Determinants of employee's acceptance of a ...

ASIA LIFE SCIENCES 24(2): 841-855, 2015 The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences

Determinants of employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme: A case study

MARLOE B. SUNDO1,*, SATOSHI FUJII2, MARISH S. MADLANGBAYAN1, ELISEO V. ANA1 and PERLIE P. VELASCO1 The study investigated the hypothesis about the consequences of a compressed workweek (CWW), i.e. reduced traffic congestion, fewer working days, longer working duration and success of government’s objectives, are all determinants in the acceptance of CWW scheme. A survey of 247 public employees at the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) was carried out after the Philippine government had implemented a CWW scheme. The results of this study suggest that four psychological factors can explain around 80% of the variance in the acceptance of the CWW scheme. Attitude toward fewer working days had the largest effect among the four factors. This study also suggests that the four psychological factors were influenced by other background variables related to personal and household attributes, travel behavior patterns and changes in travel behavior patterns upon the implementation of the CWW scheme. A change in recreational activity patterns, due to the implementation of the CWW scheme, was found to be a significant background variable for the four psychological determinants considered in this study. Keywords: employee’s acceptance, compressed workweek, psychological determinants, background variables 1

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of Philippines Los Baños, College 4031, Laguna, Philippines 2 Department of Urban Management, Kyoto University, Yoshidahonmachi, Sakyo Ward, Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture 606-8501, Japan * Corresponding author: e-mail - [email protected] Received 03 September 2014; Accepted 19 January 2015 ©Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2015

Printed in the Philippines

Sundo et al. 2015 INTRODUCTION

As early as the 1970s, congestion management strategies were investigated to alleviate the traffic problems in urban and suburban areas. It is widely recognized that traffic congestion is the most common cause of serious negative impacts on health, the environment, and the economy in urban and suburban areas (Fujii et al. 2001, Nozick et al. 1998, Meyer 1999). Due to limited space and funds for new infrastructure, as well as concerns about air quality, transportation agencies have looked for alternative solutions on the demand side. As a result, the Transportation Demand Management (TDM) strategy was conceptualized as a solution for controlling the demand for transportation system resources (Nozick et al. 1998, Bhattacharjee et al. 1997, Kitamura et al. 1997). In recent times, several new mechanisms of TDM have been developed to alleviate traffic congestion in existing urban transportation systems without building more structures. Among the TDM measures being implemented are: congestion pricing to restrain traffic demand during peak hours (Jakobsson et al. 2000, Levine & Garb 2002, Nakamura & Kockelman 2002), park and ride schemes to minimize congestion and parking requirements in urban centers (Parkhurst 2000), peak period diversions to shift the timing of travel through staggered office hours (Tanaboriboon, 1994, Bhattacharjee et al. 1997, Nozick et al. 1998) and extended work days through a Compressed Workweek (CWW) scheme (Ronen & Primps 1981, Allen & Hawes 1979). All of these TDM measures influence behavior or activity patterns. People may be hesitant about the behavioral changes that can occur as a result of TDM strategies because changes in behavior or habit require significant mental costs that people may be reluctant to pay (Dahlstrand & Biel 1997, Garling et al. 2001). For this psychological reason, some people may reject TDM measures in order to avoid the behavioral changes induced by their implementation. For example, people might reject a policy if it forces them to change their departure times or travel mode choices. Therefore, one of the most important considerations with regard to the successful implementation of TDM strategies is strong constituent support at both public and political levels (Meyer 1999, Jones 1992). The CWW scheme compresses the workweek from the conventional 5 days to fewer working days (see Bhattacharjee et al. 1997, Tanaboriboon 1994), perhaps 3 or 4 days, while extending the number of hours worked per day, thus maintaining the same number of hours per week (Hung 1996, Ronen & Primps 1981). The literature related to CWW schemes has focused mainly on the benefits and challenges it brings to employers and the employees (Nollen 1981, Ronen & Primps 1981). Other studies of CWW schemes have been related to transportation impacts, such as reduced work commuting (Hung 1996) and increased weekend commuting (Allen & Hawes 1979, Gavney et al. 1979). Evidence shows that compressed workweeks or staggered working hours have also brought about significant changes in travel conditions (Giuliano & Golob 1990). However, the acceptability of CWW schemes has not been well investigated, despite the fact that CWW schemes may not always be acceptable to workers. For example, if a CWW scheme were to be implemented at an office, workers might have to wake up and leave for the office earlier than usual; some workers might

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme find this inconvenient. For this kind of reason, workers may have negative attitudes toward a CWW scheme. The present study aimed to determine factors affecting employee attitudes toward, and acceptance of, a CWW scheme. The findings from this analysis would be useful for transportation planners who formulate such TDM measures. The study hypothesized that an employee’s beliefs about the consequences of a CWW scheme constitute the psychological determinants of the employee’s acceptance of the scheme. This hypothesis stems from psychological theories on attitude and habit (Ajzen 1991, Verplanken & Aarts 1999, Fujii et al. 2001, Ronis et al. 1989) and social learning theory (Cone & Hayes 1980, Everett & Watson 1987, Fujii et al. 2001, Geller et al. 1982). The study also hypothesized that these beliefs can, in turn, be influenced by external factors such as personal and household attributes, travel patterns before CWW implementation and changes in travel patterns due to the implementation. Theories on attitude and habit have put forward the idea that if people believe that the consequences of a behavior are likely to be positive, they will develop a positive attitude toward the behavior. Based on this theory, if people believe that the consequences of a CWW scheme, e.g. behavioral changes caused by its implementation, are likely to be positive, they will develop a positive attitude toward the scheme, which will increase the level of public acceptance. Social learning theory posits that if people experience a positive consequence with regard to a behavior, they will be likely to repeat the behavior. Based on this theory, if people evaluate a CWW-related behavioral experience as positive, they will probably be willing to repeat the behavior without psychological resistance, and will consequently accept the CWW scheme. Thus, the consequences of a CWW scheme are hypothesized to be determinants of the acceptance of the scheme. A good example of a CWW consequence that could influence acceptance is a change in the traffic congestion experienced by workers. There would be two main reasons for this change: the macro-change in traffic volume, due to the apparent reduction of work-related commuting each workweek (Hung 1996), and the microchange in departure time, which would shift and stagger the timing of travel and encourage off-peak use of transportation facilities (Anderson & Ungemah 1999).If people believed that traffic was less congested with a CWW scheme in place, they would be more likely to accept the scheme. Thus, the perceived changes in traffic congestion may be a determinant of acceptance of a CWW. Other consequences of a CWW scheme might be related to changes in work patterns. It is likely that working for fewer days per week would be positively evaluated, while longer work days would be evaluated negatively. If people were to evaluate both the longer work day and the shorter working week (in the case of this study, 10 hr per day and 4 days per week) to be positive (or less negative), they might have a positive attitude toward the CWW scheme. Therefore, attitude toward fewer working days and attitude toward longer work duration are also possible determinants of acceptance of a CWW scheme. The influential consequences proposed above, i.e. traffic congestion and individual working patterns, directly relate to egoistic motivation. Acceptance


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Sundo et al. 2015 may also be influenced by social consequences. For example, Gärling et al. (2003) reported that pro-environmental behavioral intentions, including the intention to support pro-environmental policy, are determined by both egoistic and social consequences. Similarly, Jakobsson et al. (2000) found acceptance of TDM policy to be determined by both egoistic motivation, (i.e., infringement on freedom), and social motivation (i.e., fairness). As with any government policy, the TMD policy in general, and the CWW policy in particular, would be implemented to achieve specific objectives designated by the government; these objectives should be related to positive social consequences. If people believe that the intention of the government in implementing a CWW policy is to bring about positive social consequences, then they may accept it, despite negative egoistic consequences. Therefore, a belief in the government’s ability to produce positive social consequences may be another determinant of the acceptance of a CWW scheme; we have called this determinant perceived success of government’s intention. In summary, beliefs about CWW-related consequences, specifically, reduced traffic congestion, fewer working days, longer working duration, and the perceived success of the government’s intentions, as described above, are determinants of the acceptance of CWW schemes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to test this hypothesis proposing the psychological determinants of acceptance with respect to a CWW, as a TDM measure designed to induce inevitable behavioral change. The study also explored other observable factors, i.e. personal and household attributes, behavioral travel patterns, and changes in those patterns that might influence the psychological determinants of acceptance of CWW schemes. Figure 1 shows the hypothesized relationships between acceptance of CWW schemes, the psychological determinants and the background variables.

Figure 1. Conceptual relationships between the acceptance of a Compressed Work Week scheme, psychological determinants and background variables.

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme MATERIALS AND METHODS

During April and May 2002, the Philippine government implemented Administrative Order 32, a policy requiring 4-day workweeks and 3-day weekends for public employees; the policy required employees to work 10 hours per day, to compensate for the reduced number of working days. The Administrative Order exempted government agencies involved in providing health care (i.e. hospitals and health centers), safety, police services, security, protection and public organizations, but other government agencies, including national universities, were not exempted. It should also be noted that the two-month policy was experimental and that it had the goals of reducing traffic congestion during the workweek, increasing family time, and boosting local tourism in the countryside over the weekends. Two months after the completion of the CWW scheme, directed by Administrative Order No 32, the authors conducted a survey targeting government employees of the University of the Philippines in Los Baños (UPLB) who were obliged to be involved in the CWW scheme. The feelings toward the CWW scheme, as expressed by the survey participants, were likely to differ across participants. Some might have positive feelings, indicating a willingness to accept a CWW scheme that might be installed in future; others, however, might have negative feelings, and would probably be unwilling to accept such a scheme in the future. The aim of the survey was to investigate the psychological and socio-demographic factors behind such differences of feeling, i.e. attitudes informing acceptance of a CWW scheme. Of the 325 questionnaires sent to government employees at UPLB, 287 were returned; after verification, only 247 were considered usable for this study, giving a response rate of 76.0%. Note that all of the administrative employees at UPLB participated in the CWW scheme under Administrative Order 32. Table 1 shows the descriptive analysis of the sample population. The sample consisted of administrative personnel (53.44%) and researchers (46.56%). The sample also shows that a little more than two-thirds of the respondents (67.21%) were public commuters. Students at UPLB served as enumerators, distributing the questionnaires to the offices of the target populations, that is, the staff at the university who took part in the CWW scheme. The enumerators also collected the questionnaires and were instructed to check them for any missing entries before leaving the offices of the respondents. The respondents were asked to answer the two-page questionnaire regarding the recent implementation of the Compressed Workweek (CWW) scheme. After returning their completed questionnaires, respondents were each given a token, equivalent to USD 2.0. The questionnaire consisted of a two-sided page of material. At the beginning of the first page, the aim of the study and the reason why this information was sought from the respondents were stated. The questionnaire consisted of four modules, intended to assess the travel behavioral pattern, the attitudes and the beliefs of each employee prior to, and during, the implementation of the CWW scheme.


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Sundo et al. 2015 The first module consisted of a set of questions relating to the personal and household attributes (i.e. age, gender, number of years in service, education, civil status, income, number of children and number of cars) of the respondents. Table 1. Descriptive analysis of respondents, n = 247. Sex: Male Female Age (years)â Years in serviceâ Administrative Personnel

â æ

75 (30.36%) 172 (69.64%) M = 43.64; SD = 9.104 M = 18.27; SD = 8.789 132 (53.44%)

Marital Status(having a spouse) Highest Education Level: High-school Vocational College/University Post Graduate Monthly Income (PhP)æ: < 10,000 10,000-20,000 > 20,000

204 (82.59%)

Car Users

81 (32.79%)

4.05% 6.07% 58.30% 31.58% 27.50% 69.30% 3.20%

M = mean; SD = standard deviation. PhP (Philippine Peso) is about 0.02 USD.

The second module posed questions concerning the travel behavior and pattern of the respondents during weekdays, before and during the policy implementation, by focusing on the following: the mode of transportation used most regularly and the usual times of departure and arrival from and to both home and office; the usual sleeping and waking times before and during the CWW scheme; and the frequency of recreational trips or activities before going home after office hours, both before and during the CWW scheme. In the third module, personal feelings about the scheme were investigated. The perceived changes in traffic congestion were measured by asking respondents, using a 7-point semantic scale from very negative to very positive, “How do you feel about the traffic congestion conditions of your trip during the 4-day workweek, as compared to those during an ordinary 5-day workweek?” The degree of acceptance of the CWW scheme was derived by asking two questions: on a 7-point semantic scale ranging from strongly oppose to strongly support, “Do you support the policy of a 4-day workweek?” and, on a 7-point semantic scale ranging from very likely to vote “no” to very likely to vote “yes”, “If you have the opportunity to vote in a referendum, would you vote “yes” or “no” on the 4-day workweek and 3-day weekend scheme?” The scores relating to these two questions were added together to give a single measure of acceptance of the CWW scheme (Cronbach’s α = 0.91, the average = 9.60, SD = 4.02). Attitude toward fewer working days was measured

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme by asking the respondents to respond to the question, “How do you feel about shorter working weeks (4 days only)?”, using a 7-point semantic scale, ranging from very negative to very positive. Similarly, attitude toward longer working duration was measured on 7-point semantic scale, ranging from very negative to very positive, by asking the respondents, “How do you feel about longer working duration (10 h instead of 8 h per day)?” In the fourth module, the average frequency of recreational trips before and during the 3-day weekend was investigated. The respondents were also asked to report the types and frequencies of recreational trips made during the two summer months of the policy implementation. Additional items, such as questions on the purpose and duration of a recreational trip, were also included in the questionnaire. Table 2 shows the means, mid-points and t-statistics of the differences with respect to the acceptance of the CWW scheme, and its four hypothetical psychological determinants. As seen in Table 2, the acceptance of the CWW scheme is relatively positive, as compared to its mid-point. Likewise, the four psychological determinants were also relatively positive, as compared to their mid-points, except for the perceived success of the government’s intention, which is negative, as compared to the mid-point. The t-statistics show that the differences with respect to the mid-points of the acceptance of the CWW scheme and its four psychological determinants were all significant. Table 2. Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and mid-points of the acceptance of the CWW scheme and its four hypothetical psychological determinants. Psychological Variables

M

SD

Mid-Point

t-stat*

9.60

4.02

8

6.24

Attitude toward fewer working days

5.16

1.95

4

9.37

Perceived changes in traffic congestion

4.96

1.57

4

9.61

Attitude toward longer working duration

4.51

1.90

4

4.22

Perceived success of government’s intention

3.62

1.74

4

-3.39

Acceptance of CWW scheme

*

t-statistics for difference from mid-points

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 3 shows the results of the regression analysis of the acceptance of the CWW scheme using the four hypothetical determinants as explanatory variables. The results indicated that all four explanatory variables were significant. The attitude toward fewer working days, attitude toward longer working duration, perceived changes in traffic congestion and perceived success in government’s intention were all found to have positive significant effects on the acceptance of the CWW scheme. As indicated by the R2, 77% of the variance in the acceptance of the CWW scheme was explained by these four variables. According to standardized coefficients, attitude toward fewer working days had the largest effect and perceived changes in traffic congestion had the least effect on the acceptance of the CWW scheme.


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Sundo et al. 2015 Table 3. Results of regression analysis using Acceptance of the CWW Scheme as the dependent variable. Independent variables Attitude toward fewer working days Attitude toward longer working duration Perceived success of government’s intention Perceived changes in traffic congestion

Standardized coefficients

t-statistics1

0.51 0.29 0.15 0.09

9.45*** 5.30*** 4.32*** 2.55*

1

Sample size = 247; R 2 = 0.77 (p < 0.001); ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

Further regression analysis of the four psychological factors was done using the background variables, shown in Table 4, as the explanatory variables. All of these variables were directly reported in the survey, except for those denoting changes of activity and travel patterns. The change variable was calculated as the difference between the observed frequency of recreational trips during the CWW scheme and the observed frequency of recreational trips before the scheme. Each of the four psychological factors was analyzed independently by performing a stepwise multiple regression technique, with background variables as independent variables. Table 5 shows the summary of the significant or explanatory variables and their standardized coefficients and t-statistics, after removing the non-significant background variables using the above technique. A descriptive summary of the significant background variables of the four psychological factors is also shown in Table 6. The relatively low R 2 values imply that the dependent variables were influenced by other variables, in addition to the explanatory variables used in the analysis. Such variables might include attributes of work places or attributes of commuting trips. Nevertheless, some of the personal and household attributes, travel behavior, and travel changes were found to be significant variables. First, it was shown that R_trips weekend (i.e. average frequency of weekend recreational trips made during an ordinary summer before the CWW scheme) had a significant positive effect on attitude toward fewer working days and attitude toward longer working duration. Second, change in R_trips_Weekend (i.e. change in the average frequency of weekend recreational trips from before to during the CWW scheme) had a significant positive effect on attitude toward fewer working days, attitude toward longer working duration, and perceived changes in traffic congestion. Third, the change in R_trips_AO (i.e. change in frequency of recreational trips/activities after office hours from before to during the CWW scheme) was also found to have had a significant positive effect on attitude toward fewer working days and perceived success of government’s intention. It should be noted that, although variables regarding recreational activities were significant, as mentioned above, variables regarding in-home activity, work activity, and travel were not significant. Finally, some personal and household attributes were found to be significant. Marital status had a significant positive effect on attitude toward longer working

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme duration and perceived changes in traffic congestion. The low income variable had a significant positive effect on attitude toward longer working duration. Age and car ownership were also found to have had significant negative effects on perceived changes in traffic congestion. Table 4. Background variables included in the stepwise regression analysis. Variable Category

Variable Description Age Total number of years in service Job Classification, (administrative position = 1, otherwise = 0) Tenure (permanent status = 1, otherwise = 0)

Personal and Household Attributes

Gender (Male =0, Female =1) Marital Status (married = 1, otherwise = 0) Number of children in the household Low Income dummy variable (if income < 10,000 PhP) High Income dummy variable (if income > 20,000PhP) Educational attainment categories Number of cars in a household R_trips_AO (i.e., frequency of recreational trips/activities after office hours before the CWW scheme) R_trips_Weekend (i.e. average frequency of weekend recreational trips during ordinary summer before the CWW scheme) Dep_Time_Home (i.e. departure time from home to office before CWW scheme)

Travel Behavior and Activity Pattern before the CWW Scheme

AM_trav_time (i.e. morning travel time from home to office before the CWW scheme) PM_trav_time (i.e. evening travel time from office to home before the CWW scheme) Work_time_duration (i.e. working time duration before the CWW scheme) Wakeup_time (i.e. usual wake-up time before the CWW scheme) Sleeping_time (i.e. usual sleeping time before the CWW scheme)


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Sundo et al. 2015 Change in R_trips_AO (i.e. change in frequency of recreational trips/activities after office hours) Change in R_trips_Weekend (i.e. change in average frequency of weekend recreational trips during summer) Changes in Travel Behavior and Activity Pattern between before and during the CWW Scheme

Change in Dep_Time_Home (i.e. change in departure time from home to office) Change in AM_trav_time (i.e. change in morning travel time from home to office) Change in PM_trav_time (i.e. change in evening travel time from office to home) Change in Work_time_duration (i.e. change in working time duration) Change in Wakeup_time (i.e. change in usual wake-up time) Change in Sleeping_time (i.e. change in usual sleeping time)

Table 5. Summary output of significant background variables with respect to the four psychological variables. Dependent Variables

Background Variables (Independent Variables)

Standardized Coefficient

t-statistics1

Attitude toward fewer working days†1

change in R_trips_Weekend R_trips_Weekend change in R_trips_AO

0.44 0.32 0.14

5.10*** 3.76*** 2.27*

Attitude toward longer working duration†2

change in R_trips_Weekend low income R_trips_Weekend marital status

0.33 0.13 0.17 0.12

3.76*** 2.16* 2.00* 1.98*

Perceived changes in traffic congestion†3

marital status change in R_trips_Weekend age car ownership per household

0.20 0.14 -0.17 -0.15

3.06** 2.28* -2.71** -2.43**

Perceived success of government’s intention†4

change in R_trips_AO

0.20

3.19**

1

Sample size = 247; ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05. R 2 for †1was 0.15, for †2 was 0.10, for †3 was 0.08 and for †4 was 0.04.

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme Table 6. Descriptive statistics of the significant background variables for the acceptance of the CWW scheme. Variables Age† Low income†§ Marital status† Car ownership per household

R_trips_Weekend

Change in R_trips_Weekend

Change in R_trips_AO

Definition Age =1 if income is below 10,000 PhPæ; = 0 otherwise =1 if married; = 0 if single =1 if have at least one car; =0 if none average frequency of weekend recreational trips during ordinary summer before the CWW scheme Changein R_trips_ Weekend from before toduring the CWW scheme change in frequency of recreational trips/ activities after office from before to during the CWW scheme

Descriptive M=mean, SD=standard deviation M=43.64

SD=9.10

1 = 27.5%, 0 = 72.5% 1 = 82.6%, 0 = 17.4% 1 = 32.8%, 0 = 67.2%

M = 1.66

SD = 1.81

M = -0.364 (SD = 1.702)

M = 0.593(SD = 3.141)

†

Descriptions also reported in Table 1. Salary above 20,000 PhP is considered to be a high income. æ PhP (Philippine Peso) is about 0.02 USD. §

The data analysis indicated that the hypotheses regarding the determinants of the acceptance of a CWW scheme were supported by the data. Namely, it was empirically indicated that a positive attitude towards fewer working days, longer working duration, perceived changes in traffic congestion and perceived success of government’s intention were factors influencing an employee’s acceptance of a CWW scheme. It was also indicated that these four variables could explain around 80% of the variance in the acceptance. This result implies that those who prefer the shorter workweeks and longer weekends, and who do not hesitate to work the longer days brought about by a CWW scheme, would be likely to accept the scheme. On the other hand, those who do not mind the number of working days in a week and who dislike a longer working duration would not be likely to accept a CWW


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Sundo et al. 2015 scheme. Those who believe that traffic congestion decreased during the workweek due to the CWW scheme would also be likely to accept the scheme. The standard coefficient of the regression model implied that the most important factor in determining public acceptance of a CWW scheme is that of people’s attitudes toward fewer working days per week. Shorter work weeks can be regarded as a merit of CWW schemes, while a longer working day may be regarded as a demerit of CWW schemes; the finding that the effect of attitude toward fewer working days was larger than the effect of attitude toward longer working duration implies that people’s evaluations of merit had a greater impact on acceptance than did their evaluations of demerit, with respect to a CWW scheme. This may be one reason that the acceptance of the CWW scheme was relatively positive. In addition to the personal consequences arising from the CWW scheme and informing acceptance of the scheme, this study found that the social consequences of a CWW scheme could also constitute a significant determinant of acceptance. The study results indicated that those who perceived that the government’s intentions, i.e., increased recreational activities during the weekend and decreased congestion during the workweek, had been met would be more likely to accept the scheme. It should be noted that personal interests did not necessarily increase even if governmental intentions related to social interests were met. These findings support the notion that political positions, such as acceptance of a CWW scheme implemented by the government, are likely to be determined not only by egoistic motivations but also by social motivations, as previous studies have demonstrated (Jakobsson et al. 2000). The results of a further analysis indicated that the four psychological factors were influenced by other background variables relating to personal and household attributes, travel behavior patterns, and changes in travel behavior patterns, upon the implementation of the CWW scheme (see Figure 2). Personal and household attributes, including age, income, marital status, and car ownership were significant determinants of some of the psychological factors, but none of these attributes had a significant effect on the most influential determinant of acceptance, that is, attitude toward fewer working days. The attitude toward fewer working days was found to be influenced by variables relating to recreational activities; those who were engaged in more weekend recreational activities, and those who increased weekend and week-day recreational activities as a result of the CWW scheme, were more likely to have positive attitudes toward the working schedule changes of the CWW scheme, and they werethus more likely to accept the scheme.

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Employee’s acceptance of a compressed workweek scheme

Figure 2. Path diagram of determinants of acceptance for the CWW scheme.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study showed that a change in recreational activity level constituted an important determinant of acceptance of a CWW scheme, but it did not investigate specific changes with respect to recreational activities that had occurred as a result of the scheme. Analyses of specific recreational activity changes arising from CWW schemes have been reported previously; for example, Sundo and Fujii (2004). Based on the above findings, we conclude that the four psychological factors, as hypothesized in this study, were all determinants of people’s acceptance of the CWW scheme. We further conclude that the four psychological factors were mainly influenced by the characteristics of people’s recreational activities, and changes relating to these activities that arose from the CWW scheme.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is not possible without the financial support of the Japanese government under the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) exchange fellowship grant.

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