of the local people in the planning, management and care for protected areas and the flora and fauna they contain. It also indicates that local communities should be considered as on-site managers of protected areas and that a significant proportion of what so ever benefit derived should accrue to those local communities (NCSS, 1994; EWNHS, 1996). The new environmental policy also emphasizes the importance of involving the communities residing within and around the protected areas both in the planning and management of these areas (EPA and MEDaC, 1997). Until very recently, biodiversity conservation was the mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry was meant to implement its mandates through the Ethiopian Wildlife Organization, the Biodiversity Institute (former Plant Genetic Resource Center) and the State Forest Development and Wildlife Conservation Department. Nowadays a separate institution named as Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research has been established with the objective of causing and ensuring the appropriate conservation, research, development and sustainable utilization of the country's biodiversity. Among all others, the Institute also has the power and duties of initiating policy and legislative proposals on conservation, research and utilization of biodiversity as well as enforcing and ensuring their implementation upon approval (EWNNS, 1996; FDRE, 1998). 5.2. Region Perspective It is the land use policy (CNRST 1997) of the region that has so far been enacted by the regional council as far as conservation, management and utilization of natural resources is considered. This regional land use policy or decree is also a derivative of the national framework. Under its article for use rights, that is, Article No. 5, it indicates that land is a collective property of the government and the people. It cannot be soled, exchanged or rented for an indefinite period of time. However it can be inherited, sharecropped or rented out for a specified period of time. The policy largely deals with the issues pertaining to arable land. It prohibits the cutting of important and endangered indigenous tree species Ficus vasta, Podocarpus gracilor, etc found in the arable lands. But, it gives the right of harvesting, using and even selling (contracting) of the products of these trees such as gum and incense to the farmer who owns that particular plot of land (CNRST, 1997). Although the regional land use policy/ decree says no more about the protected areas most of the national laws and policies concerning natural resources and the environment also are applicable to the region. However, there are also operational guidelines/ obviously of regional context concerning forestry and wildlife that are currently enforced and which directly or indirectly have an effect on biodiversity conservation. For instance, the wildlife conservation and protection guideline of January 1998 could be cited as a case-in-point. This guideline allows the deliberate reduction, through pre-specified means, of the species of wildlife such
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as Crocuta crocuta, Canis aureus, Papio anubis, etc which are deemed to be a threat to crop production, livestock and human beings (BoANR 1998). Moreover, there are also draft strategies and action plans as regard to forestry and conservation of natural resources in general. Given the seriousness of the rate of environmental threat in the region, these draft strategies also emphasize the need for conserving the biological resources of the region (TFAP, 1996). With respect to the institutional framework, so far, at the regional level, it is the Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) through its biodiversity and environment protection team that is mandated for biodiversity conservation (TFAP, 1996). The Forestry Conservation, Development and Utilization Proclamation, that is, Proclamation No. 94/1994 under Article No. 5 also gives the power of conservation, development and administration of regional forests and protected areas to regions (TGE, 1994). Proclamation No. 120/1998, that is, the Proclamation for the establishment of the Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research under its article about establishment, Article No. 3.4, it has been indicated that the institute may have branch offices, elsewhere as necessary (FDRE, 1998). However, there is no any newly set up institution in the region until very recently. 5.3. Local Perspective At the local level, that is, at the district and sub district levels, there is no separate institution, which is specifically concerned with the management and development of the protected area as an entity. However, the Agriculture and Natural Resources Office at the district level along with its all other activities is directly responsible for the follow up of the protection and development of the area through its forestry experts under the regulatory team and through its development agents (DAs). But, executive bodies of the district administration and local leaders at sub-district level are also in one way or another involved in the follow up of the protection of the area. Guards are also placed in some parts of the protected area. The Agriculture and Natural Resources Office of the district, the police force, and the court are the institutions involved in cases of legal matters pertaining to the protected area.
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6. CONSTRAINTS AND ISSUES 6.1. Erosion of Traditional Management Systems It has been indicated that the local people or communities around had long-standing relationships with the protected area and that an indigenous (traditional) management system was in place particularly during the pre-1936 period. The traditional common access rules have also been contributing to the maintenance of the biological diversity of the area. However, through time it started to get threatened. The erosion of the traditional (indigenous) resource management system has its root in the period of Italian Occupation, when the colonial troops started felling of trees, violently disregarding the customary laws of the indigenous (local) people. Although of little significance, the subsequent attempts intrusion by outsiders also had an impact in loosening the traditional management system that was enforce. However, most of the respondents argued that it was from the year 1976 onwards that the traditional common access rules came to be seriously threatened. This also corresponds with the time of abolition of the previous system of tenancy and the introduction of a radical land reform all-over the country (Tennassie, 1988). For the area under traditional common access rule was initially left intact particularly in the case of the study area, this redistribution measure seems to have had an indirect rather than a direct impact on the erosion of the traditional management system. Firstly, all the land outside the protected area (out side the area under common access rule) was included in the redistribution except the marginal lands and those meant for grazing. And as it could be obvious for everybody, this redistributing measure allowed a number of new entrants (previous landless) into the prevailing tenancy. For it also embodied the construction of housing units within ones holding it resulted in the degradation of tree resources outside the protected area. This in turn resulted in an increased pressure into the protected area, even from distant communities through illegal ways. Hence, this situation loosened the previous endurance of the commoners. Secondly, the initial land reform brought about the sentiment that "land belongs to everybody" and "that land is the property of the state" and this sentiment must also have aggravated the outsiders (non-commoners) pressure on (towards) the protected area. But, more importantly during the initial land redistribution the original village boundaries were made to remain unchanged. As a result of the subsequent measures and a change in the political system, however, there came to be a merger of two to three villages. And that previous forest villages were merged with other villages with no original claim over the forest (protected) area. This measure was found to have brought about a conflict of claims between previous commoners and non-commoners. Moreover, the role of the traditional resource management systems in conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in general and in biodiversity conservation in particular also seems to be less well understood.
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6.2. Failures During the Demarcation Irrespective of the long-standing interdependence they had with the forests, the indigenous people were not formally consulted of anything that was going on during the demarcation. They were not totally aware of the objective why it was being demarcated. The demarcation was carried out simply by consulting very few of the "Tabia leaders" during that time without the consent of the communities residing in and around the protected area. It was only the job of delimiting the boundaries, which was carried out. And the interest and views of the local people as well as their long-standing interdependence with the forest area was not critically examined and included in the demarcation process. The demarcation has also included both settlements and arable lands. And this condition has resulted in grievances and hostility on the part of the local people. There is feeling on part of the community that they are denied of their grazing area. In addition, resistances of the local people was also faced during the past two to three years when attempts were made to replant some parts of the protected area. The failure committed during the demarcation has also reduced the feeling of the local people that it is theirs’. Moreover, included with the forestgrazing conflicts, issues of redefining or re-delimiting the boundaries and that of considering their grazing problems are being raised by the local people. 6.3. Grazing Conflicts As it could be understood from the previous discussions, the forest (protected) area has long been an important grazing area for the local communities. In this respect, two distinct practices or grazing systems were identified in the area. One is the traditional "hizaeti". It is a traditional common pool grazing management system with, well established coordinated access rules. It is a management system specifically for the special allotments meant for the grazing of ploughing ox. However, it also embodies elements of protection and utilization of the forest resources inside. It is a type of restricted management system with deferred grazing arrangement (schedules) depending on the onset of rain and seasonal availability or unavailability of feed resources. The different communities residing in and around the protected area were found to have their respective "hizaeti". Most commonly the "hizaeti" are found located on parts of the protected area closer to their respective settlements. The other (second) type of use identified was that under the free grazing system. These are areas where all the other groups of livestock freely graze or browse all-year-round. These free access areas are located towards the central or lower parts of the protected area. In addition, these also are areas where the tradition of "gare" is practiced. In both cases the protected area was a traditional grazing area to the forest communities. Nevertheless, the delineation of the area as "protected" has come to restrict these traditional grazing rights of the local communities. Existing legal framework also seem to favour this situation. In its article for prohibited activities, Proclamation No. 94/1994 also prohibits the use of any products there of from protected areas including the grazing of domestic animals unless in possession of written permits from the Ministry or appropriate regional body (TGE 1994). Hence, given the unchanged pattern (size) of livestock holdings in the area as well as the traditional rights and resources management systems practiced, it is obvious that it would result in grazing conflicts. This grazing conflict was identified to be the most important problem as far as the study area is considered. The communities made frequent appeals to the
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district administration. Furthermore, responses collected also justify that the grazing problem is more serious during the drought years. This also seems likely that given the straight and significant impact that drought has on the total volume of feed (both in terms of grass growth plus crop residue) resources available for the year. Although there seems to be a general consensus as well as a commitment on the issue that the local communities should in one way or another benefit from the protected area even at the policy making level, it has not yet been translated into action. However unimplemented the idea most frequently forwarded as a remedy to the grazing problem (conflict) was found to be the introduction or adoption of the cut and carry system. This idea also seems to have emanated from the belief of precluding any form of livestock interference into the protected area. Nevertheless, the reaction of most of the local communities towards this issue, i.e., the cut and carry system, seems to be the other way round. Two arguments were also forwarded in this respect. Firstly, the local communities argued that it is only when allowed to gaze here and there freely the cattle can get satisfied. Secondly, they argue that given their present level (size) of cattle or livestock holding per household, it is difficult (beyond their capacity) to feed them in stall. Particularly the second argument also seems likely when one considers the implication that the cut and carry system would bring about in the household’s labour pattern. In any case, means and ways need to be found out so that the grazing problem (conflict) would be resolved. 6.4. Current Replanting Measures In the past two to three years, replanting attempts were carried out in some fragmented parts of the protected area. Though it may be too early to give a conclusive remark as regard to these activities, the success rate seems to be very low. Insufficient rainfall, failures in the selection of viable seedlings, poor survey and preparation of planting site as well as inappropriate techniques of planting were among the reasons mentioned for the low success rate of the seedlings. Rather, the naturally regenerating seedlings were observed having better performance. More importantly, these replanting measures seem to have failed to gain the confidence (interest) of the local people. Some of them were undertaken without the consent (or any prior understanding) with the local communities. Besides, most of these replanting sites were found to fall on parts of the protected area very close to residential areas and areas where they stay (leave) their cattle particularly ploughing ox at mid-days and hence directly intruding with the grazing needs of the local people.
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6.5. Beehives in the Protected Area Bee keeping has long been an important dimension of the forest-human interface in the area. Irrespective of the difference in intensity from one to the other, bee keeping was found to be practiced in all of the surveyed villages. For instance, in the important forest villages some of household were mentioned to own 50 to 100 beehives. And that, even though not for all the households, it is a source of livelihood in the area. Besides the long-term attachment that the local communities have in terms of honey and/or hive extraction and keeping of hives in the forest area, one could also visualize the potentialities of the area for bee keeping. Presumably, it also seems likely to be an entry point from the perspective of building up a sustainable forest-human interface. However, at present, it seems to have less legal and official ground. For instance, under its article for "Prohibited activities" Article No. 13, the Forestry Conservation Development and Utilization Proclamation (Proclamation No. 94/1994) prohibits the keeping of beehives or extraction of honey from protected areas (TGE, 1994). This idea might also have emanated from the fear of the potential hazards associated with the traditional type of bee keeping and honey extraction where very rudimentary (backward) techniques are deployed. The current understanding at the local level was also found to be the same. In addition, the top preferred tree species/ shrubs for their nectar or pollen such as Erica arboria also seem to be seriously threatened in the area.
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7. CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 7.1. Conclusion In general, the area was densely covered with different indigenous forest species. It was also very rich in terms of biodiveristy particularly during the periods prior to the Italian Occupation. The species Juneperus procera Olea europae, Ekbergia capensis, Diospyrus abyssinica, Rhus natalensis, Budleja polystachya, Rhus quartiniana, etc were dominantly found in the area. In addition, trees with edible berries such as Rosa abyssinica, the famous traditional detergent Phytolacca dodecandra, as well as the species Rhamnus prenoides and Rhamnus staddo, both of which are used in the preparation of local beverages were also plentiful in the area. Animals including lions, elephants, leopard and others were also prevalent in the area. These-days, however, the forest resources of the area have considerably declined both in terms of diversity and intensity. Most of the tree species that long existed in the area are currently found under a serious threat. When viewed individually, Olea europae was found to be at the forefront of the most threatened tree species. Despite the recent regenerations, standing trees of Olea europae were rarely observed in the selected transect walks. This also seems due to the greatest human pressure of the past time emanating from the diversity of economic and social uses of Olea europae when compared with the others. Other trees such as the Juniperus procera were also found seriously threatened although the degree of threat may vary from one to the other. The species Rhumnus prenoides and Rhumnus staddo, which were easily found as wild plant have almost disappeared. And some of the species such as Rosa abyssinica have already disappeared from the area. The area has come to be very sparse and the percentage ground cover even at the relatively denser parts has reduced to less than 40 percent. At present, the area is found dominated by less important shrubs and bushes such as Dodonea angustotolia. The larger mammals like lions and elephants, which were previously prevalent, are not present in the area any more. The leopards and gray ducker have also declined in number considerably and are found localized in some parts of the protected area. In its better days the area was partitioned among different communities or groups of owners. Each of the communities was a collective owner and was exercising exclusive control over a clearly delineated section of the forest area. And it was being managed through traditional coordinated access rules set by the respective communities (commoners). These local communities were also safeguarding it by strongly resisting the attempts of external intrusion particularly until the pre-colonial period. It was during the Italian Occupation that destructive cutting and felling of trees as well as violations of the traditional rules started. Hence, it can be concluded that there has been a declining trend on the biotic resources particularly during the past five to six decades. The causes of these threats could broadly be classified into three categories. Firstly, the human factors, that is, the human impact; secondly, the natural factors; and, thirdly, those pertaining to policy (policy factors). Encroachment, wasteful style of housing construction; military settlement; forest fire; fuelwood sales; charcoaling; uncontrolled hunting and trapping in the case of wild fauna; wasteful use of wood resources for social occasions, social traditions as well as other purposes etc were identified to be among the important human factors. Encroachment in the area was exacerbated as a result of the drought induced shifts towards cultivated agriculture in the farming system. That of the 1970 was found to be the biggest story of fire hazard. And the causes of the forest fire were found to be negligence in the use
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of fire in the extraction of honey, heating farm implements, and preparation of meals by herdsmen inside the forest area. Among natural factors drought was found to be the most prominent one. It was responsible for the drying and dying of numerous trees of Juniperus procera in the area. Considerable number of Olea europae trees have also been cut and pollarded for use as livestock feed, for instance, during the drought year of the 1985. Drought was also found to have induced degradation of the forest resources, and hence biological diversity of the area. Drought brings about household food deficit. To come out of the drought induced food deficit some of the households were found to resort to fuel wood sales thereby aggravating the degradation. Absence of an attempt to curb the trend and lack of attention to nature preservation were also the important policy loopholes of the previous regimes that contributed to the aggravation of the problem. Despite all these types of threats the area seems to have significant potentialities. Besides its floristic resources different species of wild fauna which include mammals, birds and reptiles were found to currently exist in the area. Surveys revealed that a total of 42 bird species to be existent in the area. The area is also the only known location in the country for the Nearly Threatened Cinereous Bunting. The economic and environmental significance of the country's biological diversity, both for the nation and world wide also seems to have got adequate recognition in the present policy-environment. Assuring the sustainability of basic ecological processes and life support systems as well as involving local communities in the planning and management of protected areas to the extent of leaving significant proportion of the benefits derived to these communities has also been well emphasized in the current policy framework. High priority has also been given to the in situ conservation of biological resources. There also seems to be a better institutional arrangement at least at the supra-regional level. Nevertheless, the understanding at the local-level of the present policy on environment was found to be very low. In addition, there also exist major constraints that obviously act against the sustainable preservation and development of the area. These include the erosion of the traditional management system that prevailed in the area. The indigenous communities were totally overlooked at the time of demarcation. No further attempt was also made to gain the confidence (interest) of the local people. There also has raised grazing conflict. There also seem to be a policy drawback with regard to the keeping of beehives in the protected area. The replanting measures so far carried out have also failed to take into account grazing considerations and interest of the local people. All these problems have in turn resulted in grievances and hostility of the local people. There also seems to be a question of re-defining or re-delimiting the boundary from the local people so as to get a freeboard area for grazing their livestock. In spite of the attempt made, the management plan for the area, was found to be poorly articulated. It was also found to have failed to take any account of the role of the local communities in the management and sustainability of the protected area. No indication was also found in the management plan about how the existing conflicts could be resolved. Besides, the level of environmental awareness particularly at the grassroots level was found to be low. It also seems that knowledge about the reproductive pattern and silvicultural practices they require of the endogenous tree species as well as the know-how about protected area management seem to be missing links. The protection of the area was obviously.
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7.2. Policy Implications The so far held old view of managing the protected area, which isolates the protected area form the local people needs to get revised (Colchester, 1996). For it has resulted in hostility or animosity by the local people. Experiences also tell us that protected areas can not sustainably coexist with local people who are hostile to them (McNeely, 1994; Lane, 1995). If the hostility between the protected area and the local communities is to be over come mechanisms must be laid down to involve the local communities in the planning and management of the protected area. Appropriate accounts must also be taken on the needs and aspirations of local communities. Natural resources management responsibilities need to be devolved to the local people (Lane, 1995). The management plan also needs to be revised so that all these issues are well taken care of. Moreover, appropriate measure must also be taken that the policy statements as regard to the involvement of the local people are well taken care of or translated into action particularly at the grassroots level. Appropriate benefit sharing mechanism has to be in-built in the management plan. Because they are the outcomes or manifestations of the long-standing socio-cultural and economic interdependence of the local people with such areas, one can envisage that the traditional or indigenous resource management systems are of significant contribution to the maintenance of biological diversity (McNeely, 1994). Hence, it is important that recognitions, are given to the indigenous resource management systems and that attempts are made to strengthen and restore these traditional management systems. This also has to do with reducing the management costs, for instance, costs of placing forest guards as well as in sharing the whole burdens (responsibilities) of management. Efforts need to be made so that replanting activities take into account the interest of the local people. Replanting schedules need to be formulated and discussed with the local people so that their ideas and views are included starting from species selection. The replanting measures were also found to concentrate on not more than three of the indigenous species of trees. Hence, attempts must be made to diversify the species composition so that most of the threatened species are included. It also seems essential that the replanting operations start from distant areas less needed for immediate use. Concerning the grazing conflicts and the question of redefining or re-delimiting the boundary, it seems not worth while to go for another demarcation. Instead, the system of ‘zonation’ could be introduced to solve the problem keeping the current demarcation intact. Under this system, there will be a strictly protected central core zone(s), which could be completely free from any interference or with minimum human disturbance surrounded by a larger area of external buffer zone(s) at the periphery. The external buffer zone(s) could then be used to meet the needs of the local communities; be it in terms of grazing and/ or forest products. The external buffer zone(s) could also further be used for other human activities such as research, environmental education, training and even tourism and recreation (Hadley, 1994; McNeely, 1994; Phuong and Dembner, 1994). The hindrances to bee keeping should be removed or lifted up. Putting legal restrictions can not be a solution to the potential drawbacks of the traditional bee keeping practices. Rather, improved or better techniques (methods) of production could be thought to overcome the risks (potential hazards) of the traditional bee keeping. In this respect training the farmers (beekeepers) on better techniques of honey extraction and bee keeping, introducing improved
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beehives, providing them with material support as well as encouraging the farmers to form (get organized into) beneficiary associations could be considered. It is through these approaches that better harmony can be built up between the local communities and the protected area. These approaches would also give the opportunity of utilizing the potentialities of the area instead of banning it altogether. They also provide a leeway for the local communities to safeguard the area while at the same time deriving benefit (Phuong and Dembner 1994). In addition, raised stone structures could also be considered as a substitute for beehive fencing to overcome the wasteful use of wood (forest products). The protected area provides an in situ means of conservation of biological diversity. However, it would be futile to hope for biodiversity conservation from protected areas surrounded by degraded habitats and impoverished (poverty ridden) communities. Hence, there needs to be a holistic approach if satisfactory results are to be forthcoming. Improving agricultural production around protected areas, credit provision; and concomitant measures geared towards reducing poverty are of paramount importance. Moreover, ‘Protected Areas’ need to be parts of the broader regional development strategies (McNeely, 1994; Phoung and December, 1994). Raising the level of environmental awareness of the people particularly at the local level; incorporating lessons on proper handling of available farm implements in the extension system; introducing technologies that reduce the pressure on the forest area; etc are all important measures that could be envisaged to overcome the problems.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Aklog, Laike. "Forest Resources and MoA Forestry Development and Legislation", A Paper Presented to the Conference on National Conservation Strategy, May 22-25, 1990, Office of the National Committee for Central Planning, Addis Abeba. BoANR (Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources) 1998. Temporary Guideline for the protection of wildlife deemed to be threats to crops livestock and human beings, BoANR, Mekelle, Tigrai. BPED (Bureau of Plan and Economic Development) 1995. Alamata Woreda Baseline Survey, Tigrai Region BPED, Mekelle, Ethiopia. CSA (Central Statistical Authority) 1995. THE 1994 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS OF ETHIOPIA, RESULTS FOR TIGRAI REGION, Vol. I Statistical Report, Addis Abeba. Colchester, M.1996 "Beyond "Participation": indigenous people, biological diversity conservation and protected area management", in Unasylva, Vol. 47, No. 186, pp 33-39 FAO Rome. CNRST (Council of the National Regional State of Tigrai) 1997. Rural Land Utilization Decree No 23/1997. In Negarit Gazeta of the Tigrai National Regional State, Mekelle, Ethiopia. EESRC (Ethiopian Energy Study and Research Center) 1995. TIGRAI ENERGY RESOURCES AND HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION, A Paper Presented to the Energy Symposium held from 6 to 8 April 1995, Mekelle, Tigrai Ethiopia. EFAP (Ethiopian Forestry Action Program) 1994. "The Challenges for Development" (Vol II). EFAP secretariat, Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, Addis Abeba. EWNHS (Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society) 1996. IMPORTANT BIRD AREAS OF ETHIOPIA, A FIRST INVENTORY, EWNHS, Addis Abeba. EPA and MEDaC (Environmental Protection Authority and Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation) 1997. Environmental Policy of The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, EPA and MEDaC, Addis Abeba. FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia) 1998. Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research Establishment Proclamation. Proclamation No. 120/1998, in Federal Negarit Gazeta, No. 49, pp 777-782, FDRE, Addis Abeba.
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and Noragric-AUN, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Hadley, M. 1994. "Linking conservation, development and research in protected area management in Africa", in Unasylva, Vol. 4 5, No. 176, pp. 28-34, FAO Rome. Lane, C. 1995. "PARK FULL OF PEOPLE: POTENTIAL FOR COMMUNITY CONSERVATION IN AWASH NATIONAL PARK" A Paper Presented for Participatory Wildlife Management Workshop (16-18 may, 1995. Addis Abeba). Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection and FARM Africa, Addis Abeba. McNeedy, J.A. 1994. "Protected areas for the twenty-first century: working to provide benefits for society", in Unasyslva, Vol. 45, No. 176, pp 3-7, FAO, Rome. NCSS (National Conservation Strategy Secretariat) 1994. National Conservation Strategy, Vol II; Policy and Strategy, NCSS, Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, Addis Ababa. Phuong, N.N. and Dembner, S.A. "Improving the lifestyle of people in protected areas of Viet Nam, in Unasylva, Vol. 45, No. 176, pp 15-21, FAO, Rome. RVDS (Raya Valley Development Study) 1996. Phase I, Reconnaissance Phase Report, Vol. III (Agriculture), Relief Society of Tigray (REST), Mekelle. Tchamie, T.T.K. 1994. "Learnig from local hostility to protected areas in Togo", in Unasylva, Vol. 45, No. 176, pp 22-27, FAO, Rome. Tennassie, N. 1988. "THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN ETHIOPIA ORGANIZATION, POLICIES AND PROSPECTS", in BEYOND THE FAMINE, An examination of the Issues Behind Famine in Ethiopia, International Institute for Relief and Development. Food for the Hungry International, Geneva, Switzerland. Tesfaye, K. Fikru, M. and Mulugeta, A. 1997. Climate, Vegetation and Current Land Use Inventory for Dessa'a Forest Area, Ministry of Agriculture, forest and wildlife conservation and Development department, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. TFAP (Tigrai Forestry Action Program) 1996. Main Report, Regional Government of Tigrai Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mekelle, Ethiopia. TGE (Transitional Government of Ethiopia) 1994. Forestry Conservation development and Utilization Proclamation, Proclamation No. 94/1994, in Negarit Gazeta of The Transitional Government of Ethiopia, 53rd year No. 80 pp. 372-379, TGE, Addis Ababa. UNDP (United Nation Development Program) 1994. Program Support Document for The National Program on Improvement of the Resource Population Sustainability Balance, UNDP, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
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Van de Loar, A. 1988. Seeds of the Earth and the Law of the Seed, Institute of Social Studies (ISS), International Course Material , ISS, The Hague, The Netherlands. Webb, P. and von Braun, J.1994. Famine and Food Security in Ethiopia: Lessons for Africa, Published on Behalf of IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute) by John Willey and Sons. Wright, C. With assistance of Yeshinegus, A. 1984 An Assessment of the Causes Severity Extent and Problem of Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands, ETHIOPIAN HIGHLAND RECLAMATION STUDY, Land Use Planning and Regulatory Development (MOA) and FAO (UN), Addis Abeba. Yeraswork, A. 1997, Desa'a State Forest Study, Report to Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resource of Tigrai National Regional State and Eastern Tigrai Development Program, Addis Ababa. Zenebe, G. Assisted by Werede, S. and Tirungo, W.M. 1998. Socio-Economic Survey of Hugamburda Girat-kahsu State Forest, BoANR in association with MoA, Mekelle, Addis Abeba.
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Annex Table 1. Species of Wildlife found in Dessa’a Protected Area SN Local (Tigrigna) Name Common (English) Name Mammals: 1 Gray Duiker Midaqu 2 Chikhu Cheetah 3 Nebri Leopard 4 Sesha’a Klip springier 5 Zibee Hyena 6 Kinfiz Crusted Porcupine 7 Wukharya Common Jackal 8 Wa’ag Apes 9 Hibey Velvet Monkey 10 Mantile Abyssinian Hare 11 Chihirya 12 Chittarra Ground Squirel 13 Anchiwa Fild rate 14 Agajen Greater Kudzu 15 Mofles Warthog 16 Titgi Honey badger 17 Gihe Rock Hyrax 18 Hasemma Wild Pig 19 Ensho Dik dik 20 Dikulla Common Bushbuk
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Birds: kokah Segen Rigbi Belaet sigem Kurdid ziaria Zagra Godify Eff Abagumbah A'eya Sirneh Quakh Shilla
Scientific Name Sylvicapra grimmia Panthera leo Oreotragus oreotragus Hystrix cristata Canis aureus Cercopithecus aethiops Lepus abyssinicus Xerus rutilus Arvianthis abyssinicus Tragelaphus strepciceros Phacochoerus aethiopicus Mellivora Swis Meadiaka slip Tragelaphus imberbis
Spur Fowl Ostrich Pigeon
Sancolina clafertoni Struthio camelus Treron australis
White Stork Guinea Fowl
Ciconia ciconia Numida meleogris
African Hobby Wattled Ibis Duck Black-Rumped Button-Quail Thick-Billed Raven African Howk-Eagel
Falco cuvieri Dechioris abyssinica Anas Turnix hottentota Corvus crassi-rostris Hieraactus spilogaster
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