Developing a Conceptual Understanding of Consumer-based League ...

Journal of Sport Management, 2014, 28, 49-67 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2011-0153 © 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Official Journal of NASSM www.JSM-Journal.com RESEARCH

Developing a Conceptual Understanding of Consumer-based League Brand Associations Thilo Kunkel Temple University

Daniel Funk Temple University & Griffith University

Ceridwyn King Temple University Existing research has primarily focused on sport teams as brands, overlooking the branding of professional sport leagues. Professional sport leagues are required to build and leverage their brand associations to be sustainable and to help affiliated teams. This study integrated existing team brand association research with brand architecture literature to examine league brand associations from a consumer perspective. A freethought listing pilot test (N = 22) was followed by semistructured interviews (N = 26) to uncover 17 brand associations linked with professional sport leagues. Online questionnaires among consumers of four sport leagues in Australia (N = 1182) were used to support 17 distinct identified league brand associations. One sample t tests and correlation analyses empirically revealed that 17 league brand associations were linked with attitudinal and behavioral outcomes related to sport leagues. Finally, ANOVAs identified that some league brand associations differed between four leagues as perceived by consumers, reflecting league specific characteristics. In professional sport, managers treat their entities as brands to be managed. Because sport performances are uncontrollable, unpredictable, and spontaneous (Gladden, Milne, & Sutton, 1998), managers are required to take a long-term approach to brand management. Therefore, in addition to winning, managers need to focus on aspects of the sport experience that build a brand as well as sustainable relationships with their customers. This approach has led to many examples of rebranding of sport leagues. For example, Australia’s National Soccer League was rebranded into the A-League (NSL Task-Force, 2003). Similarly, in Europe, UEFA changed the name and logo of the Europa League and the Champions League to better represent the new format of the competition and the brand (Chadwick & Holt, 2008; UEFA, 2008). These market-focused approaches to Kunkel and King are with the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. Funk is with both the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, and the Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. Correspondence regarding this article can be sent to: [email protected].

managing sport leagues have been driven by the evolution of the sport industry. Historically, a league or team tended to have a monopoly position in its geographical area (Rosenbaum, 1987), as it was often the only elite-caliber competition in a given sport (Mason, 1999). However, with an increase in the number of sport franchises and media outlets, the competition for sport consumers continues to increase (James, Kolbe, & Trail, 2002). As professional sport adopts a more business management approach, it becomes crucial to position the sport brand to be both meaningful and distinctive from a consumer perspective to differentiate itself from competitors (Kaynak, Salman, & Tatoglu, 2008). Prominent consumer-based brand equity and brand association frameworks for sport teams have been developed to fulfill this requirement (Gladden & Funk, 2002; Ross, James, & Vargas, 2006; Ross, Russell, & Bang, 2008). However, limited consideration has been given to the examination of brand management from a league perspective. This is somewhat surprising given the league is the franchisor that provides support to teams (i.e., the franchisees) to ensure their success. Such support includes the use and coordination of marketing activities to build the brand (Pitt, Napoli, & Van Der Merwe, 2003),

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and the provision of a platform upon which to showcase the team brand by the league (i.e., the competition). This platform is the foundation from which the teams develop their consumer base, given that team consumers are, by default, consumers of the league as well. Therefore, as implied by their specific brand architecture, leagues and teams mutually depend on each other’s brand building and management strategies. Consumers of sport teams follow their favorite team because they perceive certain brand associations they link with the team; this is despite all teams in the league providing the same product (e.g., a game of football). Consumers of sport leagues operate in a similar way. Sport leagues may provide the same product (e.g., a football league), yet, consumers follow different sport leagues because of the brand associations they link with the leagues. Thus, from a league perspective, managers need to know how to develop and maintain the league’s brand to build and retain their fan base. Leagues compete for consumers within the same sport as well as against other leagues representing another sport (Chadwick & Holt, 2008). For example, Major League Soccer (MLS) represents the highest level of soccer in the U.S. The MLS competes for consumers with other sport leagues representing a different sport, for example the National Hockey League (NHL) that represents the highest level of ice hockey in North America. However, the MLS also competes for consumers of sport leagues representing the same sport, for example European soccer leagues, such as the English Premier League (EPL) or Spanish La Liga. These leagues strategically send their clubs on preseason tours to markets that can be described as secondary markets for the distinct purpose of increasing their market share. For example, Manchester United’s 2011 tour in North America (ManUtd, 2011) or Chelsea F.C.’s 2011 tour in Asia (Chelsea FC, 2011) were in markets outside of the traditional consumer base of the EPL. Such strategic league branding contributes to the fact that approximately 70% of all football fans worldwide watch the EPL with more than 300 million viewers from China (Duffy, 2011). In the U.S., a taped replay of an EPL game between Chelsea and Liverpool drew almost twice the television viewers compared with the MLS title game between Los Angeles and Houston (Hiestand, 2011). This competition may result in lower income from broadcasting rights and sponsorship sales for the MLS. This example highlights the importance of sport league branding and demonstrates that leagues represent brands independent of their given sport and teams. In addition, the example demonstrates the intense competition for fans between sport leagues that has real financial implications for the leagues’ sustainability. Therefore, this research focuses on brand association of leagues not teams or the sport itself. With this research, we aim to gain a new understanding of how consumers perceive sport leagues. The research provides insight into consumer-based league brand associations and makes a new contribution to sport

management. The research identifies brand associations that consumers hold with respect to sport leagues and demonstrates that identified brand associations are linked with attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. The following sections provide a review of the literature used to develop the two research questions that guide the research.

Literature Review Prior research highlighted the unique and collective role that team brand associations have on the development of team loyalty. This research has often focused on examining attributes, benefits, and attitudes associated with sport team brands (Bauer, Stokburger-Sauer, & Exler, 2008; Gladden & Funk, 2001, 2002; Ross, et al., 2008). To date, associations linked to sport leagues remain unexamined. Hence, the brand relationship of leagues and teams requires an examination through the integration of brand architecture literature and team brand association frameworks.

Brand Architecture Brand architecture refers to the organizing structure of a brand portfolio, describing the relationship between the brands in the specific portfolio (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000a). The assumption that brands are placed and evaluated within a broader context, rather than in isolation, is important in the understanding of brand architecture. The brand architecture of leagues and teams represents a continuum between a “branded house” and “house of brands.” In a branded house, the master or umbrella brand name is closely linked to, and dominates, its major brands. An example for a branded house brand architecture would be the company Virgin where all products, such as Virgin Mobile, Virgin Media, and Virgin Holiday are linked with the master brand name. In contrast, a house of brands has limited or no linkage between the master brand name and its major brands (e.g., products from Procter & Gamble, such as Ariel, Tide, and Charmin). In addition to the conceptualizations of a branded house and a house of brands strategy, mixed branding strategies can also be found (Douglas, Craig, & Nijssen, 2001). The two prominent mixed approaches are “endorsed brands” and “subbrands” (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000b). Endorsed brands are independent brands that are endorsed by an organizational brand (e.g., Courtyard by Marriott). In contrast, subbrands augment or enhance the master brand (e.g., the Viper from Dodge). As a result of this enhancing role, the subbrand approach can result in a stronger connection between brands in comparison with an endorsed brand approach (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000b). Subbrands enhance the master brand in various ways, including adding supplemental brand names or the creation of additional brand associations that are connected with the subbrand. For example, the Dodge Viper creates associations that make the master brand Dodge more appealing to customers (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000b). From this perspective it is evident that in the context of professional sport leagues

League Brand Associations 51

and teams, a master brand—subbrand approach to brand management is beneficial. Figure 1, adapted from Muzellec and Lambkin’s (2009) dynamic model of brand architecture, illustrates sport league brand architecture. The vertical dimension of the model illustrates the hierarchy of the master brand and the subbrand as well as the interaction between the two brands. Furthermore, the model depicts the different functions of the two brand levels, providing insight into consumer perceptions and behaviors associated with each level. At the master brand level, the function of the league is to provide the framework (e.g., schedule and governance of all involved parties, setting and modifying rules and regulations) for the teams. At the subbrand level, the teams represent unique franchise subbrands which deliver the core product and function as points of attachment to the consumer (e.g., consumers can attend team games and buy team merchandise). Consumers of the league may hold brand associations toward the league brand and consume the league experience via media, whereas consumers of teams may hold brand associations toward the team and consume the team product/experience live at a venue or via the media. The brand architecture of mixed branding indicates a strong interaction between the two brands (e.g., Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000b). The vertical interaction between the two brand levels indicates the interrelation between master brand images and subbrand images. The trapezoid in Figure 1 reflects the broader approach to brand management of the league brand compared with individual team brands. This is because the league provides strategic directions for all teams and deals with multiple stakeholders beyond the team level. In addition, consumers of team products (e.g., live attendance or watching games on television) are, by default, consumers of the league.

Figure 1 — Brand Management Comparisons.

In adopting a master brand—subbrand brand architecture, if both the sport league brand and the sport team brand are strong, the subbrand functions as a codriver of the master brand and vice versa, reciprocally boosting each other (Devlin, 2003). An example of this relationship is fans of Manchester United who also watch the EPL. Manchester United’s rise to a top sport brand mirrored the rise of the EPL, which occurred after the league’s rebranding and restructuring in 1993 (Keller, 2008). The league split apart from the Football Association (FA), a government regulated entity, and was able to operate as an independent entity, adopting a business model approach to sport management. This changed league structure made it possible to negotiate profitable broadcasting and sponsorship agreements independently of the FA (Chadwick & Clowes, 1998). The independence made centralized marketing and brand building strategies possible, and resulted in the EPL being the most successful football league worldwide in terms of on-field and financial success (Deloitte, 2009; Kassies, 2009). As a result of this restructure, Manchester United’s success was broadcasted globally, contributing to its financial success. In turn, the team could continue to invest in the development of the brand and thus strengthened the EPL as a league. This example demonstrates the codependent relationship between leagues and teams. The master brand EPL served as a codriver for Manchester United while the subbrand Manchester United also functioned as a codriver of its master brand. Ultimately though, the strength of the driver role may depend on individual consumer preferences. This means that the evaluation of the driver role of the two discussed brands may differ for each individual consumer, where each consumer may perceive the relationship between the two brands differently (Kunkel, Funk, & Hill, 2013).


The challenge in the mixed branding approach to brand management is that all involved parties (e.g., league, team, personnel) are dependent on the performance of each other. A successful and strong league brand is a requirement for a successful sport team brand and vice versa. This is supported by the case of the Women’s United Soccer Association (WUSA) in the USA, where the team brands suffered from the failure of the master brand (Southall, Nagel, & LeGrande, 2005). The WUSA suspended operations after three seasons with a loss of over $100 million, leaving the teams without a league to compete in (King, 2009). Therefore, a strong league brand is important to ensure the viability of the affiliated teams. To date, there has been minimal consideration as to how to effectively manage league brands. An appropriate reference point to begin is an examination of the existing literature of team brand associations, given the codependent relationship between leagues and teams as reflected in their brand architecture. Thus, team brand associations are reviewed in the next sections.

Team Brand Associations Brand associations are at the very core of brand building. For a brand to be considered strong and successful, as defined by consumer preference, consumers are said to relate or perceive certain attributes to be specifically associated with that brand. In conceptualizing how a brand is developed, Keller (1993) defines two dimensions that ultimately influence brand success, as measured by brand equity, namely brand awareness and brand image. The brand awareness component is related to the ability of consumers to identify the brand from their memory under different conditions (Rossiter & Percy, 1987). Brand image refers to the “perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory” (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller categorizes brand associations into attributes, benefits, and attitudes. According to Aaker (1996), these associations are used to make consumption decisions; therefore, they are a crucial part of brand management. Brand associations for a professional sport team represent attributes, benefits, and attitudes linked in a consumers’ mind with a specific team (Gladden & Funk, 2002). Several studies have been undertaken to gain an initial understanding of brand associations for particular sporting teams. Gladden and Funk’s (2002) team association model (TAM) identified and measured 16 associations that were classified into attributes, benefits, and attitudes toward sport teams. Ross and colleagues (2006) introduced a team brand association framework with 11 associations and later developed a scale (TBAS) to assess these associations (Ross, et al., 2008), while Bauer and colleagues (2008) modified the TAM, demonstrating its applicability to the German team sport setting. Thus, the applicability of these scales has been established across contexts. Potential consumers of professional sport leagues are most likely aware of the major league brand (Bauer,

Sauer, & Schmitt, 2005) and may hold certain associations about the league. However, to form attraction to a specific league would involve the potential consumer forming specific positive brand associations for that particular league. Prior research on sport team brand associations used Keller’s framework to explore factors (attributes and benefits) that create attraction toward a sport object (Funk, 2002). Therefore, in an endeavor to ensure that consumers hold positive brand associations, management of league brands requires a good understanding of the attractive and controllable attributes and benefits associated with sport leagues (Bauer, et al., 2008). Given the symbiotic relationship between teams and leagues, previous brand association research on sport teams helps to inform the examination of associations linked to sport leagues. Funk and James (2004, 2006) suggested that attitude development toward a team is influenced by team brand associations. Drawing on this, the associations a consumer links with a league may operate as a catalyst to influence attitude development toward the league as well as toward individual teams.

League Brand Associations Consumer-based league brand associations are defined in the current study as any idea, thought or image associated with a professional sport league. These associations represent a wide range of attributes and benefits linked to the league that help create a level of consumer attitude formation toward the league. Using Keller’s (1993) hierarchy of brand associations, namely attributes, benefits, and attitudes, consideration is given to the applicability of the established sport team brand association literature (Gladden & Funk, 2002; Ross, et al., 2006) in a sport league context. In line with Funk and James’ (2004) Fan Attitude Network Model, we conceptualized that evaluations of attributes and benefits influence consumer attitude toward the sports league. Specifically, given the previous discussion on the interrelationship between sport leagues and teams as a result of their brand architecture, it seems reasonable to expect that several team brand associations may be equally relevant league brand associations. Next, a literature review discussing league brand associations is provided.

Attributes Attributes of sport leagues are the descriptive elements that characterize the sport league and include the direct related features, as well as indirect aspects, that are related to the sport league. League brand associations that are classified as attributes can include logo design, head coach, management, performance, rivalry, star player, tradition, and venue. League logos are presented on league homepages, linked with sponsorship activities, and are presented on team jerseys. For consumers of sport teams, the logo and colors of the team primarily foster identification with the team and help to differentiate from


other teams. However, the logo also provides information about the quality of the team or product (Gladden & Funk, 2002). Therefore, for consumers of sport leagues, the logo can function as a promise about the standard of quality and influence consumers’ trust in the league. Furthermore, a logo acts as a shorthand device for other brand associations (De Chernatony & Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998). This means a logo represents a promise of what can be expected based on the known brand associations. Thus, the German football Bundesliga recently modernized their logo as an “integral component of the further development of the Bundesliga brand” (DFL, 2010). According to Fournier (1998), a positive connection exists between a customer’s trust toward a particular organization and its management. This is supported by Gladden and Funk (2002), who found a relationship between a team’s management and the consumers’ perceptions of a team. As the league functions as an umbrella organization for its teams, the league’s management is responsible for all of its assets (e.g., teams, players, sponsors). The association performance would be linked with the experience individuals derive from watching league games, as sport mainly entertains through the delivery of the product (Gladden & Funk, 2002). Performance describes the effect that the beauty and grace of the game has on consumer perceptions of the league. One reason why the EPL is considered the most attractive soccer league in the world is the fast play (e.g., one-touchfootball) on the pitch (Premier League, 2009). This performance depends on the teams’ players. Therefore, star players can contribute to the perceived attractiveness of a league (Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, & Hirakawa, 2000). The significance of star players as a league brand association is illustrated in the transfer of Michael Ballack (the captain of the German football national team) from FC Bayern Munich to FC Chelsea London in 2006. Following the transfer, 38% of German football supporters reported to be interested in the EPL compared with 31% one year earlier (Pfeiffer & Hovemann, 2007). Like star players, famous head coaches such as Phil Jackson (National Basketball Association—NBA) or José Mourinho (Spanish Primera División) may also spark fan interest in the league and function as brand associations. The association rivalry is reflected in the competition among teams and leagues that are known to be significant competitors (Ross, et al., 2008). For example, when a Dutch football team plays a German team in an international competition such as the UEFA Champions League, the games are very tense and frequently involve violent actions (Chardon, 2004). Existing rivalries between teams within a league can contribute to the attractiveness of a league. For example, watching the football derby between the Boca Juniors and River Plate in Buenos Aires (El Superclásico) was voted the number one “sporting thing you must do before you die” (Hamilton, 2004). The venue in which league games are played may also provoke brand associations (Gladden & Funk, 2002). Consumers may perceive the venue’s architecture as aesthetically stimulating (Wakefield, Blodgett, & Sloan,

1996) or link the experienced service with the venue (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995) to create brand associations. Finally, the association tradition is also believed to play an influential role in consumer perceptions of a league brand. Tradition can be linked to the past success of a league (e.g., the dominance of English football clubs in the Champions League in the midseventies to the early eighties led to significant growth) or factors other than game performance. An example would be the tradition of “Opening Day” in Major League Baseball which has a quasi-religious status (Foster & Hyatt, 2008). Collectively, we believe that these associations drawn from previously identified team brand attributes provide a good conceptual starting point to examine attributes of leagues due to the close relationship between leagues and teams as apparent by the identified brand architecture.

Benefits In addition to attributes of sport leagues, sport fans may also identify with the benefits of the league. When consumers evaluate a sport league, benefits represent the value that consumers attach with the league. Benefits associated with sport teams that may be transferred to sport leagues are considered to include community pride, diversion, excitement, nostalgia, peer group acceptance, and socialization. Although competitive games are important for attracting consumers, sport teams and leagues also need to focus on their fans and their host community. This is because leagues and their participating teams can function as symbolic representations of that community. The community pride for its league can provide individuals with a sense of belonging to that community (Robinson & Trail, 2005). For sport leagues, the concept of community pride is both relevant to the communities that have a team in the league as well as on a national level. For example, consumers being proud of following a European soccer league because it represents their home country (e.g., consumers being proud of being English because of the English Premier League). Furthermore, pride is closely connected to the notion of brand communities (e.g., Grant, Heere, & Dickson, 2011). This means the community is defined by individuals who follow a specific sport league. The consumer is expected to feel proud of the league if the league represented something the consumers can associate with. For example, being a proud Major League Baseball fan because it is perceived superior to its competitors such as the National Basketball League. Watching league games and talking about the league can also provide individuals with a break from their normal routine (i.e., diversion; Gladden & Funk, 2002). For example, fantasy sport leagues (i.e., individuals select a team from players of a league and receive points depending how well their players perform in reality) are a great chance to escape from reality and be a part of something different. Moreover, attending league games or watching them on television also provides individuals the chance for social interaction with friends and other fans


of a particular league (Ross, et al., 2006). Some private fantasy leagues are mainly formed for the opportunity to interact socially within a network (Roy & Goss, 2007). As a result, following a league and engaging in league related behavior can result in broad social approval (Gladden & Funk, 2001). Hence, socialization and peer group acceptance can be classified as benefits provided by sport leagues. The excitement associated with a sport league is generally a result of the experience associated with the league and can influence other associations such as nostalgic moments. The experience can conjure up moments of nostalgia that occur when the individual has fond memories toward the league. Collectively, we believe that these associations drawn from previously identified team brand benefits provide a good conceptual starting point to examine benefits of leagues due to the close relationship between leagues and teams as apparent by the identified brand architecture.

Attitudes Consumers’ attitude toward the sport league represents an outcome of the evaluation of attributes and benefits of the league (e.g., Funk & James, 2004). Attitudes are “a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1). The evaluation is based on input factors and results in knowledge represented in memory (Fazio, 2007). Attitudes have been identified as the overall evaluation of a brand, based upon the assessment of the brand’s associated attributes and benefits (Keller, 1993). Consumer commitment with the sport league represents a strong favorable attitude (cf. Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004) and characterizes how attached consumers are connected to the sport league (cf. Beatty, Homer, & Kahle, 1988). The connection can then result in the individual’s enduring affiliation (Ross, et al., 2008). Overall, in our review of team brand associations, we have identified brand associations that may serve to provide a conceptual structure to examine league brand associations from a consumer perspective. However, additional brand associations may exist. Furthermore, the validity of the full set of league brand associations needs to be tested with consumers. This led to the following two research questions: RQ 1: What are the consumer-based league brand associations of professional sport leagues? RQ 2: To what extent do consumer-based league brand associations relate to attitudinal and behavioral outcomes with respect to sports leagues? The following section presents the methods used to investigate the two research questions.

Method We used three studies to collect data in Australia to answer the two research questions. First, in a pilot study,

we used a free-thought technique to explore whether consumers held brand associations toward their favorite sport league. Second, we conducted semistructured interviews to explore brand associations linked with professional sport leagues. Third, we used online questionnaires to support the qualitative findings and to test whether individuals agreed the associations were applicable to sport leagues.

Free-thought Listing: Pilot Study In the pilot study, we used a free-thought listing technique (Cacioppo & Petty, 1981), to uncover brand associations that consumers hold toward their favorite sport league. Twenty-two sport management graduate students were asked to list every thought they associated with their favorite sport league. The use of student-based samples is appropriate for this study (e.g., Calder, Phillipps, & Tybout, 1981) because participating students showed similar demographic and interest profiles to the target market (Gordon, Slade, & Schmitt, 1986) and were consumers of sport (Ross, et al., 2008). Two judges independently conducted a content analysis. The data were analyzed in a two-round coding sequence consisting of open coding and axial coding (cf. Neumann, 2003). In the open coding phase, the researchers first passed through the data to locate common themes. Both judges analyzed transcripts for comprehensive themes according to knowledge gained through existing team brand associations. Furthermore, comprehensive themes that were not captured before were allowed to emerge unprompted (Filo, Funk, & Hornby, 2009). Next, initial codes were assigned to the located themes to condense the data into categories. At the end of the open coding sequence, a codebook was developed, containing the identified categories with direct quotes representing each category, and the definition of each brand association as recommended by Ryan and Bernard (2000). Results were then submitted to a panel of four academics who were considered experts in sport brand marketing (e.g., Bryman, 2008). The experts were asked to provide feedback whether the identified categories represented brand associations of sport leagues. Qualitative feedback provided by the experts resulted in combining two similar categories and eliminating two initially identified categories that reflected consumers’ attitudes rather than brand associations of sport leagues. The codebook was revised, then used to guide the axial coding sequence, in which the coders examined the data a second time and reviewed and recoded initial codes. The purpose of the pilot test was to gain initial insights into consumers’ league brand perceptions. The content analysis revealed 14 league brand associations. The following 11 reviewed brand associations were applicable for sport leagues: community pride, diversion, excitement, logo, management, nostalgia, performance, rivalry, socialization, star player, and tradition. Additional, the associations of atmosphere, competition, and specific team were identified. However, the


theoretically identified brand associations head coach, peer group acceptance, and venue were not identified as league brand associations. Overall, 14 brand associations were identified and results suggested that consumer-based league brand associations for sport leagues existed. However, the exploratory nature of the research topic required another qualitative study to gain additional insights. Therefore, semistructured interviews were conducted.

Semistructured Interviews: Procedures Participants were approached by the researcher at local sporting events to interview supporters about their favorite league. Every tenth attendee at the local games was approached using a systematic sampling technique (e.g., Wilson, Johns, Miller, & Pentecost, 2010). Attendees were asked for their willingness to participate in the research. After participants signed a consent form and agreed to be voice recorded, they were asked questions to investigate their perceptions of their favorite league and the associations they held toward that league. Participants were explicitly instructed to answer in the context of the league brand (e.g., A-League). Theoretical saturation (Bloor & Wood, 2006) was reached after 26 interviews. Each interview lasted between 15 and 27 min, was audio taped, and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were presented to the participants in a debriefing process to ensure they reflected participants’ thoughts.

Semistructured Interviews: Materials Materials used in this study included an information sheet for participants, an informed consent sheet that needed to be signed by the participant, a voice recorder, and an interview guide. Interview questions were developed from existing team brand association literature and results of the free-thought listing exercise (Bryman, 2008). Example questions included in the interview guide were “When you hear , what comes to your mind?” or “How would you describe the to a person that has never heard of it?” Having a rough guide ensured that the interviews remained within the framework of the study, yet allowed for additional relevant topics to emerge. Thus, the guide provided consistency between the interviews and flexibility within each interview. This procedure had the potential to consider individuals’ characteristics and experiences, and to increase the reliability of findings at the same time (Boyce & Neale, 2006).

Semistructured Interviews: Participants Semistructured interviews with 26 consumers of different sport leagues were conducted to further explore brand associations consumers held with their favorite league. Collecting data using semistructured interviews was deemed appropriate to explore “attitudes, values, beliefs and motives” (Barriball & While, 1994, p. 329). Participants were attendees of local sport events of

different sports (i.e., Australian rules football, Rugby League, Soccer). Although sample size was not the primary focus in our qualitative research, as the main focus was on data quality, the sample size was within a recommended publishable range of 20–30 participants (Warren, 2002). Six participants preferred the Australian Football League (AFL), six preferred the Australian soccer league (A-League), nine preferred the English Premier League (EPL), and five preferred the National Rugby League (NRL). Three participants were female while 23 were male. Participants’ age ranged from 18 to 67 years and the majority was between 18 and 44 years of age.

Results: Semistructured Interviews Two judges independently conducted a content analysis to identify general categories in the responses. The tworound coding sequence described in the free-thought listing technique was repeated to code the data of the semistructured interviews. The codebook from the pilot study was used to guide the open coding sequence, yet, comprehensive themes that were not captured before were allowed to emerge unprompted again. At the end of the open coding sequence the guidebook was revised and new themes added. The final codebook guided the axial coding sequence, in which the coders examined the data a second time and reviewed and recoded initial codes. Coders agreed on category coding 82% of the time (Holsti, 1969). Although percentage of agreement measurement is inflated by chance in the case of a small number of categories (cf. Kolbe & Burnett, 1991; Perreault & Leigh, 1989) it is deemed an appropriate measure for the current research because of the large number of present categories. The findings of the semistructured interviews revealed 17 brand associations that emerged in relation to professional sport leagues. The following 11 reviewed brand associations were identified to be applicable to leagues; community pride, diversion, excitement, logo design, management, nostalgia, performance, rivalry, socialization, star player, and tradition. Furthermore, six additional categories were identified to represent league brand associations; atmosphere, competition, education, game representation, player development, and specific team. The associations atmosphere, competition, and specific team were already identified in the pilot study whereas the other three represented newly uncovered associations. Again, the theoretically identified brand associations head coach, peer group acceptance, and venue were not identified as league brand associations. Table 1 provides an overview on the identified league brand associations. The first column shows brand associations derived from the literature. The second column illustrates brand associations identified in the Pilot test. The third column shows the final 17 brand associations identified in Study 1. Definitions and representative quotes for each brand association are presented in the Appendix.


Table 1 League Brand Associations Literature Review

Pilot Test

Study 1

Community Pride

Community Pride

Community Pride

Diversion

Diversion

Diversion

Excitement

Excitement

Excitement

Head Coach

-

-

Logo

Logo

Logo

Management

Management

Management

Nostalgia

Nostalgia

Nostalgia

Peer Group Acceptance

-

-

Performance

Performance

Performance

Rivalry

Rivalry

Rivalry

Socialization

Socialization

Socialization

Star Player

Star Player

Star Player

Tradition

Tradition

Tradition

Venue

-

-

Atmosphere

Atmosphere

Competition

Competition

Specific Team

Specific Team Education Game Representation Player Development

Note: League brand associations presented in the first column were derived from a review of relevant team brand association literature.

Online Questionnaires: Procedures After ethical approval was granted by the University, participants received an invitation via e-mail to participate in this study. An e-mail-link directed them to a designated homepage, provided by an external market research provider. Participants were reminded that their responses were considered confidential and only for research purposes. This procedure is consistent with previous online survey work (Riva, Teruzzi, & Anolli, 2003). The survey was sent out to three different regions in Australia. Nine thousand surveys were sent out to Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney (3000 for each city) being three major metropolitan areas in Australia that have four professional leagues. Participants were instructed to choose their favorite sport league and answer attitudinal and behavioral questions with the chosen league in mind. Of the 9000 invitations to participate in the research sent, 1182 fully completed useable surveys were returned (response rate 13.13%) and included in analyzing results.

Online Questionnaire: Materials The identified categories were used as a guide for item generation. An online questionnaire was developed to measure the 17 league brand associations. The existing team brand literature (Bauer, et al., 2008; Gladden &

Funk, 2001, 2002; Ross, et al., 2006; Ross, et al., 2008) and the spectator motive literature (Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, & Hirakawa, 2001; Funk, Mahony, & Ridinger, 2002) was used to create a survey tool to measure each of the 17 identified associations using a single item. From previous team brand association research, the questions that most effectively reflected the construct of interest and had a high factor loading were selected. As existing measures were used to measure the 17 brand associations, modification to the wording was required to reflect the sport league setting. The 17 items were submitted to the expert panel that was used in the pilot study. Using expert feedback was considered important to improve face and content validity of the items (Hardesty & Bearden, 2004). The expert panel provided qualitative feedback regarding conceptual definitions and the wording of items. This resulted in rewording double-barreled items and clarifying the focus of the questions to represent league brand associations. Furthermore, commitment to the league and league related media behavior was measured. A 7-point Likert scale with the anchors from [1] strongly disagree to [7] strongly agree was used to examine the 17 league brand associations and commitment to the league. League commitment was measured using the item “My preference for supporting the league would not willingly change.” (adapted from Pritchard, Havitz,


& Howard, 1999). Media behavior was measured by combining the three items “I watch the league’s games at home”, “I watch the league in a pub / bar”, “I use the internet to get information on the league” (Pritchard & Funk, 2006) measured on a 7-point Likert scale with the anchors from [1] never to [7] frequently. For an overview of all league brand association items please see Table 2. Although the use of single-item measures has been questioned (Churchill Jr., 1979), there are situations in which single-item surveys are considered adequate and preferable (Kwon & Trail, 2005; Rossiter, 2002). Single-item scales are reported to show practical advantages (Wanous & Hudy, 2001) because they are less time consuming and less monotonous (Gardner, Cummings, Dunham, & Pierce, 1998). This made single-item measures suitable for online surveys, where potential respondents are not willing to dedicate a lot of time on extensive surveys. It has been demonstrated that singleitem measures of brand constructs (Bergkvist & Rossiter, 2007) and identification constructs (Kwon & Trail, 2005) can be equally valid as multiple-item measures of the same construct (Jordan & Turner, 2008). Furthermore, single-item measures have been used by various sport researchers (e.g., Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002; Ridinger & Funk, 2006). For example, Ridinger and Funk used single-items to examine 15 dimensions of the Sport Interest Inventory (SII) which are similar attitudinal constructs to the examined brand associations. In consideration of this perspective, as well as the exploratory nature of this research, the use of single-item measures, capturing the core aspect of each brand association, was considered suitable and therefore used in the current study.

Online Questionnaire: Participants Online questionnaires were employed to test whether the identified league brand associations were linked with attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. A national database of individuals who opted to participate in market research surveys was used to recruit participants. The e-mail list consisted of individuals who participated in the “Great Australian Survey” and identified themselves as being interested in sport. Participants from this particular e-mail list were chosen because respondents are derived from all social and ethnical groups, therefore, representing the whole range of potential sport consumers. Respondents were asked to only participate if they were interested in one of four sport leagues. Of the 1182 fully completed surveys included in the data analysis 45.4% (n = 537) of respondents preferred the NRL, 11.6% (N = 137) preferred Super 15 Rugby Union, 35.4% (N = 418) preferred the AFL, and 7.6% (N = 90) preferred the A-League. The sample consisted of 723 (61.2%) females and 459 (38.8%) males with an average age of 40.1 years who have had a favorite league for 23.8 years. Females were overrepresented in the present sample compared with sport game attendance data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2009). However, as the aim of this study was to test whether the identified brand associations were

connected with sport leagues in general, a representative population of game attendees of the leagues mentioned was not a necessary criterion for the sample collection.

Results: Online Questionnaire Results of the online questionnaire are presented in Table 2. The first column presents the unique league brand association. Column two provides the items used to examine each association. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between league brand associations and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Results for the attitudinal outcome revealed a positive correlation between each unique association and league commitment (CMNT). The correlations are provided in column three of the table and ranged above the recommended threshold of .30 (Kline, 1998) from r = .44 to r = .68, N = 1182, p < .05, indicating that each identified association was positively linked with a commitment toward the league brand. Furthermore, 11 associations correlated above .50 which was described as the threshold for moderate correlations (Cohen, 1988). Results for the behavioral outcome also revealed positive correlations between each unique association and league related media consumption. The correlations are provided in column four of the table and ranged above the recommended threshold of .30 (Kline, 1998) from r = .35 to r = .62, N = 1182, p < .05, indicating that each identified association was also positively linked with league related behavior. In addition, seven associations correlated above the threshold for moderate correlations of .50. A one sample t test (a = .05) with a test value of 4.0, indicating the midpoint of a 7-point Likert scale, was used to identify the extent to which fans perceive league brand associations. The mean scores and standard deviations of each association are listed in column five, six, seven, and eight for the AFL, A-League, NRL, and Super 15, respectively. The mean scores for the AFL were all significantly above 4.0 (p < .05) and ranged from M = 4.39 to M = 5.71. The mean scores for the A-League ranged from M = 3.56 to 5.47 with diversion (p = .02) significantly below the midpoint and nostalgia (p = .59), socialization (p = .47), and tradition (p = .67) not being significantly different from the 4.0 test value. The mean scores for the NRL ranged from M = 4.07 to M = 5.55 with 16 associations significantly above 4.0, with only the association management (p = .06) not showing a significant different mean score. The mean scores for the Super 15 ranged from M = 4.15 to M = 5.81 with 16 associations significantly above 4.0, with only the association diversion (p = .28) not showing a significant different mean score. ANOVAs were used to determine whether the identified league brand associations differed between the examined leagues. The homogeneity of variance assumptions were not met by three associations (i.e., performance, rivalry, and tradition). Hence, the relative stringent Games-Howell post hoc test for different sample sizes (Field, 2005) was used to compare differences

58

The league provides the chance to socialize with friends and others.

The league has star players.

The league has a specific team that I follow.

The league has a strong tradition.

Socialization

Star Player

Specific Team

Tradition

.50

.61

.58

.53

.59

.46

.63

.55

.47

.50

.64

.68

.49

.54

.47

.48

.44

CMNT

.43

.50

.55

.47

.46

.35

.51

.53

.36

.40

.61

.62

.44

.60

.44

.45

.46

BHV

Correlation

5.71 (1.31)2

5.57 (1.55)

5.26 (1.47)2

4.39 (1.58)

5.52

(1.43)2

5.46 (1.13)

5.36 (1.36)

5.16 (1.52)2

4.46 (1.56)

4.49 (1.42)

5.31 (1.52)

5.42 (1.38)2

5.11 (1.34)

4.42 (1.66)2

5.28 (1.29)

4.62 (1.42)

5.67 (1.17)

AFL

5.35 (1.23) 5.40 (1.34)1,2

5.17 (0.99)

5.18 (1.47)2

4.53 (1.62)

5.20

(1.40)2

5.30 (1.17)

5.35 (1.22)

4.08* (1.73)1,3,4

4.70 (1.63)1,3,4

4.13* (1.72)

4.63

(1.64)1,3,4

5.47 (1.29)

5.17 (0.98)

4.07*

4.86 (1.51)1,2

4.31 (1.53)

(1.55)1

4.28 (1.34) 4.10* (1.77)1,3,4

4.23 (1.53)

5.20 (1.46)

5.40 (1.32)2

4.84 (1.47)1,3 5.44 (1.29)

5.19 (1.29)

4.71 (1.23)

5.43 (1.27) 4.18 (1.63)1,2

5.31 (1.17)

4.53 (1.48)

5.55 (1.26)

NRL

3.56 (1.77)1,3,4

4.52 (1.70)

5.34 (1.18)

A- League

Notes: * = not significantly different from 4.0 midpoint test value; F (3, 1178), p < .0029 (Bonferroni corrected p value); 1 = differences with the AFL; 2 = differences with the A-League; 3 = differences with the NRL; 4 = differences with Super 15

There is a lot of rivalry between teams in the league.

Rivalry

I like the logo of the league.

Logo

The league helps young players to progress in their career.

The league represents the game of football.

Game Representation

The style of football played in this league is attractive.

There is a lot of excitement surrounding the league.

Excitement

Player Development

Following the league helps me to increase my knowledge about football.

Education

Performance

Watching, reading and talking about the league helps me forget my day-to-day problems.

Diversion

The league is well managed.

In the league, anybody can beat anyone.

Competition

Thinking of the league brings back good memories.

The league brings pride to the national football community.

Community Pride

Management

In the league’s stadiums, there is a great atmosphere.

Atmosphere

Nostalgia

Item

Association

Table 2 Items and Strength of League Brand Associations

5.07 (1.41)1,2

5.57 (1.27)

5.23 (1.64)2

4.39 (1.74)

5.17 (1.52)2

5.29 (1.25)

5.57 (1.14)

4.73 (1.58)1,2

4.36 (1.47)

4.20 (1.40)

5.56 (1.43)

5.24 (1.51)

5.45 (1.26)

4.15* (1.68)1,2

5.42 (1.08)

4.56 (1.38)

5.81 (1.25)

Super 15


between the leagues. In addition, Bonferroni correction (p = .0029) to minimize Type I error was used because of the large number of comparisons. The results revealed mixed findings, with eight of the 17 league associations differing between the four leagues. Overall, the identified league brand associations differed in intensity between the researched leagues. Table 2 lists the means of the four different leagues and provides comparisons between the leagues. Significant differences between the leagues are indicated by superscripts. The AFL scored the highest mean scores in nine associations, followed by Super 15 with five associations, NRL with two associations, and the A-League with one association. Vice versa, the A-League scored the lowest mean scores in 12 associations, followed by NRL and Super 15 with two associations, and the AFL with one association.

Discussion Overall, this research contributes to the literature by identifying brand associations consumers link with sport leagues. First, a free-thought listing technique provided initial insights to possible league brand associations. Second, 17 league brand associations were identified in semistructured interviews. These associations were supported by the existing team brand and motivation literature. Third, online questionnaire data revealed that the identified brand associations showed a positive relationship with attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, supporting the existence of the identified associations. Fourth, some identified league brand associations differed between four different leagues as perceived by consumers, reflecting league specific characteristics. Research Question 1: Results revealed that the existing team brand literature can be applied to explore consumer-based league brand associations of professional sport leagues. The interviews suggest 11 team brand associations (Bauer, et al., 2008; Gladden & Funk, 2002; Ross, et al., 2006; Ross, et al., 2008) are linked with sport leagues. These associations were: community pride, diversion, excitement, logo design, management, nostalgia, performance, rivalry, socialization, star player, and tradition. Furthermore, the six associations atmosphere, competition, education, game interest, player development, and specific team were identified to be associated with sport leagues. These associations have not been captured in the team brand association literature, but they have partially been identified as important factors to attend sport games (Funk, et al., 2001; Funk, et al., 2002). The three team brand associations head coach, peer group acceptance and venue were neither mentioned in the pilot test nor in the interviews, and therefore not identified to be connected to sport leagues. The six new associations and their applicability as league brand associations are now discussed. Additional, explanations for the nonapplicability of three team brand associations are provided. The 11 league brand associations that functioned as team brand associations in Gladden and Funk’s (2002) and Ross and colleagues’ (2008)

team brand association frameworks have already been discussed in the literature review. The study revealed six new associations, in addition to the existing team brand literature, namely atmosphere, competition, education, game representation, player development, and specific team. Research shows that the atmosphere surrounding games is one of the most important motives for consumers to attend league games (Koenigstorfer, Groeppel-Klein, & Kunkel, 2010; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999), as consumers do not take anything away from games other than memories of their experience (Gladden, et al., 1998). Likewise, the level of competition can be considered as a brand association for sport leagues. A competitive balanced league refers to the notion that each team starts with an equal chance of winning a game and therefore the league title (Szymanski, 2001). Competitive games are an important attribute in making the sport an attractive event (Marques, 2002), and the competitive balance of sport leagues has been shown to be the most influential factor for the attractiveness of national and international leagues (Koenigstorfer, et al., 2010). This is why many leagues have introduced mechanisms to ensure competitively balanced games (e.g., salary cap, player draft, revenue sharing, collective broadcasting contracts etc.; Szymanski & Kesenne, 2004). The brand association education reflects the benefit of gaining knowledge by following a sport league. This knowledge can result in a better understanding of the technical and tactical aspects of the sport, and has previously been reported as an important aspect of attending professional golf events (Robinson, Trail, & Kwon, 2004). Furthermore, enhanced knowledge about the league may impact other brand associations. For example, consumers with broad knowledge about the league are enabled to discuss news related to the league with their friends. This may result in other positive brand associations such as diversion. Leagues are also in charge of providing mechanisms and the structure to ensure sustainable player development. An example how a league can provide such developmental pathway is the ‘playAFL’ program, which is split into the four categories; auskick (4–7 years), junior (8–12), youth (13–17), and senior (open age; AFL, 2011). Through player development programs, leagues seek to attract new consumers to the sport, as involvement with the sport itself has been demonstrated to be an important factor to influence attitudes toward the sport as well as toward teams (Pritchard & Funk, 2010). Thus, the brand association game representation captures the game that is played in a specific league (i.e., the NBA represents the game of basketball). Likewise, consumers are likely to associate a specific team with their favorite sport league. This can either be the home team representing the host community or another team the individual has a special interest in (Funk et al., 2002). For example, the dominating star clubs Manchester United and Bayern Munich have been demonstrated to contribute to the attractiveness of their respective leagues (Koenigstorfer, et al., 2010). Such team interest results in individuals following a particular team and it is from this perspective


that the individual develops associations of the league. Overall, these results indicate that consumers linked 17 brand associations with sport leagues. Three discussed team brand associations (head coach, peer group acceptance, and venue) were not identified for sport leagues. As depicted in Figure 1, sporting leagues adopt a master brand—subbrand approach to managing their brand architecture. As leagues provide an umbrella framework for their teams within the competition, it could be expected that sport team brand at the subbrand level could serve as brand associations of leagues at the master brand level. However, in establishing that consumers did not associate three team brand associations to their respective leagues, it is reasonable to suggest that league brand associations in fact can be distinct from team brand associations. The reason why the team association head coach was not linked with sport leagues might be because head coaches are very context specific. For example, whereas Phil Jackson from the NBA may be considered as important to the league’s success as LeBron James (star player), such idolization of head coaches in, for example, Australia’s rugby league beyond their actual team is not as dominant. The association peer group acceptance was not identified as an association of sport leagues. This finding is in line with previous research where the association scored low and did not explain much variance of consumer loyalty (e.g., Gladden & Funk, 2001). However, this may be a result of socially desirable responses. On this occasion it seems more socially desirable to follow a league because of internal motives rather than being externally driven (for a review on social desirable responding see Paulhus, 2002). The fact that a specific venue has not been linked with sport leagues could be explained by a number of reasons. Consumers might associate the venue more with specific teams rather than the whole league as it represents the ‘home ground’ for a particular team. In most instances, every league game played at the venue would be the home team hosting different teams from the same league. In other words, the home team is the constant association with the venue, and functions, therefore, as a brand association on the team level. Furthermore, most venues in Australia are multipurpose venues that host different sports (e.g., venues are shared between AFL and Cricket, as well as between Rugby League and Soccer). However, given the exploratory nature of the current study, further research is needed to conclusively rule associations in or out of sport league brand development. Research Question 2: The quantitative results empirically support that sport consumers were likely to agree that the identified 17 conceptually distinct brand associations were connected to sport leagues in general. All 17 examined brand associations were positively correlated with league commitment and watching league contest games at home. The associations diversion, excitement, game representation, star player, and team displayed correlation coefficients above .50 between brand association and both outcome variables. Thus, these associations

can be considered important core brand associations that leagues need to provide to their consumers to build their fan base. In addition to demonstrating that the identified brand associations were related to sport leagues in general, the mean scores suggested that the strength of brand associations is dependant on the context, or in the present case, the brand of the sport league. The differences in the brand association mean scores between leagues is also reflected in the league characteristics. Most notably are the results for the associations of tradition and nostalgia. For example, the AFL was established in 1897, whereas the A-League was founded in 2005. Given that the A-League is still very young and in the growth stage of the product life cycle (e.g., Howard, 1999), fans may not have developed as strong brand associations as fans of the AFL, NRL, or Super 15. Furthermore, the more established leagues have higher broadcasting incomes than the A-League that can be used to spend on leaguewide marketing actions to create positive league brand associations. Collectively, it can be concluded that team brand models can be a useful theoretical basis to understand consumer-based brand associations linked with sport leagues. The identified league brand associations were connected with consumer attitude and consumer behavior, supporting the validity of each brand association. In addition, the identified league brand associations are helpful to examine whether consumers perceive contextual differences of leagues and provide recommendations to league managers. Therefore, consideration of the managerial implications of this study is warranted.

Managerial Implications Consumer-based league brand association can assists league managers to create favorable brand associations and, hence, attract new consumers and retain existing consumers. In addition, information gathered in this research might assist league and team managers to leverage their marketing activities and therefore, reduce costs, and increase success. High or low evaluations for some brand associations are part of the leagues’ unique characteristics and can help league managers identify their strengths and weaknesses. For example, the use of star players represents a good example for how a league can counteract low brand associations. The A-League in Australia, which was introduced 2005, and the MLS in the US, which was introduced 1993, have successfully used experienced European and South American star players to attract new fans and alter perceptions of league quality. In line with this approach, the A-League introduced two marquee player spots. This rule change allowed the clubs to pay two players outside of a salary cap and helped reduce stars from leaving the league (Professional Footballers Australia, 2011). This shows that the introduction of a marquee player has been successful in developing the leagues brand.


On the other hand, there are associations, such as tradition and nostalgia, which league managers cannot influence so easily, because these associations grow over time. The AFL for example capitalizes on its long history through the ‘father-son’ rule. The rule provides teams draft priority for players if their father has played over 100 games for the team (Borland, 2006). This rule has the potential to build brand associations based on the tradition of the team and its previous players. However, other leagues do not have such a long history, therefore, it is important for league managers to know the associations that they are able to influence. Given that the league itself cannot provide such associations, the A-League has renamed its soccer into football, promoting it as “the world game” (Moore, 2009, p. 84). Renaming soccer into football, as well as advertising the league as the world game, “shows that it can part of something bigger” (Cockerill, 2009). This attempt shows how the unique characteristics of a sport (e.g., the world game) can be linked with a league (e.g., the A-League) and, therefore, used to overcome poor brand associations. Knowledge with respect to how their league is performing on key league brand associations allows managers to implement targeted and effective marketing strategies that can deliver measurable results. Overall, the league brand associations provided in this research will help leagues identify attributes of their brand and benefits their brand can provide that are driving or perhaps impeding success, resulting in actions that can create or reinforce positive consumer associations (Suckow, 2009). These associations can be used to position leagues against each other. Although leagues may provide different sports, they still act as competitors and league brand associations can be used to differentiate them. An important implication for league managers as a result of the brand architecture of sport leagues is that neither the franchisor, as the master brand, nor the franchisee, as the subbrand, has complete control over the brand management process. Thus, brand strategies implemented by the league need to be in line with team strategies, and vice versa. Although the brand architecture of most sport leagues is reflected in a master brand—subbrand relationship, the interaction between the two, from a consumer perspective, may not always be equal in their contribution to the overall sport brand image. Consumer involvement with a brand may have different drivers, based on consumers’ perceptions of brand associations of the sport brand. For some consumers the league brand may be the primary driver of consumer involvement, such as fans of relocated teams like the Oklahoma City Thunder (formerly known as the Seattle Super Sonics and relocated to Oklahoma in 2008). The team could focus on promoting league brand associations to demonstrate a close relationship to its master brand, the NBA. For other consumers, the team brand may be the primary driver of consumer involvement, such as fans of star teams like the New York Yankees. In this case, the league could capitalize on team brand associations to showcase the close relationship with its subbrand. Finally, consumer involvement

may be driven by both brands equally. Such a relationship indicates that brand development of a league or a team is codependent on each other. Therefore, building and managing the respective sport brands requires effective coordination and integration between all parties involved in the management of the brand (Pitt, et al., 2003). This is believed to represent the most efficient, sustainable, and defendable brand strategy for sport brand success. Ultimately, quality brand management of the league (i.e., building positive brand associations toward the league) will contribute to the success of its affiliated teams, as well as contribute to building a strong brand for the league as a single entity. In identifying league brand associations, this study facilitates this process. Combined with the extant literature of team brand associations, team and league managers are in a better position to build and manage their brands in a complimentary and synergistic manner.

Future Directions and Limitations Given the exploratory nature of the current research, there are a number of limitations that future research should address. First, the study was conducted within a football context in Australia. Although the qualitative sample asked fans of the EPL about their brand associations, these consumers represented ‘satellite fans’1 (Kerr & Gladden, 2008) whose associations might differ from local fans of the EPL. Therefore, efforts should test the league-based brand associations in other sport leagues outside Australia, such as European soccer leagues or sport leagues in North America to further advance the knowledge and replicate these findings to examine the validity and reliability of the results. For example, despite head coach, peer group acceptance, and venue not being identified in this study as a sport league brand association, future research should seek to confirm, or otherwise challenge this finding, given that their inclusion seems reasonable in certain contexts. Second, the identified league brand associations focused, similar to Gladden and Funk’s (2002) TAM and Ross and colleagues’ (2008) TBAS, on positive brand associations. The exploration of negative brand associations would be a logical extension of this research. A starting point could be recent research by Lock and Filo (2012) who explored why football fans do not attend local football games. Third, some league brand associations are mediated by teams (e.g., star players are employed by the team). Therefore the relationship between league brand associations and team brand associations needs further exploration. Fourth, single-item measures were used to explore league brand associations. While single-item measures are acceptable to measure the core of marketing concepts (Rossiter, 2002), future research should investigate the multiple dimensions each association may display. The development of a league brand association scale seems to be a beneficial area for future research concerned with sport league branding. Fifth, researchers should aim to


investigate the unique and collective role that league brand associations have on consumer loyalty to the league or a specific team within the league. This research used Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients to demonstrate that the identified associations were linked with attitude and behavior toward the league. However, structural equation modeling could be used to investigate the strength of each association on consumer attitude and behavior through the development of multiattribute constructs. To investigate these research questions, the utilization of manageable second-order factor solutions might be beneficial. These second-order factor solutions could be theoretically conceptualized based on the classification of attributes and benefits (e.g., Keller, 1993), or practically conceptualized based on associations league manages are able to influence directly and associations that are mediated through teams. Sixth, future research should account for consumers’ levels of involvement with the league and, subsequently, investigate differences in their brand associations. This approach could determine if brand associations for different consumer profiles could be developed. To facilitate this, the three step segmentation procedure provided by the Psychological Continuum Model (Funk & James, 2001; 2006) can assist in generating different profiles of associations based on level of involvement. This would enable league managers to manage their brands more effectively according to the specific consumer segments’ perceptions, needs, and wants.

Conclusion This study identified and tested consumer-based league brand associations. Qualitative results revealed 17 brand association consumers linked with sport leagues. Quantitative results supported the existence of the identified league brand associations through one sample t tests and correlations with attitudinal and behavioral outcome variables. The17 identified league brand associations may assist sport league managers to develop and manage their brands. Furthermore, the brand architecture of sport leagues suggests that the identified league brand associations may also assist in building team brands and, thus, attract consumers and generate revenue.

Note The term ‘satellite fans’ refers to fans that have developed a psychological connection with a foreign-based team or league. For a full review, please see Kerr and Gladden (2008). 1

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Appendix League Brand Associations, Definitions, and Representative Quotes Association

Definition

Representative Quotes

Atmosphere

The association of whether the stadium atmosphere at league games contributes to the enjoyment of the league.

I swapped from supporting NRL to the A-League. There is just a different atmosphere to the NRL, more people seem to be more friendlier, more enthusiastic about giving the teams encouragement like they cheer and all that whereas at the football [NRL] you just kind of sit there by yourself and abuse the players, whereas [in the A-League] it is more a team atmosphere with the supporters. The first thing that I think of is just the buzz that you get when they all say the same thing at the same time and all rise together in unison and go “whooow”, you hear it right on the ground when they all go “whooow” and it’s fantastic.

Community Pride

Competition

Diversion

Education

Excitement

Game representation

The association of whether a league has the ability to elevate the image of its host community.

It is much better to have the A-League here, so we can support our own teams and our own country.

The association of whether competitive games contribute to the enjoyment of the league.

I would say the games are never really predictable, because of a salary cap teams are pretty much even. You can probably say that team is going to win but you can never really know for sure.

The association of whether a league has the ability to provide a break from the daily routine.

Yeah it takes you into a vortex of the moment where you forget about other things in your life. So it’s an escape, euphoric escape, similar to if I was a drug user, what I would get from drugs, I get it from football [AFL] games.

The association of whether a league has the ability to provide educational opportunities.

You learn a lot of things; the skills involved. You learn different things that make your own game improve every day

The association of whether a league has the ability to satisfy a consumer’s need for excitement.

Everyone wants to see someone take that ultimate ‘specky’ [spectacular mark], the ultimate kick, so there is always excitement when you are watching a game.

The association of whether a league has the ability to represent a specific game.

It could be any game; the sport is greater than its own. Last night was Brisbane Broncos against the Bulldogs and I don’t support any of those teams but that was just a great game to watch.

I mean soccer is a worldwide game but I’d say in this country we [AFL] out-sale soccer, we make better decisions than the A-League does. We are the ultimate code.

The fact that anyone can beat anyone in the one league makes it so exciting. It’s so close that you can’t really say who is going to get relegated this year for sure, who’s going to be champions.

A good excuse to not to mow the lawn; you cannot do the dishes all those things; footy is on, that is Saturday and Sunday afternoon covered; cannot wash the car.

I like to watch the A-League because I can learn different skills. I play defender so I watch defenders a lot; how they position themselves on the field and things like that so I can improve the way I play.

The excitement is top shelf. There is always excitement when you are watching a league game because it’s not always a guaranteed victory for the team that is the more favorite team.

I am a big fan of the whole concept of football. Logo Design

The association of whether the logo and the colors are perceived as attractive.

I just started liking the colors of the logo and from there, it went on from just little things picking up and little things come to one and we fall in love. I like the AFL because the hats of the teams are pretty awesome and I like all the uniforms and stuff like that [merchandise].

Management

The association of whether the league’s management impacts consumers’ perceptions of a league.

I would say it is a very well managed league, the AFL just seems to be breaking into new regions, where I find other codes are not doing that. If there is an issue in the AFL, it gets handled fairly quickly and it gets handled fairly well. But I found in other leagues, they are struggling to deal with bad performances or financial issues. (continued)

66

Appendix (continued) Nostalgia

Performance

Player Development

Rivalry

Socialization

Star Player

Specific Team

Tradition

The association of whether a league has the ability to conjure up feelings of fond memories.

My most memorable NRL moment was probably going to one of the semifinal games when I was younger with my old man.

The association of whether a specific style of play within the league contributes to the enjoyment of the league.

I just like the exciting range of things you can see in a game. Marks, kicking, tackling, long runs, long goals, short goals.

The association of whether a league has the ability to develop local talent and/or provide chances for youth players to proceed in their career.

Over there [EPL], they nurture players from their own youth leagues so they [A-League] should introduce more of that. Here [local A-League team] they have got one youth team and that’s it. They haven’t got different categories.

The association of whether rivalries within a league contribute to the enjoyment of the league.

When the Raiders and the Titans play, we normally all get together, watch it and support our teams. And have a good time NOT supporting the other team.

The association of whether a league has the ability to provide the chance for social interactions.

The AFL is extremely social. I mean I guess that is the whole thing about the AFL. If you are not playing you are watching it. And if you are watching it, it is generally with your friends or family.

The association of whether the presence of an outstanding player contributes to the enjoyment of the league.

The players make up most of the entertainment. I mean, basically to me they are like professional entertainment, like a rock group or a musical group or whatever.

The association of whether the presence of a specific team contributes to the enjoyment of the league.

The AFL offers membership and things like that, so you can become part of the club. My last grandchild is only two weeks old and he is already a member of the Richmond Football Club in Melbourne.

The things that I have seen through video footage; I guess it makes me understand the game and the players around the clubs, the history of other teams, the day to day about football. It is just that friendship that players had, that you don’t hear until it comes out later that sort of stuff makes me very nostalgic about football.

The games are played in a fast pace, there is heaps of attacking football. Yeah, it is fast paced, there is a lot of skill involved, it is attacking football, and it is not like some of the other leagues.

[The A-League] provides the chance for young players to continue playing the game so that they can progress somewhere rather than give up when they hit 16, 17.

My friends [and I] we all cheer for different teams. I have friends that go for Liverpool, Arsenal, Chelsea, Manchester City or whatever and of course they talk about their upcoming game, I talk about Manchester United, they say Manchester is not going to win, I say it is going to win and we have little arguments, which is also a part of the Premier League experience.

I usually watch [the EPL] with friends. We all get together and watch it. So watching the Premier League is a good chance to meet up with friends and, it is good for socializing with friends and everyone is there to watch soccer, it is good.

I like watching the different individual skills. Sometimes I will watch a game purposely to see, let’s say Christiano Ronaldo or to watch Steven Gerrard play.

If they [Manchester United] play really well, that makes me happy and [it] makes me a bigger fan of the Premier League.

The association of whether That history goes back a long way so the tradition of the league is, it is there the history and tradition of and it is being upheld in the way that the teams that were good 20, 30 years the league and its personnel ago are still good now. contribute to the enjoyment In 2008 it was a hundred years of the game [NRL] in Australia and they put of the league. a lot of money and effort into promoting that and celebrating that and I got out to a few museums and things that had special exhibits on for that which is really good.

67

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