Developments in Educational Sciences

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Developments in Educational Sciences

Editors Recep EFE Irina KOLEVA Emin ATASOY İsa CÜREBAL

ISBN 978-954-07-4139-0

ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2016

Editors Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Irina KOLEVA Sofia University “St. Climent Ohridski” Faculty of History Department of Ethnology Sofia, Bulgaria

Prof. Dr. Emin ATASOY Uludağ University Faculty of Education Department of Primary Education Bursa,Turkey

Prof. Dr. İsa CÜREBAL Balikesir University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of Geography Balıkesir, Turkey

St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4139-0

The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher. © 2106 Recep EFE, Emin ATASOY All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors Cover design: Murat POYRAZ ii

CONTENTS Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................... 1  The Effect of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 Month-Old Children’s Cognitive Abilities  Gözde İNAL KIZILTEPE, Esra ÖMEROĞLU  Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................... 17  The Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion  Remziye CEYLAN, Neriman ARAL  Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................... 31  The Predictive Power of Perception Levels towards Active Learning for Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers  Serhat SÜRAL  Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................... 51  Determination of the Students’ Characteristics on PISA 2009 Reading Performance (Comparison of the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey)   Özen YILDIRIM, Ömer KUTLU  Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................... 65  Comprehension Skills of Students with Learning Disabilities and Comprehensibility of Textbook Content  Mustafa KURT  Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................... 76  Creativity and Art in Early Childhood  Münevver CAN YAŞAR, Adalet KANDIR  Chapter 7 ..................................................................................................................... 91  Child and Drawing  Mehmet SAĞLAM, Neriman ARAL  Chapter 8 ................................................................................................................... 105  Maths in Preschool Education  Türker SEZER  Chapter 9 ................................................................................................................... 116  Impact of Common Knowledge Construction Model on the Nature of Science  Esra BENLİ ÖZDEMİR, Ergin HAMZAOĞLU  Chapter 10 ................................................................................................................. 131  Parents Education in the Preschool Period  Utku BEYAZIT, Aynur BÜTÜN AYHAN  Chapter 11 ................................................................................................................. 148  Reflection of “Justice” Value to the Pictures Drawn by the Secondary School Students  Ömer Faruk SÖNMEZ, Arzu SÖNMEZ & Özlem KUM  iii

Chapter 12 ................................................................................................................. 158  The Opinions of Teaching Staff and Teachers Regarding In-Service Training Programs Organized by the Turkish MNE  Serap Nur DUMAN, Gürcü ERDAMAR  Chapter 13 ................................................................................................................. 172  Views of Prospective Teachers about Values Education: A Comparative Analysis  Rukiye ŞAHIN, Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL  Chapter 14 ................................................................................................................. 183  Attachment in Children  Gökçen İLHAN ILDIZ & Emine AHMETOĞLU  Chapter 15 ................................................................................................................. 196  Preschool Children’s Mathematical Experiences in Outdoor Play  İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL, Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS  Chapter 16 ................................................................................................................. 208  The Importance of Educational Materials and Learning Environment in PreSchool Education  Ayşegül ŞAKIR SELİMHOCAOĞLU  Chapter 17 ................................................................................................................. 219  The Views of Research Assistants on Their Work Life and Their Well-being States: Kocaeli University Case  Yıldız ÖZTAN ULUSOY, Tuğba KONAKLI  Chapter 18 ................................................................................................................. 234  Learning Centers in Preschool Education  Şermin METIN  Chapter 19 ................................................................................................................. 244  Enhancing School-Family Collaboration: School Counselor’s Role  E.Nihal LİNDBERG, Murat KONUK  Chapter 20 ................................................................................................................. 257  Opinions of Primary and Secondary School Teachers about School Principals’ Efficacy  Nurhayat ÇELEBİ, Gülenaz SELÇUK, Remzi YILDIRIM  Chapter 21 ................................................................................................................. 271  Educational and Instructional Strategies for the Education of Talented and Gifted Children  Hacer Elif DAĞLIOĞLU, Esra ÖMEROĞLU, Safiye SARICI BULUT, Melek Gülşah ŞAHİN, Aysun TURUPCU DOĞAN  Chapter 22 ................................................................................................................. 285  Creating and Using Rubrics for Assessment  Gökhan ARI  iv

Chapter 23 ................................................................................................................. 296  Assessment of Certificate Program Pedagogical Formation Education Students in Terms of Their Technopedagogic Field Information Competencies and Attitudes towards Teaching Profession  Murat TUNCER, Melih DİKMEN  Chapter 24 ................................................................................................................. 311  A Bouquet of Regional Plays Compiled from Different Regions of Turkey  Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL  Chapter 25 ................................................................................................................. 322  Creative Movement and Dance in Early Childhood Education  Ümit Ünsal KAYA, Münevver CAN YAŞAR & Nezahat Hamiden KARACA  Chapter 26 ................................................................................................................. 335  Mother-Child Communication in Terms of the Child’s Right to Participation: Playground Dialogues  Neslihan AVCI, Fatma YOL  Chapter 27 ................................................................................................................. 354  Parent-Child Communication  Hatice VATANSEVER BAYRAKTAR  Chapter 28 ................................................................................................................. 374  Educational Use of Gesture-Based Technology in Early Childhood  Mehmet ÖZKAYA & Yunus GÜNİNDİ  Chapter 29 ................................................................................................................. 386  Social Sciences and History Teacher Candidates' Attitudes toward Oral History Studies  Selman ABLAK  Chapter 30 ................................................................................................................. 395  Irrational Number Knowledge of High School Graduates  Necdet GÜNER  Chapter 31 ................................................................................................................. 403  From Theory to Practice: Allosteric Learning Model for Teaching Science and Social Studies Lessons  Hasan Güner BERKANT & Seda BAYSAL  Chapter 32 ................................................................................................................. 414  Effect of Science Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge on Students' Conceptual Development: Light and Sound Concept Sample  Ayberk BOSTAN SARIOĞLAN  Chapter 33 ................................................................................................................. 427  Education on the Rights of Children  Hatice ÖZASLAN, Elif MERCAN UZUN 

v

Chapter 34 ................................................................................................................. 442  Secondary School Students’ Difficulties in Learning Mathematics  Gülgün BANGİR ALPAN, Özgül YAYLA  Chapter 35 ................................................................................................................. 458  An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Foreign Language Anxiety of University Students Studying at the Preparatory School of Beykent University  Meltem KAYGUSUZ  Chapter 36 ................................................................................................................. 469  The Evaluation of Problem Solving Skills of Primary School Teachers in Terms of Different Variables  Selma GÜLEÇ, Nejla MUTLU  Chapter 37 ................................................................................................................. 481  An Investigation on Students’ Attitudes towards the Physical Education Course  Yakup KOÇ, Kemal TAMER   Attitudes of Students towards Physical Education Courses  Chapter 38 ................................................................................................................. 492  Values Education in Preschool Period  Özkan SAPSAĞLAM  Chapter 39 ................................................................................................................. 508  Social Sciences Teacher Candidates’ Value Judgements about Environmental Pollution  Ufuk KARAKUŞ, Arcan AYDEMİR  Chapter 40 ................................................................................................................. 518  Self-Efficacy of the Parents Having Children Aged 0-3Years Old  Fatma ELIBOL, Fatma ÇALIŞANDEMİR, Aygen ÇAKMAK  Chapter 41 ................................................................................................................. 527  Prospective Primary Teachers’ Subject Matter Knowledge’s About Prism and Pyramid  Yasin GÖKBULUT  Chapter 42 ................................................................................................................. 541  Examination of the Picture Story Books Published for Preschool Children in Terms of Social Gender Stereotype  Nilay DEREOBALI, Sinem GÜNDÜZ ŞENTÜRK  Chapter 43 ................................................................................................................. 561  Constructivism  Hakan TURAN  Chapter 44 ................................................................................................................. 574  Developing Historical Thinking Skills in Turkish Elementary Schools  Behsat SAVAŞ 

vi

Chapter 45 ................................................................................................................. 583  Museum in Early Childhood  Özlem ŞİMŞEK ÇETİN  Chapter 46 ................................................................................................................. 592  Giftedness, Its Theories and Areas, and Developmental Features of Gifted Children  Bayram SEYHAN, Zeynep KURTULMUŞ  Chapter 47 ................................................................................................................. 612  Gendered Hate Speech in Cartoons: A Critical Discourse Analysis  Yaşare AKTAŞ ARNAS, Seval ÖRDEK İNCEOĞLU, İrem GÜRGAH OĞUL  Chapter 48 ................................................................................................................. 623  Applied Vocational Education, Creativity and Innovation  Rıza SAM  Chapter 49 ................................................................................................................. 631  Mobile Preschool Practises  Osman BASİT, Esra ÖMEROĞLU  Chapter 50 ................................................................................................................. 640  The Way of Bringing Up Future Scientists: Inquiry-Based Science Education Approach  Eylem BAYIR  Chapter 51 ................................................................................................................. 652  Oweview of the Experimentation Procedures and Reflections on Science Education  N. Remziye ERGÜL  Chapter 52 ................................................................................................................. 664  The Relationship between Generic Competencies of Teaching Profession and Critical Thinking Tendencies of Pedagogical Formation Training Certificate Program Students  Sadık Yüksel SIVACI, Yasemin KUZU  Chapter 53 ................................................................................................................. 673  Environmental Education in Children  Figen GÜRSOY, Burçin AYSU  Chapter 54 ................................................................................................................. 678  Landscape Design Process of Primary School Gardens  Elif Ebru ŞİŞMAN, Pınar GÜLTÜRK  Chapter 55 ................................................................................................................. 687  Place of Tales in Child Development and Education  Aslı AKDENİZ KUDUBEŞ, İsmet Emir KUDUBEŞ, Murat BEKTAŞ 

vii

Chapter 56 ................................................................................................................. 696  A Neglected Group for Early Intervention: Gifted and Talented Young Children  Adile Gülşah SARANLI  Chapter 57 ................................................................................................................. 708  The Improvement of Visual Perception of Selectivity Fundamental Skills in Coordination and Impaired Judoka with Educational Games  Şengül DEMİRAL  Chapter 58 ................................................................................................................. 715  Usability Possibilities of the Photo Art in the Basic Design Education  Özgür YERLİ  Chapter 59 ................................................................................................................. 727  Investigating Geography Teacher Candidates’ Map Literacy Levels in Terms of Different Variables  Hakan KOÇ, Hakan ÖNAL 

viii

Chapter 1 The Effect of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 MonthOld Children’s Cognitive Abilities1 Gözde İNAL KIZILTEPE, Esra ÖMEROĞLU INTRODUCTION In our world, rapidly developing science and technology affects our minds directly and requires a high level of improvement. This situation makes educational approaches focusing on cognitive skills a current issue. Reasoning, an important dimension of cognitive skills, is defined as a result achieved by using cognitive processes based on acquiring knowledge (Lee, Anzures & Freire, 2011). According to Umay (2003), reasoning is the process of reaching a rational result after thinking about all the factors. Reasoning is a cognitive ability which allows inference from the information provided. Reasoning ability involves forecasting and making decisions on unknown problems in the direction of perceived similarities and relations. People can obtain results from assumptions and detections with their reasoning ability (Eysenck & Keane, 2000; Oaksford, 2005). In order to reach the result of a certain problem, individuals start with the existing information and they reason by undergoing this information through a series of cognitive processes. According to Bruner (1957), people must go beyond the 'provided knowledge' while reasoning about a situation, event or issue. So as to achieve this, they need to deduce by taking target-driven existing information, propositions, rules and scientific facts into consideration (As cited in Lohman, 2005). Individuals use components of reasoning ability in the process of going beyond the provided knowledge. According to Piaget (2006), abilities such as classification, ordering, matching and comparing constitute the basis of reasoning process. According to the opinion of Lohman and Hagen (2003), in the process of reasoning skills, verbal, quantitative and visual-spatial based on nonverbal symbols are used. Verbal reasoning involves skills of seeing the relationship between words or sentences, solving and comprehending verbal problems and separating their elements, finding the logical relationship between these elements. In the process of verbal reasoning, individuals are required to have a certain level of vocabulary. However, what is important in this process is not only vocabulary. In the verbal reasoning process, the skill of being able to think according to the relations between words is important, even if the meanings of some words provided cannot be known completely (Fathima & Rao, 2008). Spatial reasoning involves skills such as recognizing and remembering visual sequences, comprehending the relationship between visual concepts, completing visual analogies, 1

This study was excerpted from the Ph.D thesis of the author.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Adnan Menderes University, Education Faculty, Department of Preschool Education  Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Education Faculty, Department of Preschool Education 

comprehending the relationship between the pictures and the situations/symbols given and inferring depending on the relationships (Escrig & Toledo, 1998; Aiello, 2002; Lohman & Hagen, 2003). Quantitative reasoning involves skills of creating mathematical predictions, developing and assessing mathematical discussions, presenting mathematical knowledge in various ways (Pilten, 2008). Quantitative reasoning in preschool includes numbers, geometric shapes, patterns and skills such as problem solving, inferring, predicting, understanding relations and building connections (Erbay, 2009). In the verbal, quantitative and nonverbal compounds of reasoning, judgment based on both deduction and induction is used. Reasoning based on the deduction is the process of reaching from general judgements to logical, applicable judgements. Reasoning based on induction is the process of reaching a general result or rule through a specific detection or observation. Therefore, while deductive reasoning requires inferring from unseen proposals in the information given, inductive reasoning requires discovering new information (Christou & Papageorgiou, 2007). Deductive and inductive reasoning shows a remarkable continuity throughout life. In daily life, both adults and children use inductive reasoning when they need to go beyond the 'provided information' while they use deductive reasoning in order to fill the gaps of their knowledge (Brown, 2007). Conducted research show that children in preschool period can use both deductive and inductive reasoning and that the reasoning education programs provided to preschool support this ability of the children (Tomic, 1995; Lee, 1997; Goswami, 2001; Goswami, 2002; Klauer & Phyme, 2008; Tian & Huang, 2009). Lipman (1988) thinks that developing reasoning ability is not an easy and quick process and for this reason he states that training programs must be used beginning of the preschool period in order to gain reasoning ability (As cited in Criner, 1992). Since the development of reasoning ability which is a crucial part of learning and thinking skills in child development is really important, planning and applying supportive education programs and evaluating their outcomes have an important place, as well. Previously conducted research revealed that qualified training programs providing active participation for children and preparing the most suitable place for their learning through direct observation and trying, namely learning-by-doing, was effective in developing reasoning ability. Although there are different studies carried out on verbal, quantitative and visual/spatial cognitive skills of children in Turkey, there are not any education programs covering all these holistically and supporting general reasoning abilities of children in the preschool period. An education program prepared with the aim of supporting reasoning ability is important in terms of increasing cognitive skills of children to a higher level. Additionally, it is thought that education program will be useful in bringing teachers working at preschool educational institutions a different perspective and that it will contribute to studies carried out on the subject of reasoning ability. From this respect, analyzing the effect of Reasoning Education Program on the cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children compose the main objective of the study. In accordance with this main purpose, answers were sought for the following questions: • Is there a statistically significant difference between the post-test scores of the children in the experimental group in which Reasoning Education Program were applied and that of the children in the control group in which existing training program 2

was applied? • Is there a significant difference between post-test and follow-up test scores of children in the experimental group in which Reasoning Education Program was applied? MATERIAL AND METHOD Design of the Study In this study, quasi experimental design with pre-test, post-test and control group were used in an attempt to analyze the impact of Reasoning Education Program on the cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children attending nursery classes in primary schools. In addition, follow up test was applied four weeks after the post-test applications in order to test the permanence of education. In this design, the dependent variable was 'cognitive abilities' of six year old children and independent variables was 'Reasoning Education Program'. 2x3 mixed factorial design consisting of experimental and control group, pre-test, post-test and follow-up test was used in this study. In mixed designs, also known as split-plot factorial designs, there are at least two variables of which impact on dependent variable is analyzed. One of them defines different experimental procedure conditions which neutral groups form and the other one defines repeated measures (pre-test, post-test, follow-up test) of the subject at different times (Büyüköztürk, 2007). Target Population and Participants The target population of the study was constituted in 61-72 month-old children with normal development who attended nursery classes in primary schools of the National Education Directorate, which was located in the center of a city in the Western Anatolia Region of Turkey. Before deciding the participants, a list showing the nursery classes of primary schools depended on National Education Directorate in the city center was obtained from the Provincial Directorate for National Education. Obtained lists were examined by the researchers, school administrators and teachers were interviewed and information about whether a specific education program on any issue was applied or not was obtained. Accordingly, nursery classes of primary schools which did not get involved in any intervention program were determined. Among determined schools, a nursery class was selected as the experimental group through random sampling method. Another nursery class in a different primary school, which was located in the same district and close to the experimental group and which had the similar demographic characteristics of children and parents were selected as a control group. In this way, the possibility that the children in the control group could be affected by the practices was prevented. Thereby, 82 children in total, of whom 41 children are for experimental and 41 children in control groups, were included in the study. It was determined that of the children participating in the experimental group, 56,2 % was female, 43,8 % was male; 58,5 % was the first child, 24,4 % was either middlechild or one of the middle-children, 17,1 % was the last child, 17 % was the only child, 51,2 % was two siblings, 31,7 % was three siblings or above and 92,7 % did not get preschool education before. It was found out that of the children in the control group, 51,2 % was female, 48,8 % was male; 56,1 % was the first child, 29,3 % was either middle-child or one of the middle-children, 14,6 % was the last child; 12,2 % was the 3

only child, 65,9 % was two siblings, 21,9 % was three siblings or above and 97,6 % did not get preschool education before. Levels of experimental and control groups in terms of cognitive abilities according to pre-tests applied before the intervention were given in Table 1. Table 1: Independent Samples t Test Results of The Children in Experimental and Control Groups According to the Subtests and Total Test Scores of CogAT Form-6 CogAT Form- 6

Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Group

n

X

sd

Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total

41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82

28,4 28,5 28,4 26,0 25,9 25,9 22,2 22,3 22,2 76,5 76,7 76,6

4,6 1,6 3,4 3,4 2,5 3,0 2,4 2,0 2,2 8,4 4,8 6,8

Independent Samples t Test t p -0,13

0,89

0,04

0,97

-0,20

0,84

-0,15

0,88

When Table 1 was analyzed according to the results it was determined that there was not a significant difference between experimental and control group-children's pretest score of Verbal subtest (t = -0,13), Quantitative subtest (t = 0,04), Nonverbal subtest (t = -0,20) and the total test of the CogAT Form-6 (t = -0,15) (p>. 05). According to these results, it can be stated that children in experimental and control groups had similar characteristics in terms of cognitive abilities before starting the Reasoning Education Program. Data Collection Tools With the purpose of collecting data about children and their families, "General Information Form" developed by the researchers in an attempt to evaluate reasoning abilities of children and Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6" (CogAT Form-6) developed by Lohman and Hagen (2000) were used in the study. General Information Form: With the intention of collecting information about children and their families, General Information Form was prepared by the researchers. In this form, there are questions related to children's date of birth, gender, birth order, number of siblings, state of attending preschool educational institutions, age of the parents educational background of the parents and occupations of the parents. General Information Forms were filled out by parents of the children. Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 (CogAT Form-6): Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 was developed by Lohman and Hagen in 2000. CogAT Form-6 aims at assessing the levels reached by 5-18 year-old children in their reasoning ability by using verbal, quantitative and nonverbal (spatial) skills (Alp & Diri, 2003; Lohman & Hagen, 2003). The test assesses the skills such as recalling information, organizing, 4

distinguishing similarities and differences, relating, inferring, comprehending problem situations, defining models, categorizing objects and events, making sense of theories and principles and making connections between new learning tasks and previous experiences (Lohman & Hagen, 2002). CogAT Form-6 was developed by utilizing intelligence theories that emerged in the context of traditional psychometric approach (Alp & Diri, 2003). The test was formed based on two theories which predicate cognitive abilities on hierarchical models. These models are Hierarchical Model of Ability by Vernon and Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Theory by Cattell and Horn (Lohman & Hagen, 2002; Plouffe, 2004). CogAT Form-6 consists of two batteries which are Primary and Multilevel Batteries designed for different age groups. Primary Battery is suitable for children from kindergarten to second grade of primary school and Multilevel Battery is suitable for children from third grade of primary school to the last grade of secondary school. Primary Battery includes two tests which are Level 1 and Level 2. Level 1 Test is used for kindergarten and first grades of primary school (Lohman & Hagen, 2003). In this study, Level 1 test of Cognitive Abilities Test Form-6 was used. CogAT Form-6 which can be applied individually or in small groups consists of 120 questions assessing reasoning ability in three subtest as verbal, quantitative and non-verbal. Each subtest has 40 multiple choice questions with four-choices. Multiple choice answers of each item on all the subtests are presented as pictures. Under each picture, there is an empty circle. During the application of CogAT Form-6 each item is read out loud and children are asked to mark one of the circles under the picture. The person performing the test passes to the other item after he/she is sure that the child marked one of the circles. Application of the test last between 30-40 minutes (Lohman & Hagen, 2003). In the test, raw score for each subtest is the number of items that are responding correctly. The total score is obtained by summing the raw scores of each sub-tests. Maximum of 120 scores can be obtained from Level 1 Test of CogAT Form-6. As the total score obtained from CogAT Form-6 reduces, reasoning ability and conceptual understanding levels of children reduce, as well. Validity and reliability study carried out with 61-72 month-old 380 children by İnal (2011), it was determined that overall reliability co-efficient of CogAT Form-6 was KR–20 =. 91, reliability co-efficient of the verbal subtest was KR–20 =. 76, reliability co-efficient of the quantitative subtest was KR–20 =. 82, reliability co-efficient of the nonverbal subtest was KR–20 =. 70. High internal co-efficient of subtest and total test indicates that the test is reliable. As a result of test-retest correlation, it was determined that test-retest correlation of verbal subtest was.895, test-retest correlation of quantitative subtest was.989, test-retest correlation of nonverbal subtest was.968 and total test-retest correlation for CogAT Form-6 was .984 and it was found that the test showed consistent results dependent on time. Reasoning Education Program: Reasoning Education Program aims at supporting reasoning abilities of 61-72 month-old children in the preschool period in parallel with their cognitive development. During the process of program development, primarily, literature related to cognitive development, cognitive skills and reasoning skills was reviewed. In consequence of literature review and program analysis, content of the education program was arranged to be associated with a matching, comparing 5

and ordering verbal statements and words, numbers and spatial relations by using symbols and shapes, classifying proposals and situations provided, understanding the relations between provided proposals and making an inference both from general to specific and from specific to general depending on the relationship rules. During the preparation of the program content, objectives and acquirements related to support of reasoning ability were determined by making use of Preschool Education Program along with literature analysis. Reasoning Education Program included activities, in which individual differences and developmental characteristics of children were taken into consideration, the children participate willingly and without prejudice, interests and necessities of the children along with the features of the environment where activities are performed were regarded in accordance with the determined objectives and acquirements. That activity has the flexibility to vary according to the interests of children and that they differ from usual daily applications in certain aspects were paid special attention. Additionally, the activities' being interesting and qualified in providing learning of the children while entertaining theirs was intended. Concrete materials that can make a difference in the education environment were prepared in order to facilitate the participation of the children. Besides, for the active participation of the children, question-answers, demonstration, brainstorming and learning by doing methods were benefited. Performing individual, small and large group works and giving each child a fair hearing were paying attention. After Reasoning Education Program was prepared, it was broached to the views of three specialists. Specialists were asked to evaluate the developed education program as "appropriate", "partially appropriate", "not appropriate" by taking criteria such as appropriateness of determined objectives and acquirements to the objective of the program, efficiency of learning processes, appropriateness and efficiency of the materials used, appropriateness in the distribution of the objectives and clarity of the instructions provided into consideration and to state their opinions in the "explanation" part. By taking criticism and suggestions of the specialists about the education program into consideration necessary corrections were made and Reasoning Education Program was put into its final form. Prior to intervention, a short information note about the issues with the content of the education program and the importance of children's attending the school, especially during the specified days and hours, in order for the effectiveness of the education program was sent to the parents. Educational activities were performed in the children's own classes in which they had an education. Researcher arranged the education environment for each activity correspondingly before she conducted the reasoning education program to the children in the experimental group. The materials prepared according to the number of the children in advance were brought to the class by the researcher. When a material or an object was required to be brought by the classroom teacher or parents, it was stated to the teacher or conveyed to the parents by information letter a week in advance. That they would do activities and play games together twice a week was stated to the children before conducting the program. Before starting the activities, name cards were prepared for each child in order for the educator to address children with their names. So as to determine the participation of the children attending Reasoning Education Program in the activities, attendance list was kept. The educator, attracted the attention of the children to make them realize the differences before the activity. Information about that day's activity was explained to children and what was 6

expected from them was stated clearly. After explaining the instructions of the activity was told the whole group, parts that were not clear were clarified for children one by one again. At the end of each activity, an evaluation was carried out in order for children to state their feelings and thoughts about the activity. During the evaluation, questions related to the content of the activity were asked to children in order to ensure that they reached to new deductions through their acquirements obtained from the activities. While evaluating, giving adequate time for the children to speak up and express their feelings and thoughts were taken into consideration. After pre-tests were applied by the researcher, acitvities of the Reasoning Education Program were carried out twice a week and 60-90 minutes in a day during 12 weeks. Within this period, the children in the control group continued their daily education program. Collection and Analysis of Data Since the values of the experimental and control groups showed normal distribution in pre-test and post-test comparisons, Independent Samples t Test and Dependent Samples t Test were used. As significance level .05 was used and it was stated that there was a significant difference in the case of p.05 (Büyüköztürk et al., 2010). RESULTS The results of the study, which were conducted with intent to analyze the impact of Reasoning Education Program on 61-72 month-old children's cognitive abilities were presented in the tables. Table 2: Results of Independent Samples t Test according to the Subtests and Total of CogAT Form-6 Post-test Scores of the Children in the Experimental and Control Groups CogAT Form-6

Verbal subtest Quantitative subtest Nonverbal subtest CogAT Form-6 Total

Group

n

X

Ss

Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total Experimental Control Total

41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82 41 41 82

35,8 30,7 33,3 36,0 29,2 32,6 34,0 27,7 30,9 105,9 87,5 96,7

2,2 1,7 3,2 2,4 1,8 4,0 2,5 2,1 4,0 5,4 3,8 10,4

Independent Samples t Test t p 11,74

.00*

14,63

.00*

12,35

.00*

17,79

.00*

*p. 05). This result indicates that the impact of Reasoning Education Program continued. As a consequence, in this study, which was limited to the number of children and activities applied in the Reasoning Education Program, it was found out that the Reasoning Education Program was effective in supporting cognitive abilities of 61-72 month-old children. In this respect, following suggestions can be presented;  By selecting pilot schools, making use of this education program can be provided for a larger sample group in order to test the effectiveness of Reasoning Education Program.  Impact of reasoning ability on academic achievement can be examined by conducting longitudinal studies.  In service education seminars for preschool teachers can be arranged on the subject of creating qualified learning processes related to supporting cognitive skills of children.  Elective courses at the undergraduate and graduate level can be provided including the subject of components and types of reasoning ability, how to improve reasoning ability and education program examples for teacher candidates. REFERENCES Aiello, M. (2002). Spatial reasoning: theory and practice. Unpublished Dissertation Thesis. Institute for Logic, Language and Computation, Amsterdam University, Amsterdam. Avaiable online at: http://www.cs.rug.nl/~aiellom/publications/aielloPHDThesis.pdf. Retrieved on June 16, 2011. Alp, E.İ. & Diri, A. (2003) Bilişsel Yetenekler Testi’nin (CogAT®) ana sınıfı ve birinci sınıf öğrencileri için kurultu geçerliliği çalışması, Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 18 (51), 19–31. Aydoğan, S. (2007). 6 yaş çocuklarının geometrik şekil ve sayı kavramlarının gelişiminde kavram eğitim programının etkisi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Aydın. Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G. (2007). Increasing young low‐income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251-271. Brown, C. (2007). Cognitive psychology. London, England: SAGE Publications Ltd. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2007). Deneysel desenler öntest-sontest kontrol grubu desen ve veri analizi. (2.Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. 13

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Educational Psychology, USA. Avaiable online at: http://korbedpsych.com/Linked Files/Katrina_A_Korb_Dissertation.pdf Retrieved on June 06, 2010. Lee, D. H. L. (1997). Analogical reasoning in academic and social problem solving. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Waterloo Degree of Philosophy in Psychology, Ontario, Canada. Avaiable online at: http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/ f2/dsk3/ftp04/nq22214.pdf Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Lee, K., Anzures, G. & Freire, A. (2011). Cognitive development in adolescence. In A. Slater and G. Bremner (Eds.), An introduction to developmental psychology (pp.517550). Great Britain: Bps Blackwell Publishing. Lohman, D. F. & Hagen, E. (2002). Research handbook: Cognitive abilities test Form 6-all levels. Itasca, Illinois: Riverside Publishing. Lohman, D. F. & Hagen, E. (2003). Interpretive guide for teachers and counselors: cognitive abilities test Form 6-all levels. Itasca, Illinois: Riverside Publishing. Lohman, D. F. (2005). Reasoning abilities. In R.J. Sternberg, J. Davidson and J. Pretz (Eds.), Cognition and intelligence: Identifying mechanisms of the mind (pp. 225- 250). New York: Cambridge University Press. Mulligan, J. T., Mitchelmore, M. C. & Prescott, A. (2006). Integrating concepts and processes in early mathematics: The Australian Pattern and Structure Mathematics Awareness Project (PASMAP). In J. Novotná, H. Moraová, M. Krátká, & N. Stehlíková (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education 4. (pp.209 –216). Czech Republic: Atelier Guimaec. Avaiable online at: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED496931.pdf Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Munro, J. (1998). Phonological and phonemic awareness: Their impact on learning to read prose and to spell. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 3(2), 15-21. Oaskford, M. (2005). Reasoning. In N. Braisby and A. Gellaty (Eds.), Cognitive psychology (pp.418-458). New York, U.S.A: Oxford University Press. Papic, M. & Mulligan, J.T. (2005). Pre-schoolers' mathematical patterning. In P. Clarkson, A. Downton, D. Gronn, A. McDonough, R. Pierce, & A. Roche (Eds.), Building connections: Theory, research and practice (Proceedings of the 28th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (pp. 609-616). Melbourne, Sydney: MERGA. Piaget, J. (2006). Çocukta karar verme akıl yürütme. (Çeviren: Sabri Esat Siyavuşgül). Ankara: Palme Yayınları. Pilten, P. (2008). Üstbiliş stratejileri öğretiminin ilköğretim beşinci sınıf öğrencilerinin matematiksel muhakeme becerilerine etkisi. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Plouffe, V. F. (2004). The use of Canadian cognitive abilities test (CCAT) administered off level to predict future achievement of gifted student. Unpublished Master Thesis. Calgary University Division of Applied Pychology, Calgary, Alberta. Avaiable online at: http://hdl.handle.net/1880/41895 Retrieved on June 07, 2010. Starkey, P., Klein, A., & Wakeley, A. (2004). Enhancing young children’s mathematical knowledge through a pre-kindergarten mathematics intervention. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 99-120. Tian, Z. & Huang, X. (2009). A study of children’s spatial reasoning and quantitative reasoning abilities. Journals of Mathematic Education, 2 (2), 80-93. Tomic, W. (1995). Training in inductive reasoning and problem solving. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20(4): 483-490. Tomic, W., & Klauer, K. J. (1996). On the effects of training inductive reasoning: How far 15

does it transfer and how long do the effects persist? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 11(3), 283-299. Tomic, W. & Kingma, J. (1998). Accelerating Intelligence Development through Inductive Reasoning Training. Cognition and Educational Practice, 5: 291-305. Umay, A. (2003). Matematiksel muhakeme yeteneği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24, 234–243. Van der Sluis, S., De Jong, P. F., & Van der Leij, A. (2007). Executive functioning in children, and its relations with reasoning, reading, and arithmetic. Intelligence, 35(5), 427-449. White, C. S., & Manning, B. H. (1994). The effects of verbal scaffolding instruction on young children's private speech and problem-solving capabilities. Instructional Science, 22(1), 39-59.

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Chapter 2 The Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion Remziye CEYLAN, Neriman ARAL INTRODUCTION Inclusive education is defined as and used with different meanings attributed by different researchers in various disciplines. In the broadest sense, inclusive education is defined as the education of children with disabilities and normally developing children in the same environment (Osborne & Dimattia, 1994). Another definition of inclusive education is placing children with disabilities in regular or general education classrooms for instruction and providing them with appropriate support (Lerner, 2000). Each definition of inclusion emphasizes the instruction of disabled children together with normally developing children and the provision of educational support. Inclusion does not mean the placement of the child with special needs directly in a general education classroom with no special educational support. On the contrary, it is teaching special needs children in the general education classroom by making use of special educational support (Kargın, 2006). One of the most significant factors in successful inclusion is the provision of educational support services to the children with or without special needs in general education classrooms and the teachers. Support services are classified in two groups: inclass and out-of-class. The majority of in-class support services are implemented without separating the child from the general education environment, whereas, in outof-class support, special education services are provided to the child with special needs outside the general education environment (Aral, 2011). However, successful collaboration between the general education and special education teachers as well as the school support staff must be ensured for effective support services. Teacher collaboration takes place in the form of educational preparation, provision of in-class and out-of-class support, instructional adjustment, and special educational support for the general education teacher. The collaboration of teachers both facilitates the placement of children with special needs in general education classrooms and contributes to improved communication between teachers (Aral, 2011; Batu & Kırcaali İftar, 2007; Gürgür, 2005). Classroom teachers have a key role in the successful implementation of inclusive education. Teachers in inclusive classrooms should be willing to implement inclusion, and accepting of children with disabilities, in their classrooms (Aral, 2011; Batu, 2000; Kargın, 2006). Various studies have revealed that teachers had a negative attitude toward inclusion (Demir & Açar, 2010; Sadioğlu et al., 2013; Uysal, 1995; Yılmaz, 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary Education  Prof. Dr., Ankara University, Faculty of Health Science, Department of Child Development 

1995). In the 26 studies they reviewed for the attitudes of classroom teachers towards inclusion, De Boer, Pijl and Minnaert (2011) reported that the majority of teachers held neutral or negative attitudes towards the special needs students in general education classrooms, and that none of the studies had clear and positive results. In addition, they found that the teachers’ attitudes were related to the type of disability and that teachers viewed the inclusion of children with learning disabilities and behavioral problems negatively. Another study revealed that teachers were more willing to include children with mild disabilities or physical disabilities than those with more complex needs (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). There are several studies on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion (Babaoğlan &Yılmaz, 2010; Saraç &Çolak, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011). Various studies on the subject reported that classroom teachers did not consider themselves qualified for or adequately knowledgeable in inclusion (Babaoğlan &Yılmaz, 2010; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2013; Yıldırım Erişkin et al., 2012), that they experienced difficulties in issues such as time management (Saraç & Çolak, 2012; Vural & Yıkmış, 2008), classroom management (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2013), communication/cooperation with families (Demir & Açar, 2011; Sadioğlu et al., 2012), that they did not have adequate support services (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Kargın et al., 2003; Sadioğlu et al., 2012), and that they required counseling services and in-service training for effective inclusion (Myles & Simpson, 1998). These studies show that, in Turkey, classroom teachers are left to face children with disabilities alone due to the lack of adequate educational support services. Classroom teachers experience problems in the inclusion of children with disabilities and have difficulty in finding solutions due to the lack of support services and training. Therefore, there is a need for greater emphasis on the opinions of classroom teachers regarding inclusion. Furthermore, determining the opinions of classroom teachers is essential to taking necessary measures to ensure successful inclusion. In view of this perspective, the aim of this study was to determine the opinions of elementary classroom teachers who had children with special needs in their classrooms regarding inclusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design In the study, the phenomenological qualitative research design was employed, as the researchers aimed to investigate the opinions of elementary classroom teachers who had special needs children in their classrooms regarding inclusive practice through their own explanations, perceptions and examples. Phenomenological design focuses on phenomena people are aware of without having an in-depth and detailed understanding. The interview technique was used as the data collection tool, since the study was based on phenomenological design. In ascertaining experiences and meanings related to phenomena, the interview technique grants the researcher opportunities for interaction, flexibility and probing with follow-up questions (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Study group The study group selected using the criterion sampling method, which is a purposeful sampling method, comprised 11 teachers who were employed at the fourth and fifth grades of elementary schools in Edirne city center and had children with 18

special needs in their classrooms. The criterion sampling method involves studying all cases that meet a series of predetermined criteria. The criterion or criteria mentioned herein could be developed by the researcher or a prearranged list of criteria could be used (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). The criteria used in the selection of the study group teachers were teaching at the fourth and fifth grades of elementary school, having at least one child with special needs in their classrooms and voluntary participation. All of the teachers participating in the study were aged 36 or older. Six of the teachers were female, while five were male. Eight of the teachers had four-year university degrees, two had three-year associate degrees and one had a two-year associate degree. The number of teachers who had been teaching to the same class for the past two years and three-five years were four and seven; respectively. In addition, two teachers had been teaching at the same school for two years and less, three teachers for three-five years, three teachers for six-ten years, two teachers for eleven-fifteen years, and one teacher for sixteen years or more. Eight of the teachers were employed full-time while three worked part-time. Five teachers had 26-30 students in their classrooms, four had 31 or more students, one had 21-25 students and one had 16-20 students. Each teacher had one included student in the classroom. Only one of the teachers had attended an undergraduate course on inclusive education. Among the special needs children in the classrooms of the teachers participating in the study, four were diagnosed with learning disability, three with mental disability, two with physical disability, one with visual disability and one with hyperactivity. Data collection instrument The “Semi-Structured Interview Form for the Opinions of Classroom Teachers on Inclusion” (Appendix 1) developed by the researchers for data collection purposes were used in the study. The first section of the teachers’ form consisting of two sections comprised questions on the age, gender, educational background, period of service and employment status of the teacher, as well as, the number of children in the class and whether the teacher had attended any undergraduate courses on inclusion. The second section of the interview form included the 10 questions addressed to the participants during the semi-structured interviews. The questions in the Interview Form were reviewed by two professors working in the field of child development, an assessment and evaluation expert and a statistician to evaluate content validity. The 10 questions submitted for review were evaluated by the experts as suitable, partially suitable or unsuitable with respect to the aim of the study and the clarity of the questions. The questions deemed suitable by the experts were used as is, while the questions the experts deemed partially suitable were amended according to their suggestions. None of the questions were deemed unsuitable by the majority of the experts; therefore, there were no questions that were excluded from the forms. None of the questions were excluded as there were no questions deemed unsuitable by the majority of the experts. The Interview Form was finalized and readied for administration in accordance with the opinions provided in the Expert Information Form (Appendix 1). Data collection and analysis The research data was collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with the elementary school teachers with special needs children in their classrooms in elementary schools in the Edirne province. All interviews with the teachers were 19

conducted by the researchers at their schools, in quiet rooms and at their convenience. Prior to the interviews, the researchers briefly explained the aim of the study to the participants; then asked the questions in the form and recorded their answers with their consent. During the interviews, the names of the participants were used; however, thereafter each participant was designated with a code as T1, T2, …, T11. Data collection took approximately 30 minutes. Following data collection, the researchers analyzed the research data with content analysis, a qualitative data analysis method (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). In data analysis, the researchers printed out the data in the interview form without any modification to the voice recordings; thereby, converting the digital recordings into written text. The written data were read and evaluated individually. The evaluation data were coded by subject. Due to the lack of a code list on the subject in the literature, the coding was carried out according to the concepts derived from the study data. The researchers tried to identify the similarities between the codes developed for each interview question and organized the codes into themes. The themes developed were reorganized after simplification and consolidation in collaboration with an associate specialized in the area, and systematically analyzed. In qualitative studies, directly quoting the interviewees and interpreting the results based on these quotes is fundamental to ensuring the validity of the research (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Therefore, in the present study, the interviewees were quoted directly and the results were interpreted based on these quotes. The reliability study was conducted by the researchers in collaboration with a domain expert by comparing the codings. The formula (Reliability = Number of Agreements / Total Number of Agreements and Disagreements) suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used to determine inter-rater reliability. According to this formula, the reliability of the study was computed as 90%. RESULTS The results of the study carried out to investigate teachers’ opinions on inclusion are presented below as themes developed in line with the questions in the Interview Form. The meaning of inclusion The question “In your opinion, what is inclusion?” was asked to the teachers to discover what inclusion meant for them. Five of the teachers participating in the study replied it meant children being instructed together, three said the education of students with perception deficits and the remaining three said children who have problems. T4 expressed her opinion on the subject as “Children who need inclusive education share the same environment with other children,” while T11 said “Lack of perception. Education that students who do not pay attention to the lesson should attend,” and T6 said “Children who have difficulty in catching up with other children.” The opinions of the teachers on the similarities and differences between the children The teachers were queried about the similarities and differences between the children in inclusive education. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated that the children with disabilities and the normally developing children were emotionally similar. T4 expressed her opinions as “They are all children; they play the same games, 20

and share the same pleasures and joys. They share the same emotions in non-academic classes, even more happily.” Two of the remaining three teachers said the children with disabilities enjoyed playing games like the normally developing children, and one teacher said they were physically similar. When asked about the differences between the children in inclusion, the teachers mostly stressed the differences with respect to academic skills. Two of the teachers said they experienced difficulty in Mathematics and Turkish classes, and two said they were inattentive during lessons. T4 expressed her opinion as “She gets bored when faced with difficult Turkish and Mathematics questions,” and T11 said “His classmates ask questions and try to learn but he is only interested in his own world; no warning attracts his attention. He lives in his own world.” Two of the teachers emphasized the difference in the children’s perceptions and problem behavior. T8 stated her opinion as “There are differences in the children’s perceptions. I teach him something today, tomorrow he forgets and comes asking again,” and T7 as “There are some behaviors due to his mental disability, such as throwing water and spitting. He thinks this is normal.” Three teachers said that the children had restricted movement and needed more time and support. The opinions of the teachers on the disability groups that could benefit from inclusion The teachers were asked which disability groups could benefit from inclusion. Seven teachers said students with mild mental disabilities, four said students with orthopedic impairments and three said those with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. The teachers’ opinions on the subject were as follows: T10 said “Students with mild mental disabilities could be included because those with more severe mental disabilities would experience difficulties in inclusion,” T9 said “Students with orthopedic impairments are suitable for this curriculum. There might be suitable class roles,” and T11 said “Students who suffer from hyperactivity and attention deficit could benefit because, for the rest, the physical school and class environment, and my training is inadequate. I have never received any training on the subject.” The suggestions of the teachers for successful inclusion The teachers were requested to provide suggestions for achieving successful inclusion. Three teachers suggested giving simple tasks the child is capable of, nine suggested providing individual support, showing tolerance to the child and smaller class size, and ten teachers suggested providing specialist, material and family support, collaboration with individuals and institutions, building resource rooms and giving educational seminars. T10 stressed supporting the child by saying “The child could be entrusted with simple tasks such as fetching something from the other classroom or something he could do inside the classroom; for example, opening and closing the curtains,” and T9 emphasized the necessity for reduced class size by saying “The class size should be smaller, about 20 children.” T2 said “School administrations, provincial directorates and universities should collaborate, develop a strong affiliation and provide concrete examples,” and T3 said “Everyone in the academic community should cooperate,” both stressing collaboration. T3 said “Resource rooms are needed,” and T7 said “There should be love and attachment between the child and the whole class, particularly the teacher,” indicating 21

the need for resource rooms and the importance of attachment. T2 expressed her opinion on the subject as “Educational seminars should be organized. It should be voluntary participation within office hours or paid participation,” and T4 as “Parenting education is essential,” suggesting organizing educational seminars and parenting education programs. The adjustments the teachers made in the educational environment and their suggestions The teachers were inquired about the adjustments they made in the educational environment for inclusion and were asked to explain their suggestions regarding these adjustments. Five of the teachers said they asked questions the children could answer. Five teachers said they made seating adjustments and two teachers said they gave homework suitable for the child’s level. Two of the remaining teachers said that they made no adjustments and one teacher said she did not make any adjustments as she was not informed on the subject. T3 said “I ask questions he can answer, which makes him happy. I prepare individualized questions for him during examinations,” and T10 said “I seated him next to the classmate he gets along best with and placed him close to the teacher's desk. I try to facilitate his communication with the rest of his classmates.” Five of the teachers suggested adjustments in the seating arrangement, while two teachers stressed not separating the child with disability from the other children, and four teachers said they did not know and offered no suggestions. The teachers’ considerations and suggestions for curriculum development The teachers were requested to convey their considerations and suggestions for inclusive curriculum development. Six of the interviewed teachers said they made sure the curriculum was suitable for the children’s level, while three said they paid particular heed to the curriculum’s suitability for the children’s individual characteristics and needs. T11 stated “At the beginning of the school year, I plan the curriculum for the included children in collaboration with the school counsellor,” whereas T9 and T3 said they did not develop a separate curriculum for the included children. On the subject, T9 said “I don’t do anything because I have not attended any training,” and T3 said “I did not implement an individualized curriculum for this school year. I think the Individualized Education Program was not properly implemented. The teacher knows each student well so I employ opportunity teaching.” Six of the teachers stated that the curriculum should be individualized for the child’s level and developed in collaboration with the school counsellor, while two teachers indicated that a separate curriculum was not required and the subjects needed simplification. T4 expressed her opinion as “An individualized curriculum is developed in collaboration with the school counsellor in respect of the development and progress of the included child,” while T2 said “There is no need for a separate curriculum. The same subjects need to be simplified according to the student.” The types of support the teachers require The teachers were queried about the types of support they needed in inclusion. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated they needed the support of a specialist, while 22

four said they needed the support of the families, four said they required a resource room and three said they needed the support of the school administration. T6 expressed her opinion as “I need special education for the diagnosis of the child. They need additional extracurricular support,” while T5 said “I require the assistance of the school counsellor.” T1 stated “I need the support of the mother. It is fine as long as there is someone to assist and carry her. During long walks, I need the father’s help,” and T8 said “I need the support of the parents. I cannot attend the child as much as I would like because I don’t have the time. If I had the time, I wouldn’t need much support,” pointing out the need for family support. T3 said “There should be a resource room I could send him to when he gets bored,” and T11 said “I need resource rooms,” emphasizing the need for resource rooms. T7 and T10 expressed the need for administrative support by saying “I need the support of the school principal.” The problems the teachers experienced and their solution suggestions The teachers were requested to relate the most important problems they experienced in inclusion, and to provide solution suggestions. The problems they experienced were behavioral problems, difficulty with lessons, lack of proper readiness of the school and the teachers, lack of knowledge, classroom management, class size, acceptance of the child with special needs and level of disability. On the subject, T2 indicated the lack of knowledge by saying “Teachers suffer from lack of knowledge; not knowing what to do in the classroom,” T1 expressed class management problems by saying “When he doesn’t understand the subject, he bothers his classmates and distracts those who try to follow the lesson. You manage to focus their attention and it is disrupted by his single act,” T2 stressed time management issues by saying “There isn’t enough time,” T7 emphasized class size by saying “There are too many students in the class. And the presence of undiagnosed inclusion students,” T9 pointed out issues regarding the acceptance of the child by his/her parents by saying “The parents’ failure to accept the child’s condition,” and T10 indicated the child’s level of disability by saying “The child having a severe disability.” The majority of the teachers participating in the study emphasized the importance of training the parents and the teachers on the subject and two of the teachers stressed the acceptance of the child in the school and the class. T10 expressed her opinion on the subject as “For inclusion to be successful, first of all, the teacher has to accept the child and ensure peer acceptance.” Two of the teachers recommended greater support to the teachers by the Ministry of National Education and school administrations, while one teacher suggested the making of necessary legal regulations, and another indicated the need for grade retention. T10 recommended the provision of special education support to the child and the parents, saying “The child could receive extramural counselling and special education support. The parents could also receive training.” T5 said “The teacher should collaborate with the parents. There should be collaboration between teachers, as well as, the teacher and the school administration,” stressing collaboration. Another teacher suggested educating children with special needs in a separate environment.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The teachers interviewed said inclusion meant education in the same environment, the instruction of students with perception deficits and children with problems. The teachers failed to explain inclusion and were not sufficiently knowledgeable on the subject. However, inclusion is defined as placing children with disabilities in regular or general education classrooms for instruction and providing appropriate support (Lerner, 2000). This could be due to the fact that the teachers had not been educated or trained on the subject. The teachers have also expressed their lack of knowledge. For example, T9 expressed her lack of knowledge by saying “I don’t know because I didn’t attend any training.” In their study on the competence of classroom teachers in inclusive education, Babaoğlan and Yılmaz (2010) revealed that teachers lacked adequate knowledge and qualifications for inclusive education. Furthermore, another study reported that teachers’ knowledge on inclusion was inadequate (Kargın et al., 2003). The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) stated that the children with disabilities and normally developing children were emotionally similar however only one teacher mentioned a physical similarity. Most of the teachers emphasized that, whether disabled or non-disabled, they were all children and they felt sorrow and joy from the same things. These statements indicate that the teachers focused more on the similar characteristics. Most of the educational needs of the children with disabilities can be met with various simple adjustments in the general educational environment and curriculum if the emphasis is placed on the similarities. In this respect, great responsibility lies with the classroom teachers and specialists (Akçamete, 2010). Some of the teachers stressed an academic difference between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children, while others expressed a difference in problem behavior. There is a tendency to focus on the differences of children with disabilities from normally developing children rather than their similarities. This is due to the impact of some types of disabilities on learning (Akçamete, 2010). This difference of opinion among the teachers might be attributed to the type of disability of the children with special needs in their classes and, consequently, the impact of the type of disability on learning. The teachers had varying opinions on the disability groups could benefit from inclusion. The teachers opined that students with mild mental disabilities, orthopedic impairments, and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder could benefit from inclusion. The reluctance of the teachers to include particular disability groups could be due to inadequate knowledge of disability types, lack of experience and training in the education of children with disabilities. In the 26 studies they reviewed for the attitudes of classroom teachers towards inclusion, De Boer, et al., (2011) revealed that teachers viewed the inclusion of children with learning disabilities and behavioral problems less favorably. Avramidis and Norwich (2002) reported that teachers were more willing to include students with mild disabilities or physical disabilities than those with more complex needs. The study results revealed that teachers preferred children who did not demand too much responsibility in inclusive education. The teachers have made various suggestions for achieving successful inclusive practice. These suggestions were giving simple tasks the child is capable of, individual support to the child, showing tolerance, decreasing the class size, the provision of specialist, material and family support to the teachers, collaboration with individuals and institutions (universities), building resource rooms and organizing educational 24

seminars. The suggestions concentrate on the subjects of education and collaboration as good communication, collaboration and rapport must be ensured between educators, parents and social resources for successful inclusion. The education of children with special needs, once regarded as the domain of special educators, is now considered to be a shared responsibility requiring team work. The quality of the communication, collaboration, accord and support between educators, other professionals and parents is essential for effective inclusion (Salend, 1998). Ben-Yehuda, S., Leyser, Y. & Last, U. (2010), reported that teachers successful in increasing the social interaction of children with disabilities stressed the significance of allocating time for and showing affection to special needs children. Furthermore, the study showed that the teachers had acquainted themselves with the child’s past and established meaningful and positive relationships with their families. In the study by Sadioğlu et al., (2013), the teachers recommended separate educational environments, the provision of quality and effective pre- and inservice training, partial inclusion and the provision of support material. Demir and Açar (2011) reported that classroom teachers experienced in inclusive education recommended that included children should be educated together with classmates who have similar characteristics, the instruction of special needs children should be carried out by specialists, included children should be instructed one-to-one and in-service training activities should be increased. The study results revealed that the teachers were not provided with adequate support services and were not readied for inclusion. The teachers made various adjustments in the educational environment for inclusive education. The majority of the teachers stated that they made different adjustments and only two teachers said they did not make instructional adjustments because they did not want to and one teacher said she did not make instructional adjustments because she lacked the know-how. Those who made adjustments said they asked questions the child could answer, changed the seating arrangement, gave homework suitable for the child’s level, got the child’s attention by making eye-contact and made use of visual materials. These adjustments are not sufficient. The teachers apparently did not make necessary adjustments such as ensuring the accessibility of material, organizing the classroom climate and forming study groups. Furthermore, the changes the teachers made mainly included adjustments concerning the aim, method and presentation of the content. The researchers believe that the teachers failed to adjust the educational environment according to the needs of the child because the teachers were not knowledgeable about, or had limited knowledge of, the requirements of children with disabilities and inclusion. Various studies have similarly reported that teachers mostly paid attention to seating adjustments and did not make any adjustments for other problems (Kargin et al., 2003; Sarac & Colak, 2012; Vural & Yikmis, 2008). The majority of the teachers (6 teachers) stated their leading concern in developing the curriculum was the children’s levels, followed by the suitability of the curriculum to their individual characteristics and needs. On the other hand, two of the teachers said they did not develop an individualized curriculum for the special needs child. Individualized education programs are required to address their needs and ensure they benefit from instruction (Akçamete, 2010). Therefore, the teachers assigned to inclusive classrooms are tasked with critical responsibilities. However, they need to be equipped with adequate knowledge to be able to fulfill these responsibilities. These two teachers lacked adequate knowledge and experience, and were not readied for inclusion. The results of the study by Vural and Yıkmış (2008) showed that inclusive classroom 25

teachers lacked adequate knowledge of instructional adjustment and that some of the adjustments they made were limited. Another study reported that classroom teachers lacked proper knowledge of inclusion, the Individualized Education Program and the types of disability (Yıldırım Erişkin et al., 2012). Sadioğlu et al. (2013) emphasized the small number of teachers who implemented the Individualized Education Program. However, in order to meet the needs of the disabled children being educated together with normally developing children, the implementation of individualized curricula is critical. The majority of the teachers recommended developing a curriculum suitable for the child’s level in collaboration with the school counsellor, while two teachers said there was no need for a separate curriculum and the subjects needed to be simplified, and one teacher expressed her lack of knowledge. Kargın et al., (2003) found that a significant majority of the teachers (77.1%) did not develop an individualized education program and used the existing curriculum for the children with disabilities in their classrooms. However, an individualized curriculum is a critical factor for successful inclusion. The effectiveness of instruction would significantly suffer in the lack of an individualized curriculum for special needs children and the impromptu administration of instructional adjustments without prior preparation. Similarly, Vural and Yıkmış (2008) reported that although the inclusive classroom teachers made simplifications in goal adaptations and developed additional goals suitable for the child’s level, they did not carry out any planning for these activities. However, each child in the class has different needs and one of the ways to meet the needs of the children with disabilities in inclusive classrooms is to use individualized curricula. The majority of the teachers (9 teachers) expressed the need for specialist support, followed by family support, resource room and administrative support. Sadioğlu et al. (2013) similarly reported that teachers mainly required specialist support. In addition, some of the teachers emphasized the support of the family. The study by Idol (2006) indicated that most of the teachers still preferred the resource room model while some of the teachers stressed the support of the family. The limited quantity and quality of teachers and the lack of special educators to support teachers increases the significance of family support, resulting in teachers’ demands for the support of the family. Behavioral problems were the most significant issue the teachers experienced in the inclusion of children with disabilities. Saraç and Çolak (2012) reported that teachers experienced various issues resulting from disabled children’s behavioral problems during inclusion. In another study, behavioral problems were similarly identified as one of the problems teachers encountered during inclusion (Sadioğlu et al., 2012). This might be due to the teachers’ failure to implement effective classroom management strategies. In their study, Sucuoğlu, Ünsal and Özokçu (2004) revealed that the teachers who experienced increased problem behavior in their classrooms and continuously complained of these behaviors utilized preventive classroom management strategies less frequently than the teachers who encountered fewer incidents of problem behavior and were able to control these incidents. The second most common issue the teachers experienced in inclusive education was the problems related to the lessons and the fact that the school and the teachers were not readied for inclusion. The problems encountered during the lessons could be attributed to the teachers’ failure to make adjustments appropriate for the characteristics and needs of all the children in the class and therefore to focus the children’s attention on the lessons. Kargın et al., (2003) 26

reported that the majority of school principals were not adequately knowledgeable, and did not make the necessary adjustments to accommodate children with special needs or ready teachers and other students for inclusion. The lack of knowledge is another issue the teachers experienced in inclusion. Moreover, Vural and Yıkmış (2008) reported that the majority of the teachers complained of the lack of time and knowledge of instructional adjustment. However, inclusive education can succeed only through the provision of necessary adjustments to normal educational environments and a full range of support services. Therefore, the researchers believe that the teachers’ ignorance of instructional adjustments is one of the main factors in the failure of inclusive programs. Classroom management issues the teachers experienced might be due to their lack of knowledge on classroom management. In the study investigating classroom teachers’ level of knowledge on classroom management, Güner (2011) found that the knowledge levels of the teachers were similar and limited. Class size was another issue the teachers had to face. There were five classrooms with 26-30 students, four with 31 and more students, one with 16-21 students and one with 21-25 students. In the lack of assistant teachers to support the classroom teachers, these numbers are very high. In addition, various studies have reported similar results (Çankaya & Korkmaz, 2012; Demir & Açar, 2011; Vural & Yıkmış, 2008). Acceptance of the special needs child is another issue. Sadioğlu et al. (2012) similarly found that classroom teachers reported that parents’ failure to accept their children’s disability was another source of problem. In their study on the opinions of classroom teachers experienced in inclusive education, Demir and Acar (2011) also reported that the teachers pointed out the problems they had with the parents of special needs children. Therefore, classroom teachers should be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary for establishing communication and collaboration, as well as, informing and guiding the families. The majority of the teachers suggested the provision of training to the parents and teachers. The other suggestions were ensuring the child’s acceptance in the school and class, teacher, ministerial and administrative support for the child, making the necessary legal regulations, grade retention, making use of scientific methods in education, providing special educational support to the child and family, ensuring collaboration between the parents, school and teachers and educating children with special needs in separate classrooms. The study results revealed the existence of various issues in inclusive education in Turkey although the inclusion of disabled children in general education classrooms and the provision of the necessary support services to the students and their families are guaranteed by law. In the study by Sadioğlu et al., (2013), teachers similarly recommended separate educational environments, the provision of quality and effective in-service training, reducing the class size, and the provision of support material. Furthermore, in the study conducted by Saraç and Çolak (2012), the teachers recommended providing in-service training, assigning two counsellors to each school, and instructing children with special needs in separate schools and classrooms to the Ministry of National Education, while they suggested organizing training activities for the parents, a more active guidance and counselling service, smaller class sizes, and in-school training programs to the school administration. Another study reported that experienced inclusive classroom teachers’ suggestions focused on educating children with special needs in separate schools, one-to-one instruction for included students and increased in-service training activities (Demir and Acar, 2011). One of the most important problems is the inadequate education and training of 27

classroom teachers on special needs children and inclusive education, which could lead to an unfavorable attitude in classroom teachers toward the inclusion of children with disabilities. In addition, neither the teachers nor the children with special needs are provided with adequate educational support for inclusive practice. Consequently, classroom teachers experience significant difficulties in the inclusion of children with disabilities. In view of the study results, the researchers would like to make the following suggestions: Teachers, children and parents could be informed about inclusion and inclusive education prior to implementation by organizing interactive meetings. More effective and efficient in-service training seminars on the adjustment of educational environment, developing an individualized curriculum, and classroom management could be organized for classroom teachers who have children with special needs in their classes. Special educational support services such as resource rooms, in-class assistance and special education counseling could be provided to both teachers and children with special needs at inclusive schools. Faculties of education could provide school and practical teaching experience opportunities at inclusive schools in addition to theoretical and practical courses on inclusive education for prospective classrooms teachers. The opinions of classroom teachers regarding inclusion could be identified using mixed research models combining both qualitative and quantitative perspectives, or qualitative research methods in which more than one data collection method is utilized. REFERENCES Akçamete, A. G. (2010). Özel Gereksinimi Olan Çocuklar. A. G. Akçamete (Ed.), Genel Eğitim Okullarında Özel Gereksinimi Olan Öğrenciler ve Özel Eğitim kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 31-76). Kök Yayıncılık: Ankara. Aral, N. (2011). Okul Öncesi Eğitiminde Kaynaştırma. Morpa Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Avramidis, E. & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Integration/Inclusion: A Review of the Literatüre. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17, 129-147. Babaoğlan, E. & Yılmaz, Ş. (2010). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Eğitimindeki Yeterlilikleri. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 18 (2), 345-354. Batu, E. S. (2000). Kaynaştırma, Destek Hizmetler ve Kaynaştırma Hazırlık Etkinlikleri. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 2 (4), 35-45. Batu, S. & Kırcaali İftar, G. (2007). Kaynaştırma. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Ben-Yehuda, S.; Leyser, Y. & Last, U. (2010). Teacher Educational Beliefs and Sociometric Status of Special Educational Needs (SEN) Students in Inclusive Classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14 (1),17-3 Çankaya, Ö. & Korkmaz, İ. (2012). İlköğretim I. Kademede Kaynaştırma Eğitimi Uygulamalarının Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 13, (1),1-16. De Boer, A. A. ; Pijl, S. J. & Minnaert, A. (2011). Regular Primary Schoolteachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education: A Review of the Literature. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15 (3), 331-353. Demir, M. K. & Açar, S. (2010). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Eğitimine İlişkin Düşünceleri. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30 (3), 749-770. Demir, M. K. & Açar, S. (2011). Kaynaştırma Eğitimi Konusunda Tecrübeli Sınıf 28

Öğretmenlerinin Görüşleri. Kastamonu Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19 (3), 719-732. Güner, N. (2011). Kaynaştırma Sınıflarında Çalışan Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf Yönetimi Bilgi Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 19 (3), 691-708. Gürgür, H. (2005). Kaynaştırma Uygulamasının Yapıldığı İlköğretim Sınıfında İş Birliği İle Öğretim Yaklaşımının İncelenmesi. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Ankara. Idol, L. (2006). Toward Inclusion of Special Education Students in General Education: A Program Evaluation of Eight Schools. Remedial and Special Education, 27 (2), 77-94. Kargın, T., Acarlar, F. & Sucuoğlu, B. (2003). Öğretmen, Yönetici ve Anne Babaların Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesi. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 4 (2), 55-76. Kargın, T. (2006). Kaynaştırma: Temel Kavramlar, Tarihçe ve İlkeleri. İlköğretimde Kaynaştırma Uygulamaları kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 25-67). (B. Sucuoğlu & T. Kargın), İstanbul: Morpa Kültür Yayınları Ltd. Ş. Lerner, J. W. (2000). Learning Disabilities. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). An Expanded Sourcebook Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage. Myles, B. S. & Simpson, R. L. (1989). Regular Educators Modification Prefences for Mainstreaming Midly Handicapped Children. The Journal of Special Education, 22 (4), 479-491. Osborne, A. G. & Dimattia, P. (1994). The Least Restrictive Environment Mandate: Legal İmplications. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 6-14. Sadioğlu, Ö.; Batu, E. S. & Bilgin, A. (2012) Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Özel Gereksinimli Öğrencilerin Kaynaştırılmasına İlişkin Görüşleri. Uludağ Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25 (2),399-432. Sadioğlu, Ö.; Bilgin, A.; Batu, S. & Oksal, A. (2013). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırmaya İlişkin Sorunları, Beklentileri ve Önerileri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 13 (3), 1743-1756. Salend, S. J. (1998). Effective Mainstreaming. New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Inc. Saraç, T. & Çolak, A. (2012) Kaynaştırma Uygulamaları Sürecinde İlköğretim Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Karşılaştıkları Sorunlara İlişkin Görüş ve Önerileri. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (1),13-28. Sucuoğlu, B.; Ünsal, P. & Özokçu, O. (2004). Kaynaştırma Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Önleyici Sınıf Yönetimi Becerilerinin İncelenmesi. Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (2), 51-64. Türkoğlu, Y. K. (2007). İlköğretim Okulu Öğretmenleriyle Gerçekleştirilen Bilgilendirme Çalışmalarının Öncesi ve Sonrasında Öğretmenlerin Kaynaştırmaya İlişkin Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Uysal, A. (1995).Öğretmen ve Okul Yöneticilerinin Zihin Engelli Çocukların Kaynaştırılmasında Karşılaşılan Sorunlara İlişkin Görüşleri. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Vural, M. & Yıkmış, A. (2008). Kaynaştırma Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Öğretimin Uyarlanmasına İlişkin Yaptıkları Çalışmaların Belirlenmesi. Abant İzzet Baysal Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (2),141-159. Yıldırım Erişkin, A.; Yazar Kıraç, S. & Ertuğrul, Y. (2012). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim, 193, 200-213. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri (8. Basım). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık San. ve Tic. A.Ş. 29

Yılmaz, H. (1995). Normal Öğrencilerin Devam Ettiği Sınıflarda Eğitim Gören Özürlü Çocukların Sorunları. Çağdaş Eğitim, 208, 16-22.

APPENDIX 1 Interview questions 1. In your opinion, what is inclusion? 2. What are the similarities between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children participating in inclusive education in your classroom? 3. What are the differences between the children with disabilities and the normally developing children participating in inclusive education in your classroom? 4. Children in which disability group could benefit from inclusion? Please explain the reasons. 5. What could be done to achieve successful inclusion? 6. What kind of adjustments could be made in educational environments for inclusion? Which instructional adjustments do you make? 7. How should an inclusive curriculum be developed? What are your considerations when developing an inclusive curriculum? 8. What type of support do you require in inclusive education? Which support type do you think is more beneficial? 9. What are the most important problems encountered in inclusive education? What can be done to solve these problems? 10. Do you have any final comments regarding inclusion?

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Chapter 3 The Predictive Power of Perception Levels towards Active Learning for Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers Serhat SÜRAL* INTRODUCTION How learning happens and, accordingly, designing teaching environments vary in parallel with sense of “knowledge” and epistemological beliefs (Kaleci, 2012). As an epistemological theory (Theory of Knowledge), constructivism is one of the most prevalent knowledge and learning approach in today’s education system (Akpınar, 2010). In the view of the constructivist theory, learning is a constructive process in which the learner’ prior experiences and knowledge interact with new experiences. Learners construct knowledge in their minds based on their personal interpretation of experience and what they already know. Learners ‘experience, knowledge, belief and expectation play a crucial role. Therefore, in learning process, new knowledge should be processed in relation to existing knowledge and activities that place students in charge of their own learning should be developedwhile they interact with existing knowledge (Connell and Franklin, 1994; Jonassen, 1994; Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell and Haag, 1995; Fer and Cırık, 2007; Atay, 2003; Yaşar, 1998). The prevalent aspects ofconstructivist theory influences all elements inherent in learning-teaching process. This could be observed on teachers as well. Apart from being open-minded, contemporary, staying up-to-date, considering individual differences and good field knowledge, a constructive teacher should be a facilitator who provides appropriate learning experiences rather than simply transmitting knowledge and the teacher himself/herself learns together with the students (Selley, 1999). A constructivist teacher differentiates instruction on the basis of students' needs and interests empower learners to shape their own decisions. In this respect, teacher is a facilitator and guide. Teachers provide learning environment rather than solving problems for learners. Teachers encourage students to reasoning and the teacher challenge the student’s thinking with questions. Teachers ask but do not say what or how to think. A constructivist teacher is like a north star; helping students to find their ways (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Although constructivist approach is a student-centered approach, as it is seen, teacher’ role in this process clearly could not be denied. In this context, as an active agent of active learning, teachers should stay up-to-date, be aware of their competences, and know their individual aspects. This is significant for learning and teaching process. With the combination of required qualifications, teachers shape their learning styles. Moreover, we could say the teacher exhibits specific teaching style (Süral, 2013). Quality in education could be improved through the presence of teachers who evaluate student’s achievement with respect to real life-based performance and *

Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Dep. e-mail:[email protected] 

educational process and empower different types of students to learn together (Townsend, 1997). The primary duty of a teacher for providing quality in education is to prepare effective learning environment to students (Hopkins, 1997). In a higher quality of teaching process, teachers constantly measure their student’s learning via different evaluation tools and methods and they give feedbacks on it (Geringer, 2003). They use different learning and teaching techniques. They endeavor to motivate their students. Teachers also utilize from student achievements as a motivation strategy and help those experiencing difficulty in learning (Armutçuoğlu, 1992). Teachers contribute to make the learning process meaningful by boosting confidence in students and student engagement in decision-making is intended in order to improve their collaborative behaviors and self-expression skills (Baştepe, 2004). When we try to conceptualize teachers’ role, behaviors in learning teaching process and their perspective on students in a common ground, we see the concept of “teaching style”. According to Grasha (1996), teaching style is a view of behaviors, performance, beliefs, needs, and pedagogical knowledge of a teacher in classroom. Teaching styles include behavioral patterns in teaching and learning environment regarding how teachers present information to students, how they deliver information to students, how they interact with students, and how they socialize students. As stressed out by Üredi and Üredi (2007), though there are many definitions used for the term of teaching style, the most widely accepted definition for active learning in the literature is “behavioral patterns continuously, logically and consistently performed by teachers in instructional and learning processes with students”. The preferred teaching styles shape teachers’ such roles as transmitting knowledge, guiding and interacting with students. Another factor that influences students’ learning is the teaching style in the classroom and teachers’ qualifications. At this juncture, it is useful to ask following questions: “What kind of role does a teacher play in teaching process? Is a teacher the sole omnipotent in the classroom or does teacher guide to students? Does teacher prefer to transmit the knowledge directly? What kinds of methodologies doesa teacher employ during the course? In fact, those questions are related to teaching style of the teacher. While some teachers tend to give detailed information to their students, some prefer to use exemplifying method or allow students to study autonomously along with independent works. If teachers could analyze individual aspects of students well, plan teaching-learning process by taking individual aspects of students into consideration and offer rich options, they could make their students versatile ( Gürkan, 2001). The versatile teaching way of teacher or utilizing appropriate teaching style will make the course joyous and teacher satisfied. The fact that putting teacher into certain rules is contrary to today’s sense of constructivism is stated in many studies. Particularly, even the use of teacher’s past experiences in teaching will bring the teacher a certain flexibility (Süral, 2014, p.45). In such case, student’s active participation is an expected result. There is no doubt that teachers’ awareness on their own teaching style will make a positive contribution to incorporate active learning into learning environment. The teachers’ awareness on teaching styles and incorporating active learning in the classroom could only be achieved through constructivist approach. According to Açıkgöz, active learning is based on constructivism and it concerns with the issue of learning and interested in the nature of knowledge and factors influencing cognition process. Students learn by creating meaning rather than memorizing information transmitted by the teacher. According to the constructivists, 32

knowledge is constructed in the socio-cultural context within the framework of the learners’ experiences and their present knowledge. In constructivism, as the knowledge is constructed by learner, it is specific to individual and it cannot be transferred to any one else by no means. Active learning is a learning process in which learners tend to be self-regulated and have an active role in decision making process while engaged in cognitively challenging academic task. (Açıkgöz, 2003). Active learning is “anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonwell andEison, 1991). From the perspective of another definition, active learning goes beyond the simple availability of information to facilitate students’ self-discovery of knowledge (Butler, Phillmann, and Smart, 2001; Lake, 2000; Lonka and Ahola, 1995; Schwartz and Bransford, 1998). Kalem and Fer put forward that active learning usually refers to a learning situation in which students are active agents. In this process, the first goal is to transform the role of the learner from passive observer to active participant. However, this is not simply a matter of participation. It encourages learners to take actions in various ways concerning how to learn, use mental abilities, think, and interpret the existing information. In such kind of learning process, students actively guide their learning using high-level cognitive and decision-making skills and cooperate with other learners. The role of the teacher is merely being a facilitator of these processes. In this position, the teacher himself/herself learns together with the students. According to Felder and Brent (1996), teachers in active learning provides students with opportunities to learn independently and from one another and coaches them in the skills they need to do so effectively. This is because learning and improvement are always controlled in an active learning environment. Therefore, teacher in active learning is a facilitator in the classroom rather than being the sole authority (Açıkgöz, 2003). Incorporating active learning into classroom and providing learning and teaching environments allowing students to practice active learning techniques properly depend on the effectiveness of teacher’s classroom performance and teachers’ awareness of their own dominant teaching styles. In light of constructivist learning theory which argues that students are actively participated in the classroom, teachers should be facilitator , or when required, should apply different teaching styles consistent with course content, material, student’s cognitive and emotional level, the significance of the research study includes the analysis the relationship between teaching style of candidate teachers and their perception level towards active learning and to what extent teaching styles impact on perception level. In this context, the overall aim of the research seeks to identify the predictive power of perception levels towards active learning for teaching styles of candidate teachers studying at faculty of education. Specifically, answers will be sought to the following questions: 1. What is the distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers by gender, class and field of study? 2. Do teaching styles of candidate teachers vary by gender, class and field of study? 3. Do perception levels toward active learning of candidate teachers vary by gender, class and field of study? 4. Is there any meaningful relationship between teaching styles of candidate 33

teachers and their perception levels towards candidate teachers? 5. Do teaching styles of candidate teachers predict their perception levels towards candidate teachers? MATERIALS AND METHOD In this section, the research model, the population, the sample numbers of the research study, the validity and reliability study of data collecting tool and utilized tests conducted for data analysis are presented. RESEARCH MODEL The research study was designed as a quantitative one and general screening model was used. With respect to the model, the relational survey was utilized as well. The relational survey is a research method that focuses on finding differences between two or more variables and/or the amount to which a variable fluctuates (Karasar, 2009). WORKING GROUP The research population consists of students studying at elementary school education in a university, located at Aegean region. In this respect, the population of the research was chosen from 2914 candidate teachers studying at such departments as elementary school education, early childhood education, elementary mathematics education, science education and social studies education. On the other hand, the sample number of the universe (Balcı, 2001) was calculated as 340. Yet, the predetermined minimum sample number was increased up to 400 candidate teachers to obtain reliable and sound data analysis. In terms of validity and a sound data analysis, data was collected with equal numbers in candidate teachers from five fields. Accordingly, 80 teachers from each department were accessed and 400 candidate teachers in total were included to the study. To determine students’ learning styles, two scales was employed in the study, namely, (1) Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” which was developed by Grasha (1996) and adapted to Turkish language by Sarıtaş and Süral (2010) and (2) Perception Scale for Active Learning formulated by Öztürk and AydedeYalçın (2013) so as to measure perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. Such variables as “gender”, “class” and “field of study” significantly differentiated teaching styles and perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. The positive relationship between variables was observed. Lastly, teaching styles demonstrated a predictive power on perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. DATA GATHERING TOOL AND RELIABILITY CO-EFFICIENT To determine students’ learning styles, Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” which was developed by Grasha (1996) and adapted to Turkish language by Sarıtaş and Süral (2010) was utilized. Grasha’s“Teaching Style Inventory” consists of five subdimensions with 8 items for each subscale and includes five pointLikert-type scale and 40 items in total. The scale was adapted to Turkish language by three -people team involving researchers and then, four people including one professor, one associate professor and two English teachers were requested to translate items from Turkish to English. In line with collected results, the scale was finalized by selecting true statements in Turkish. Afterwards, the scale was administrated to 30 instructors in faculties whose language of instruction is English. 10 day later, the Turkish version of 34

the scale was administrated and the relationship in two versions was compared and analyzed. By utilizing from SPSS 11.5 packet program, significance level was analyzed with Pearson Correlation test. The significance level was calculated as 80 (Süral, 2010). To identify reliability of assessment instrument, all data was tested by Alpha Cronbachreliability test in SPSS 11.5 program and the reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 875. Formulated by Öztürk and AydedeYalçın (2013), “Perception Scale for Active Learning” was used to so as to measure perception levels of candidate teachers towards active learning. In light of obtained data from Ozturk’s scale (2014), sentences were created emphasizing perception of candidate teachers towards active learning. Then, those sentences were transformed into scale items. In this way, 35 draft items were prepared including 22 positive and 13 negative items. Regarding 35 scale items for “Perception Scale for Active Learning”, 5 experts from Elementary Science Education Department, 1 expert from Educational Sciences (Curriculum and Instruction) Department and 2 experts from Turkish Education Department were asked to share their opinions and suggestions. In parallel with experts’ opinions and suggestions, additions, revisions and omissions and were made. Consequently, 34 draft items were agreed. Following content validity, 34 items including 13 negative and 21 positive items prepared as “Always”, “Usually”, “Sometimes”, “Rarely”, “Never” as 5 point Likert Type was administrated to 10 Teachers in the field of Secondary Education Science and Technology. During implementation, items which teachers had difficulty to understand were asked and marked and required revisions were made. Table 1: Reliability coefficient of perception level towards active learning through grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” Reliability Coefficients Turkish Data of the Adaptation designated Data (Sarıtaş & sample group Süral, 2010) ,875 ,891 ,815 ,785 ,768 ,704 ,708 ,752 ,883 ,763 ,862 ,869 Reliability Coefficients Scale Data of the Development designated Study Data sample group (Öztürk,2014) ,960 ,886

Teaching Style Scale (Cronbach Alpha Levels) Teaching Style Scale Expert Teaching Style Authority Teaching Style Personal Teaching Style Facilitator Teaching Style Delegator Teaching Style Perception Scale Towards Active Learning (Cronbach Alpha Levels) Perception Scale Towards Active Learning

Afterwards, those items were applied to 230 Secondary Science and Technology teachers across the Turkey during the 2012-2013 school year. In consequence of factor analysis, Principal Component Analysis were carried out and accordingly, KMO value of the scale was found as 0.93 and 0.000 were obtained from Barlett test. The Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found as 0.96 for a single factor. There is a wide consensus in the 35

literature stating that a minimum reliability of 70 and higher is accepted as appropriate for a psychological test (Tezbaşaran, 1996; Büyüköztürk, 2005). In this respect, we could say that the scale is reliable. According to reliability test results, reliability coefficient both in general and in sub-dimensions was observed at the desired level and obtained results were found appropriate to be employed. TECHNIQUES FOR DATA ANALYSIS T-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for parametric values which was obtained during analysis of “gender”, “class” and “field of study”variables in the sample while TUKEY tests were utilized for Post Hoc analysis. Lastly, Mann Whitney U and Kruskall Wallis tests were employed for nonparametric values. Pearson Moment Correlation Analysis were administrated to see whether there was a linear relationship between teaching styles and perception levels of candidate teachers towardsactive learning and multiple regression analysis technique was utilized to identify predictive power of predictive variables (teaching styles) on predicted variables(perception levels of active learning). On the other hand, “SPSS (20) for Windows” packetprogramme was employed for data analysis. RESULTS In this section, key findings obtained from Grasha’s “Teaching Style Inventory” and “Perception Scale for Active Learning”are presented. Findings regarding distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to gender, class, field of study The first analyzed sub-problem includes following question: “How are teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “gender”, “class” and “field of study” variables? In this respect, the distribution of candidate teachers in accordance with independent variables which were selected based on candidate teachers’ dominant teaching styles are given in Table 2 with frequency and percentage values. With respect to the first analyzed sub-problem, the distribution of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to “gender”, “class” and “field of study” variables were examined. Pertaining to “gender” variable, we see that female candidate teachers’ distribution is equal to 71.2% within the sample group whereas male candidate teacher’ distribution is 28.8%. In terms of “class” distribution within four grades, we could conclude that candidate teachers in the first and second grades have a balanced distribution with each other. Similarly, the distribution of third and fourth grade candidate teachers produced the same result as well. On the other hand, regarding “field of study” variable, numbers of candidate teachers in five major departments were equalized to acquire reliable data as emphasized in“working group” section. From the perspective of teaching styles, we observe the most preferred teaching style is “facilitator” teaching style (f=148, %=37.0), while the least preferred teaching style is “personal model” teaching style (f=32, %=8.0). The most preferred teaching styles within sample group could be summarized as follows: facilitator, expert, delegator, formal authority and personal model teaching styles, respectively. While the surveyed group of female candidate teachers exhibits “facilitator” as their most preferred style, “expert” teaching style is the most preferred style among male candidate teachers. On the other hand, it is an interesting fact that “personal model” teaching style is the least preferred teaching style for bothfemale and male 36

candidate teachers. Female candidate teachers have approximate frequency values in relation to formal authority (f=43) and delegator teaching styles (f=45) whereas frequency values of formal authority (f=14), personal model (f=10) and delegator (f=15) teaching styles are close to each other among male candidate teachers. Table 2: Distribution of Teaching Styles of Candidate Teachers According to Gender, Class, Field of Study GENDER Female Male TOTAL CLASS 1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade TOTAL FIELD OF STUDY Primary Ed. Pre-School Ed. Science Ed. Social Science Ed. Primary Math. Ed. TOTAL

Expert f % 63 61.1 40 38.9 103 25.7 f % 38 36.8 30 29.1 21 20.3 13 13.8 103 25.7

TEACHING STYLES Authority Personel f % f % 43 75.4 22 68.7 14 24.6 10 31.3 57 14.3 32 8.0 f % f % 20 35.1 10 31.2 19 33.3 5 15.6 12 21.1 8 25.0 6 10.5 9 28.2 57 14.3 32 8.0

Facilitator f % 112 75.6 36 24.4 148 37.0 f % 32 21.6 39 26.3 31 20.9 46 31.2 148 37.0

Delegator f % 45 75.0 15 25.0 60 15.0 f % 12 20.0 18 30.0 16 26.6 14 23.4 60 15.0

TOTAL f % 285 71.2 115 28.8 400 100 F % 112 28.0 119 29.7 91 22.7 78 19.6 400 100 F %

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

6 7 30 15

5.8 6.7 29.1

8 8 16 10

14.1 14.1 28.2

6 11 8 4

18.7 34.3 25.0

50 30 26 37

33.7 20.2 17.5

15 29 10 4

25.0 48.3 16.6

80 80 80

20.0 20.0 20.0

6.6

80

20.0

4.1

80

20.0

15.0

400

100

45 103

14.5 43.9 25.7

15 57

17.5 26.1 14.3

12.5

3

9.5

32

8.0

15 148

25.0 9,6 37.0

2 60

Regarding distribution of teaching styles according to “field of study”variable, we see that there is a balanced frequency level within four grades in concern with “personal model” and “delegator” teaching styles. When we analyze grades from first to fourth, we notice that frequency level decreases in “expert” and “formal authority” teaching styles while there is an increase in “facilitator” teaching style. Besides, it is interesting to note that the most preferred teaching style among 1st grade candidate teachers is “expert” teaching style while other grades have the highest frequency values with “facilitator” teaching style. As for the last variable of the research study, namely,” the field of study” variable, findings demonstratethat candidate teachers studying at elementary school education departmentare more inclined to “facilitator” teaching styles (f=50) while “facilitator” (f=30) and“delegator” (f=29) teaching styles are the most preferred teaching styles among candidate teachers in early childhood education. In other words, candidate teachers prefer to employ student-centered instruction. On the other hand, candidate teachers in science and primary mathematics education prefer teacher-centered teaching style, that is to say, “expert” teaching style (f=30) - (f=45). Ultimately, the most preferred teaching style is “facilitator” teaching style among social sciences candidate teachers as in the elementary and early childhood school candidate teachers. Findings regarding differentiation levels of teaching styles of candidate teachers according to gender, class, field of study The second analyzed sub-problem includes following question: “Do teaching styles of elementary school candidate teachers differentiate according to “gender”, 37

“class” and “field of study”variables? In this respect, Kolmogorov- Smirnov test was applied to three variables to test normality of the distribution. Kolmogorov- Smirnov (K-S) test is utilized to see whether the data in the observed sample is normally distributed. Parametric test is administered to normally distributed data and non-parametric test is administrated to non-normal distribution. It should be noted that a nonparametric test should be employed if the test is statically significant (e.g., p .05

Sum of Squares 2,069 116,000 118,069

df 2 84 86

Mean Square 1,034 1,381

F

p

,749

,476

As seen in Table 3, there is no significant difference between the answers of students in different classes, to the questions regarding the concept of light in the concept test [F (2, 84) = .749, p = .476]. The students in these three classes possess the same level of knowledge on the concept of light before instruction. Table 4 portrays the findings acquired during single factorial variance analysis performed on students' answers to the questions regarding the concept of sound, before instruction. Table 4: Results acquired in pre-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of sound Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p > .05

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

p

1,679 229,585 231,264

2 84 86

,840 2,733

,307

,736

No significant differences were encountered among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of sound, before instruction [F (2, 84) = .307, p = .736). The knowledge levels of the students in three different classes pertaining to the concept of sound are equal. Results Acquired in Research Question 2 Table 5 portrays the results acquired during single factorial variance analysis performed on students' answers to the questions regarding the concept of light, after 419

instruction. Table 5: Results acquired in post-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of light Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p > .05

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

5,752

2

2,876

104,685 110,437

84 86

1,246

F

p

2,308

,106

As seen in Table 5, no significant differences were encountered among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of light, after instruction [F (2, 84) = 2.308, p = .106] . Students' answers to the concept of light after instruction do not exhibit differences. Table 6: Results acquired in post-instruction analysis of questions regarding the concept of sound Source Between Groups Within Groups Total p < .05

Sum of Squares 23,369 156,033 179,402

df 2 84 86

Mean Square 11,684 1,858

F

p

6,290

,003

As seen in Table 6, there is a significant difference among the fifth class students' answers in the concept test regarding the concept of sound, after instruction [F (2, 84) = 6.290, p = .003]. A Scheffe test was performed in order to discover among what groups this difference exits. The results of the Scheffe test is provided below, in Table 7. Table 7: Post-instruction 'Scheffe' test results table regarding the concept of light Group 1 Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of ST2 (C2) Students in the class of ST3 (C3)

Group 2 Students in the class of ST2 (C2) Students in the class of ST3 (C3) Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of S3 (C3) Students in the class of ST1 (C1) Students in the class of ST2 (C2)

Mean Difference

Std. Error

p

,444

,362

,473

-,789

,362

,099

-,444

,362

,473

-1,233*

,352

,003

,789

,362

,099

1,233*

,352

,003

According to ANOVA test results, a significant difference was discovered among students of different classes after instruction regarding the concept of sound. According to Scheffe test results, this difference exists between the students of C2 and C3. While there are no significant differences between the students of C2 and C3 before instruction of the concept of sound, it is observed that after instruction, the students in ST3's class were more successful than the students in ST2's class. There are no 420

significant differences between the students of ST1 and ST2 after instruction regarding the concept of sound after instruction. The reason why C3 students are more successful than C2 students after instruction can be due to the instruction process. The findings acquired in analysis of the instruction process are presented below. Results Acquired in Research Question 3 The results acquired in analysis of these three teachers' instruction processes in terms of pedagogic content knowledge are presented below. Table 8 portrays the results acquired in analysis of the pedagogic content knowledge of the three science teachers observed throughout the light unit. Table 8: Results acquired in the PCK sub-category and analysis of the light unit

ST1 ST2 ST3

Knowledge intended for student comprehension Existing Partial Existing

Curriculum knowledge

Instruction methods knowledge

Existing Partial Existing

Partial Existing Existing

Evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area Existing Existing Existing

Orientation towards learning of subject area Partial Partial Existing

As seen in the above table, the results acquired in the PCK sub-category analysis of the instruction of these three science teachers, on the concept of light, exhibit differences. The category "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", which is the first sub-category of PCK was encountered in ST1 and ST3, while there was a partial encounter with this in ST2. Another PCK sub-heading, "curriculum knowledge" category was present in ST1 and ST3, but partially present in ST2. The category "instruction methods knowledge" was encountered in ST2 and ST3, while ST1 included a partial sufficiency regarding this category. All teachers possess the competency regarding the category of evaluating student comprehension on subject area. In this category, all three teachers performed sufficient level of activities intended to evaluate students' comprehension on the concept of light. While the category of orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered in ST1 and ST2, ST3 possesses sufficient level of competency regarding this category. ST1 and ST2 were not sufficiently competent in instruction subject area and were inadequate at certain points. Table 9 portrays the results acquired in analysis of the pedagogic content knowledge of the three science teachers observed throughout the sound unit. Table 9: Results acquired in the PCK sub-category and analysis of the sound unit Evaluating Knowledge Orientation Instruction student intended for Curriculum towards methods comprehension student knowledge learning of knowledge regarding comprehension subject area subject area ST1 Partial Existing Partial Existing Existing ST2 Partial Partial Existing Existing Partial ST3 Existing Existing Existing Existing Existing

421

The "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", which is a sub-category of PCK, was partially encountered in ST1 and ST2, while ST3 possesses the competency for this category. ST1 and ST2 could not sufficiently check student comprehension in the subject of sound. The findings acquired in video records of ST2 regarding this category are presented below. ST2: Yes. Is there anything you have difficulty understanding in our activity? S: Teacher, I cannot understand how sound spreads. ST2: Exactly what didn't you understand? S: How does sound spread? ST2: Sound spreads at different speeds in different environments. We already performed it in the activity. S: I didn't fully understand it. ST2: We'll talk about it again at the end of the class. In this section, ST2 did not fully answer the student's question on spreading of sound, and said they would answer it at the end of the class. ST2 answered that sound would spread at different speeds in different environments. For this reason ST2 was classified as "partial" for this category. While ST1 and ST3 possess required level of competency for curriculum knowledge, ST2 has partial competency in this category. Data regarding ST2's curriculum knowledge while communicate with students, based on video records, are presented below. ST2: What do you know about the concept of light? S: Teacher, we learned noise pollution last year. ST2: Yes. What else? S: We learned about sound devices. ST2: What kind of devices? S: I can't remember. ST2: What was the subject? Let's see what the subjects of last year were. In this section, the teacher does not fully know the acquisitions of students in previous science classes regarding the concept of sound. While the teacher remembers the acquisitions regarding noise pollution, they did not remember the acquisitions regarding sound technologies. For this reason, ST2's curriculum knowledge was classified as "partial". In the instruction methods category, while ST2 and ST3 possess sufficient knowledge, ST1 is observed to possess partial competency. All teachers possess the competency regarding the category of "evaluating student comprehension on subject area" regarding the subject of sound. In the category "Orientation towards learning of subject area", while ST1 and ST3 are observed to possess required competency, ST2 possesses partial competency. The findings acquired in video records of ST3 regarding this category are presented below. ST3: After our experiment, what can you tell me about the speed at which sound spreads in different environments? S: Teacher, sound spreads within solid objects. It also spreads within water. But not in the void. We couldn't hear the bell in the void. 422

ST3: So how does it spread in the air? S: It also spreads in the air. ST3: In which environment did you hear the sound the quickest? S: On the table. ST3: So what environment is it? S: It is solid environment. ST3: From this point, let's answer the question at which environment sound spreads the quickest. S: Sound spreads quickest in solid environments and slowest in the air.

With their experiment on the speed at which sound spreads, ST3 enabled the students to provide scientific answers in regards to the speed at which sound spreads in various environments. The sub-category of orientation towards learning of subject area was encountered with ST3. The observations on the science teachers throughout the units of light and sound concludes that pedagogic content knowledge are at sufficient levels in many sub categories. However, the pedagogic content knowledge possessed by the teachers are not at sufficient levels for several categories. Results Acquired in Research Question 4 In results acquired in research question 1, a significant difference is observed among between the students in ST2's and ST3's class regarding the concept of sound after instruction. Based on the analysis on the pedagogic content knowledge of these teachers pertaining to the concept of sound, it is understood that ST2 possesses partial knowledge on "Knowledge intended for student comprehension", "curriculum knowledge" and "Orientation towards learning of subject area". However, ST2 possesses sufficient knowledge in the other two categories, which are "knowledge on instruction methods" and "Evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area". Based on analysis of the findings acquired during instruction of the concept of sound, ST3 is observed to possess required level of knowledge regarding all sub-categories of PCK. While there were no significant differences between C2 and S3 before instruction of the sound unit, after instruction there was a positive difference between these two classes, in favor of C3. This means that in the subject of sound, the C3 students are more successful than the C2 students after instruction. Instruction means that the C3 students provided more scientific answers to the concept of sound compared to the C2 students, and that the ideas of the C3 students are more scientific. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION The results acquired in this study reflect that before instruction, there are no significant differences among the students in all three classrooms, in relation to the concepts of light and sound. Cognitive structures of all students in regards to the concepts in the light and sound units, before instruction, are similar. After instruction, no significant differences occurred in terms of the concept of light in the students of all three classes, while there is a difference in terms of the concept of sound. The analyses concluded that this difference is between the classes of ST2 and ST3. In terms of sound concepts, ST3's students were more successful than ST2's students. Looking at the analysis of the teachers' pedagogic content knowledge in the sound unit, while subcategories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area were partially encountered in ST2, sub423

categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area were fully encountered in ST3. The other sub-categories, knowledge on instruction methods and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were fully encountered in both teachers. ST3 fully provided all sub-categories of pedagogic content knowledge in terms of the concept of sound. The differences in the post-instruction ideas of the students in terms of the subject of sound may be caused by the difference between the teachers' pedagogic content knowledge. The differences exhibited by teachers in categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area may have influenced students' ideas. The demographic information of ST2 and ST3 can also influence pedagogic content knowledge. While both ST2 and ST3 have postgraduate degrees, ST2 has a 20-year professional experience, while ST3's professional experience is 10 years. ST3 possesses less professional experience compared to ST2. Contrary to what was reported by Van Driel et al. (1998) and Clermont et al. (1994), the pedagogic content knowledge of the less experienced teacher is seen to be better in this research. This results is similar to the result obtained by Magnusson et al. (1994), which is the conclusion that teachers' experiences may not be influential on instruction of some subjects. Lee and Luft (2008) touched upon scenarios where pedagogic content knowledge of experienced science teachers are not sufficient. While ST2 took their undergraduate degree in chemistry teaching by way of practicing, ST3 graduated from science education. Since the concepts of light and sound, the subjects of this study, are included within the field of physics, it can be said that ST2 possesses insufficient pedagogic content knowledge. Conducted studies report that PCK is affected by competency levels of teachers (Park & Oliver, 2008). ST2's pedagogic content knowledge regarding these concepts is insufficient and this has influenced the students' ideas in this subject. Since pedagogic content knowledge is special to the subject area, teachers may possess different levels of pedagogic content knowledge compared to subject content (Van Driel et al., 1998). ST2 does not possess sufficient pedagogic content knowledge regarding concepts of sound. No significant differences were found among the students of the three classes before and after instruction on the light concepts unit. In ST1, while pedagogic content knowledge in the sub-categories of knowledge on instruction methods and orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered, sub-categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were fully encountered. In ST2, while pedagogic content knowledge in the sub-categories of knowledge intended for student comprehension, curriculum knowledge and orientation towards learning of subject area was partially encountered, pedagogic content knowledge on instruction methods and evaluating student comprehension regarding subject area were was fully encountered. At the end of the analysis on courses of light concepts, ST3 exhibited pedagogic content knowledge in all these sub-categories perfectly. Looking at analyses of the courses related to the concepts of light and sound, the teacher with the best pedagogic content knowledge is concluded to be ST3. The teacher with the least sufficient pedagogic content knowledge is concluded to be ST2. Based on class success, while there are no significant differences in terms of light, there is a significant difference between the classes of ST2 and ST3 in terms of the subject of 424

sound. It is seen that teachers' competency levels in terms of pedagogic content knowledge influence student success. Similarly, van Driel et al. (1998) underlined the frequency of misconceptions in students in the cases of insufficient subject area knowledge in teachers. The PCK possessed by teachers affects conceptual learning of students. SUGGESTIONS Suggestions based on the results of this study are presented below.  The level of pedagogic content knowledge possessed by the teachers is important in terms of determining their competency levels. More studies can be dedicated on researching teachers' pedagogic content knowledge within the instruction process.  Studies can be conducted on pedagogic content knowledge of teachers in different areas of science. Teachers' pedagogic content knowledge in different areas of science can exhibit differences.  The effects of teachers' pedagogic content knowledge on student ideas should be studied using research groups with more teachers and students.  The possibility of existence for more factors in classes, beside teachers' pedagogic content knowledge, affecting students' ideas, is considered as another subject of research.  In-service training seminars can be organized for the purpose of improving teachers' pedagogic content knowledge. The efficiency of such seminars on teachers' pedagogic content knowledge can be studied.  Further studies should be conducted in order to improve competency levels of teachers in regards to all sub-categories of pedagogic content knowledge. REFERENCES Abell, S. K. (2008). Twenty Years Later: Does Pedagogical Content Knowledge Remain a Useful Idea?. International Journal of Science Education, 30 (10), 1405- 1416. Appleton, K. & Asoko, H. (1996). A Case Study of a Teachers’ Progress toward Using a Constructivist View of Learning to Inform Teaching in Elementary Science. Science Education, 80 (2), 165-180. Aydın, S. & Boz, Y. (2012). Fen Öğretmen Eğitiminde Pedagojik Alan Bilgisi Araştırmalarının Derlenmesi: Türkiye Örneği. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 12 (1), 479-505. Canbazoğlu Bilici, S. (2012). The Pre-Service Science Teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Their Self-Efficacy. Unpublished Dissertation Thesis, Gazi University, Institution of Education, Ankara. Clermont, C.P., Borko, H. & Krajcik, J.S. (1994). Comprative Study of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Experienced and Novice Chemical Demonstrators. Journal of Research on Science Teaching, 31 (4), 419-441. Cochran, K.F., DeRuiter, J.A. & King, R.A. (1993). Pedagogical Content Knowing: An Integrative Model for Teacher Preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 44 (4), 263272. Cohen, L., Manion L. & Morrison, K. (2005). (5 th ed.) Research Methods in Education. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, ISBN 0-203-22434-5 Master e-book ISBN Demirci, N. & Efe, S. (2007). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Ses Konusundaki Kavram Yanılgı-

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larının Belirlenmesi. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi, 1(1), 23-56. Duit, R. (2009). Bibliography – STCSE Students’ and Teachers’ Conceptions and Science Education. Kiel, Germany: University of Kiel. Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical Content Knowledge: An Introduction and Orientation Nature, Sources and Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Science Teaching. (Eds. J. Gess-Newsome & N.G. Lederman) Examing pedagogical content knowledge: The construct and its implications for science education (pp. 3-17). Boston: Kluwer. Grossman, P. (1990). The Making of a Teacher. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, B. & Christensen, L. (2004). Educational Research, Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Approaches. (2nd Ed.) Pearson, USA. Lederman, N. G. & Gess-Newsome, J. (1992). Do Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge, and Pedagogical Content Knowledge Constitute the Ideal Gas Law of Science Teaching?. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 3 (1), 16-20. Lee, E. & Luft, J. A. (2008). Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Representation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 30 (10), 1343-1363. Magnussoni, S., Borko, H. & Krajcik, J.S. (1994). Teaching Complex Subject Matter in Science: Insights from an Analysis of Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Paper presented at the annual meeting of National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Anaheim, CA. Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J.S. & Borko, H. (1999). Nature, Sources and Development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Science Teaching. (Ed. Gess-Newsome, J. & Lederman, N.G.). Examining pedagogical content knowledge: The construct and its implications for science education, Boston: Kluwer. Park, S. & Oliver, J. S. (2008). Revisiting the Conceptualization of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): PCK as a Conceptual Tool to Understand Teachers as Professionals. Research in Science Education, 38 (3), 261-284. Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Shulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of New Reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57 (1), 1-22. Van Driel, J. H., Verloop, N. & de Vos, W. (1998). Developing Science Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35 (6), 673695. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, A. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. 5th ed. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.

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Chapter 33 Education on the Rights of Children Hatice ÖZASLAN*, Elif MERCAN UZUN** INTRODUCTION Historically, the concepts of child and childhood have been assigned different meanings depending on the period and culture. Recognized as the individuals to be protected and covered, the children have sometimes been considered as young adults. As well as the general factors such as social characteristics of historical period, also the factors related with the child’s family have also played important role in formation of child recognition. For instance; in families living in rural areas, the children can pasture the animals as a daily routine, or as a game for their idea, and also feed and care those animals, and even help with the works in garden and/or farm. In this case, it is normal for the families living in rural areas to recognize the children as young adults helping them. The characteristics coming first to the mind when it comes to child also play role in formation of this concept. For instance; the fact that they need the care of adults because they are young and they cannot meet their own fundamental needs may lead the adults to see their children as their belongings. This may lead to the ignorance of the fact that the children are among the “individuals” in life, and it also make children defenseless. The protection of children from any type of approach that may lead to child negligence or child abuse can be possible only through the “child rights”. The child rights consist of the rights regulated by the rules regarding the children act and featured with protection means by the judicial bodies (Akyüz, 2015). Children need the support of their families and other people around them in matters such as living in healthy way, receiving education, and developing themselves from various aspects. In meting these needs, many individuals and institutions such as schools and hospitals might play role. The child rights ensure the protection of children from the institutions and individuals they may interact with. The concept of child rights is a universal concept that the child naturally has and that covers many topics from the education and sheltering to health and sexual abuse. From this aspect, since the disadvantaged children living in poorness and deprivation, not sufficiently enjoying the education and healthcare services, employed in various jobs, neglected or abused, and running away from the war come to the fore in recent years, it can be said that the individuals’ and institutions’ awareness of child rights increased both individually and socially. Increase in awareness of child rights is not enough for realization of the child *

Assist. Prof. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department. ** Res. Assist. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Education, Primary Education Department.

rights in practice. In order for children to know their own rights and the rights of other and to respect all those rights, it is very important to educate the children on this matter. It is important for both adults and children to be aware these rights and to make these rights parts of their lives. In this process, the educators, mothers, fathers and children have separate responsibilities (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015). History of Child Rights In international environment, the idea of establishing an institution for protecting the children’s right has been firstly introduced by Jules de Jenue in year 1894. The delegates of some European countries interested in this idea have conducted a special meeting in Paris. The first official step into establishing an international center for protecting the children and mothers has been taken in Switzerland in year 1912. The tasks of centers can be listed as collecting the laws, legislations, regulations and important works related with the child protection, annually publishing these reforms in a yearbook, and making international agreements on ward, paying attention to youth, and protecting the children (Kavak, 2005). In those years, similar studies have been carried out in Belgium until the World War I, and then interrupted due to the war. After the end of war, under leadership of Belgian government, a congress has been organized in Belgium in year 1921, and the “International Organization of Child Protection” has been established as a result of that congress (Akyüz, 2011; Kavak, 2005; Moroğlu, 2003). In convention adopted by International Labor Organization (ILO) in year 1919, it has been ruled that the children to be employed in industrial companies must be older than 14 year-old (Günöz, 2007; Shukla & Ali, 2006). Being impressed from the experiences of children during WWI, Englantyne Jeeb, the English child-right defender, has introduced a campaign with the slogan “Save the Children!” during WWI and, as a result of this campaign, “International Child Aid Society” has been founded in year 1920 in Geneva. The document that this society has prepared has been adopted by League of Nations as “Geneva Declaration of the rights of children” in year 1924. This declaration has relied on the principle that any child in the world must receive at least the minimum care (Kavak, 2005). This declaration, where the child rights have been taken under protection for the first time, has been signed by Atatürk in year 1931. In this declaration, it was emphasized that the children should be in places in harmony with their development, they should be helped firstly in disasters, be protected from any sort of exploitation, be raised as a responsible individual, to be provided with fundamental needs, to be protected from diseases, and to be treated when ill (Akyüz, 2015; Erbay, 2011). General Assembly of League of Nations has re-approved the declaration of the rights of children on 27th of September 1934. As a result of Freund’s works in Balkans in order to find common solutions for problems regarding the child rights, with cooperation of child protection bodies in Balkan countries, the First Balkan Congress has been convened in Athens between 5th and 9th of April 1936. In 1-7 October 1938, 2nd Balkan Congress working on child protection, working age, and medical protection has been convened (Akyüz, 2011; Kaya, 2011; Kor, 2013). Balkan Congresses are the first international organizations related with the child protection, where Turkey has ever participated into. Even though the congresses have been limited to Balkan countries, they have leaded the universal studies on this topic (Akyüz, 2015). In early 20th century, when the empires collapsed after WWII and social 428

revolutions occurred, the universal values that have been widely adopted have emerged. Main values among them are to oppose any sort of inequalities, to advocate the international peace, and to develop together. In order to spread the awareness of protecting these values, an international organization has been formed. The United Nations Organization, which is the most international organization having the widest foundation, has been established in year 1945 and, in year 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been submitted to the approval of nation states. In following years, the studies on child rights and women’s rights, which are the concrete elements of human rights, have been brought forward again (Moroğlu, 2003). “Assembly of Social Problems”, which has been founded after the establishment of United Nations, has investigated the problems related with the protection of children. In Assembly’s meeting in year 1950, it has been decided to re-organize and expand the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of Children, and the draft prepared has been sent to the member countries (Erbay, 2011). Some of the member states have proposed that the Declaration of the Rights of Children shall be an agreement that is legally-binding for the states. But, most of the countries have stated that they were in favor of the contract not legally binding but containing general principles that were not compulsory. After the suggestions of member states, these suggestions have been reviewed again and, on 20th November 1959, the proposal has been accepted under the title of “United Nations’ Declaration of the Rights of Children” with the decision number of 1386 (Akyüz, 2015; Fortin, 1998; Gregory, 2002). As a special institution of United Nations, United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization, which is known as UNESCO, has been founded in year 1946. Turkey has signed the UNESCO contract in same year, and Turkish National Commission of UNESCO has been established on 25th August 1949 upon the cabinet decision in order to establish connections with education, science and culture organizations, and to inform the public and government about the processes and results. UNESCO Turkish National Commission Directorate has proposed, in 2nd meeting of 7th Annual General Assembly, preparing a draft of law on child rights by utilizing various declarations of child rights. The text prepared upon this proposal has been submitted to the review of General Assembly, and then accepted as “Turkish Child Rights Declaration” between 28th and 30th June 1963 in first meeting of 8th Annual General Assembly. In justification of the declaration, the warning regarding passing bills related with the children and their rights should be passed. Moreover, the compilation of childrelated principles and rules has been requested (Akyüz, 2015). On 20th November 1959, in plenary session of United Nations, where the representatives of 78 countries have participated, the idea that a new international declaration, which is compulsory for member states, should be prepared has been accepted after 30 years following the announcement of the Convention on Child Rights. As a result of performed studies carried out, General Assembly of United Nations has accepted the Convention on the Rights of Children unanimously on 20th November 1989. The declaration, which has been opened for signing on 28th January 1990, has been signed by 61 countries at the same year. On 2nd September 1990, 20 countries have approved, and the declaration has entered into force as an international law. The agreement, which has been signed by Turkey on 14the February 1990 and approved in General Assembly of United Nations, has been approved by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 9th December 1994. The Convention on the Rights of Children has been 429

published in Official Gazette on 27th January 1995, and translated into a national law via the law Nr. 4058 and entered into force in Turkey (Aral and Gürsoy, 2001). Turkey has reported its reservations about 17th, 29th and 20th articles related with the language and cultural identity rights (UNICEF, 2012). Turkey has approved the Optional Protocol on Child Trade, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography pf United Nations’ Declaration of the Rights of Children in year 2002 and the Optional Protocol on Engagement of Children in Armed Conflicts in year 2004. In year 2005, from the point that protecting the children and considering their positions as child is necessary, the Law of Child Protection has been passed. The European Council’s Convention on Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in year 2011, and the Optional Protocol of Communication Procedure in September 2012 have been signed. Following the amendments made in September 2010, the concept of “Child Rights” has entered into the Constitution of Turkish Republic. In year 2012, the Commission of Child Rights Monitoring and Assessment has been established in order to perform studies on protecting, enabling, and enhancing the child rights, to offer suggestions, to prepare and approve strategy documents and action plan, and to ensure the coordination between the institutions related with the child rights. Under the umbrella of General Directorate of Child Services, with the coordination of Children’s Foundation, General Directorate of Social Services and Child Protection (SHÇEK), and İstanbul University, the shareholders of Turkish Congress of Child Rights convened between 25th and 27th February 2011, the Turkey’s 1st Strategy of Children Rights covering the period between 2012 and 2016 has been prepared with consultancy of TUBITAK and TUSSIDE (UNICEF, 2012). Convention on the Rights of Children For the first time, with Convention on the Rights of Children, the nations have come to an agreement on a legal perspective aiming to interests and necessities of the children (Affolter 2005). The objective of the convention was to specify the universally accepted standards for the protection of children, and to protect them from any sort of negligence, abuse and maltreatment. Besides that, the Convention has also aimed to establish a framework for the programs aiming the development of children’s potential and skills (Akyüz, 2000; Çetinkaya, 1998). The convention consists of foreword and 3 sections. In foreword, the fundamental principles of United Nations and some of the special provisions of special human rights contracts and reports have been referred, and it has been reported that the children need special care and protection because of their defenseless position. It has been emphasized that the responsibility of protecting the children is firstly of the family, and the government will help with that family (Akyüz, 2015; Hale, 2006). In 1st section of the Convention, the rights of -18 year-old young peoples and the tasks assigned to the government for realization of these problems have been emphasized. In second and third sections, after stating the member states’ obligation to teach the rights specified in convention to the adults and children by utilizing appropriate means in Article 42, how the Convention will enter into force and the provisions of Convention to be obeyed have been specified in 43rd and further articles (Aktürk, 2006; Çetinkaya, 1998; Doğan 2000). This convention is a text regulating the universal standards of attitudes and behaviors towards the children and has an obligatory power from the aspect of 430

international law. From the aspect of domestic law, the Convention has the force of law. From the aspect of laws other than constitution, the Convention on the Rights of Children can be interpreted as follows: • If, in domestic law, there was no provision in regulating any of the points regulated by the Convention before signing and approving the convention (such as the case of the children’s right to form association), the relevant provision of the Convention is enforced. • If, in domestic law, there was a provision conflicting with the Convention, the relevant provision of Convention implicitly removes the relevant internal law provision, and the relevant provision of the Convention is enforced. • If a new ruling on contrary with the Convention after the approval of Convention is passed in domestic law, this new ruling will remove the provision of Convention that is on contrary with this ruling. The State’s regulation of domestic law provision that is on the contrary with Convention is considered as the inclination of repealing the International Convention (Affolter, 2005; Aktürk, 2006). Fundamental Principles of Convention on the Rights of Children In Convention on the Rights of Children, some rights have been given special importance, and these have been accepted as the fundamental principles of the convention. The relevant principles are the high benefit of child, absence of discrimination, the right to live and develop, and considering the opinions of child (Öntaş, 2004). Prohibition of discrimination: According to Article 2 of the convention, states shall perform no discrimination between the children living in their countries. At this point, the language, religion, rave, citizenship, and economic and social and cultural levels of the parents of child will be a reason for any discrimination. All of the children principally have the same rights with others (Kor, 2013). High benefit of the child: Article 3 of the convention obliges the States to consider the high benefit of the child when making a decision about the child. Consequently, the legal, administrative or other bodies have to consider the child’s benefit in their decisions (Besson, 2005; Hale, 2006). Right of life and development: According to Article 6 of the convention, ever child has the right of life. The government is obliged to guaranteeing the life and development of child. The right of life is the right protecting the physical and mental integrity of person and preventing the deterioration of existence due to any reason. The child, in environment where he/she is, can develop in various ways such as protecting his/her existence as human from any sort of negligence or abuse, living in healthy environment, receiving education, working on science and art in harmony with his/her desires, and meeting his/her needs (Doek et al. 1992; Aktürk 2006). Taking child’s opinion: According to Article 12 of the convention, the child has been granted with the right of having his/her opinion on any decision on decision about him/her to be taken. This opportunity is in parallel with the age and maturity of the child. The important point is to take child’s opinion seriously and to consider his/her opinions by legal or administrative bodies (Ünal, 1997). The Rights Granted by Convention on the Rights of Children The Convention recognizes the specifically sensitive position of children, and considers the personal, economic, social, and cultural rights of them as a whole in 431

connection with or completing each other. From this aspect, the Convention is an international legal text regulating the child rights from an integrative approach. This contract has granted the children with the same rights with general human rights. But, in general, it has paid attention to increasing the standards to be implemented to entire humanity for the children. The reason for this is to have the special needs of desperate, dependent and developing children to be considered (Aktürk, 2006). Personal Rights (Civil Rights): Some of the rights in this group are fall into the domain of private law related with the personal existence and property of children. Others fall into domain of public law and consist of the personal rights and the rights described as negative rights. Protection of personal rights nowadays is considered a prerequisite for the structure of democratic society. Prevention of the violation of personal rights is the topic, at which international organizations (United Nations, European Council) at most. Personal rights have important position among the fundamental rights. Even though there is no superiority gradation, personal rights should be given priority in cases, where the rights conflict (Akıllıoğlu, 1995). Main personal rights in Convention on the Rights of Children are as follows: Definition of child: Article 1 defines the child. According to the convention, except for the majority at earlier age, all of the individuals are considered child before the age of 18. Prohibition of discrimination: According to Article 2 of the convention, the contracting states grant and guarantee any child with the rights, which are specified in this Convention, without any discrimination due to the child’s or his/her parents’ race, gender, color, language, politic or other opinions, ethnic and social origins, property, disability, and other statuses. Moreover, the contracting states take any sort of precautions to effectively protect the child from any sort of discrimination or penalty due to statuses, activities, declared opinions or beliefs of their parents or legal guardians (Moroğlu,2003; Serozan, 2005; Yıldız, 2011). High benefit of child: In any activity, which is related with children, of public or private social welfare institutions, courts, administrative bodies or legislative organs, the benefit of child shall be the main objective. The contracting states undertake the required care and protection for the welfare of child considering the rights and responsibilities of parents, guardians, and the persons that are legally responsible. They shall take all of the legal and administrative precautions for this purpose (Doek et al. 1992). Child’s right to be raised by his/her parents: The contracting states respect the duties and responsibilities of parents and other persons responsible for the child in enjoying the rights granted by the Convention and in orienting the child. The parents or the legal guardians, if any, who undertake the responsibility of raising the child, discharge the responsibility considering the benefit of child. In order to guarantee and enhance the rights granted by Convention, the contracting states provide the parents or legal guardians with required assistance and the institutions related with the childcare ensure the enhancement of services (Aktürk, 2006). Right of life and development: The contracting states accept that every child has the fundamental right of life. Moreover, the contracting states also put the maximum effort for the life and development of child (Kor, 2013). 432

Child’s right of name, citizenship, and identity: The contracting states promise to respect the child’s right of protecting his/her identity, including the nationality and name and family bonds, and to not illegally intervene. In case that the child is deprived of some or all of the components of his/her identity, the contracting states provide the required assistance and protection for having the child to immediately have his/her identity again (Khanna,1998; Moroğlu, 2003; Serozan, 2005). Right of declaring the opinions and being informed: Any child has the right of freely expressing his/her own opinions and to request his/her opinions regarding any procedure, which is related with the child, to be considered. According to this article, which is one of the fundamental articles of the Convention, the contracting states grant any child, who has the ability of forming his own ideas, with the right of freely expressing his/her opinions about any point related with himself in parallel with the age and maturity level of the child. For this purpose, in any legal or administrative prosecution affecting the child, the child is given the opinion of expressing himself directly or through a representative (Akyol, 2011). Liberty of opinion, expression, conscience, and religion: According to Articles 13 and 14 of the Convention, the contracting states respect the opinions, conscience and freedom to choose the religion. The child has the right to freely express his idea. This right, regardless of the borders of the country, involves any written, verbal, pressed, or artistic means or other means the child will choose, and investigating, receiving and giving any sort of news and opinions. The enjoyment of this right can be limited only due to the respect towards the rights and reputation of others, the national security, the public order, and the protection of public health and public decency, on condition that it is projected and specified by the law (Akyüz, 2015; Duyan, 2004; Fortin, 1998). Liberty of forming association and right of peaceful assembly: The contracting states accept the child’s right to form an association and right of peaceful assembly. The enjoyment of these rights cannot be limited by the restrictions other than those placed due to national security, public safety, public welfare, public health and decency, and protecting the rights and freedoms of others (Akyüz, 2015). Liberty of private life, family, housing, and communication: According to the Convention, as well as the private life, house, and communication of any child cannot be intervened arbitrarily or unjustly, his/her honor and/or reputation shall not be unjustly intervened. The child has the right of being legally protected from such intervenes and offences (Çetinkaya, 1998; Serozan, 2005). Right to not be exposed to maltreatment and persecution: No child shall be exposed to persecution, tyrannous behaviors or punishment, or illegal arrestment or shall be divested from the freedom. If the child suffer from any negligence, abuse or persecution, the state shall take any precaution for rehabilitation of child from physical and emotional aspects and for the child to take place in society again (Akyüz, 2015; Sokullu Akıncı, 2011). Economic, social and cultural rights: The economic, social and cultural rights that are also known as positive rights are the rights regarding the access to manufactured products and services and benefiting from them. When the Convention on the Rights of Children is considered from this aspect, the adequate nutrition, fundamental healthcare, and primary education are among economic, social and cultural 433

rights. International regulations distinguish the economic, social and cultural rights, but these rights are considered to constitute a whole with personal and political rights. So then, the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights specified in the Convention on the Rights of Children contributes to both of main objectives of the long-term development policy and the task of immediately reversing the regressive vicious cycle of excessive poorness, rapid increase of population, and environmental deterioration. Thus, realization of the economic and social rights is not luxurious that might wait for appropriate economic sources, but is an important task for economic development, social integrity, and political stability (Aktürk, 2006) Right to health: The contracting states grant the child with the opportunity of benefiting from institutions providing medical care and rehabilitation services for achieving the best possible medical status. The contracting states put effort for guaranteeing that no child will be deprived from any sort of medical care services. The contracting states shall take the appropriate and effective precautions in order to remove the traditional practices that are harmful for the health of child (Çetinkaya, 1998; Doek et al. 1992). Right of social security: The contracting states accept that every child has the right to have quality of life enough for their physical, mental, emotional, ethical, and social development. The responsibility of providing the life standards required for the child’s development belongs firstly to the parents of child or other persons looking after the child (within the context of their financial sources and opportunities). The contracting states shall take the required steps, in harmony with their national status and opportunities, for assisting the parents with implementation of this right and to implement financial support programs in nutrition, clothing, and sheltering, when needed (Çetinkaya, 1998; Karanfil, 2000; Sund, 2006). Right to education: The responsibility of the state is to ensure compulsory and free-of-charge elementary education, to encourage various secondary education channels that every child can benefit from, and to provide every individual with the higher education in harmony with his/her skills. School discipline shall be in harmony with child’s rights and reputation (Aktürk, 2006). Rights to be protected: In Convention on the Rights of Children, the protection of children living with their families, those having no family, or those in special conditions is regulated in detail. The rights mentioned here fall into the group of civil rights. For instance, the children’s right to be raised by his/her parents, to not be separated from parents, to be taken under protection outside the family, and to be protected from abuse can be given as examples of those rights. And, some of them fall into the group of economic and social rights. For instance; the protection of child from economic abuse, any sort of dangerous work, or the jobs that are harmful for the education, health and social development can be given as example (Aktürk, 2006). Right to be raised by parents and to be protected against the parents: The responsibility of raising and growing the child firstly belongs to the parents and, when needed, to the legal guardians. These persons discharge their responsibility by giving the benefit of child priority. The state, in parallel with the rights granted to the child, shall orientate the parents for better development of child’s skills and also respect the duties and responsibilities of the family and parents (Akyüz, 2015).

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Prohibition of separating the children from parents: In Articles 9, 10, and 11 of the Convention, there are provisions regulating the relationship of child with his/her parents. According to these articles, the child shall not be separated from his/her parents without his/her consent. But, by considering the high benefit of the child, the authorities might make a counter decision. When the separation is decided, the right of one or two of the parents to communicate with child shall be respected, unless harmful for the benefit of child (Yıldırım Doğru, 2015). Protecting the child outside of family: A system that can replace the parental protection is proposed in these articles. The contracting states are obliged to specially protect the child being deprive of family environment, to find alternative families, or to look after the child through the institutions (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of child in special conditions: In these articles, the provisions related with the immigrant children, disabled children, minority children, and the protection of children and soldiers in armed conflicts are specified (Kaya, 2011). Protection against abuse: Detailed regulations are projected in these articles regarding the obligation of taking any legal, social, educational and administrative measures against any sort of abuse such as violence, mental or physical maltreatment or attacks, abandonment or negligence, and sexual abuse (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of criminalized children: According to Article 40 of the Convention, the child behaving illegally has the right to be treated in the way improving reputation and recognition, considering the age status, and aiming the re-integration with society (Akyüz, 2015). Protection of the children in war environment: The Convention on the Rights of Children obliges the contracting states to obey the humanitarian provisions of international law, which is applicable in case of armed conflict, including the part related with children, to make these provisions be obeyed, and to take any precaution in order to protect and care the children affected from the armed conflict (Doek et al. 1992, Aktürk 2006). Education On The Rights of Children The education on the rights of children covers teaching the rights and ways of protection, and transforming them into attitudes and behaviors, and also constitutes the foundation of human rights (Akyüz, 2015). Starting from the moment of birth, the children take place in society as the individuals enjoying their rights. Conferring the rights in family, then in preschool education, in elementary education, secondary education, and then in higher education would allow the learning and internalization of these rights (Washington, 2010). The social environment, where the child opens his eyes for the first time and meets with the culture, values and beliefs of the society, is the family. The studies have revealed that the family communication and interaction style significantly predicts the child’s future style of interaction with others. For this reason, in order to put the child rights into practice, it is also necessary to allow the child rights to be effective in family relations firstly. The child grown in family environment, where the democracy is practically implemented, is grown as a responsible, entrepreneur, and liberal individual having self-esteem and self-respect, having auto-control, knowing his rights and capable of using them, and respecting the rights of others (Yavuz et al., 2016). If the 435

child is raised in an environment, there the child is independent and his rights are protected, then he will be capable of reflecting it to further generations. At this point, one of the most important investments for any society is to enroot the rights of children (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015). In Article 42 of the Convention on the Rights of Children, teaching the rights of children to adults and children has been projected. Thus, children’s acknowledge of their rights, which have been granted via the laws and conventions, is considered as their fundamental right. Beyond the enjoyment of children’s right to education, the schools should be the institutions, where the children are taught their rights are where these rights are put into the practice (Neslitürk and Ersoy, 2007). In raising the children as individuals being aware of and protecting their rights, the education institutions and teachers have very important responsibilities (Torun, 2011). When the children enter into the school system, then teachers, whom the child will interact, who play important role in child’s life and significantly affect his development, will be in child’s life. The relationship of child with his teacher(s) will leave the impressions that the child will carry throughout his life. For receiving the needed education, children need the teachers that know and consider the children’s right of development (Bulut Pedük, 2015). In preschool period, the development and learning are fast, the foundations of personality development are formed, the fundamental skills and habits are gained, and first learning processes are executed. The lives in this period significantly determine how individuals the children will be in future. When the required importance is given to the education of child from the early ages, then it is possible to raise entrepreneur and researcher, mentally and physically healthy, individuals, who can freely express his emotions and opinions, who is respectful towards the rights of others, and who has the ability of utilizing his skills (Köksal Akyol, 2015). The prerequisite of raising the children knowing and capable of using their rights is the effective and efficient education. In preschool education program, there are the achievements that will influence the child rights education in short-term and human rights education in longterm, and the preschool teachers have important responsibility at this point (Bulut Pedük, 2015). From physical organization of classroom to the class atmosphere, the teachers have the responsibility of planning, and they should believe and internalize the education on the rights of children and also adopt the democratic values. For this purpose, the teacher should know the child’s right to development and to consider it in his/her implementations (Bulut Pedük, 2015). The children should be provided with a hands-on education environment, where they can learn and internalize their rights. In a classroom, where the democracy culture dominates, every student has a distinct value. Every individual has duties and responsibilities. There are mutual respect, affinity, tolerance, and trust in classroom (Yavuz et al., 2016). Children should ensure the active participation of the children, benefit from daily life, emphasize the universality, and construct the democratic learning environment. Because the children are in concrete operational stage, the education should be provided through the activities that are suitable for the level of children, where the different methods and techniques are utilized. Moreover, the materials and activities, which may affect them negatively from emotional aspect, should not be involved in activities (Neslitürk & Ersoy, 2007). The activities in program should orientate the children into exhibiting a democratic attitude in terms of both of 436

studying and social relations. Nowadays, the values, respect, and the rights such as freedom of expression included by the rights of children are discussed within the scope of education programs. Especially for the children in preschool period to give the meaning to these abstract concepts and to put them into practice in their daily lives, the education should be reinforced with these concretizing activities. Through the visual and auditory stimuluses, the awareness of the children about these rights should be improved (Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman; 2015). It is very important to improve and realize the educators’ alternative education programs related with to child rights and human rights to be implemented at every stage of the education (Unutkan, 2008). At every stage of education, considering the developmental status of children, the concepts of right and protection of right should be taught through various activities. In preschool period constituting the foundation of this learning, these concepts of rights should be taught by practicing in educational procedure and concretizing the rights of children (UNICEF, 2009). The Importance of Education On The Child Rights For the children, to recognize their own rights through effective and efficient education on the rights of children is the first step for them into being raised as the individuals being aware of their own rights and being capable of advocating these rights (Washington, 2010). The education on the rights of children is of many benefits for both of the children and the adults. These benefits can be listed as follows (Akyüz, 2015; Turupcu & Gültekin Akduman, 2015; Peker Ünal, 2010):  Children gain the fundamental information about the rights and responsibilities. Besides that, they learn that the children having different characteristics have the same rights.  The education on the rights of children allows the child rights to be put into practice and benefited.  Awareness of “right” is constructed in adults and children, so they are oriented to respect the rights of others.  Children realize their roles within the society, and their active participation into social life is ensured.  The children’s advanced awareness of citizenship is formed.  The children are learnt, adopt and practice the democratic values. The child grown in an environment, where the democratic values are in practice, conveys these values to further generations.  By taking the required precautions, the violations of children’s rights are prevented in advance. Moreover, it plays important role in protecting the children from abuse and negligence.  The education on child rights develops the children’s sense of cooperation with other groups that have not the same opportunities with themselves. By eliminating the inequality between the children, a democratic society is shaped.  It supports with understanding the fundamental rights of children.  Through the education on the rights of children, the changes in adults’ negative attitudes towards the children are supported.  It eliminates the bias and damaging attitudes towards the groups of children under risk. 437

 It raises the social awareness that the parents and teachers have no unlimited authority on children and the persons such as neighbors and relatives must apply to the authorities in case of any violation of right. Sample Activity Plans for the Rights of Children We establish a child clothes store Activity Type: Science and Art (Integrated Large Group Activity) Age Group: 60-72 Achievements and Indicators Language Development Achievement 7. He recognizes the meaning of what is listened/watched. (Indicators: He explains what he listened/watched. He interprets what he/she listened/watched.) Social and Emotional Development Achievement 3. He expresses himself in creative ways. (Indicators: He expresses his emotions, opinions, and dreams via original methods. He utilizes the objects in novel ways. He creates original products.) Achievement 9. He explains different cultural characteristics. (Indicators: He specifies the cultural characteristics of his own country. He specifies the similar and different characteristics of the culture of his home country and those of other countries. He emphasizes that different countries have different authentic cultural characteristics.) Materials  Presentation using clothes of different cultures  Waste materials such as fabric, papers, cotton, ribbon, colored fabrics, rope, button, bead, and etc.  Scissor  Glue Words Culture Comprehensions Opposite: Same-different-similar Learning Process  Children watch the presentation of teacher with children clothes of different cultures. Then they discuss about which ones of the clothes presented they have or haven’t seen, and about their similarities and differences.  Children are divided into small groups of 3-4 children. Teacher says that they can prepare whichever cloth they want. The groups create the clothes, which they design, from the materials they want.  The clothes are exhibited in an appropriate part of classroom or school. Assessment What did we do in this activity? How clothes did you design? What did you enjoyed in this activity at most? Why? Have you ever designed a cloth before? What have you used while designing that cloth? Why there are different clothes? Family Participation Families are invited to the school, and the children have their families visit the cloth 438

store. I behave fairly. Activity Type: Turkish Language Activity (Large Group Activity) Age Group: 60-72 Achievements and Indicators Language Development Achievement 5. He utilizes the language for the purpose of communication (Indicators: He states his emotions, opinions and dreams. He expresses the reasons of his emotions and opinions.) Social and Emotional Development Achievement 4. He explains the emotions of others about an event or a case. (Indicators: He expresses the emotions of others. He specifies the reasons of others’ emotions. He states the consequences of others’ emotions.) Achievement 6. He protects his own rights and the rights of others. (Indicators: He specifies his rights. He emphasizes that others have rights. He specifies what he can do when treated unfairly. He specifies what he should do in order to protect the rights of others.) Materials  Drawing paper  Paints Words Right, to be fair Comprehensions ………….. Learning Process  Teacher says that he would tell a story to students, but the students would complete the story. “Eda brought chocolate to give her classmates. She started to give one chocolate to each of her classmates. When Ceren’s turn came, “I am your best friend, so you should give me 2 chocolates” said Ceren. Teacher orientates students into completing the story by asking for their opinions about what happened then, how many chocolates Eda gave Ceren. Teacher allows each of the students in classroom to speak, and then the story is discussed once it is completed. The teacher emphasizes the importance of fairness and protecting the rights.  Children animate the story they formed. Assessment Teacher asks the children for drawing the picture of story they created. Family Participation The families are asked for discussing with children about the sample cases, where it is required to be fair in home, and then for drawing its picture. REFERENCES Affolter, W. F. (2005). Socio-Emotional Enablement and The Convention of The Rights of The Child. The International Journal of Children’s Rights 13, 379-397. Akıllıoğlu, T. (19959. Çocuk Haklarına Dair Sözleşme. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF. İnsan Hakları Merkezi Yayınları, 101s., Ankara. Aktürk, S. (2006). Avrupa Birliği Sürecinde Türkiye’de Çocuk Hakları ve Güvenliği. 439

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Programları içinde (bölüm 1 sayfa 169-177).Hedef CS Basın Yayın: Ankara. Moroğlu, N. (2003). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Çocuk Hakları. Ulusal ve Uluslararası Hukukta Çocuk Hakları. Yayına Hazırlayan: Nazan Moroğlu. Alman Liseliler Kültür ve Eğitim Vakfı Yayınları, 2, 29-85, İstanbul. Neslitürk, S & Ersoy, A. F. (2007). Okulöncesi Öğretmen Adaylarının Çocuk Haklarının Öğretimine İlişkin Görüşleri. Egitimde Kuram ve Uygulama 3(2), 245-257. Öntaş, C. Ö. (2004). Çocuk hakları ve sosyal hizmetin güçlendirme yaklaşımı açısından suça yönelen çocuk-polis ilişkisi. Doktora tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, 248s.,Ankara. Peker Ünal, D. (2010). İlköğretim Öğretmenlerine Yönelik Web Tabanlı Çocuk Hakları Eğitimi Programı. Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara. Serozan, R. (2005). Çocuk Hukuku, Vedat Kitapçılık, 324s., İstanbul. Shukla, C. K., & Ali, S. (2006). Child Labour Scioeconomic Dimensions. New Delphi, Sarup and Sons. Sokullu Akıncı, F. (2011). Kriminoloji ve Hukuk Açısından Çocuk İhmali ve İstismarı. I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-2, s.121133, İstanbul. Sund, G. L. (2006). The Rights of The Child as Legally Protected Interests. The InternationalJournal of Children’s Rights, 14, 327-337. Torun, F. (2011). Çocuk Hakları Öğretiminde Oyun Yönteminin Başarıya, Kalıcılığa ve Tutuma Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adıyaman Üniversitesi, Adıyaman. Turupçu, A. & Gültekin Akduman, G. (2015). Okul Öncesi Eğitim ve Çocuk Hakları. Gülden Uyanık Balat (Ed.) Okul Öncesi Eğitime Giriş kitabı içinde (bölüm 12, sayfa 235-252). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık: İstanbul. UNICEF (2012). Türkiye’de Çocuk ve Genç Nüfusun Durumunun Analizi 2012. Retrieved on 10.May.2016, at http://unicef.deparyazilim.com/files/bilgimerkezi/doc/sitan-tur-final2012.pdf. UNICEF (2009). State of the World’s Children: Celebrating 20 Years of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Unicef. Unutkan, Ö. P. (2008). İnsan Hakları, Çocuk Hakları ve Eğitimi. A. Oktay (Der.), Eğitim Bilimine Giriş kitabı içinde (sayfa 98-120). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık. Ünal, Ş. (1997). Avrupa’daki Türk Çocuklarının İnsan Hakları Sorunları, Şafak Matbaacılık Ltd. Şti.,101s., Ankara. Washington, F. (2010). 5– 6 Yaş Grubu Çocuklarına Uygulanan Aile Katılımlı Çocuk Hakları Eğitimi Programının Etkililiğinin İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Yavuz, N., Duman, T. & Karakaya, N. (2016). İnsan Hakları ve Demokrasi Vatandaşlık Bilgisi, Pegem Akademi, 174s., Ankara. Yıldırım Doğru, S. S. (2015). Yasal Düzenlemeler. S. Sunay Yıldırım Doğru (Ed.). Çocuk Hakları ve Koruma Aile Refahı ve Koruma kitabı içinde (bölüm 1 sayfa 1-42). Eğiten Kitap: Ankara. Yıldız, M. (2011). Çocuğa Yönelik Ayrımcılığın Önlenmesinde Ders Kitapları ve Eğitim Araçlarının Rolü, I. Türkiye Çocuk Hakları Kongresi, 25-27 Şubat 2011, Yetişkin Bildirileri Kitabı-1, s.161-170, İstanbul.

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Chapter 34 Secondary School Students’ Difficulties in Learning Mathematics Gülgün BANGİR ALPAN, Özgül YAYLA** INTRODUCTION Mathematics is abstracting and modeling, and a mutual language and tool which sciences employ. Such practical fields as economics, medicine, and engineering, etc. are some of the applied fields of a multi-dimensional mathematics (Meepracha, 2015; Nasibov and Kaçar, 2005). Mathematics, with a critical role among theories and practices, is an abstract language of design of itself. Mathematics is one of the compulsory courses starting from the first years of schooling process (Ersoy, 2003). The teaching of mathematics starts from kindergarten years and expands in primary and the following schooling processes (Küçük and Demir, 2009). On the other hand, whether Mathematics education, in a wider perspective, or Mathematics instruction has achieved its objectives, and the discussion of the problems encountered is still on the agenda. The fact that the achievement scores obtained from TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) and the national exams SBS (National Placement Exam), TEOG (Transition from Primary to Secondary Education) are not at the desired levels is remarkable and thought-provoking. Why are students challenged in Mathematics? Why do students fall for misconceptions? What could be done in order to overcome the challenges? Such questions have managed to capture the attention of education specialists in the last 40 years (Bingölbali and Özmantar, 2012). In the last years, learning difficulties pertaining to mathematics teaching have increasingly drawn the attention of assessment and evaluation specialists and teachers alike. It is thought that some 6% of students suffer from challenges of mathematics education (Jeannette and Manheimer, 1997). According to Stodolsky, Salk, and Glaessner (1991), mathematics and social sciences at primary schools differ in general methods of instruction and content. In a study by Scott and Barbara to discover the attitude and perceptions of 5th graders in learning mathematics and social sciences, it is observed that students hold different attitudes and perceptions in mathematics and social sciences. Negative and positive attitudes, success and failure, homework status of students shape the perceptions and attitude towards mathematics. Students evaluated social sciences in terms of whether the subjects are attractive or boring. On the other hand, students are of the opinion that students will be challenged in mathematics on their own, while they think that they can learn on their own when it comes to social sciences. Şenol, Dündar, Kaya, Gündüz and Temel (2015), in their study in which they 

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Gazi Education Faculty, Educational Sciences Department ** Math Teacher, Nimet - Bahri Kutluözen Secondary School 

examined the reasons for fear of mathematics, asked the opinions of teachers. When the opinions are examined, the reason stemming from students takes the lead. In the opinions of teachers, the main reason why students fear Mathematics is their indifference. This is followed by a prejudice against math, a low level of readiness, anxiety over mathematics and lack of self-confidence. While teachers attribute challenges in math learning to students, students refer to themselves and the importance of learning aids. What constitutes a curriculum are objective, content, the process of teaching and learning and the elements of evaluation. There are numerous studies into the use of method, techniques and strategies in the learning and teaching process (Aktepe, Tahiroğlu and Acer, 2015; Baştürk and Dönmez, 2011; Bütüner and Gür, 2008; Cantürk and Başer, 2009; Gürbüz and Toprak, 2014; Kar and Işık, 2014; Lai, &Hwang, 2016; Mercan, 2011; Özer and Şan, 2013; Uygun and Tertemiz 2014; Toptaş, 2008; Turhan and Güven, 2014;), teaching materials (Aydoğmuş, 2010; Aktaş, 2015; Balkan, 2012; Korucu, 2009; Meepracha, 2015;Şimşek and Yücekaya, 2014; Yeniçeri, 2013) and the effect of these on the achievement of students. Then follows the studies into the curriculum of mathematics education related to objective (Ceyhan, 2012; Dağlar and Delil, 2010; Özer and Şan, 2013; Mercan, 2011) and evaluation (Aşık, 2009; Bal, 2009; Erdal, 2005; Karakuş, 2010). However, when the body of literature is examined, studies on content analysis of mathematics educational curriculum (Çetin, Dane and Bekdemir, 2012; Kutluca and Baki, 2009; Meepracha, 2015; Yenilmez and Çimen, 2012) are fewer. On the other hand, to examine the subject matter of mathematics and to determine the subjects which students find difficult to learn, are of great significance in terms of curriculum development and the efficiency of instructional applications. It is necessary to investigate in which subject matters the failures of students are clustered in. On the event that this is not performed in time and students are allowed to pass the class, it will be inevitable for students to fail, for there will be no comprehensive and meaningful learning (Kutluca and Baki, 2009). Besides, it is observed that studies on difficult subjects in math, and the conceptual errors they bring along are held predominantly at high school level. For this reason, this study sets out to examine the math subjects at secondary school level. The general purpose of this research is to identify the math subjects in which secondary school students confront difficulties in learning. In order to accomplish this general purpose, the following questions have been raised and their answers have been sought: (i) What are the challenging subjects in math for secondary school students (5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grade) in terms of the teacher and student views? (ii) What is the nature of the range of variables (gender, class size, taking private lessons, attending a private teaching institution, the final scores of the school reports in the 1st and 2nd semesters, and the gender of the teachers) of the learning difficulties of secondary school students in math subjects? (iii) Is there a meaningful difference between teacher and student views pertaining to the degrees of difficulty in the learning domains in math for secondary school students? MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants The working group of this research has been constituted with the participation of secondary school math teachers (93) and students (1728) from the province of Ankara 443

in order to delineate through their views the difficult subjects in math classes in secondary schools. 446 of the students are attending 5th grade, 414 are attending 6th grade, 429 are 7th grade, 439 are attending 8th grade. 20 of the teachers are teaching in 5th grade, 25 of them in 6th grade, 20 in 7th grade, and 28 are teaching in 8th grade classes. In the process of determining the participants, this research has accommodated a teleological sampling method—the “maximum variation sampling,” which is one of the non-random sampling methods. In relation with the problem analyzed within the universe, the “maximum variation sampling” method is defined as one that requires identifying different situations that are innately homogenous and working on these situations. An important point here is that the sampling must comply with the purpose of the research while representing a variety of situations (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç-Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz and Demirel, 2014). The participants of this study have been chosen from district schools (39 in number) with different socio-economic characteristics in order to provide a variety of perspectives and situations. The participants have partaken by the principle of volunteering. Table 1 portrays the range of the demographic profiles of the students who participate in the study in accordance with the grades they are attending. The elements that capture attention in the table are as follows: the number of the students in each class is predominantly between 31 and 40, more than half of the students have attended math classes in private teaching institutions a year before the study; the students in the 5th and 8th grades, who have received final scores of 4 and 5 out of 5.00 in their school reports (report cards) outnumber the rest in the group. 47 of the participating math teachers are female, 46 are male. The ranges of the teachers’ professional seniority are distributed as: 67 individuals for 1-10 years of experience; 15 for 11-20 years; and 11 for 21+ years of service. Within the participants, there are 10 teachers who hold a Master’s degree. Table 1: Demographic profile of the respondents. Demographic Variables Gender Class Size Non formal support 1st Term Report Card Score 2nd Term Report Card Score

Qualities Female Male Fever than 20 21-30 31-40 41 and above Private Lesso. Private Insti. Less than 3 4 and 5 Less than 3 4 and 5

5th grade f % 209 46,9 237 53,1 34 7,6 358 80,3 54 12,1 0 0 22 4,9 42 9,4 112 25,1 247 55,4 86 19,3 271 60,7

6th grade f % 190 45,9 224 54,1 77 18,6 82 19,8 236 57 19 4,6 40 9,7 64 15,5 138 33,3 194 46,9 128 30,9 207 50

7th grade f % 244 56,9 185 43,1 15 3,5 142 33,1 272 63,4 0 0 40 9,3 121 28,2 157 36, 188 43,8 143 33,4 203 47,3

8th grade f % 264 60,1 175 39,1 0 0 47 10,7 392 89,3 0 0 32 7,3 342 77,9 46 10,5 357 81,3 49 11,1 360 82

Questionnaire Design This study aims to identify the difficult subjects in math classes for students in secondary schools. The researcher has designed a rating scale questionnaire for the purpose. The process of the preparation and application of the questionnaire has taken the following course: A body of literature about the difficult subjects confronted by students in math classes has been consulted; the secondary school educational 444

programme for math classes (Ministry of National Education, 2013) in 5-8 grades has been examined in terms of the expected acquirements, and draft articles have been prepared in the aftermath of preliminary interviews with math teachers, secondary school students and academicians. The draft articles have been presented to the attention of two academicians specialized in the field and a specialist in educational sciences with the purpose of validating the scope of the study. In accordance with the specialized views, the necessary corrections have been made. Due to the fact that the subjects taught at every level in every grade vary, four different questionnaires have been designed for the purpose. The same questionnaires were applied on the teachers as well. Before completing the final draft of the questionnaire form, the articles have been presented to the attention of five students and teachers and their views have been consulted in order to see the duration necessary for the completion of the questionnaire and to make sure that the articles are intelligible. 5 students have been given a 5-point likert scale questionnaire (“I absolutely agree”—“I agree”—“I can’t decide”—“I disagree”—“I absolutely disagree”) and a 3-point likert scale questionnaire (3—easy, 2—partly difficult, 1—difficult). The students have reported that the 3-point likert scale questionnaire is much more intelligible. 9th grade students were given the 8th grade questionnaire, the students in 8th grader were given the 7th grade questionnaire, the students in 7th grader were given the 6th grade questionnaire, and finally the 6th grade students were given the 5th grade questionnaire. This strategy was preferred because students who complete a degree and move up are expected to be familiar with all the subjects taught in the lower grade classes and in this way, the results would be considered more reliable. The questionnaires applied to math teachers, on the other hand, were given a special attention in order to ensure that the teachers fill out the questionnaire that involves only the levels of the classes at which they have taught uninterruptedly for a whole year within the 2012-2013 educational year. While the teachers were filling out their questionnaires, they were reminded to consider all the subjects which students found difficult to learn. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is 0,99 for the 5th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,99 for 6th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,98 for 7th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,98 for 8th grade teacher questionnaires, 0,96 for 5th grade student questionnaires, 0,98 for 6th grade student questionnaires, 0,97 for 7th grade student questionnaires, and 0,98 for 8th grade student questionnaires. Data Analysis The subjects which constitute a difficulty for the students in math classes and their distribution according to some variables have been demonstrated in terms of frequencies and percentages. In the comparison between the views of the teachers and students, on the other hand, it has been delineated through a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test that the sample values of the study (p,05. As Table 3 shows, there is a significant difference between critical thinking tendencies of female students ( X =201,42) and critical thinking tendencies of male students ( X =214,90) according to t(177)=2,32, p=,022