Developing employability and professional identity through ... - Informit

Developing employability and professional identity through visual narratives Dawn Bennett Curtin University Abstract Enhancing employability for higher education arts graduates requires collaborative action on three fronts: specificity in the measurement and reporting of graduate outcomes; advocacy to re-align stakeholder conceptions of graduate work and employability; and learner engagement in career-related thinking and action. This paper reports a career-related engagement in which students and educators created visual narratives with text-based captions in answer to the question, “What is a musician?” Similarities and differences in student-educator thinking highlight the potential for students to generate broad career previews through in-class engagement. Visual methodologies emerge as a powerful strategy for the promotion of career-oriented thinking and reflection. Introduction Employability for tertiary arts graduates is known to be complex and rumoured to be poor. In reality, the employment figures would surprise many commentators: in 2013, for example, the Australian Graduate Survey collected data from 1,444 graduates from performing arts degrees (87% from undergraduate programs) four and six months after graduation. Data reveal that 38% of these graduates had gone on to further study, 34% on a full time basis. Closer analysis shows that 58% of graduates were working part-time, 28% were self-employed and 19% were working full time (some graduates were both working and studying). These 1,064 graduates most often worked in adult and community education (15%) and the creative and performing arts (14%). Education— school-based, higher education and adult and community education—accounted for 30.5% of graduate work. The employment figures appear to be at odds with those recorded for programs in the arts and creative industries, which consistently record the poorest graduate outcomes of the 40 broad disciplines measured in Australia’s annual graduate destination statistics collection (Graduate Careers Council of Australia, 2012). In reality, the specificity required for reporting complex graduate outcomes in the arts is largely ignored by most reports of graduate data. Bennett, Richardson and MacKinnon’s (2016) analysis of existing datasets, from which the above figures were taken, demonstrates that the employment outcomes of all tertiary students are relatively similar: for example, 87% employment for medical graduates; 74% for business and management graduates; 61% for physical and natural sciences graduates; and 73% for graduates in the performing 100 australian art education

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arts. Analysis of the 2013 Graduate Survey data, which amassed data from 83,000 visual and performing arts graduates, reveals a familiar pattern of multiple employments and self-employed roles including both part-time and full time work. Greater specificity in reporting will go some way towards re-aligning stakeholder beliefs about graduate outcomes and employability in the arts, but the complexity of arts work also highlights the need for career-focussed learner engagement. At a practical level, students need to learn how to navigate careers that demand an entrepreneurial and resilient mindset. When communicated as a positive and realistic career preview, such learning can also rewrite the poor employability expectations of arts students, who are subject to constant reinforcement that degrees in the arts do not lead to a ‘real job’. The study reported here concerned higher education music, in which performance is traditionally positioned as the most highly valued and ‘successful’ outcome for graduates. Tertiary music students are aware that performance positions are an unlikely outcome, and this creates incongruence between learners’ “developmental goals and opportunities for attainment” (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 1980/1991, p. 450). Such incongruence is known to inhibit primary control striving or goal-related individual effort and the motivation and self-esteem related to envisioning the future self and striving to achieve desirable outcomes (Bandura, 1977). In the arts, overcoming this requires awareness that a complex employability outcome is both positive and likely (Oakley, 2009). In addition, it requires the resilience (Schunk, 1981) to overcome challenges and the selfesteem to create individual goals and overcome challenges. This is not to suggest that students be presented an overly positive picture of arts careers; rather, it is to highlight causal schemata or systems of abstract causal knowledge informed by multiple encounters ranging from the reporting of national graduate data to the comments of friends and family and labels of giftedness relating to artistic ability. As learners challenge these schemata, they begin to understand the personal and environmental features of career and learning, to explore multiple possible future domains and situations, and to learn how to influence the characteristics and outcomes of these interactions. This study revisited music educator and student thinking about the characteristics of the musician, using the question, “What is a musician?” The study was underpinned by earlier research with music and dance students in which the notion of career emerged as “a messy concept fraught with misunderstanding” (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015, p. 263). Multiple studies of arts workers have revealed the use of technical and creative skills, teaching and leadership skills, skills in new technologies, and the skills required to selfmanage one’s own learning, career and, often, a small business (Bridgstock, 2012; Comunian, Gilmore & Jacobi, 2015; Throsby & Zednik, 2010). Most graduates reflect favourably on their tertiary education experiences, and indeed there are many examples of career planning initiatives at visual and performing arts schools. However, graduates tend to report learning these skills ‘on the job’ during their transitions into the workforce (Bennett, 2009) and throughout the career lifecycle in response to the demands and opportunities presented by their practice. There is merit, then, in opening a dialogue about arts practice as a central component of tertiary studies. 101 australian art education

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The design and delivery of effective and positive career-related learning and support is predicated on understanding students’ thinking. However, students often adjust their formal report of career intentions to align with the goal expectations of significant others. Visual theorists and educators agree that moving away from the written word and giving the time and space for thoughts to emerge is an effective way for students to engage with difficult or unexplored concepts. This study responded by employing visual methodologies to create what Guillemin (2004) describes as embodied, historical records of interactions, processes, experiences, interactions and cultural metaphors. Approach This study employed an arts-informed methodology, described by Cole and Knowles (2008, p. 65) as “the creative meshing of scholarly and artistic endeavors” that results in generative rather than propositional knowledge. McNair and Stein (2001) and Gauntlett (2005) propose that the personal relevance of drawings may help individuals to think more deeply about their understandings and relationships. McLean, Henson and Hiles (2003) credit this deeper thinking to reflection, introspection and self-understandings within the physical process of making a creative piece. For Gauntlett (2005, p. 155), this thinking “begins in the mind but comes through the body [as a] significant part of the thinking-through of the piece”. As a projective research technique, then, the creation of visual artefacts such as drawings provides a mindful space in which to reflect the personal and environmental and to express group values. These artefacts “may expose underlying assumptions, promises and predispositions, including those that represent and regulate the processes of identity development” (Bennett, 2015). Against this background, two research questions guided the research: 1. What do visual narratives and captions created by tertiary music students and educators reveal about their conceptualisation of a musician? 2. To what extent do these conceptualisations align with the performative focus of higher education music studies and empirical understandings of graduate work? The study involved 42 tertiary music students and 35 tertiary music educators who had not otherwise worked with the author and had not been involved in previous identity interventions. The drawings were located within a text-based reflection and were anchored with a short textual narrative or caption (Duncum, 2004) to limit subjective prejudices and interpretations (MacPhail & Kinchen, 2004). The students were undergraduate and graduate majors in classical or contemporary music performance, composition or musicology; one was undertaking a double degree in music and marketing. Four students and four educators chose not to disclose their age and/or gender. Of the remainder, students ranged in age from 17 to 32 years; 25 (60%) were male and the mean age was 22 years. Educators ranged in age from 24 to 59 years. The mean age of educators was 42 years, and 22 (71%) were male. 102 australian art education

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The study design was informed by previous research undertaken by the author with higher education students in pre-service teacher education, theatre, music and engineering. Once ethical approvals were in place, students participated in the study during their regular class times and both educators and students responded to a call during a national music conference. Once the study had been explained, participants were assured of their anonymity and the voluntary nature of their participation. The study employed a form of the ‘draw-and-write’ technique first developed for studies that involved children (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995) and subsequently adapted for use with adults, particularly in health, education and social sciences settings (see Bennett, 2013; Guillemin, 2004; Hartel & Thomson, 2011). Following Hartel, participants were asked:

In the space below, please respond to the question "What is a musician?" in the form of a drawing. Next, write a few words about your drawing and complete the [demographic] prompts. (These included age, gender and identification as educator or student. Where both educator and student were marked, the participant was included in the educator set). Informed by Brooke’s (1980) fundamental equation of information science, Hartel (2014) has pioneered the use of Engelhardt’s classifications in her work on how students visualise information. Whilst Hartel’s work prescribes the use of a black, steel pen to ensure bold lines, the research reported here allowed participants to use any pen. This led to some shading and cross-hatching, which do not feature in Hartel’s work. To ensure clarity, all drawings reproduced here have been recoloured black using Word’s picture editor function. Analytical methods for drawings vary widely, but thematic analysis is the most common approach within educational research (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Weber and Mitchell (1996) took a purely inductive approach by displaying student drawings in parallel rows. Drawings were rearranged and systematically juxtaposed as images were interrogated and clarified in light of contextual field notes, interviews and participants’ written comments. Similarly, Swennen, Jorg and Korgathen (2004) began by describing the main visual elements and then used these descriptions to determine similarities and differences. Katz et al., (2011) incorporated deductive coding in their research on the impact of informal sciences internships on pre-service teachers, using the relevant teacher standards together with surface features in each drawing. This study employed both inductive and deductive analysis for the drawings and captions. First, drawings were copied and the main visual elements were recorded through a process of thematic analysis. Next, the text-based captions were read. Each reading revealed further elements including those not apparent in the visual or textual information alone (for example, that a drawing of self represented a desire to connect with community). At this stage, three other researchers were enlisted to ensure validity by repeating between 5% and 10% of the coding after which results were discussed until consensus was reached. 103 australian art education

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Next, Engelhardt’s classification of graphic representations (2002) was employed and musical text was added to the classification of written text in line with the music cohort’s responses (Table 1). This enabled analysis of classification ‘sets’. The responses were treated as expressions in visual language, read by analysing the syntactic categories of graphic objects, graphic space and graphic properties (Engelhardt, 2002). The focus here is not the drawings per se, but educators’ and students’ conceptualisation of a musician as communicated through the combination of text and drawings. Graphic

Description

representation Map

Literally, symbolically or in abstract form a physical arrangement on a geographical surface

Picture

The physical structure of physical objects

Statistical chart

Quantities such as pie charts, metaphors etc.

Time chart

Time shown as, for example, time zones or a clock face

Link diagram

Objects that are linked together

Grouping diagram

Objects categorised or grouped, such as Venn diagrams and clusters of like-objects

Table

A combination of horizontal and vertical separations

Symbol/composite

A single object or a composite object (one symbol inside

symbol

another) that represents something else

Written and musical Text where the line-up of characters is sentential in a known text

language; Scored or graphic notation where the line-up of characters represents a sequence of musical sounds

Hybrid representations

Simultaneous combinations of the above classifications

TABLE 1: Engelhardt’s classification of graphic representations (2002) with the addition of ‘musical text’

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Findings and Discussion Guillemin (2004) contends that the visual narratives elicited in this form of research are depictions of respondents’ understanding rather than depictions of the subject. Narratives are a material representation (Fyfe & Law, 1988), a process and product (Rose, 2012), and both a noun and a verb (Law, 1994). In this case, participants created material representations of the musician. Scanned copies of the drawings were laid out across a large floor area. Visual elements were listed on sticky notes and attached to each drawing. Then, captions were read and adjustments made to ensure understanding. Next, Engelhardt’s classifications were applied. At this point the drawings of educators and students were separated, anticipating that there might be some variation in response. As such, the findings are organised in two sections. First, educator responses are presented and the classifications are introduced using examples from this cohort. Next, student responses are presented and similarities and differences between the two cohorts are highlighted. Educators Educator drawings were categorised according to Engelhardt (2002). The thirty-five educators produced pictures (n=12), link diagrams (n=8), symbols and composite symbols (n=9), grouping diagrams (n=1), musical text (n=1), and hybrid categorisations (n=4). Examples of these are shown below:

Symbol (composite)

Grouping diagram Link diagram

Picture

The most common form of drawing was a picture, and the most common feature across all classifications was a schematic illustration of a person in the form of a whole body or body part, particularly a head or a face. The focus on the body is in line with the question, ‘What is a musician?’ As an educational study, the interest lies in how the musician is presented. This aspect of the content analysis revealed five key themes: the performer or creator; symbolic representation; the senses; relationships; and musical text. The first of these themes concerns the stereotypical image of musician as performer or creator. This theme dominated four of the educator drawings, each of which depicted a solo performer and two of which were positioned on a stage and under spotlights. One, the guitarist, included an audience. Despite the solo performer theme of the drawings, only one educator described a musician as a performer: “A musician is a person who plays music” (#28). The remaining three conceptualised the musician in far broader terms, evidenced in the accompanying text-based captions. Below right, the educator writes of 105 australian art education

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the musician’s ability to connect culture and history through an instrument that has long been part of the culture: “I have drawn a xylophone percussionist because it characterises an old instrument … from the colonial period. … Nowadays we normally see the modern version of this instrument, and it lost its origins significantly. Therefore, this is a tribute to tradition & the present”. To the left of this, the educator writes about building and changing landscapes in response to local and global influences.

Musicians build and change soundscapes…

Linking the traditional and contemporary…

The largest educator theme was the use of symbols, which Engelhardt (2002) describes as a graphic representation of either an elementary graphic object or a composite symbol. Two educators presented empty space to symbolise a musician with “no definition, no limits … the blank means all kinds of possibilities” (#58). Shown below, symbols also included a hammer, a heart, and circles. The hammer was one of several references to a labourer or to the construction of music and career. The drawing on the right carried the caption, “A mutual expression of human being … the art labourer in practical, theoretical and other ways” (#47).

Musician as labourer

Musician as “an open circle” Mutual expression

The captions that accompanied these illustrations referred to musicians as passionate labourers or workers who are open to all possibilities and tasks and who guide and communicate. Another illustration of a performance, shown in the next set of examples, depicts “a book, symbol of knowledge, as the ‘star’ of the show … reinforcing intercultural exchanges” (#54). The musicians in this picture take a secondary role. On the right, the musician is shown in multiple roles including as a labourer in a hard hat who is constructing his career as a performer and teacher.


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Knowledge as the “star of the show”

Constructing a complex music career

Shown below, a further theme was that of emotion and the senses, particularly hearing and sight. These elements appeared as pictures and linked diagrams that described processes of hearing, conceptualising, communicating, and expressing and listening to culture, events and music. One educator highlighted the emotional aspects of career, describing the musician as “time, suffering and joy”.

Listens with the heart

Time, suffering and joy

Eye, ear, reality

Relationships were often depicted using lines to indicate flow or connectivity. Lines were the main feature of five educator drawings, two of which are shown below with an abbreviated caption:

Expressing different dimensions and forms of being

Two actors: player and listener

Musical text was similarly used to symbolise complexity, process and connection. The musical text on the left “starts with some unknown idea, but goes to some unknown place” (#7), and next to this is a link diagram in which “the musician translates all that is around into a musical language” (#67). 107 australian art education

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Unknown idea to unknown place

Translating things into a musical language

Students Forty-two tertiary music students participated in the study and 38 of these were enrolled in programs in which the educators were teaching. This section begins with a summary of the student responses, after which the visual narratives and captions are compared and contrasted with those of the educators. The forty-two students produced pictures (n=35), link diagrams (n=5), symbols (n=1), and text (n=1). Examples of these are shown below. Note on the left the embodiment of music. This indicates existential career decision making in which personal authenticity and a sense of career calling or vocation are central elements of career development and study (see Frankl, 1978; Bland & Roberts-Pittman, 2014). Dobrow and Tosti-Kharas (2011, p. 1005) define career calling as “a consuming, meaningful passion people experience toward a domain”. So strong, they explain, that even risky or potentially negative outcomes such as those faced by music graduates are ignored in favour of intensive study and determination to succeed (Dobrow & Tosti-Kharas, 2012). Shown on the examples to follow, the only drawing in the study not to include any reference to music came from a student who expressed career confusion: “A person who is still finding out what they want to do” (#78).

Picture: performer

Text: metal bands

Link diagram

Picture: Career confusion

Twenty-five students created pictures in which the musician was defined exclusively as a performer or creator; for six of these students, the focus was the benefits of music to others. Ten students drew a musician who was a performer or creator and who also held roles such as teaching, study and research. Six students based their responses on characteristics such as strength, creativity, attentiveness, inspiration and diversity. In this 108 australian art education volume 37 number 2

study, students were far more likely to draw literal pictures than were the educators, who tended to create drawings in which multiple factors were linked or symbolised, sometimes in combination as hybrid classifications and often using metaphors. Shown at Table 2, this suggests a level of complexity not apparent in the student drawings. Also at Table 2, conceptualisations of the musicians differed significantly between educators and students. Students were almost seven times more likely than educators to define a musician as a performer or creator with no other roles included in either their drawings or narratives. Similarly, educators were almost five times more likely to describe a musician as someone who functions in multiple ways, both in terms of professional roles (teacher, researcher, performer, creator) and in terms of societal relevance (connecting cultures, synthesising soundscapes, communicating different worldviews). Graphic representation classifications (%) Educators

Students

Picture

34

83

Link diagram

23

14

Grouping diagram

3

-

Symbol/composite symbol

26

2

Written text (musical text)

(3)

2

Hybrid representations

12

-

Performer or creator

9

60

Multi-faceted

83

17

Other

9

24

Conception of a musician (%)

TABLE 2: Classification types and conceptualisations of a musician Detailed content analysis is beyond the scope of this paper, and yet content is important in terms of understanding the elements to which respondents referred and how these might relate to the question of what is a musician. As such, the drawings were treated as visual artefacts with text-based captions and were subject to basic content analysis in 109 australian art education

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order to elicit “replicable and valid inferences from data to their context” (Krippendorf, 1980, p. 21) – in this case, higher music education. First, the formal elements of each drawing and text-based caption were recorded. These 262 elements were next grouped into 11 themes. The presence of each theme was noted as a single occurrence regardless of repetition within each response. Of interest, the number of elements noted in the drawings of students and educators was similar: a mean of 3.55 elements for students and a mean of 3.23 for educators. In this sense, the complexity of each response differed very little between the two cohorts. There was, however, difference in the extent to which each of the 11 themes was used. Seen at Figure 1, student focus overwhelmingly related to physical objects and activities, particularly performance. Emotions, thinking, society and community featured far less for students than they did for educators. 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Student (149 counts) Educator (113 counts)

FIGURE 1: Basic content analysis of themes (calculated as % of total count for each cohort) The combination of drawings, text-based captions, deductive coding using Engelhardt’s classifications (2002) and (inductive) content and thematic analysis of each case (Lutz & Collins, 1993), enabled the responses to be analysed from a number of different perspectives. Each of these perspectives contributed to answering the first research question: ‘What do the visual narratives and captions of tertiary music students and educators reveal about their conceptualisation of a musician?’ In the two images below, the drawings suggested a performance-related response. The narratives, however, revealed concerns held by the participants (both students):


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Hobby and profession. Day or night. It's love, hate and work, study very hard and try, try and try again.

A musician is someone that besides having theoretic knowledge is also worried about the way in which he can touch people [with his music].

hard and try, try and try again.

In contrast, the drawing to the left of the following examples revealed concerns that would not have been picked up in the text-based response alone. This student was the only respondent to mention financial matters, and her possible reference to income was made clear by the use of dollar signs within her drawing. The student on the right indicated his unanswered questions by including a question mark. Analysis of the text revealed that he was worried about constructing his career in music.

I have many doubts about how to construct my career. At the same time I'm preparing to be a professional…

Move people with my music and be able to live well with this.

These responses exemplify students’ commitment to music despite the potentially negative outcomes described by Dobrow and Tosti-Kharas (2012). Commitment was also prevalent in the number of drawings in which music was embodied as part of identity. As seen below, this was often extended to respondents’ textual definitions of the musician:


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[A musician is] a person who makes music his whole life

In summary, the educators created complex visual narratives and captions through which they represented the musician in multiple forms. The conceptualisation of musician as only a performer or creator was seen in only 3% of the 35 responses from educators, and yet 60% of students conceptualised the musician in this way. The combination of visual and textual data created insights that would not have been possible from one source alone. Concluding Comments Students’ conceptualisations of the musician align with the performative focus of higher education music and the emphasis on performance careers as being a successful outcome. In contrast, educators’ conceptualisations encapsulate the performance and creation of music as part of a broader practice and a connectivity with human-ness and community. Empirical understandings of graduate work as complex and ‘messy’ were notable across both cohorts but were revealed far less by students. The subject matter of drawings consisted of properties such as line, colour, shape, texture, composition and style, and these properties combined to express both literal and metaphorical moods and ideas that may not have been easily expressed verbally or in text-based forms (Jolley, Zhi & Thomas, 1998). Shown in the educators’ drawings, the generation of metaphorical images was a process of symbolisation; the scrutiny of such images exposed underlying assumptions, promises and predispositions (Inbar, 1996) not present in students’ responses. Given that tertiary educators are a primary source of career information for students (Bennett, Richardson & MacKinnon, 2016), these findings have particular significance from an educational perspective. Few educators see themselves as ‘career educators’ per se and there is often little curricular space for such discussions, but the lack of discussion can perhaps be seen in the educator and student responses in this study, where marked differences were evident despite almost all students being in the same programs as the educators. Notwithstanding the practical difficulties of addressing careers with students, the study illustrates the potential for visual artefacts to be employed as individual selfreflections and as discussion prompts, with students challenged to sort and make sense 112 australian art education

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of multiple responses. Successful trials with collaborative student drawings also suggest the value of group-based approaches. In this study, to extend educator thinking, educators have recently been asked to create a second drawing in which they illustrate ‘the musician you would like to communicate to students’.

This paper began by considering the characteristics of employability for higher education graduates in the arts, and it presented a study in which students and educators conceptualised a professional in their discipline. The creative artefacts revealed the potential for visual methodologies to promote career-oriented thinking and reflection, to “challenge the blind spot created by the more traditional ways of seeing and doing research in education” (Fischman, 2001, p. 32), and to develop self-awareness and artistic identity. Only by questioning the dominant narratives can students learn how to navigate careers that demand an entrepreneurial and resilient mindset. When communicated as a positive and realistic career preview, such learning can also begin to rewrite poor employability expectations and open a much-needed dialogue with arts and education communities. References Bandura. A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bennett, D. (2009). Academy and the real world: Developing realistic notions of careers in the performing arts. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, l8(3), 309-327. Bennett, D. (2013). The use of learner-generated drawings in the development of music students’ teacher identities. International Journal of Music Education, 31(1), 53-67. Bennett, D. (2015). Pre-service teachers’ intentions to teach: Developing understanding through textual narratives and drawings. In B-M. Apelgren, P. Burnard, & N. Cabaroglu, (Eds.). Transformative teacher research: Theory and practice for the C21st (pp. 141 – 154). The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Bennett, D., & Bridgstock, R. (2015). The urgent need for career preview: Student expectations and graduate realities in music and dance. International Journal of Music Education, 33(3), 263–277. Bennett, D., Richardson, S., & MacKinnon, P. (2016). Enacting strategies for graduate employability: How universities can best support students to develop generic skills. Final report. Sydney: Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching. Retrieved from http://melbournecshe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/1874774/SP133258_Curtin_Bennett_Graduate-Employability_Final-Report_Part-A_20163.pdf Bland, A. M., & Roberts-Pittman, B. J. (2014). Existential and chaos theory: ‘’calling’ for adaptability and responsibility. Career Decision Making Journal of Career Development, 41(5), 382-401. Bridgstock, R. (2012). Not a dirty word: Arts entrepreneurship and higher education. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 12(2-3), 122-137. 113 australian art education

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Brookes, B. C. (1980). The foundations of information science. Part I. Philosophical aspects. Journal of Information Science, 2(3/4), 125-133. Cole, A., & Knowles, J. G. (2008). (Eds). Handbook of the arts in qualitative research: Perspectives methodologies examples, and issues. Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage. Comunian, R., Gilmore, A., & Jacobi, S. (2015). Higher education and the creative economy: Creative graduates, knowledge transfer and regional impact debates. Geography Compass, 9(7), 371–383. Daniel, R., & Daniel, L. (2015). Enhancing capacity for success in the creative industries: Undergraduate student reflections on the implementation of work-integrated learning strategies. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 16(3), 199-209. Dobrow, S. R., & Tosti-Kharas, J. (2011). Calling: The development of a scale measure. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541–572. Dobrow, S. R., & Tosti-Kharas, J. (2012). Listen to your heart? Calling and receptivity to career advice. Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 264-280. Duncum, P. (2004). Visual culture isn’t just visual: Multiliteracy, multimodality and meaning. Studies in Art Education, 45(3), 252-264. Engelhardt, Y. (2002). The language of graphics: A framework for the analysis of syntax and meaning in maps, charts and diagrams. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Institute for Logic, Language and Computation. The Netherlands: University of Amsterdam. Fereday, J. & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigour using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 80-92. Fischman, G. E. (2001). Reflections about images, visual culture, and educational research. Educational Researcher, 30(8), 28-33. Frankl, V. E. (1978). The unheard cry for meaning. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Fyfe, G., & Law, J. (Eds). (1988). Picturing power: Visual depiction and social relations. London and New York: Routledge. Gauntlett, D. (2005). Moving experiences: Media effects and beyond. New Barnet, Herts: John Libbey. Graduate Careers Council of Australia. (2012). Graduate destinations 2011: The report of the graduate destination survey. Parkville: Graduate Careers Council of Australia. Guillemin, M. (2004). Embodying heart disease through drawings. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine, 8(2), 223-239. Hartel, J. (2014). An Arts-informed study of information using the draw-and-write technique. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 65(7), 1349-1367. Hartel, J., & Thomson, L. (2011). Visual approaches and photography for the study of immediate information space. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 62(11), 2214–2224. Hechhausen, J., & Heckhausen, H. (1980/1991). Motivation and action. New York: Cambridge University Press. Inbar, D. E. (1996). The free educational prison: Metaphors and images. Educational research, 38(1), 77-92. 114 australian art education

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Jolley, R. P., Zhi, Z., & Thomas, G. V. (1998). The development of understanding moods metaphorically expressed in pictures: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 29(2), 358-376. Katz, P., McGinnis, J. R., Hestness, E., Riedinger, K., Marbach, Ad, G., Dai, A., & Pease, R. (2011). Professional identity development of teacher candidates participating in an informal science education internship: A focus on drawings as evidence. International Journal of Science Education, 33(9), 1169-1197. Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Law, J. (1994). Organizing modernity. Oxford and Cambridge (MA): Blackwell. Lutz, C. A., & Collins, J. L. (1993). Reading National Geographic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. McLean, M., Henson, Q., & Hiles, L. (2003). The possible contribution of student drawings to evaluation in a new problem-based learning medical programme: A pilot study. Medical Education, 37, 895-906. McNair, S. & Stein, M. (2001). Drawing on their understandings: Using illustrations to invoke deeper thinking about plants. Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. Costa Mesa, CA: Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. MacPhail, A., & Kinchin, G. (2004). The use of drawings as an evaluative tool: Students’ experiences of sport education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 9(1), 87108. Oakley, K. (2009). ‘Art works’ – cultural labour markets: A literature review. London: Creativity, Culture and Education. Pridmore, P., & Bendelow, G. (1995). Health images: Exploring children’s beliefs using the draw-and-write technique. Health Education Journal, 54, 473–488. Rose, G. (2012). Visual methodologies: An introduction to researching with visual materials (3rd ed.). London: SAGE. Schunk, D. H. (1981). Modeling and attributional effects on children's achievement: A selfefficacy analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 93-105. Swennen, A., Jörg, T., & Korthagen, F. (2004). Studying student teachers' concerns, combining image‐based and more traditional research techniques. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(3), 265-283. Throsby, D., & Zednik, A. (2010). Do you really expect to get paid? An economic study of professional artists in Australia. Melbourne: Australia Council for the Arts. Weber, S., & Mitchell, C. (1996). Drawing ourselves into teaching: Studying the images that shape and distort teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(3), 303-313.


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