Proceedings of 2011 IEEE International Conference on Applied Superconductivity and Electromagnetic Devices Sydney, Australia, December 14-16, 2011
ID096
Development of SMES Technology and Its Applications in Power Grid Xin Zhou, Xiao Yuan Chen, Jian Xun Jin School of Automation Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
[email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected] Electromagnetic energy storage including superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), super-capacitor energy storage (SCES); 3) Electrochemical energy storage including lead-acid, lithium-ion, sodium sulfur and fluid flow battery energy storage, etc [13-15]. Their technical development, applications, advantages and disadvantages are described in this paper. Firstly, electromagnetic energy storage and electrochemical energy storage technologies are discussed as their relatively higher potential and prospect; then the development of SMES systems is introduced; at last, comprehensive summaries about applications of SMES in power grid are illustrated.
Abstract—Successful performance of power grid needs to deal with the balancing of supply and demand in real time. In order to improve the quality of electric grid, a significant amount of power is necessary to be injected into the grid to solve the power system failures, such as voltage dip, reactive power rush and so on. These electric accidents can be well improved by energy storage systems (ESS), which can inject/absorb active and reactive power into or from a system timely. In this paper, several prevalent energy storage types and their characteristics are introduced and analyzed contrastively. The results manifest that the superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system has a relatively significant and efficient role in the service of power grid.
Physical energy storage is a kind of relatively mature and practical energy storage style at present. But by limits of topographical and geological conditions, it doesn’t have a large-scale promotion [16]. The technology of electrochemical energy storage is moving the fastest so far, of which sodiumsulphur battery, fluid-flow battery and lithium ion battery technologies have been made great breakthroughs in safety, energy conversion efficiency and economy with increasingly industrialized applications. The energy conversion efficiency of sodium-sulphur battery can reach 80% with the energy density three times as lead-acid battery and much longer life cycle. Japan is in the internationally leading place in this field. Research work about electromagnetic energy storage is the slowest to get started because of hugely high cost and complicated system structure. The technology is in speed development and it is energy saving and easy to operate with high efficiency and wide perspective [17-20]. Research and application status of the energy storage types are given in Table 1.
Keywords- SMES; energy storage; power system
I. INTRODUCTION With the rapid development of information and high-tech industries, the ratio of load sensitive to power quality is raising the proportion more and more, which means that the modern society has the urgent needs for higher quality of power supply. The problems of power supply caused by the rush of reactive power, such as electric power system faults and operating errors, etc, are becoming more and more serious. To avoid those power supply accidents, compensating reactive power and absorbing active power are required eagerly, resulting in the need and exploring the suitable energy storage systems. With the great breakthroughs in superconducting materials, application development of high temperature superconductors (HTSs) has gone through from prospective enthusiasm to today’s realistic realization since the HTS was discovered in 1986. In the past two decades, various conceptual designs have been turned into today’s practical developments, such as HTS electrical fault current limiters, special devices, magnets, SMES, etc. [1-12]. The investigation results show that the SMES can benefit the electricity system for its quick response character, high conversion efficiency, inhibiting low frequency oscillation and voltage volatility.
B. Development Trend of the ESSs (1) Large capacity To cope with the peak load in power system, huge investment is poured into power grid and power reserve capacity construction, but it is very low utilization. The energy storage of large capacity can increase the efficiency of energy utilization, and save the country huge investment [21].
II. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS A. Classifications and Characteristics of the ESSs According to the specific principles, there are three main types of the ESSs: 1) Physical energy storage including pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES) and flywheel energy storage (FES); 2)
978-1-4244-7853-8/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE
(2) High conversion efficiency Physical energy storage is a relatively mature and practical application at present with energy conversion efficiency up to 70 ~ 75% [22,23]; industrialized application conditions of
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maintain energy storage devices. Owing to the development of materials science, especially applications of the polymer nanomaterials, the cost of investment will be greatly reduced, and the energy storage system will also be improved simultaneously [27,28]. With the advancement in the science of superconductor technology, the cost of installation of the SMES systems is eventually going to be comparable to that of the existing storage technologies.
sodium-sulphur battery technology are developed increasingly with energy conversion efficiency up to 80% [24,25]; conversion efficiency of electrochemical energy storage is higher than the referred two (up to 95%) with no Joule loss in the superconductive materials [26]. (3) Low-cost application It takes huge amount of money to manufacture and TABLE I. Energy storage type
I
Nominal power
Response time
Advantages
PHS
100 ~ 2000 MW
4 ~10 h
Large capacity, low cost
Large space, special geological conditions
Load regulation, frequency control, backup battery
CASE
100 ~ 300 MW
6 ~20 h
Large capacity, low cost
Large space, demand for gas fuel
Peaking power, backup battery
FES
5 kW ~ 1.5 MW
15 s ~ 15 min
High power density
Low energy density
Peaking load, frequency control, UPS, power quality regulation, transmission and distribution system stability
SMES
10 kW ~ 1 MW
5 s ~ 5 min
High power density
Low energy density, high cost
SCES
1 ~10 kW
1 s ~ 1 min
Long service life
Low energy density
Lead-acid battery
1 kW ~ 50 MW
1 min ~ 3 h
Low cost
Life cycle influenced by deep discharge
Power quality regulation, backup battery, black start, UPS/EPS
Sodium sulfur battery
1 kW ~ 10 MW
1 min ~ hours
Large capacity
Low energy density
Smooth load, backup battery
Fluid flow battery
10 ~ 100 kW
1 ~ 20 h
High power and energy density, high efficiency
High cost, unsafe
Distributed and renewable energy system stability, smooth load, backup battery
II
III
RESEARCH AND APPLICATION STATUS OF THE ESSS Applications
of superconducting superconducting coil.
III. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO TYPES A.
Basic Principles of the SMES Systems Electromagnetic ESS is a kind of energy storage equipment for converting the stored electromagnetic energy into electrical energy directly without any in-between transferring organizations. Generally, a SMES device consists of the superconducting coil, the cryogenic system, and the power conversion/conditioning system (PCS) with filtering and protection functions, as shown in Fig. 1. The coil in SMES doesn’t lose Joule heat while poured into DC current, so the SMES device adopts DC charging source system, and the three-phase converter transforms ac to dc and reverse. Depending on the control loop of its power conversion unit and switching characteristics, types of the coupling transformation include two models: voltage source converter (VSC) and current source converter (CSC), through which SMES can well cooperate with the transmission network. Two-quadrant chopper consists of high power devices, though which the coil is charged and discharged. Today’s superconductors are usually cooled with liquid nitrogen from which heat is removed by an external refrigerator [29-31].
UPS, power quality regulation and transmission and distribution system stability Power quality regulation (combined with the FACTS)
coil;
I,
the
⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎬ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎭
current
through
⎫ ⎪ ⎬ ⎪ ⎭
Figure 1. A SMES system.
Typical application of super capacitors in power grid is shown in Fig. 2. Csc represents combination of capacitor units, which absorb and release energy necessarily by the two-way DC/DC converter through Cdc. Grid converter makes the Vbus into AC utility, and the energy storage is
The superconducting coil is the core part of the SMES, and the energy storage of which is expressed as the following equation ESMES = 0.5LI 2
Disadvantages
(1)
ESCES = 0.5CU 2
where ESMES is the electromagnetic energy; L, the inductance
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(2)
where ESCES is the electromagnetic energy; C, capacitance of super capacitors; U, voltage of super capacitors.
Negative electrode
Cation exchange membrane
Positive electrode
Figure 2. The application principle of the super capacitors.
B.
Basic Principles of Electrochemical ESSs Electrochemical ESSs generate power by chemical reactions in the electrolyte solution. Take fluid-flow battery, sodium-sulphur battery and lead-acid battery for examples. Fig. 3 shows the basic principle of fluid-flow battery [27,28].
Figure 4. The chemical reaction diagram of sodium polysulfide/bromine battery.
C. Analysis on Present Situation of the Two Types The technology of electrochemical ESS has been greatly progressed so far to penetrate in almost the aspects of industry and daily life. As can be seen from the Table 1, electrochemical ESS has the most comprehensive application foreground. However, several points can not be ignored are those it is sensitive to the working environment, such as temperature, and tends to be influenced by deep chargingdischarging. Pollution problems also restrict the development as the environmental issue is more and more acute. Above all, it can not reach the strictly accurate control requirement in power grid compared with electromagnetic ESS.
Figure 3. The principle diagram of the fluid-flow battery.
Fig. 4 shows the chemical reaction diagram of sodium polysulfide/bromine battery [29]. Chemical reaction formula is given as follows:
charge
ZZZZZZ X xNa 2Sx + 1 + 2NaBr ( x + 1) Na 2Sx + Br2 YZZZZZ dischargeZ
(3)
The principle of lead-acid battery is similar to the referred sodium-sulphur battery [30]. Positive pole is filled with active material PbO2, negative pole, with active material Pb. Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4 +H2O) is worked as electrolytes. Chemical reaction formula of the battery is given as follows:
charge ZZZZZZ X PbSO 4 +2H 2 O+PbSO4 (4) PbO 2 +2H 2SO 4 +Pb YZZZZZ dischargeZ TABLE II. Country
USA
Japan
D. Analysis on Present Situation of the SMES Systems As a new-type of energy storage technology, the first commercial application of SMES can be traced back to 1981 from the northwest to southern California. A SMES system was built to damp power oscillations on the western U.S. power system [31]. Along with the development of superconducting materials, especially the appearance of high temperature superconducting materials, the SMES technology has been greatly progressed so far. Table 2 sums up the present situation of world developed and under developing superconducting magnetic storage devices. Among them, large capacity SMES devices are capable of 100 MJ based on lowtemperature superconducting technology, while devices based on high-temperature superconducting technology are rare and the capacity is only of MJ level. So far Japan is carrying out a 2.4 GJ/100 MVA SMES device research-plan based on the second generation of YBCO materials.
PRESENT SITUATION OF WORLD DEVELOPED AND UNDER DEVELOPING SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES. Superconducting materials
Energy level
Los Alamos Laboratory
NbTi
30 MJ
Damping the low-frequency (0.35 Hz) [32]
University of Florida
NbTi
100 MJ
Damping the low-frequency (0.2 – 3 Hz) [33]
American Superconductor
NbTi
1 – 5 MJ
Already successfully commercial applications [34]
National Nuclear Science Institute
NbTi
1 MJ
Chubu Electric Power Company
NbTi
7.34 MJ
Research and development team
262
Applications
UPS (500 kW, 1 s) [35-37] Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [38,39]
NbTi
20 MJ
Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [40,41]
Bi2212
1 MJ
Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [42]
YBCO
2.4 GJ
Load fluctuation compensation [43]
Tokyo Institute of Technology
NbTi
270 kJ
100 MJ Power system stability[44]
Kyushu Electric Power Company
NbTi
2.9 MJ
96 MJ Power system stability [45]
NbTi, Bi2212
6.5 MJ
Experimental study [46,47]
NbTi
0.3 MJ
Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [48]
NbTi
2 MJ
Impulsing power source [49]
30 kJ
Experimental study [50,51]
1MJ
proposed to improve the power quality [52,53]
Bi2223
35 kJ
Hydropower station experiments in Hubei province [54]
Bi2223
10 kJ
Proposed to synchronization control of smart micropower grid [55]
NbTi
3 MJ
UPS [56]
600 kJ
Power system stability [57]
2.5 MJ
Power system stability [58,59]
Chubu Electric Power Company Japan
Toshiba Company Tsinghua University
Institute Of Electrical Engineering, CAS China Huazhong University of Science And Technology University of Electronic Science And Technology of China And Innopower Corporation
Korea
Korean Electric Research Institute
Changwon National University Italy France Germany Poland Australia
Bi2223
Bi2233 —
10 kJ
Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [50,61]
Bologna University
NbTi
200 kJ
proposed to improve the power quality [62]
Ansaldo Ricerche Spa
NbTi
2.6 MJ
Protect the sensitive load [63]
National Center For Scientific Research
Bi2212
800 kJ
Power pulse source [64,65]
ACCEL Instruments Gmbh
Bi2223
150 kJ
UPS [66]
Superconducting Technology Laboratory
Bi2223
34.8 kJ
UPS [67,68]
Wollongong University
Bi2223
2.48 kJ
Instantaneous voltage drop compensation [69]
Economic feasibility analysis about the SMES can be seen from [70], the comparison results of annual cost of ESSs for daily load leveling are as follows. Compared with PHS, SMES may bring down the operating cost because of higher efficiency, and reduce the annual cost to 50–60% for the same capital cost. The huge expenses and problem of site limitation of long distance transmission lines needed by PHS systems are not included, while the validity of SMES can be particularly expected. The situation about cost evaluation of CAES is similar as that of pumped hydro storage. As for the electrochemical energy storage, the annual cost of NaS battery is twice that of SMES for the same capital cost for the lifetime of NaS battery is shorter than that of SMES, in addition, the disposal cost of NaS battery is also required. The annual cost of SMES is particularly lower than that of NaS battery [70].
TABLE III.
STATUS OF INSTALLED CAPACITY
Energy storage type
I
II III
Total installed capacity
Single capacity range
PHS
110 GW
< 2.1 GW
CASE
477 MW
25 – 350 MW
FES
—
kW
SMES SCES Lead-acid battery Fluid flow battery Sodium-sulphur battery
— — 125 MW 38 MW 200 MW
10 ~ 100 MW 7 ~ 10 MW 100 W ~ 10 MW
Based on the above discussion, obvious advantages of SMES over other ESSs can be summarized as follows: storage and release electromagnetic energy at a very fast rate; high energy storage density (108 J/m3) and instantaneously large electrical energy release rate; storage efficiency is as high as 95 % with no DC Joule loss; easy to operate, simple maintenance, little pollution, relatively long lifetime and low annual cost.
It has been reported that there are four main ways to improve the power quality: static compensation, dynamic voltage recovery, looped network with static transfer switch (STS) and poly-power supply, and active filter. Their proportions are 42 %, 30 %, 15 % and 13% respectively [71]. It is obvious that the SMES will do better in improving the power quality as its absolute advantages of static compensation and dynamic voltage recovery. The status of installed capacity about the ESSs is shown in Table 3.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF SMES IN POWER GRID The total efficiency of the SMES system is very high as it
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doesn’t require energy conversion. Depending on the control loop and switching characteristics, the SMES system can respond very quickly (MWs/ms). System reliability and availability can be greatly enhanced by injecting/absorbing real or reactive power, and the effectiveness of the control is increased consequently. Compared with other storage technologies, the SMES technology has some obvious advantages, including power system transmission control and stabilization, and power quality improvement. For example, SMES can be applied in FACTS system at the transmission level, or specific power devices at the distribution level. The efficiency and fast response capability of a SMES can be further exploited for diversified applications in power grid [72].
Figure 6. A 3-machine and 9-bus power system.
The simulation results are listed in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. It is obvious that compared with the system without the SMES system the rotor speed is under control while the SMES system discharges into the system as the supply of both active and reactive power by the SMES. Fig. 8 shows that an average active power of about 70 MW is being discharged into the system during the fault at t = 175 s with a significant amount of reactive power being injected into the system simultaneously. 381 380
Omega of generator 3
379 Without SMES
378 377 376
With SMES
375 374 0
50
100
Figure 5. Control and power circuit layout of SMES system.
150
Time (s)
200
250
300
350
(a)
The control and power circuit layout of SMES system is given in Fig. 5. The whole system mainly consists of two parts: SMES main circuit and control circuit. Types of the converter set also include two models: voltage source converter and current source converter, through which SMES can well cooperate with the power grid. The system adopts loop control to get a stable compensation effect. As shown, three variables (voltages of load and power system, current of main bus) are adopted as feedbacks to the control circuit. Besides, detection work (fault control) by sensors is provided to ensure that the HTS coil run in the superconducting state. Application in Flexible AC Transmission Systems A SMES system is able to inject/absorb active and reactive power into or from a system. Hence it can diminish system oscillation caused by problems such as rush by reactive power or short trouble.
379.0 378.5 378.0
Omega of generator 3
Without SMES
377.5 377.0 376.5 376.0
With SMES
375.5 375.0 374.5 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Time (s)
(b) Figure 7. Rotor speed of generator 3 for a three phase fault: (a) fault between buses 8 and 7; (b) fault between buses 4 and 9.
A.
100
Active power (MW)
80 60 40 20 0 -10 350
(1) In power system dynamic performance Applications in improving dynamic stability by SMES can be seen in [36]. Take a 3-machine and 9-bus power system for example, as the Fig. 6. The SMES system was firstly located between buses 4 and 9 (nearer to bus 4); then, the obstacles were simulated with the SMES system placed at bus 7. A three phase ground fault was made at t = 175 s for a period of 70 ms at different locations and the total performance of the system is simulated compared with (without) the SMES system [73].
Reactive power (Mvar)
250 150 50 0 -50 174.96 174.98
175
175.02
175.04 175.06 Time (s)
175.08
175.10
175.12
175.14
Figure 8. Active and reactive power injected into the system by the SMES.
(2) In power system transient performance Enhancement of transient stability by SMES can be seen in [75,76]. For the simulation, the model system as shown in Fig. 9 consists of a synchronous generator (SG) and an infinite bus
264
field wave and power control module by superconducting energy storage.
through a transformer and double circuit transmission line. In order to control the power balance of the synchronous generator during dynamic period effectively, the SMES unit is located at the generator terminal bus. In order to see how effective the proposed fuzzy logic-controlled SMES in improving the transient stability is, its performance is compared to that of a conventional PI (Proportional-Integral) controlled SMES scheme [76].
Pwind,Qwind
Pgrid,Qgrid Vbus
Power Grid QSM,PSM
Pwind
PDem
GP(s)
QSM,PSM QD,PD
Vbus +
△V
GQ(s)
Power decoupling
Drive signal
SMES
QDem
Inhibit fluctuating power model in wind power
Power control model in SMES
Figure 11. Wind power control system with SMES.
The following results were obtained from the referred wind power system, as shown in Fig. 12. The SMES system can do well in the inhibition of the voltage fluctuation. 1.1
Figure 9. Power system model.
Vbus
Simulation results of both balanced (3LG: Three-phase-toground) and unbalanced (1LG: Single-line-to-ground) faults, as shown in Fig. 10, obviously indicate the effectiveness and validity of the proposed method in improving the transient stability.
Load angle (deg)
80
30
60
t/s t (s)
90
120
150
90
120
150
(a)
Vbus1.0 0.9 0
70 60
30
60
t/s
(b)
50
Figure 12. Voltage of Vbus: (a) Without SMES compensation; (b) With SMES compensation.
40 0
1
2 3 Time (sec)
4
5
(2) Application in photovoltaic power generation Fig. 13 shows the schematic diagram for the combined PV/SMES system. The PV generation system and the SMES system are joined by a common bus which is connected to the utility grid [78].
(a) 110 100 Load angle (deg)
0
1.1
Without SMES With PI controlled SMES With fuzzy controlled SMES
90
0.9 0.8
110 100
1.0
Without SMES With PI controlled SMES With fuzzy controlled SMES
90 80 70 60 50 40
0
1
2 3 Time (sec)
4
5
(b) Figure 10. Load angle responses: (a) 3LG fault; (b) 1LG fault.
B.
Application in Distributed Power Generation The intermittence and unpredictable nature of the wind or solar power make the successful integration of the distributed generation (DG) schemes, and SMES plays a very important role in improving operating stability of the whole system [77].
Figure 13. Schematic diagram for the combined PV/SMES system.
(1) Application in wind power system
The following results are obtained with (without) the modulation by PV/SMES system. As can be seen from Fig. 14, power generated by the SMES system can be able to well
In [77], Fig. 11 shows a wind farm system controlled by SMES, consisting of inhibitory control module by wind power
265
smooth out PV power fluctuations, resulting that the combined PV/SMES output is dispatched and free of fluctuations. Power generated from PV arrays can be completely utilized versus different weather conditions and PV penetration can be increased to significant levels without causing side effects to the power system.
active power by the SMES system are shown in Fig. 16 and Fig. 17. Comparisons of the active power fluctuation load P and active power load P at the 11 kV bus are made with the corresponding variables without compensation in Fig. 16. The active power load of the generator is almost a constant after compensation by the SMES system in Fig. 17. 14
275
Power (MW)
12
Generation power (MW)
10 8
225
6 4 2 0
175 × Original load curve ◇ Modified by PV-SMES 8
Time (h)
16
10
20
30 40 Time (S)
50
60
Figure 16. Compensation status of the load fluctuation (active power) by the 10 MVA/20 MJ SMES.
125 0
0
24 20
1350
15
950
10
550
5
150
0
-250
275 Generation power (MW) 225
Coil current (A)
Active power (MW)
(a)
175 -5
× Original load curve ◇ Modified by PV-SMES 125 0
8
Time (h)
16
50
100
150 200 Time (S)
250
300
-650 350
Figure 17. Status of the active power fluctuation load, the SMES active power output, the SMES coil current, and the active power load of the 66 / 11 kV voltage inverter after compensation by the SMES system.
24
(b)
C.
Application in Micro-Grid System Take a micro-grid system for example. As shown in Fig. 18, the system includes 2 diesel generators, 2 hydro generators, 1 wind driven generator. The SMES system is parallel with the micro-grid system by voltage converter [80].
Figure 14. System daily load curve with (without) coordinated PV/SMES: (a) Operation on a sunny day; (b) Operation on a cloudy day.
(3) Application in hydroelectric power system Fig. 15 shows a SMES system connected to a network. The SMES system is connected to an 11 kV bus in the Hydro power station. The SMES is operated to compensate power fluctuation generated by the metal rolling factory near the power station [79].
The paper deals with the power quality enhancement of the WPGS included power system by pitch control and SMES unit. From the simulation results, it can be concluded that the SMES is a very effective device for stabilization of the WPGS included power system.
11 kV BUS
Transmission line
0
Fluctuation load
SMES
Figure 15. Schematic of the network connected to the 10 MVA / 20 MJ SMES.
The results of compensation test for the load fluctuation of
Figure 18. Power system model of a micro-grid system.
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the applications will be made in near future along with the development of HTS technology.
In this micro-grid system, SMES systems of different energy capacities and their compensation effect are discussed in [80]. System parameters are shown in Table IV, and Fig. 19 shows the relation between compensation effect and energy capacity. TABLE IV.
REFERENCES [1]
SPECIFICATIONS OF SMES SYSTEMS
Energy capacity [MJ] Inductance [H] Rated current [kA] Charging and discharging rate [kJ/s] DC link capacitor [MF] Maximum voltage [V]
1 MJ SMES 8 0.45
2 MJ SMES 15 0.55
0.816
1.530
[2]
[3]
10 2000 [4]
61.5
Frequency (Hz)
61.0 60.5
[5]
60.0 59.5 59.0 58.5
[6] 40
44
48
52 Time (s)
56
60
[7]
Figure 19. Simulation results of the load frequency.
Through the referred examples, the dominant advantages of SMES in power grid applications are as follows: the SMES system is easily operated and can be in well cooperation with power system for the four quadrants active and reactive power exchange independently. Besides, it also has the function of inhibiting the voltage fluctuation and frequency oscillation because of its relatively high reactance. Hence it plays an indispensable role in future grid construction.
[8]
[9]
[10]
V. CONCLUSION Several prevalent energy storage types and their technical development, application foreground, advantages and disadvantages have been presented in this paper. As shown in this paper, the SMES techniques have advantages in electrical power systems for improving the power system operation capability and efficiency with power energy controls and improving the power system stability; and the technologies can be practically developed by using well developed superconducting materials.
[11]
Compared to other energy storages, SMES has better performances, firstly, the current density of SMES coil can be 100 times higher than the common coil, and the SMES coil carrying current operates at cryogenic temperature having virtually no resistive losses. Secondly, SMES can enhance power system stability and improve the power quality through active and reactive power compensation because of its high conversion efficiency and fast reaction speed. The major benefits of the SMES are: 1) High energy-storage efficiency, 2) Fast energy charge (in a few milliseconds) and discharge capability, and 3) Independent controllability of active and reactive power. Although its practical development and commercial applications are still to be achieved, progresses in
[14]
[12]
[13]
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