Didactic Guide for Science Student Teachers

Didactic Guide for Science Student Teachers

Editors, María A. VEGA Pilar ARAMBURUZABALA Matthias KREMER


Copyright © 2007 by María A. VEGA GONZÁLEZ; Pilar ARAMBURUZABALA HIGUERA and Matthias KREMER (ed.) Copyright © 2007 by: BEE, Ulrich BETTI, Patrizia BORGHI, Lidia BRANCA, Mario BRUNI, Giacomo CHIRLESAN, Georgeta DE AMBROSIS, Anna ESTEBAN, Rocío GARROTE, Nicolás MARTÍN, Piedad MASCHERETTI, Paolo MÜHLHOFF, Jens PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, Carmen ROGNONI, Daniela SIERRA, Lina STĂNESCU, Constantin STANESCU, Rodica VASILESCU, Daniela

ISBN: 978-84-690-7902-7 ISBN: 978-84-690-7903-4

(paperbook) (e-book_CD-ROM)

Published by Nicolás Garrote José María Moreno, 8A, Bajo F; 28250-TORRELODONES-Madrid [email protected] ; tlfo. 918594754 Printed in “La Comercial” – Segovia (Spain)

This handbook includes a CD-ROM. This product has been developed with the financial support provided by the EC through the SOCRATES/Comenius 2.1 Programe in the framework of the project titled “Science as a Tool for Life: Conceptual Change [CONS-CIENCE], ref. no. 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21. The content of this product is the sole responsibility of its authors, and in no way it represents the views of the Commission or its services.


Table of contents I. Didactic Guidelines for Secondary School Science Teachers.......... 7 I.1. Frame of reference ....................................................................................... 10 I.2. Present perspective on Science teaching ............................................................. 13 I.3. Conceptual change in the teaching of experimental Sciences ..................................... 17 I.4. Ten (10) Indicators of a “Learning Community”....................................................... 28 I.5. Profile of the teacher ..................................................................................... 46 References ..................................................................................................... 55

II. Guidelines to use the science experiments.............................. 56 II.1. The mysterious glove (P-1) ............................................................................. 59 II.2. Does air have weight? (P-2) ............................................................................ 62 II.3. The untied balloon (P-3)................................................................................. 68 II.4. Playing with pressure (P-4) ............................................................................. 70 II.5. The movement of particles (P-5) ....................................................................... 73 II.6. Visualising atmospheric pressure (P-6) ............................................................... 75 II.7. Heat and temperature (H.1) ............................................................................ 78 II.8. The boat with self propulsion (H-2) .................................................................... 85 II.9. The water elevator (W-1)................................................................................ 89 II.10. Capillarity phenomena and transpiration of leaves in a green plant (W-2) ..................... 93 II.11. Gases made out of water - are they the same? (W-3) ............................................ 99 II.12. Bubbles (W-4) ..........................................................................................101 II.13. Mixtures of oil, water and alcohol (W-5) ............................................................104 II.14.The surface tension of the water (W-6) .............................................................106 II.15. Thermal expansion: the anomalous behaviour of water (W-7) ..................................109 II.16. Mixture or chemical reaction? (C-1).................................................................113 II.17. “Dissolving” an effervescent tablet in water (C-2) .................................................117 II.18. The oxidization of iron (C-3)..........................................................................120 II.19. Chemical reactivity of metals (C-4)..................................................................124 II.20. Physiological action of some metals (C-5) .........................................................127

III. Glossary of specific scientific vocabulary ..............................130 IV. Essential common topics and misconceptions in science..........141 V. Education systems: Germany, Ireland, Italy, Romania, Spain ...155 V.1. Levels of control and administrative organization ..................................................156 V.2. Educational phases.....................................................................................156 V.3.Teacher training system ................................................................................160

VI. Cultural aspects of the receiving country ..............................165 VI.1. Germany.................................................................................................166 VI.2. Ireland ...................................................................................................172 VI.3. Italy.......................................................................................................181 VI.4. Romania .................................................................................................193 VI.5. Spain.....................................................................................................204 VI.6. The receiving secondary school .....................................................................230

Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Partnership (participating institutions)

Institution

Contact person María Vega,

Complutense University of Madrid,

General Coordinator

, Spain Nicolás Garrote, General Secretary

Department Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology Department of Teaching Physical Education.

Teacher training institution , Rottweil (Germany).

Matthias Kremer,

University of Alcalá

Lina Sierra,

, (Spain)

Local Coordinator

SEK University,

Pilar Aramburuzabala,

Segovia (Spain)

Local Coordinator

Local Coordinator

University of Sassari,

Mario Branca,

< Università di Sassari>, (Italy)

Local Coordinator

University of Pavia,

Lidia Borghi,

, (Italy).

Local Coordinator

University of Pitesti,

Georgeta Chirlesan,

, (Romania).

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Local Coordinator

Science Department

Department of Modern Philology Department of Psychology and Education

Chemistry Department

Physics Department Physics Department and Department of European Integration


Introduction

This Didactic Guide for Science Student Teachers is part of the project “CON-SCIENCE. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change” (ref. 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21), that was financed by the European Union in the frame of the Socrates Programme. The overall aims of the project were (1) to promote quality and innovation in teaching Science (Physics and Chemistry) by designing significant learning contexts, using inexpensive creative materials, using specific scientific language, and promoting mobility of student teachers, and (2) to detect misconceptions in teaching Science and introduce didactic interventions for the evolution of such misconceptions. Results of international research projects such as “PISA”

1

show a limited Science competence of

14-15 year old pupils from different European countries. The three main reasons for this fact are a) the permanent prejudice against scientific subjects, b) the traditional training of Science student teachers in which they reproduce the dissociation between the real world and the teaching of Science, and c) the transmission of this dissociation to the pupils at compulsory education. The above mentioned reasons could partly explain the decrease in the number of university students in the Science area which may result in a decrease of the number of future Science teachers. This is -or will be- a problem in the European countries since the natural professional rotation might be at risk and it could result in a lack of highly qualified Science teachers that respond to the demands of the 21st century schools. In order to get self-confident and motivated pupils it is essential that their teachers are more selfconfident and motivated. The society of information requires a new learning culture that provides individuals with new ways of managing knowledge in specific domains. In a world that is especially influenced by Science and Technology, we need to think of new educational goals, contents and didactic resources for scientific education. The constructivism perspective proposes a reconceptualization of Science teaching. From this perspective, knowledge must be accessible to everyone, and for that, it is important to take into consideration how the students acquire this knowledge and to start from their spontaneous conceptions. Therefore, a conceptual change is required. Nowadays it is believed that the conceptual change must not be understood as the replacement of the students´ schemes with the schemes of science. Instead, it is necessary to improve the students´ flexibility for changing their conceptual perspective, by helping them to become conscious about the relations between the different schemes for interpreting reality. For that, it is essential to design learning contexts that facilitate the activation of multiple perspectives. It is also necessary to put special care in the academic tasks that are presented

1

Project PISA 2003 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/58/33918060.pdf


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to the students because the tasks are not neutral. The students construct a model for the situation and elaborate their cognitive products according to the demands. These are the reasons why the CON-SCIENCE project aims for innovation in the initial training of Science student teachers, taking into account both the scientific components and the methodological and didactic components, all of them framed by a conceptual change. Working in improving teacher training means a cultural investment in the medium and long run. The Didactic Guide for Science Student Teachers includes some of the main products of the CONSCIENCE project. The Chapter I presents the theoretical framework underlying the process of teaching/learning Science, and the basic principles for helping the teachers who will use the experiments that are proposed in this handbook. The objective of the Chapter II is to present the model-experiments that were tested in the secondary classroom by the tutors of the schools that collaborated in the project and the science expert teachers of the project. These experiments follow the socioconstructivist model proposed in this handbook. They are done with daily and not expensive materials so they can be achieved in any school, including those with a low budget. The Chapter III complements the previous since it consists of the specific vocabulary used in the teaching of sciences according to the socioconstructivist model. The lexicon includes the most correct and useful terms for the classroom, translated to the languages of the participating countries in the project. This work was done when the experiments were tested. The Chapter IV identifies misconceptions related to four Science topics that are commonly taught in the Secondary school: Heat and temperature”, “Particles”, “Water and its properties” and “Chemical reaction”. The Chapter V of the handbook presents data about the educational system of the partner countries. The document was given to the student teachers who participated in the mobility actions of the project, with the objective of helping them to get prepared for the experience. They were selected for visiting during two weeks a Secondary school of one of the participating countries. The last chapter was a source to help the student teachers who participated in the mobility with information about the history and culture of the host country and town, practical information for living in the country.

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I. Didactic Guidelines for Secondary School Science Teachers


Authors: María A. VEGA Pilar ARAMBURUZABALA Nicolás GARROTE


Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Directorate-General for Education and Culture of the European Commission, for having supported the CON-SCIENCE project. We wish to express our gratitude to Carles Monereo for his encouragement and his input in the development of the “10 indicators of a Learning Community”. We also want to thank Carmen González Landa, Esther Portal, Esther Rodríguez, Juan Lirio and Mario Oubiña for their collaboration in this publication by reviewing the draft of the manuscript and suggesting constructive comments.

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Introduction It is important to keep in mind that all the decisions that a teacher has to make when considering how to help the student, are framed on a specific approach or beliefs. These beliefs are mostly implicit and can only be questioned in the process of making them explicit. This document invites the reader to know and think about the specific variables in the teaching of Chemistry that favour and hinder the learning experience of the students. For that, we facilitate to secondary education teachers (12-16 year old students) contents and issues that will help them to know and situate themselves in relation to the teaching-learning socioconstructivist approach. The purpose of this first part of the Didactic Guidelines for Secundary School Science Teachers is to offer a supportive document to help Secondary Education teachers in initial training so they can: •

Approach to the new instructional models that challenge the XXI century

•

To tackle the failure situation of the students in learning Chemistry.

In fact, we have struggled to make a synthesis of principles for reflection and debate; principles that facilitated significant learning in the students in their developmental process as human beings. It is important to underline that these principles are the outcome of the debates and deep discussions of all the participants that have worked to produce this document. We do not pretend to offer principles that imply a closed and absolute truth, but the product of our work in a determined time and context with the purpose of facilitating a tool to the teachers that are beginning their teaching in Secondary Education. It is a tool based on the socioconstructivist teaching-learning approach to help them to make decisions and solve problems when choosing the goals to attain, designing learning tasks, handling the class group, etc. We consider that each principle will help the teachers to: Think about their teaching work Place themselves in relation to the principles and look for strategies to advance Propose new principles and practices and argue about their importance This didactic part consists of five sections: 1. Frame of reference: description of the teaching-learning process according to the sociocontructivist approach. 2. Present perspective on Science teaching. 3. Conceptual change in the teaching. 4. Ten (10) indicators of a "Learning Community". 5. The profile of the teacher. There are also examples and opinions from different authors that invite the student teacher to reflect, expand and deepen their understanding of the educational experience. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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I.1. Frame of reference I.1.1. The classroom: Learning Community As it was indicated in the introduction of this document, our purpose is to help Secondary Education teachers to know what a socioconstructivist approach on teaching/learning is. According to the socioconstructivist approach, teaching and learning implies to commit with the goal to facilitate the integral development of the person (cognitive, affective, social and behavioural), by the construction of meanings, that is, the fact that the learner grants a personal and self sense to an object of knowledge. In short, to help -mediate- so the student learns to be himself/herself in the socio-historical moment that he/she is living in. The teacher makes the effort to make decisions and solve problems with the intention that the learner develops as a human being. At every moment he/she is aware that the academic task contributes to the education of the students, and, therefore, that the educational practice as social practice, implies specific moral and ideological options. Therefore, the teacher assumes that he/she cannot be neutral since his/her function is not limited to just teach a scientific or curricular knowledge, but that the teaching of the discipline is a mean to facilitate the development of the student as a human being; and his/her educational practice is going to have subsequent consequences upon learning and development of the students. Education facilitates skills, ways of thinking, feeling and speaking which allow human beings to integrate in society in a more or less autonomous way. Learning Community A way to accomplish the basic principles of a socioconstructivist learning approach is by making the classroom to become an educational community. The goal of this community is the development of the students as human beings. That is why the classroom becomes a site for encounter and dialogue, where all, as learners, try to integrate knowledge in order to transfer it when faced with the need to make decisions or solve problems, not just in the academic field but in everyday life. The dialogue and the positive interactions that are established in the classroom are the milestone for the students to be capable of not just understand but transform their way of thinking, feeling and behaving. By positive interactions we mean respect for the growth and learning of the human being without any obstacles or blockade.

I.1.2. Chemistry curriculum for Secondary Education. Aspects to take into account According to the systemic approach in the educational context, failure of the student means failure of the system. This does not mean that each of the intervening variables (learner, teacher, content and context) does not have its effect in the failure experience. However, we cannot minimize the

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load that the specific characteristics of the subject of Chemistry has upon the high failure that is reported in different international forums. Difficulties encountered in didactic of Chemistry are also applicable to Physics. These paragraphs out Chemstry can be re-adapted for Didactics of Science, since the examples given throughout the guide will be from Physics and/or Chemistry. Among the various difficulties that are raised by the didactic of Chemistry, there are three that we consider very relevant: •

There is a specific language (“chemistry language”) that is characterized by a high level of abstraction that goes beyond the simple symbolic representation. It has its own grammar and it is supported by Mathematics.

•

There are analyzed microscopic phenomena that could hardly be observed in the classroom with the means that are available.

•

Most of the phenomena analyzed in the field of Chemistry are very complex.

The “chemistry language” goes beyond the simple symbolic representation; it has its own grammar and is also based on mathematical structures and concepts. That is why we need to dedicate time for a “Chemistry alphabetization” so the students do not experience a sense of terror nor anticipate a feeling of incompetence towards the symbols and formulas written in the board or in books. This should be done from a positive perspective by showing them that this apparent new alphabetization is not really new, but they have been using it for many years. In language there is a link of a symbol with a sound which expresses a thought through a linguistic structure. In Maths, symbols are linked to specific values, and there are operations and problems with mathematical structures. In Chemistry we do the same, but we count on the previous knowledge that the students have constructed through their school life and everyday living. Even more, our students are experts in the use of abstract languages or high levels of codification; they are real decoders and language creators, as they demonstrate when they send messages through cell-phones and use Internet. For example, the raw materials of glass are sand, sodium carbonate and calcium carbonate pulverized, mixed and melted (AA.VV,2004); for a certain sort of glass it is possible to describe that process in the language of chemistry by: 6SiO2 + Na2CO3 + CaCO3 ----> Na2O . CaO . 6SiO2 + 2CO2 In no way can this positive perspective make us assume that the task that we are facing is not difficult and ambitious, specially at this age -since Chemistry is usually taken in third year of Secondary Education, we are talking about 15 year old students, an age when formal thinking is in full development . Therefore, we should facilitate the task by starting from their previous knowledge.


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Regarding the second difficulty, we analyze microscopic phenomena that cannot be directly observed, so we have to observe them indirectly. When we breathe, we take oxygen from the air, and it is then expelled as carbon dioxide, but we do not see it. When we put sugar in water, it is called dissolution, but when we drop an effervescent pill it is called a reaction, although at simple sight we do not know if there is a new compound or not. Even more, if we test before and after the aggregates, we would affirm that both substances are different. However, as chemists we know that in the first case occurred a physical change, while in the second one the students are able to observe the bubbles produced as carbon dioxide as gas, and a chemical change occurred. This other way of perceiving through the effects or consequences require the use of other senses such as touch (it gives off heat?’), sometimes the smell and, why not, the ear, and then stop to analyze what really happened. Maybe we do not need to consider including many concepts but get the most out of the experience by strengthening the students´ capacity to observe and reason. And last, the third difficulty in Chemistry refers to the analysis of complex phenomena. In a certain way, all sciences analyze and explain reality or the functioning of the world. Chemistry also does it, but its explanation can be very complex. For example, in the field of Geology the students learn that the limestone rock is a kind of rock produced by the residues of marine animals that go to the bottom of the sea and solidify as a consequence of pressure and temperature. For Chemistry, the limestone rock is CaCO3; a fossil is the mineralization of animal residues. But, how is mineralization produced? A stroke of the Renaissance or an impressionist colour in the art world could have an incalculable value, but the colour blooming in these two historical moments is based in a chemical research that provides a complex explanation. In the field of nutrition we could consider the contributions of milk: proteins, fats, sugars and vitamins. From the Chemistry perspective we could talk about water, calcium, lactose, thiamine (vitamin B1), folic acid, olive acid….To the question of what is nourishment, the answer from the Chemistry perspective requires a lot of knowledge, and sometimes it seems that we are working without getting deep into the issues considered. So, we should work knowledge from different depth levels and acknowledging, for example, that calcium, as an element of the periodic table, is also a necessary element for human nourishment since it intervenes in the formation of bones. Working from this perspective could be more interesting to the students since we establish relations in our knowledge and we help to respond to specific questions. When we ask the students “What is the use of Chemistry?”, we should help them to see that is used for almost everything: computers, cell phones, MP3, sport shoes, clothing with different tissues and colours, motorcycles, cars, perfumes, soap, food… As chemists, we think that Chemistry education is essential; as Chemistry teachers, we should help the students to grasp its usefulness, understand the concepts we study and their application, and, if possible, to become enthusiastic with the experience of learning. The causes of misconceptions will be analysed in depth, providing some examples as well: combination of two correct concepts that lead to an incorrect conclusion, everyday language is often at

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odds witch science (e.g. “the toast burned”, “I am hot”, “these are warm clothes”). Teachers try to use metaphors and comparisons in their attempt of reducing the level of abstraction of contents. Although these sources could awaken interest in the students, sometimes hinder deep understanding while facilitating a superficial understanding that in many occasions lead to mistakes that are difficult to overcome. Such misconceptions are a focus of interest for many researchers. We know how important is to facilitate instruments that help to evaluate and overcome misconceptions in Chemistry. Therefore, a section of this guide is a summary of experiments done with inexpensive materials. The complex design as well as the content of the experiments are capital components of the teaching of Chemistry. However, we should keep in mind the other variables that make up the frame of the teaching-learning. Let’s look at it with the help of a metaphor. We hire famous cooks (teachers) to make a meal (the content of Chemistry) for the delight of the demanding companions at table (our students). They have the opportunity to develop their creativity (methodological techniques) and they can also use the best products in the market in order to get the best results: a three stars meal. When they get out of the kitchen in order to serve the meal, they find out that in the dinning room there are no tables and the walls are rusted; a black line crosses the saloon -a row of ants. The companions at table (students) are upset, feel cold and feel uncomfortable. The cooks do not know what to do, there is no place for the dishes, and the companions at table, without consideration, forget their manners and launch the food with disrespect. Before presenting our proposal, and in order to help student teachers to know their conceptualizations regarding what is teaching or learning and facilitate instruments for reflection in the process of education and improvement, we will contribute with the review of different perspectives about what has been happening in experimental Sciences.

I.2. Present perspective on Science teaching The existing wide research upon the existence of alternative conceptualizations by students and its resistance to change makes evident the inefficacy of the traditional model of Science teaching, since it reduces the process of teaching to a simple transmission and reception of elaborated knowledge.

I.2.1. Learning by discovery In order to face the passive methods of learning, at the end of the decade of 1950 emerges the first strategy that puts emphasis on active participation of students and application of the processes of Science (Shulman & Keislar, 1966). (It is the onset of the great American projects (PSSC, ISCS, SAPA, etc.) or the Nuffield British. According to this approach, teaching is based upon consideration of physical situations from which the students begin to construct principles and physical laws by means of observations, formulation of hypothesis and experimentation.


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The student's participation in the teaching process as well as direct contact with physical reality encourages higher motivation of the student for learning Science. It is also considered that working with concrete objects, constructing hypothesis and designing the experiment will contribute to the student’s transition from the concrete stages to the more formal stages of logical thinking. The main criticism to learning by discovery proceeds from the inductive perspective of Science and its overemphasis on procedures as opposed to contents. However, contents are really fundamental when learning Science. A hypothesis cannot be formulated if it is not based on a theoretical frame. On the other hand, this type of learning is slow and forces to select the topics presented in class. Another criticism proceeds from the field of Psychology: Learning by discovery is based on the necessity to contrast hypothesis, and eliminating them by the process of falsification. Many students between 14 and 16 years old have not developed it, (and some are never able to develop it.) In spite of its limitations, learning by discovery has its advantages: 1. It makes the student responsible for his/her own learning, and 2. It considers important the experimental work (when it is not seen as simple manipulation). In fact, the hypothesis formulated by the students in learning by discovery could be considered as an assertion of their own conceptions of the physical phenomena. On the other side, and in spite of the existing difficulties, we must question if perhaps it is not formative that the students get used to make explicit the variables that intervene in a process and intent to propose how to control them.

I.2.2. Learning by guided discovery This approach implies a more logical and scientific refinement of perspective than the previous approach. Also, with the time it has acquired characteristics of the constructivism approaches on learning. The teacher presents problematic situations that the students have to solve while working in small groups. As opposed to the previous approach, here the students not only analyze the situation qualitatively to formulate their working hypothesis, but with the bibliography provided by the teacher, they can define the problem better before they begin to explain their previous ideas and present such hypothesis. If the stage of contrasting and discussion of the hypothesis established by the different groups could be similar to the previous approach, then the last stage (application of the acquired knowledge to new, but similar, situations) implies an important novelty, since it helps to extend and support such knowledge. In the model proposed by Gil, D. (1993), the process concludes with some activities of synthesis (schema, conceptual maps, reports, etc.) that give coherence to it and allows to present new problematic situations. Its inconveniences are similar to the previous approach: we have to sacrifice contents, so the reasoning difficulties of the students force the teacher, in many cases, to anticipate difficulties and “correct” results. This approach functions better when there is continuity in the teaching-learning process (different classes through the courses), although at the beginning it motivates more the student, it implies more effort: the student cannot limit himself to coming to class and listening.

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I.2.3. Constructivism and conceptual change The best explanation of this teaching approach for Sciences is the classical paper by Posner, Strike, Hewson y Gertzog (1982), that led to the development of abundant research and a conceptual change that has become a paradigm which that is extended to other knowledge and in Spain has become a general objective to all learning. The curriculum becomes a set of experiences through which we assume that the student will modify scientific conceptions in order to construct conceptions that are closer to scientific ideas (Driver, 1988). The teaching–learning process is based on the previous ideas of the students since they become the axis of the class, in level that is similar to the ideas of the teacher. The teacher should propose activities -informative as well as experimental- that encourage debate among students and search for a consensus about the meaning of the concepts. The main concern of this approach lies in the education received by the student when is forced to contrast his/her ideas with the information that is given, either by other students, the teacher or other sources. If the student learns to detect when there are difficulties for understanding or when there are contradictions or inconsistencies on his/her reasoning or the reasoning of other students, he/she will be developing his/her metacognitive thinking, which will be useful for other future experiences of learning as well as for everyday living. LEARNING SCIENCES (Adapted from R. E. Mayer, 2002) Traditional perspective • The objective of Science: to describe the natural world • Learning: the accumulation of information in memory • Interest: focused on curriculum • Teaching: knowledge transmission • Learner assimilates information transmitted by the teacher

Perspective for conceptual change • The objective of Science: not just to describe, but to explain the world • Learning occurs when our initial model (or conception) is replaced by a new one. • Interest: learner-centered • Teaching is understood as the process of helping the learner to construct new knowledge • Learning requires mainly accommodation by the learner to reorganize central concepts.

I.2.4. Learning through problem solving The theory of the processing of information led to the development of a new approach to problem solving in the field of Physics that has evolved into a teaching approach in Sciences (Chi & Glaser, 1986; Garrett, 1987). Teaching is based, partially at least, in solving problems which are carefully chosen and organized in sequences so that:

• Awaken the interest of the students • Provide an inner coherence to the content of the course • Allow the students to attain a significant learning (Campanario, 1999; Lopes y Costa, 1996). Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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This approach shares characteristics with learning by discovery since they both focus on active participation, team work and the student’s motivation. It differs from it in that it does not pretend that the students discover by themselves anything at all, but encourages the search based on diverse sources. Also provides a kind of intrinsic motivation since the students have a better perception on the use of theoretical knowledge. Its disadvantage is that it requires much more time and effort by the student and the teacher. In particular, considering that it is a teaching system that is still being developed, some teachers could feel insecure and fearful of encountering “problems” when solving the difficulties of the students during the process of solution.

I.2.5. The Science-Technology-Society (STS) approach During the 80’s the objective of scientific education in Secondary Education gave up the “teaching of Sciences in the strict sense” and became an education to “contribute from the Sciences to the general education of all citizens” (Porlán, 1998). It was no longer considered that the objectives of Science courses in Secondary Education were to provide the necessary education for a scientific or technological academic career. The objective was then to train responsible citizens who could make decisions on scientific topics: it is the philosophy of “scientific literacy of the citizen”. Scientific literacy should provide the citizen with the knowledge and scientific skills necessary to face their own needs in everyday living: knowledge about health, nourishment or the surrounding technology. According to the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS,1989), the citizen with scientific literacy should also have to “know that science, mathematics and technology are human concerns and understand what that implies about its strong and weak points”, “have the capacity to think in a scientific way” and “use knowledge and ways of scientific thinking for personal and social purposes”. That is why the AAAS gives due prominence to the interactions among science, technology, the individual and society, and how they are influenced by personal and social factors. We no longer try to teach an absolute science, but a tentative science that is also not considered to be totally objective but that is conditioned by socioeconomic interests. It is important to emphasize the acquisition of the affective objectives when the student is able to value science as a product of human thinking, besides art or literature, and understand the value that a “scientific” attitude (objectivity, contrasting of information, etc.) could have upon in his behaviour in life. In his review of the movement S-T-S, Pedro Membiela (1997) points out the proliferation of curriculum projects (ChemCom o Science for Live and Living en EEUU, SATIS o Siscon in Schools in Great Britain, PLON in Holland, etc.), books, monographs in international journals, etc. There are different orientations for the teaching of S-T-S: orientation for scientific literacy or the education for action, the interdisciplinary orientation in order to integrate social, geographic and historical contents, and the orientation for handling problematic situations, such as tremendous social issues

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(hunger and food resources, air and water quality, energy crisis or mineral resources, the extinction of plants and animals, etc.), as well as local problems in the community where the student lives. But, regardless of the orientation, it is always recommended to take into account the philosophical, historical and sociological aspects of science itself. The most conservative sectors of society have raise criticism to the STS approach. Specially, it is accused to lack identity since it is a multidisciplinary approach and neglects science itself to a second level when encouraging the teaching of social and technological aspects. This criticism has increased in Spain, where the creation of a course for high school. Science, Technology and Society has led to an authentic debate since in many teaching centres this subject is taught by teachers of philosophy, losing almost completely its scientific roots.

I.3. Conceptual change in the teaching of experimental Sciences Below you will find two types of teachers (Reports A and B) that are committed in the teaching of Chemistry. With these examples we want teachers to position themselves and think. We are facing a conceptual change on what is learning and teaching, but this change is not automatic. It is necessary to become aware of our conceptualizations, dialogue about them, attempt to make changes, learn from our successes as well from others´ successes, but we also need to learn from our failures as well from others´ failures. Many times teachers make decisions and act in the classroom without being conscious if what they are doing and saying lead to goals that are different from the ones claimed. Good intentions are necessary but not sufficient for our students to learn. Today the pedagogical science offers a very rich theoretical body about what is learning and teaching in the XXI century. However, this does not guarantee that the teachers are capable to make a conceptual change and make decisions and solve problems in the classroom according to such theoretical conceptualizations. They may know them but still they have not transformed their way of thinking, feeling and doing. The change is slow and requires that the teachers make explicit what they do, so from their “doing” and “saying” they can attain the conceptualizations that enables them to reach goals that they do not even desire. These reports are examples that invite the reader to make a careful study of his/her own conceptualizations.

Report (case) A: CURRICULUM CENTERED CHEMISTRY TEACHER Yesterday was my first day of class and everything was fine. When I got to the room the students were all standing in the hall and some of them were playing. I assume it to be normal since they are young, and go to fourth grade of secondary school. When I entered the room I was surprised that all of them kept standing, and I had to tell them to sit down and to pay attention. I suppose that this year will be similar to the previous ones.


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The thing is that once the students perceive authority they calm down and order is established. It is not that I like to get angry with students, but it functions well to “seem to be strict”. After telling my name I also said that I was the Chemistry teacher. Even though some students expressed reluctance I smiled and told them that in this subject they were going to learn a lot and would understand how things function in real life. The curriculum was immediately introduced. I enumerated all the topics that will be reviewed and told them that besides the theory we will do experiments about some of the topics that will be studied. I told them that chemistry was essential in today’s society, since without it, many things would not be possible, such as food preservation, water purification, etc. I mentioned the most important topics so they keep an eye on them. I also commented that if some of them would like to continue studying “sciences”, chemistry would help them. I made everything possible forgetting the students attracted by the contents. Then I spoke about the text book. I told them how to use it and how important is to do the readings as we work on the different topics in class. I also told them about exams. I explained how the exams would be and that the experiments will count for the grade. They were also told that I was there to help them and that they could always ask me all the things that they do not understand and not to feel ashamed in telling that they were lost or needed to repeat something that was considered in class. I got a positive impression from the students´ reaction, and I thought that we would get some work done. The topics are not so complicated and, also, chemistry is usually liked, at least in the first approach that is normally taken. I hope that the contents will be assimilated by the students and everything goes fine. For a long time I have not written about how things are going in class, because I thought that everything was going fine. But here we are at the middle of the course and the students are completely unmotivated. It is difficult to be in the classroom with them. Something has to be done!!! The curriculum is going on fine since we are in topic number 6, which means that the rhythm goes well. Although the students need more studying hours, I think that they have a basic understanding of the subject, so the problem could be due to the stress of the normal process of the course. In order to overcome the lack of motivation I have thought to have some practical classes with experiments and other things. But later I will make them be aware of the links of these experiences with the content of the subject so they know what we are talking about. Maybe the rhythm to undertake the topics is fast and that is why the students are kind of lost. A possible solution could be to lower the rhythm and take more time on each topic. Another thing that can be done is to empower them in all their achievements and support

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them when having difficulties in some content or in the chemistry problems. We have to see, but if something is not done, such lack of motivation won’t be solved by itself. The thing is that I do not see it too clear. After a long time I write again on the dairy of the class. I remember that the last time that I wrote was at the middle of the course. Now we are getting to the end of the course. A few more weeks, and we will be finished with classes. There is a different situation now. After so many holidays, students´ crisis and other things, the result is that we are behind in the curriculum. So, either we advance quickly or we would not be able to complete all the topics. I am not so sure what to do in this situation. I consider important to complete the programs set by the Ministry, but, on the other hand, as the course goes it becomes impossible to complete the curriculum in its totality. Upon considering the students and their education, I think that the best thing to do is to select the most important contents from the rest of the subjects in the curriculum and not the whole program in order to continue with the class. For me, it is more important to learn well the most important concepts that will be needed later, instead of giving all for just giving them. Also, I have to be careful since it is the end of the course and the students are tired and I won’t overwhelm them with more material. I prefer them to learn less concepts than to learn many that they will forget quickly. Yes, I think I will do this. I will choose the topics that need to be studied. What is important is that the students understand them well, and I will try it. They will have examples and exercises, and I will encourage them in order to finish the course with success and have to best possible learning experience.

Report (case) B: A MORE CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER Like every year at the beginning of the course, the first day I was nervous as well as hopeful although I have 10 years of experience. I am always wondering: What will I be learning in this course? The first thing is to introduce themselves by telling their name and mentioning any hobbies and some topic of their interest. It is important to know each other from the beginning because we will be living together for one year and the group of students will probably be together for several years, and we do not even know our names. Then, I requested to answer in a sheet of paper with their name the following questions:

What are your hobbies?

Which topics interest or worry you? Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Do you like Chemistry? Why?

What is Chemistry for?

Which classes you like? Why?

Which are the classes that attract you less? Why?

The group seems heterogeneous in interests a well as in levels of knowledge. The general idea they have concerning Chemistry is that "it is something done in laboratories with strange and fragile apparatus ", "something linked to magic, with brews", They think that it is very difficult and it has many formulas. Its use is considered on a long term "it is for the ones who want to work on that". Some consider it boring and the only thing that could motivate them is to go to the laboratory "to create some brew". Some students laughed when they heard someone saying that Chemistry is good to make magical brews like in Harry Potter. But I take advantage of this comment as I use it to give some ideas on the history of chemistry and on the alchemy art and how the people who practiced secret and dangerous arts were qualified as sorcerer, magician or witch doctor since they had the ability to alter substances. Even the origins of some of these formulas that seem unintelligible respond to the fact of hiding such knowledge to the people by using mysterious symbols. All these attracted their attention. My objective was not only to motivate them but also: -

To work on self-confidence so they can become aware of how much chemistry they know. I let them know it.

-

To create a good communication atmosphere that enhances that the important thing is to share our ideas without fearing that they are not correct, although they can be improved and in many case corrected, as scientists have done throughout history.

-

To share our knowledge, since we all learn from others and this experience will always be enjoyable.

It is curious that they think that they do not know much chemistry. I used an example that is close to them. I asked them who made their own breakfast before coming to class, and what they ate. Many had chocolate milk with sugar, so we have analyzed the different processes to dissolve chocolate depending on the cold or hot milk. The topic of mixtures is easy to understand since they all have the experience of playing with mud in the park, and what we are going to do now is to put technical names as the “magicians “ used to do. For example, to talk about velocity reaction may seem distant, but it is different to analyze how chocolate dissolves without problems when the milk is hot and hardly dissolves if the milk is cold -unless we shake much. Therefore, we can label scientific names to an everyday experience like homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture, velocity reaction, heat energy and mechanical energy…I think that now they are convinced that they have practiced chemistry for many years or, at least, they are very surprised. Finally, I gave them the course syllabus and asked them to read it slowly in order to discuss it

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the next day. Although it could seem to early to do it, I asked them to add to the syllabus whatever they would like to learn. There are still many things to discuss. At the midterm of the course: Half of the course has gone by. The students are in general motivated. I like to analyze everyday facts that attract their attention in order to “extract the chemistry in them”. Cooking has been successful since the first example had to deal with dissolutions, and many got involved in making questions or bringing problematic situations related to such topic such as why in carbonated drinks the “bubbles escape” as soon as they are opened. Also, this topic allowed us to touch biology and nutrition issus. We usually work with disconnected subjects and we forget that such division is artificial and that it is due to the huge body of knowledge. And such specialization of sciences could lead to loosing the meaning or not understanding a phenomenon if we do not establish the links. Definitely, the best laboratory is the home kitchen. Other project that is functioning well resulted from asking the students if there are any relation between hobbies and chemistry. Some students are interested on cars and motorcycle and they brought specialized magazines with technical cards. Besides updating us on expressions “moto jargon”, we learned much about gasoline, fossilized fuel and carbon chemistry. It has been very important not only the magazines and handbooks, but also searching in Internet and asking questions to relatives. It is an interesting world, and who knows if at the end I might have a moto. Hobbies are contagious specially if they are understood! But not everything goes well .There is a group of students who are more used to traditional work, and after spending these months with this methodology they are unsatisfied with it and prefer to follow the textbook. We have discussed together this issue in class and their fellow students have told them what they think and why they like what we are doing. I have explained them why I consider that the best method is the one we are using, but they insist that they prefer something else. I asked them to design together an alternative method by which they would feel more comfortable and learn more than with what we are doing. They are five students. I think that debating and negotiating other alternatives that are constructed among them is a significant achievement if they can accomplish it, if the objective it is not just to learn chemistry but also to communicate, and if the students are capable of generating proposals and develop their autonomy. Many times students and even professors present problems and expect that someone solve them for them or give them a response that they like. In this case, the students expect a solution from the teacher. We discussed this topic today in class, and I told them that teachers not always have a solution. I recognize that the method of work implies a change in the frame of mind since it is less


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structured and requires –from both teachers and students- more initiative, implication, autonomy, creativity and work; but I think that it also has other rewards. Anyway, we need to respect opinions and maybe their proposal functions better for them and, who knows, even for the rest of students. However, there is something not negotiable: the proposal designed can not be reduced to memory learning. End of the course: The end of the term is near. As it had to be, now I am more knowledgeable about motorcycle mechanics and music, and I am updated in new technologies like MP3 or Play-3, cooking, environment and, of course, chemistry. I believe that it is very effective to write a diary of a class where we can reflect about our learning, the questions that comes up, projects, topic spending… The diary has facilitating the reflection about the whys, the sense of what we were working at each moment. It has also facilitated continuous evaluation and selfevaluation since it reflects what is learned, the gaps and goals; and that helps us to become responsible of our learning. At the beginning, the students did not understand well its use. I myself have understood its use as it became a work tool. In this moment the diaries reflect many projects and many unsolved questions, but the short time that is left does not allow for solving all of them. But I think that one of the clues for learning is that it keeps alive curiosity and that it functions as an engine. On the other side, the students use tools that are needed for finding solutions: how to elaborate work hypothesis, how and where to search for information, how to analyze and contrast it, how to construct simple experiments and, above all, how to work in group. I think that we have achieved a good communication and interaction atmosphere, and, in general, I have seen them motivated and enjoying classes, as it is evidenced by the large amount of proposals presented, press information, TV news, magazines, experiments, questions… This attitude was evident during the second half of the course, since at the beginning they did not participate much. If I analyze why, I think that it is due to the fact that even when I present an open model in which the participation of all students is necessary, I tend to assume a main role that is difficult to abandon. This is a topic to be considered for discussion and to work on. Regarding the group of students that expressed that they need another model of learning, at the end, and after negotiating, they proposed to use the text book as the main reference and search for activities that show the content. They have felt more comfortable because following the book helps them to structure better and it does not break their habits. They have requested more supervision. Above all, I have to continue thinking. There is no method that is the best nor that functions for everyone; everyone has strong points and weak points.

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Questions for reflecting on the reports Which goals are pursued by each teacher? Which variables they consider? Which is their methodology? Evaluate: Case A

Case B

Protective Factors Risk Factors Risk Indicators

I.3.1. The educational communities and the notions of “potential development” and “scaffolding” In the introduction we talked about the necessity of conceiving the classroom as an educational community. That is, the place for encounter and dialogue where positive interactions that help the students in the construction of knowledge and to transform their way of thinking, feeling, saying and doing. Now we propose to go deeper into what this means. What is the aim of an educational community? The main aim of an educational community is the advancement of collective knowledge (Scardamalia y Bereiter, 1994) which favours the construction of individual knowledge. The basic element that defines the educational community is the existence of a learning culture where each one of the learners is committed in the collective effort to transform his/her knowledge that is necessary for: •

Learning to undertake complex issues. To avoid complexity is to avoid the possibility of growing and developing as a human being.

•

To become conscious that what is learned is the outcome of individual and collective effort. There is no transformation without excitement and effort.

•

Learning to work with people with different beliefs, education and points of view in order to construct a shared knowledge. Diversity is considered an instrument of enrichment that is available for the development and learning of humans.

I.3.2. What is assumed upon learning and teaching in the educational community? Educational communities are based on the socio-constructivist approach. According to this approach, it is understood that there is no teaching if the student does not learn. Therefore, the teacher and the students in the classroom focus their task upon helping all participants to learn; encourages learning experiences that lead to dialogue and to an efficient use of the new knowledge that is to be acquired.


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There cannot be any learning if we do not begin with what is known. Therefore, every participant in the educational community is committed during the learning process to value and help others to value, evaluate, so they can focus from the beginning on the goal that they are aware to be searching. But also, to regulate their actions and the actions of others, and, finally, to determine if they have reached their goals or not. Evaluation is the central axis of the process. a. What is learning? The student learns when he/she understands and formulates knowledge in a more adequate way as a consequence of the experience of such learning. Such experience is located in the context where others intervene. There are many variables that can facilitate or hinder learning and development of the human being. There is a systemic relation among these variables. Therefore, only the interventions from the systemic approach can facilitate the necessary tools for the classroom to become a community of learners, where, as we have already mentioned, its participants make a change so they can manage adequately their needs, interests and projects. This change cannot be produced if the students do not understand nor integrate the new knowledge in order to transform their previous knowledge. Learners have learned when they are capable of transfer (Mayer, 2002); generalize, that is, when they use in new situations what they learned. It is essential that the context helps the learner to apply and personalize what he/she is learning; and this implies participation and effort of all the members of the learning community: •

The teacher has to strive on the design of the tasks and decide the way to help (mediate) so the students can learn.

•

The students have to commit with their learning and the learning of their schoolmates, by striving upon: - Understanding the task and helping others to understand it. - Perceive the knowledge and skills required for the demands of the task, and be aware of his/her capacities and the capacities of the others. - Ask and offer help to solve the task.

b. What is teaching? When the teacher assumes the socio-constructivist approach on teaching, it is necessary to design and provide individual as well as group tasks and experiences of learning. This implies a conceptual change upon his/her functions, as well upon deciding, explaining and evaluating his/her ways of helping the students to learn. Therefore, the function of the teacher consists on mediating; that is, adjusting the proposals to the real needs of the students. Regarding the kind of help that we refer, we claim the concept of “scaffolding”. This term was coined by Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976) to refer to the help that is provided to the

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learner while it is needed, and withdrawn slowly as the student is capable to learn by his own resources. The scaffolding expects or pretends that the student develop an autonomous thinking, that is, the own tools for learning. Others (teachers, schoolmates, parents, friends,…) help in the process, but never attempting to invade thinking or his /her ways of doing. On the other side, a fundamental concept exists to adjust the necessary help for the learner. It was initially introduced by Vygotsky (1978) and is specified as Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky refers to the ZPD as the space of learning where the learner needs help to construct knowledge. What is important is that the help do not overtake what the student could need, so such help allows constructing by itself. Vygostsky considers that when the learner learns is using three sources for help (see the figure below). The teacher is one of them, but not the only one.

Learning accomplished by learner due to the mediation of Learning accomplished by learner equals, due to his instrumental mediation, (work partners) (own personal resources) Zone of Real Development (ZRD)

POTENTIAL

Learning accomplished by learner due to the mediation of the facilitator, (teacher, tutor, expert on a topic…)

Zone of Proximal Development

(ZPD)

DEVELOPMENT

The learning process according to Vygotsky

Students use their own tools of learning when they get ready to learn (consult different sources, select information, search for relations, etc.). These tools are acquired through their whole life and emerge from the integration of the cognitive, affective and social experiences. It is important that students are able to use their tools adequately. Once the student has strived to face a learning task, he could feel that has reached the limit of his possibilities and needs external help to continue on. According to Vygostsky, it is at this point when his Real Development becomes evident since the student is not able to continue by himself. The student can receive an external help from another schoolmate that is also trying to solve the learning task and is working to accomplish it. This kind of help is the help among equals. But, in the learning process there are moments when equals, even when they help each other, also reach the limit and look for other persons with more knowledge on the subject in order to get the help that allows acquiring the knowledge and tools that are needed to move forward. In this case, the supervision of the teacher becomes relevant as a mediator so the student can advance.


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The didactic planning and supervision of the teacher should take into account this frame so the help to be provided should adjust to the real needs of the student. Such supervisions, when guided by this principle, will be more efficient than the help that is facilitated in an arbitrary manner. When the learner really feels the need of help and asks for it, his motivation for attention and listening increases, and, as such, for assimilating that new information. The contrary occurs when the student receives “help” in an arbitrary way, since it could really be needed, but not in many cases, and then there are negative consequences in the interest on learning by the student. c. Which strategies are needed by the student to transfer knowledge? The transfer of learning is produced with success when a person uses the knowledge of a previous experience upon the challenge of a new situation (Mayer, 2002). The process of transfer implies that the student has been capable of learning to choose, organize and integrate knowledge. For the student to be capable to choose the information in an adequate way to solve a problem, either for understanding or performance, he needs support from previous knowledge. So, as he gets more knowledge about the social praxis for the field to which he is qualifying, there will be an improvement of the capacity to choose information produced in the field of qualifying or related topics. Therefore, the student that assumes his responsibility of learning has to be aware of the importance of the depth of his knowledge and the need to actualize it. Many times the students do not understand why it is needed to learn many theoretical contents that seem to be far away from what they need. It is the duty of the teacher to make them see that this knowledge is necessary and that the contents facilitate the capacity to continue learning and choosing the information to solve a problem or a concrete professional or civic situation. How can we help the students to choose?

With suggestions or questions before they face the information

By providing a structure that facilitates understanding, before they work on he information.

The student cannot organize and use knowledge if he has not understood well the knowledge that he identified as relevant. Thanks to the understanding of the knowledge he will be able to establish internal relations among the information. With the relations of the knowledge understood he will increment the retention capacity. How can we help the learner to organize knowledge better?

With suggestions or questions after facing the information

Once the student has been capable of choosing and establishing relations of the knowledge in a coherent frame, then he will establish external relations. That is, he will relate the new knowledge

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with the one he already had, and provoke a process of integration, a restructuring process that will produce a new knowledge, which guarantees not only retention of knowledge but also transfer; that is, the capacity to decontextualize and use it to adapt to other situations. Can we help the learner to integrate knowledge better?:

By offering previous2 organizers and by setting up complex tasks that require personal elaboration.

d. What is to be learned? The content of learning is the one that is susceptible to be learned in a significant way. The need that the student has to learn how to choose, organize, integrate and transform knowledge, demands that the teacher carry on a pedagogical treatment of the knowledge that constitutes the content of the subject, that is, to realize what is designated as the “didactic transposition” (Chevallard, 1991) Pedagogical Treatment of Curriculum Contents: Theoretical Knowledge that the student should have They are learned: comparing, making progressive differentiations and searching for reconciliations that lead to integration

Concepts: Know

Example: difference between heat and temperature Abilities and skills that the students should master They are learned: following steps, considering models and practicing

Processes: Know how to do

Example: know how to organize and carry on an experiment

Attitudes:

A ethical disposition for carrying on the activity, relating with knowledge, relating with others, etc.

Know how to be

They are learned by living experiences Example: respect for the work of a laboratory classmate. .

The questions that the teachers can ask themselves for defining these different kinds of contents are:

• Which concepts, theories, facts,... should the student know and understand in order to develop the competencies that we claim? Example: my students will know and understand the difference between heat and temperature

• What should the student know how to do so he can be able to practice such competencies with an adequate degree of master? Example: students will be capable to make correct de-

2

A previous organizer is knowledge provided to the student that helps him to learn and relate the new knowledge that he is going to learn. It has a higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusion than the new knowledge that is to be learned. We will refer to this concept again ahead.


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cisions about how to protect themselves from the cold in case they get lose in the mountain and have to spend the night outside.

• Which dispositions, attitudes, decisions and normative criteria should be assumed upon starting the humanizing and human practice of knowledge and skills? Example: my students will become aware of what it means to use air conditioning to combat heat, and search for possible alternatives.

I.4. Ten (10) Indicators of a “Learning Community” In the introduction we stated that this document tries to help the teacher to place himself in front of specific variables that facilitate the classroom to become an educational community. We have chosen ten indicators so the teacher can think about them and place themselves in relation to such indicators. In order to facilitate the reflection, we present a teaching/learning situation of Chemestry extracted from a real practice with Secondary school students from Madrid.

I.4.1. Principle of motivation and implication “There are certain things needed in our epoch and others that should be avoided. We need compassion and the desire that Humanity be happy; the desire to know and determination to shun the pleasant myths; we need, above al, courageous hope and creative impulse", (B. Russell) a. Encourage motivation and trust to attain the goals In order to participate in the Learning Community the students must feel that what they are learning is important to them. It is not enough to feel the necessity to learn, but to feel capable to accomplish the task with success. Students need to know that with their effort and the effort of others they will be able to accomplish what they claim. The first effort of the teacher who wants to involve the students in their learning is to help them to be aware that they depart from mistaken conceptions on Chemistry and the consequences that this has when facing a decision or solving a problem. All the participants in the educational community must strive to encourage the motivation of everyone for learning. b. Which could be the sources of motivation in an educational community? •

Provide challenges, projects that depart from their interests. So they can give meaning and sense for what they are striving to learn. It is the occasion to look for examples where the students become aware that they have mistaken conceptions that hinder their way to interpret specific problems that could be faced in everyday living, and invite them to make the effort to overcome them. - Have you got a mobile phone? - Do you watch TV? - Do you listen to the radio?

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- Do you surf on the Internet? - What is the physical principle of all these ways of communicating? Misconceptions: - When a wave moves through a medium, particles of the medium move along with the wave. - Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves are all very different entities. - The electromagnetic waves only propagate through air by means of antennas. Is it true or false? - All the electromagnetic waves are invisible. - Waves from mobile phones are dangerous to health, aren’t they? •

To take into consideration the abilities and previous knowledge and give learners the opportunity to experience shared personal achievements, making them aware that responsibility and effort play a determinant role in attaining success; and to encourage helping one another when there are difficulties. When teachers facilitate that all the students share their conceptions, they are helping them to understand that they are not the only ones with mistaken conceptions, and, also, to put themselves in the place of the others and try to understand why others think the way they do. What are some applications of electromagnetic waves? Most of the students know that radio, TV and mobile phones use electromagnetic waves for transmission. On the other hand, few of them came up with ideas like: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS, microwave oven, radar, remote controller… What are waves? Give some examples of waves you know. The main examples that are known by pupils are those which they can either see: surface waves in water; or hear: sound waves. Which parameters would you use to characterise a wave? This turned out to be quite a hard question, but upon the simile from the surface waves in the sea, I proposed them to take a picture from a wave, and draw it on coordinated axis as they do in other subjects like Mathematics:


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They are able to observe by themselves that there are two static dimensions that can be measured from the graphic: horizontal and vertical, i.e. wavelength and amplitude. However a wave has not only a static dimension but also a dynamic one:

If we observe one specific point in distance moving upwards and downwards (oscillating) as the wave moves, we can deduce that the point may move faster or slower, i.e. with higher or lower frequency, depending on the velocity of propagation of the wave. Thus, four main variables that describe the waves (and their corresponding units) have been successfully introduced to the students: -

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Amplitude (meters): y (m )


-

Wavelength (meters): -

λ (m )

Frequency (Hz): f (Hz ) Velocity (m/s): v (m s )

Finally, the formula that establishes a relationship between velocity, frequency, and wavelength can be presented to the students: v (m s ) = λ (m ) ⋅ f (Hz )

•

To offer positive retro feedback. Value and reinforce achievements, learn from failures and design specific interventions in order to transform them in future successes. It could happen that when students explain their conception about a specific content of Chemistry they could feel ashamed by the fear of not knowing the correct answer. In that moment it is important that teachers help students understand how important is to think about their conceptions and inquire to search for other possible answers that enrich or even help them to change them. After introducing the parameters that describe the waves, a pupil raised her hand and came up with a doubt regarding a unit that they are not too familiarized with to: The “Hertzs” that are used to measure the frequency have something to do with the 3.2GHz from my Intel Pentium processor? Does this mean that there is a wave inside my processor? Some of the students laughed, while others realized that this question was not as “dumb” as it seemed at first. It was a perfect occasion to clarify what a Hertz is: As you will probably know from circular movement, the “Hertzs” are used to measure the rotation rate: “hertz” is equivalent to “revolutions per second” or “cycles per second”. In fact, “hertzs” may be used to measure any event that repeats with a certain frequency: like the cycles per second of a big-wheel in a funfair, or the number of instructions per second that the processor from a computer can execute. Nevertheless, we cannot say that there is a wave inside the processor of my computer, only that the CPU is able to perform a certain amount of tasks per second.

Invite them to think about what their effort and their experience of learning a new knowledge implies for others

Make them feel that they strive for learning because they want to.

c. What should be avoided? Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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That their effort is for external recognition.

That they strive without searching for sense and meaning on what they are learning.

I.4.2. Principle of collaboration atmosphere “To share knowledge and ability, like any human exchange, implies a sub-community of interaction”. “The children find out what is culture about and how is the world conceived, above all, through the interaction with others” (J. Bruner). What are some of the applications of electromagnetic waves/radiations? First of all, I asked every student to elaborate on his/her own a list with the ideas that arise in his/her head. The majority of answers included concepts, such as: radio, TV and mobile phones. Then, the students organized in work groups with a coordinator. I required them to put all their contributions together and organize their ideas. The whole set of applications the pupils had discovered together included words like: radio, TV, mobile phones, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GPS, microwave oven, radar, remote controller, medical imaging, radiography, radiotherapy, CT scan, ultraviolet rays… They have quite a huge list of concepts. It is time to sort everything out and provide them with some help: -

How could we classify all these types of electromagnetic waves/radiations?

-

From the four parameters that characterise a wave, we could order them according to their frequency / wavelength.

This was a perfect opportunity to present the electromagnetic spectrum: the classification of electromagnetic waves according to their frequency / wavelength.

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The students were able to cover by themselves almost the whole electromagnetic spectrum. I explained to them that each of the applications they had proposed would belong to a band from the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, radio + TV would be included in the Radio band; whereas, mobile + Wi-Fi + Bluetooth + GPS + microwave oven + radar would belong to the Microwave band, and the remote controller would use the Infra-red band (Near IR subband). I ask them to think deeper about the Infra-red band and other possible applications, I try to activate their previous knowledge by posing them the following question: What is an Infra-red camera used for? Immediately they came up with a common answer: for night vision, like in the Splinter Cell video game or in the reality shows on TV. I point out that to be precise the night vision devices are based on the Thermal Infra-red sub-band within the Infra-red band. However, there are still some gaps that remain uncovered: the visible band and the gamma rays. They are also electromagnetic waves: the visible band corresponds to the light that we can see, while the gamma rays are related to the radiation that emerges from radioactive substances, such as: Uranium, Plutonium and Polonium-210.


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After this presentation of the electromagnetic spectrum, the students realize that some of these electromagnetic waves/radiations are life threatening or dangerous to health. For example, the majority of the students have heard about the accident occurred in Chernobyl caused by Uranium, or more recently on the media the Polonium-210 that killed the spy Litvinenko. They also know that UV (ultraviolet radiation) may cause skin cancer. According to the criterion “effects on health”, the electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into two zones: ionizing radiations, and non-ionizing radiations. Ionizing radiations are known to have a mutating effect on DNA cells of individuals, whereas non-ionizing radiations are supposed to be harmless. But the essential question would be: Why? What is the physical principle that justifies the effect of radiation on matter? The answer was given by the Einstein’s photoelectric effect: interaction between photons and electrons.

E = h⋅ f There are certain radiations with high frequency that have sufficient energy to provoke alterations on DNA molecules.

The atmosphere in the classroom has to favour the commitment with learning, respect and communication. This atmosphere must encourage:

Acceptance and mutual respect

Motivation and strive for learning

Responsibility

Trust

When the students feel respected, and know that all the participants in the classroom are in a learning process and that making mistakes is part of the process; they undertake to make explicit what they know; accept that they have to strive to learn more and get involved in a process of negotiation based on affirmative communication. If our objective is to get that student teachers inquire about their mistaken conceptions with regard to scientific knowledge in Chemistry in order to make a conceptual change or learn to help others to make the conceptual change, then is necessary that they feel in an atmosphere where mistakes are part of the learning process and a source of knowledge. We are all learners in a continuous process of revision and relearning. Many times is more important to make questions than to get answers.

I.4.3. Principle of recognition of the capacities of each person “It is in the hands of all persons to know themselves and be sensible. Thinking is common to all” (Heraclitus). “I cannot approach myself if I do not enter in communication with the other, and I cannot enter in communication with the other if I am not myself", (K. Jaspers).

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The educational experiences influence the development of the "ego" and the recognition of other "egos". The student has the opportunity to experience himself as an agent, constructor of knowledge, but also as a learner from whom something is expected. He will feel efficient regarding what he expects from himself or what others expect from him. When interacting with others the ego lives diversity. In the learning community diversity means enrichment, intelligence is shared among the learners, the abilities of thinking are developed among all and knowledge is constructed. The students feel capable when they are treated as capable learners to accomplish the tasks, and they act accordingly. The experience of participating in a learning community will have very positive effects on the expectations of the student. Many times learners need to strive to modify their beliefs about what is to be an intelligent person, and accept that success implies personal and shared effort, but there must also be specific favourable variables: the interest in relation with other coexisting interests; the difficulty of the task with regard to the previous knowledge, abilities and strategies, personality variables, etc. While elaborating the list of usages for electromagnetic waves, students became aware of the fact that there were some applications that they could discover alone, but the list grew large when they shared their ideas with each other. Almost everyone had something to say or came up with some proposal. Many times our students think that “they are not good for science”. Teachers need to keep in mind these conceptions since they not only affect their present learning, but also condition future learning, experiences and choices. Besides, they can convince others that they are good for Chemistry as well. It is important that the students understand that learning something is the outcome of many variables that interact in a systemic way. It is also necessary to question them what “intelligence” and “an intelligent person” mean for them, and help them to know what to do in order to be more intelligent and solve problems that help them to live better and help others to also live better.

I.4.4. Principle of the encouragement of externalization “The principal function of all collective cultural activity is to produce works”, (Meyerson, I.). “Works and works in progress create in a group shared and negotiable ways of thinking”, (J. Bruner). Learners in a learning community learn because they collaborate in order to give a response to a problem or carry on projects. It is important to facilitate opportunities to share the knowledge constructed by the experience of learning together. One of the main objectives of group activity is to produce "works" (Bruner, 1996). Learners need to be able to express what is learned in written documents, graphs, artistic expressions, objects that allow them to evidence in a concrete and systematic mean the result of their work.They also need to be able to exchange their "achievements" with other learning communities. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Having as an objective to accomplish “something” that requires learning:

Favours group solidarity

Helps participants to feel integrated in a community

Requires construction of shared and negotiable ways of thinking

Becomes an evident expression that results from accomplished efforts in the process: written documents, graphs, artistic products, technological hardware,…..

Facilitates that implicit conceptions and beliefs become explicit so we can dialogue about them and/or question them. This questioning forces and brings the opportunity to strive to extend, complete, or even to change previous knowledge and get deeper in our thinking.

When students have to learn a content of Chemistry that requires and effort and time -time that they will not dedicate to other things that are more attractive to them as adolescents-, it is important that such learning is transformed into something concrete. That is, something to share and show to others. Many times when we refer to something concrete it means that it could involve other disciplines. After learning the basis on electromagnetic waves: frequency, energy, spectrum… a challenge is proposed to the students: We have learned that ionizing radiations are dangerous to health, whereas non-ionizing radiations are not energetic enough. So, from the hypothesis of the Energy, non-ionizing radiations are harmless. Nevertheless, there is a bitter controversy on the media over the health effects of mobile phone radiations. I pose you some questions to reflect upon:

Mobile phone radiations are dangerous?

If they were, would they be the only non-ionizing radiations with effects on health?

Supposing that mobile phones might not be the unique non-ionizing radiation with biological effects, why is there so much commotion over mobile phones? Why are not we worried about Wireless LAN routers that we all have installed at home?

I asked the pupils to split into two groups in order to conduct a research on the Biological Effects of the Non-Ionizing Radiations. One group would be in charge of defending that these radiations are harmless, while the other group would support that these radiations are dangerous to health. Time for debate and discussion starts. Both of the groups can do the research on the Internet, consulting various sources of information: media, scientific publications… etc. After their analysis, they have to give an electronic presentation to one another with the evidences they have found and the conclusions they have reached.

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Then, they should reach an agreement and a consensus on: −

What is true? What is false?

−

What would be a reasonable attitude or prudent opinion regarding such a controversial issue?

I.4.5. Principle of communication and negotiation “Since its origins, the adaptation of specific human actions makes evident that its principal property is to be realized thanks to communication”, (A. Leontiev). The teacher should put special attention to encourage the communicative exchange Communication skills can be taught and learned. The teacher has to make the students aware of their need to develop the ability to communicate with others, respecting the other’s speech and, at the same time, using strategies that make the other respect his own speech. So it is important to make the effort to know and enrich his own narrations and the ones form the others with whom he/she is collaborating and learning. Each participant in the learning process bear in mind ways of thinking and feeling to support the way he interprets the world, and which also support in the way he is placing and constructing the personal world; it implies the production of a story, a narration, an exposition. When students share knowledge they construct it in a shared way, and have to learn to know their arguments in relation to the arguments of the others, and depart from there to construct common meanings. The main statement of the debate was “Non-ionazing radiations are dangerous to health” •

The pros:

1979, Nancy Wertheimer and Ed Leeper: “We did an study in the greater Denver area which suggested that, in fact, the home of the children who developed cancer were found unduly often near electric line” 1997, Feychting et alter (Karolinska Int. Sweden), published in Epidemiology: “Exposition to electric installations of 50 Hz increases by a factor of 4 the risk to develop leukemia” 1987, Stephens et alter 1993, 1996 Liburdy et alter 1996, Luben et alter Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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1997, Compilation of all these studies by D. Maisch. “Exposition to fields of 50 Hz reduce significantly the secretion of melatonin, a powerful agent against cancer” 1997 Adelaida Study “Pulses of GSM frequencies radiated onto mice (18 months of exposition 1hour/day) provoke an increase in the tumour growing rate by a factor of 2 ”This is an indicator that exposure to mobile phone frequencies seems to dispose to the development of cancer” 1997 Published in Radio Communication “existing data and studies do not rule out the possibility that cellular telephones cause ill health effects such as brain cancer”… •

The cons:

1988, Replication of the study from 1979 conducted by David Savitz (North Carolina University). “The results from previous analysis cannot be confirmed” 1991, Southern Carolina University extends the study to other domestic devices. “There are no significant results” 1996 Vercasalo et alter (University of Helsinki), published in British Medical Journal: “Typical magnetic fields in residential areas generated by the electric distribution lines are not related to the development of cancer in adults” 1997 National Institute of Cancer, published in New England Journal of Medicine: “There is no evidence that the fields generated by the electrical distribution lines increase the risk of leukaemia in children” 1997 Published in the Washington Post paper “The industry could not cite any studies in which cellular telephones specifically had been tested for their impact on human tissue or organ”

Teachers should encourage negotiation After the presentation of their arguments and tough discussions, both groups had to negotiate with one another in order to reach some final conclusions: We should not have such a radical position on either side of the debate:

The ones who think that radiations are innocuous.

The others who believe that they have risks, so we should dispense with these radia-

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tions. We may adopt a criterion of prudent avoidance: “even though there is no real evidence of the effects on health, it would be prudent to define some recommendations on the best use of technology in order to avoid those hypothetical risk factors”. A lot of questions still remained unanswered; there are many hidden economical interests from the telecommunication companies, trillions of euros are at stake… Until definite scientific evidence is found, no agreement will be reached with regard to this controversial issue. Let’s hope that in the near future the truth will be discovered.

Knowledge and the way we think are the outcome of group interactions through time; that is, the ways groups, authentic communities of discourse, have ordered their experiences and given meaning to their worlds. The perspective of distributed cognition –as Vygotsky pioneered it- considers that cognition, more than a property of the mind of individuals, is distributed among the individual, others persons and the physical and symbolic contexts, claiming the incorporation of technology and the cognitive tools in the learning activities in the classroom. I According to the socioconstructivist approach the teacher has to negotiate and involve the student in the process of defining goals, tasks, projects and contents to be learned. In order to be committed to the goals and the learning tasks, the student has to feel that they are his goals and tasks. He must feel that he wants and needs to reach them. Secondary school students have to be conscious regarding participation and the effort implied in a task or a goal. It is not the same to propose a goal for reproducing knowledge (artificial learning) than to propose to understand new meanings or reconstruct previous knowledge (deep learning). The first type of goals does not require a strategic approach from the student (a choice and a conscious commitment for understanding and transfer knowledge) while the second one implies necessarily a strategic reflection by both parts: the learner and the person who helps him to learn. This commitment to negotiation always encounters the questioning: How can a teacher negotiate objectives with students that do not know the subject? There cannot be any negotiation when there are already goals proposed by law. The law establishes the minimum knowledge that a Secondary school student should have to become integrated in a responsible and autonomous way in society in the XXI century. The teacher is the bridge between what a society determines that a student of Secondary Education should learn, and the reality from which the student depart and from which he should construct knowledge. All students are different, and they all learn starting from what they know. If the student


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comes to understand that he needs some knowledge (either to acquire other knowledge or to solve a problem), then is probable that he is willing to make an effort to learn it. In this particular case a compromise relationship has been encountered between:

What the law compels to teach/learn (waves), and

What the students are interested in: telecoms, mobiles.

To know and help the student to know what he knows and what he needs to learn is basic for the negotiation of the what is to be learned and how. Time and effort for learning is not going to be the same for all, since they do not start from the same knowledge nor have developed the same skills. First, we have to be aware of it, and then negotiate the needs to be satisfied (objectives) to attain the knowledge that is expected to be learned. The negotiation between the teacher and the student implies to become conscious that each one proceeds from peculiar and diverse ways of thinking, believing, saying and doing. So, the teacher as well as the student strives to learn to think together, to learn to control emotions to facilitate learning, to learn to construct a common language and to learn to act in a coherent way based on the principles accepted as the core of the teaching-learning process.

I.4.6. Principle of evaluation for paying attention to the quality of the processes and results “Where is the life that we have lost while living? Where is the wisdom that we have lost in knowledge? Where is the knowledge that we have lost in information?”, (T. S. Eliot). The socioconstructivist approach implies a significant change regarding the process of evaluation compared to traditional learning. In the traditional approach -learning based on content acquisition- what is evaluated is if the student was able to attain the goal or not. This is valid but very reductionist, if we consider that evaluation seeks educational objectives, that is, if we take into account that the teacher feels his educational function and believes that evaluation is included on it. The teacher that is committed to the educational community should be conscious about which are the objectives linked to evaluation, which educational principles give orientation to the evaluation that we intent to do. This teacher has to answer the following questions:

Why evaluating?

What is the evaluation for?

Who is the evaluation addressed to?

Is evaluation a lineal or a systemic process? Evaluation is shared or not?

Who benefit from the evaluation practices?

How do teachers use evaluation? Does teaching improve the use of evaluation?

How do students use evaluation? Does it improve their way of learning?

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In traditional evaluation the teacher is responsible for validating if the goal was accomplished. However, in constructive learning all participants in the learning situation are responsible of the evaluation since it is the axis upon which the whole process rests because it allows to optimize it all along. The real goal of evaluation is to allow each learner to know where he is, where he wants to get, and what he needs to get it. Without answering these questions, the student won’t be able to specify nor demand the needed help. Sometimes the help can be facilitated by the teacher, but other times the help can come from the schoolmates, books, new technologies, etc. That’s why it is asserted that the protagonist of significant learning is the learner. He is the one that has to know how much can be learned in an autonomous way and when he needs the help of other resources (personal and material). The student is the protagonist of the demand, and the teacher and the schoolmates become the facilitators for such demand. But the teacher has the specific responsibility to guarantee an atmosphere of learning that helps the student to do autonomous work, since the demand to ask adequately for the needed help depends on the atmosphere. a. Who and what is evaluated

• The ones that help to learn − The teacher (heteroevaluation) needs to evaluate for knowing the students and design the learning context: What do my students know? From which conceptions do they depart? Which personal and material resources do I have to help them know about their departing conceptions and help them to advance in the learning process? Once the design is in practice, the teacher uses evaluation for regulating and making adjustments that help him to move closer to the necessities of the students: Is there a good learning atmosphere in the class?, does the material that I am using facilitate learning?, does the task designed is interesting to them?, Do they understand it?, Do they advance in their learning? The teacher evaluates once he has finished the intervention plan, checking the results and the processes. He analyzes the variables that have helped the process and the variables that hindered it, and he decides which ones and how they can be improved for future interventions. During the whole process, the teacher helps the students to know the result of the evaluations in order to help them to get involved in their learning and make them aware of their effort and the tasks to be accomplished for continuing advancing in their learning.

− The schoolmates (coevaluation) evaluate by contributing with information that helps their mates to continue learning.

• What is valued by the learner: −

If there was learning or not, and which variables have contributed positively and which ones hindered the process. This is what is called self-evaluation.


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−

If the teacher and schoolmates helped to learn and if they adjusted or not to the necessities of the learners.

−

If the task was functional (the student found that it had a function), had a meaning or not in his process of education and was ready to construct upon what he already knew; and if it was relevant, since it was the right moment to accomplish such task.

b. When to evaluate •

Before: in order to be able to know what is known and what is needed to be learned. Without this initial knowledge, is very difficult –or impossible- that the teacher together with the students design tasks that challenge and invite to investigate; in short, it is difficult to move the student forward by being motivated. If the student knows his deficiencies of knowledge to face specific problems, then he understands that he has to strive and commit himself with the challenges presented by the teacher or his mates.

•

During: to be able to make the necessary adjusments according to the learning process. The teacher and the students have to make adjustments. The teacher has to adjust the help according to the needs that the student presents while he learns a new knowledge or attempts to solve a problem. Such help has to be placed in a continum, from maximum dependecy to maximum autonomy (scaffolding). The student has to be capable to adjust his effort and collaboration so the dynamic of the class helps everyone to learn.

•

After: the teacher and the students have to reflect on and verify if the design facilitated learning and if there was a transformation of previous knowledge.

I.4.7. Principle of reflection about encouring metacognition and self-regulation “To know scientifically means to know critically and methodologically; it means to know what is known and distinguish it from what is not known; it means to know the limit of general knowledge; it means to be philosophically next to science”, (K. Jaspers). The education received by the students has to help them to participate and become responsible of their learning process. Therefore, it is essential to develop an adequate metacognitive knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge refers to knowledge that emerges when the learner thinks about his way of thinking, feeling and doing during the learning process. Any learning process requires: a. Knowledge of the variables that affect in a peculiar way the learning situation: regarding the person that is learning (personal variables: cognitive [thinking], affective [feeling] and behavioral [performance]); the task that implies the necessity to acquire knowledge (conceptual/declarative, process or attitudinal) and the context (that favours or hinders the learning process). b. Executive Control that includes those activities that make the learning process to go on. These are:

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•

Planning: Once the goal and the variables that work in favour or against the possibility to attain it are known, then comes the moment to decide what to do in order to accomplish the goal.

•

Regulation: Does the starting plan functions? The regulation process implies that we do checking during the process to make readjustments. For example, do I understand what I am reading? Do I know and understand the basic elements to know how to question? These adjustments never suppose to make a drastic change of the plan. That is why the planning task is of maximum responsibility and takes much time. Decisions will be more efficient as we get deeper into the variables that affect the learning situation.

•

Evaluation: Have we attained the goal that we had proposed? Do I understand the text? Did I solve the problem? Am I capable of questioning? This phase implies valuing if we reached or not the goal, and being conscious of mistakes and successes in the stage of knowledge, planning and regulation. This is the stage that helps to reaffirm our strategic behaviour and to learn from mistakes in order to get the optimum in future learning processes. This evaluation also implies to advance in the learning process by integrating the new knowledge with the previous one, which means to look for generalizations, implications for subsequent learning.

Therefore, we conclude that is necessary that the students can construct an adequate metacognitive knowledge. The relations between concepts and procedures as well as the conditions where each one could be applied have to be explained in the class in order to become an object of attention, interest and consideration. This implies that the shared knowledge among learners is not static nor tight to the circumstances where the student learned, but transferable, that is, that are worked in an intentional and conscious way, the processes that make them use knowledge in different contexts and not just to the ones that facilitated learning. Another fundamental aspect refers to the metacognitive attitude, that is, promoting and adopting a self-regulation attitude and self-reflection on the teaching-learning processes. Such reflexive attitude is essential to develop a metacognitive knowledge and is a key for overcoming obstacles that are usually present during the process.

I.4.8. Principle of opening and perspectivism “It seems that an undertaking whose human character can be seen from all sides is preferable to one that shows itself as “objective” and impermeable to human desires and actions. After all, science is our own creation, including all the stern standards that seem to be imposed”, (Feyerabend, P.K.). It is necessary to establish “classroom contexts” that enable to explain, activate and consider events, phenomena and happenings from many perspectives and put special emphasis to consider the challenges that the students have to face. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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In order to avoid fragmentation of knowledge and dissociation between theory and practice, it is important to help the students examine from many perspectives “knowledge” about phenomenon, events, challenge and experience. Both sides of the debate were intentionally formed, so that the students could discover that the solution to the problem was not completely black or white. In order to draw reasonable conclusions, it was essential to analyse the situation from different perspectives.

I.4.9. Principle of situated learning “Any explanation regarding cognitive development (or maybe any explanation regarding human development) should consider the nature of the culture where that human being grows”, (J. Bruner). In everyday living the student will encounter confusing and poorly defined problems. If we seek that students learn the tools and knowledge for thinking, then they have to learn from complex problems. To apply knowledge or skills to well-defined problems does not prepare them to overcome difficulties raised in professional and everyday life. The tasks designed have to be much contextualized. The educational institutions at the service of society should offer to the students a learning environment where they can experience all the complexity and authenticity of the real world. Many times we hear a student say: “what is this for?” However, we find out that in school students are able to solve with success certain tasks but they do not get the same success on a similar problem out of it. Lack of interest (motivation) and difficulties to transfer out of school what is learned in it, have led us to recognize the importance of contextualizing the contents of learning. The approach of situated learning emerges when we compare how we learn inside and outside of school. This approach underlines that, when designing learning contexts, is important to take into account that the learner cannot be detached from the context where the task is presented. When the learner moves on to learn he does it on the margin of the context where the task is set up. The result will always depend on the interaction of the learner and all the relevant variables perceived in the environment for the task. It is important to consider the perceptions that the learners get from the learning context because these perceptions affect what they do. The process of learning goes beyond what the teacher and schoolmates intent to teach. The learner in an educational community learn from facts that the ones who help him to learn do not have conscience of. Learners benefit from knowledge that is produced by the practice of others, and mediated by implicit conceptions. There are aspects of practice that could hardly become explicit and, if they were explicit could even spoil the practice. Situated learning rescues learning from the guild learning just like the learners of a craft that observe and interact with the master thanks to what they perceive in real working situations. In the same way, learners in the educational community, interact with other learners, and perceive information that they embody in their life. The way to perceive is very different among students; that is why learners do not learn the same. If we consider knowledge as an active relation

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between learner and his environment, then learning must be produced in the same place where the learner connects in an active way with a real and complex educational context. In the case of learning Chemistry, we ask many times to the student to manipulate symbols. For example: Dissolution. In the real World we tend to use in an intuitive way the resources that were learned inside and outside of school. This is the example of dissolution in the traditional vision on learning where the students abstract a general procedure of instruction and apply it to a wide variety of problems. This training intentsthat when the students have a problem about dissolution they can apply what was learned in school. From the point of view of situated learning the students would be capable to acquire a specific knowledge from the context where they are, and are able to use it, above all, in the context. The main idea of this approach is that learning is formed and depends on the situation where it takes place, including the social and cultural context of learning. Therefore, the learning situations are decisive for impulsing the students to learn, as they find the justification of their effort in such situation. The problems should be set up in a similar way as they emerge in real life. Learners help and collaborate among themselves not in an arbitrary manner but adjusting to real needs. What should be considered when choosing the tasks? 1. Tasks should be attractive and related to the interests of learners. 2. Tasks have to depart from the previous knowledge of learners, that is, knowledge (experience that implies the cognitive, affective and social aspects) that they posses and apply to acquire new knowledge. In the educational community there are moments when learners are helped to become aware that when knowledge is shared, and well organized and related, it would be better for them to face any other task. If the learner does not have much knowledge or has mistaken conceptions, then he is departing with difficulties that imply that there will be less possibilities of achievement and more effort. 3. The tasks should be authentic to the real characteristics that they have in life. The learner should face tasks that have complex goals. The new technology of today is an important help to get the students involved in authentic tasks. 4. The tasks should provide the opportunity for the learners to choose the relevant information, leaving on the side the irrelevant one. 5.

The tasks should allow the learners to participate in an active way in the search and definition and solution of problems.

6. The tasks should imply the beliefs and values of the learners. 7. The tasks have to facilitate the opportunity for the students to participate in interpersonal activities of collaboration.


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8. The tasks should facilitate that the students develop their thinking by helping them to improve the way of processing information, that is, to improve their strategies of learning and thinking. At the same time that the teacher is helping the student to construct knowledge, he must help him to develop his thinking. To make a decision or solve a problem requires analytical, practical, creative and critical skills. The educational context has to help the learners to be more efficient when solving problems or making decisions. So they need to learn strategies that develop the capacity of analysis and understanding, strategies that help them to generate, search for solutions, and plan an action; strategies that help to put in practice what is planned and strategies that help to value the process and be critical.

I.4.10. Principle of commitment to continuous education “... there are no frontiers for a dialogical context ( it ascend from an infinite past and tends toward an equal infinite future). Even the past meanings, that is, generated in the dialogue of previous centuries, can never be firm (finished and forever, completed); will always change and renew in the process of the subsequent development of the dialogue”.The question and the response are not logical relations (categories); they do not fit only in one conscience (unitary and closed in itself); every response generates a new question”, (Bajtín, M.M.). A teacher that understands that the students have to participate in an educational community, at he same time accepts that as a learner he needs to participate in an educational community of learning with other colleagues and experts where he can make explicit his conceptions and construct a shared knowledge that helps to design learning contexts that facilitate the students to learn in a significant way. There is a big theoretical body of information about many variables related to the fact that the student does not learn in a significant way. The teacher really wants to know why some students do not learn even though their effort and the time dedicated to learning. The shared and personal reflection upon the tasks, and the processes and strategies that are used to help the students to learn, will help the teachers to make explicit those conceptions, to understand them, to question them, to improve them and, if necessary, to change them.

I.5. Profile of the teacher There are many factors that intervene in the teaching-learning process, such as the atmosphere and “orientation” and “situation” of the school, its educational project, curricular material, technology, support by mates, etc. The outcome of the interaction of all these factors act in a systemic way upon the efficiency of learning and the development of the learners that participate. If we focus on the responsibility of the teacher´s actions -responsibility that is shared with the rest of the member of the community- and according to the way they understand the educational situation and how he approaches the problems, then the teacher becomes a facilitator or a hinderer to the efficiency of these factors. When the teacher interacts in the classroom, he becomes a model by expressing the way he interprets the world, his coherence and incoherence between what he desires, says and do. Teachers

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have to be aware of the possible impact that they have on the growth and learning of the students, and they have to take the measures to model their influence. When a teacher acknowledges his influence upon the learning and growth of the students, then he can get deep into his conceptions and actions in order to improve them, complete them and even change them if necessary. This is not possible without an intra and interpersonal process of reflection. Therefore, it is important that the teacher has time to think about what he thinks, feels, says and does, but also participation in work group (research-action) helps him to know and make explicit what he by himself cannot do.

I.5.1. Ethical person The teacher demonstrates his moral and intellectual principles in his commitment with the students. Day after day the student shares the same life with a teacher. According to our educational conception, the teacher has to strive for getting to be a person that respects the student and makes himself to be respected, be patient, and enthusiastic with his work. While sharing the time, the teacher struggles to help them understand, invites them to take risks, asks questions with them, helps them to think critically, to value divergent thinking, exchange experiences and gets help from other professional or experts in subjects or skills to enrich the learning process, and communicates to them his commitment with continuous education. As a human being, the teacher relates with other human beings with the purpose of helping them in their process of growth and learning. Secondary Education students are facing a period of big changes, so many of them surprise us by the way they interpret the world and with answers that seem irresponsible, but which many time are consequence of emotional instability. But the teacher must handle the situation with efficiency. Below are some points that can help the teacher to think about the factors that can help him to face his work with responsibility and professionalism. The teacher acts in a responsible and mature way when he/she:

Is on alert to the first clue of the capacity of actions and the evolution of the students. He has to act upon them and learn from them.

Demonstrates passion for education and teaching with freedom, for really facilitating human development and growth.

Learns to listen to the students and listens with them.

Has an open mind and a critical perspective to everything that enriches learning and development. Accepts diversity with pleasure and acknowledges it as enrichment.

Understands that intelligence is distributed; knowledge is shared

Is honest, open and sincere, and encourages openness and sincerity in the students.

Communicates with spontaneity and in a natural way. Encourages initiative and projects. Imagines possibilities and follows them.

Communicates as a being that is growing, as a person involved in the world of others and with others,


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Approaches the student with respect and accepts the student as a person that is growing and searching for his/her place in the world.

I.5.2. Strategist Professional Teachers need to make decisions and solve problems for designing potentially significant tasks, that is, tasks that lead to transfer of learning, but also for managing the classroom and helping students learn by themselves or with others. Only the strategic teacher that plans his/her work and applies didactic techniques can produce an optimum learning in the students (Putnam & Borko, 1997). a. To plan and organize work The teacher has to show that he is a professional who knows and control the variables that intervene and relate in a systemic way in an educational situation. Therefore, he needs to strive to analyze and evaluate how these variables are related in a particular way in the shared learning process and, specifically, at each stage and moment of specific learning. Doing this analysis will facilitate to make decisions based on personal characteristics and the social and environmental circumstances that condition the decisions. In short, it means that as a professional he has to be responsible in a conscious manner regarding the choice of goals and the plan designed to attain them, but taking into consideration the peculiarity of the educational situation. Planning is done accepting it as a flexible plan that is readjusted according to the needs and specific demands of learners in their process of growth and learning. When a teacher acts in a strategic way, that is, becoming conscious of what is chosen for reaching the goals, does not act in a reactive way, when difficulties arise, but from his commitment with initiative and looking for alternatives in a conscious and responsible way. b. The strategic use of didactic techniques The objective of a teacher in the educational community is to help learners to become capable to transfer knowledge, that is, to get the learners construct a significant knowledge that helps them to develop as human beings. If this is the objective, then the teacher has to decide the didactic strategy that will allow attaining it. The new didactic approach, that is learner-centred, does not reject any didactic technique. The techniques are not either good or bad, but only coherent or not with the goal that we are searching (Monereo, 2002). From the socioconstructivist learning perspective, there are some basic principles underlying all didactic strategies. These principles could be synthesized as: •

Autonomy

•

Collaboration

•

Positive feedback

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These three principles have to guide the teacher´s decisions for choosing the most adequate technique or techniques when claiming that the learner acquire knowledge, develop thinking or both. As it was mentioned before, the knowledge that the student could acquire can be conceptual, procedural and attitudinal. There are adequate didactic techniques for each one, but also techniques that help the learner to simultaneously acquire knowledge. We cannot separate learning from knowledge, from the learning process that facilitate its transfer. Therefore, it has to be taken into account that learners need to develop their thinking abilities. The didactic strategy become real in the tasks proposed and in the way to provide the scaffolding (help adjusted in the proximal development zone). In section I.4.9 we presented eight elements to be considered at the time of choosing the tasks. Now we will describe some aspects that teachers who value the diversity of their students and want to be inclusive, need to take into account. The more diverse is a classroom, the more we need to care about the design of tasks that help all to learn. Very often these teachers see the need to choose complex tasks such as projects or problem solution. Projects are contextualized in the reality of the students. They start from the need of making decisions or solving problems. When students feel that their effort (trying to find information, reading a document, solving a specific problem,…) contributes to explain a phenomena or give possible solutions to something that worries them, the possibilities for getting engaged in their learning increase significantly. A Project requires at least the collaboration of the teachers whose knowledge has to do with the solution of the project, but the impact and the possibility of success will be greater if others participate in the process (teachers, educational leaders, family, enterprise,…). Making a project implies a series of steps or tasks that allow to design educational situations that take diversity into account, and that adapt to the rythms and real needs of the students. The tasks can be planned to be carried out weekly, monthly,…, with different levels of depth and difficulty. These tasks integrate common practices of teachers and students: benefiting from the oral and written presentations, observing models, practicing procedures, consulting sources (documents, graphs, charts, texts, …) making exercises, etc. There are moments when the students have to do the work individually and other moments when they share their work with their fellow students and make a collective effort to reach specific goals. The scaffolding always looks for the autonomy of the student without forgetting at each concrete moment the cost for the student of what supposes the support of help or its withdrawal. When we offer a learner the opportunity to experiment, think, solve with autonomy, we are inviting him to discover ways of doing, rules, ideas,... When we expose the learner to a a topic or we give him the opportunity to know thru a text, we are facilitating his understanding about a knowledge that is already selected and structured by experts. Bruner helped us to differentiate an invitation to pure discovery -when the student is invited or encouraged to get involved in problems and try to solve


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them without even having help-, from guided discovery -where the student is given hints or instructions about how to solve the problems, so the student does not get lost. Many times is necessary to provide learners with a structure that facilitates the establishment of connections between the knowledge that they are discovering (inner), and between the new one and the one that one they already had, and even glimpse other relations with future challenges or learning (external relations), (Mayer, 2002). There are moments when we can help the student to transfer knowledge thanks to the use of modelling. When the learner has to learn basic or complex procedures, solve problems or projects, it is necessary to help them know first the steps to follow, supply a model for action and, finally, offer the opportunity for training and practice. In these cases is important that all learners that participate in the educational community explain and act as models over the processes that they follow and the strategies used in each process. We are not looking for a single way of doing, but for getting the best from the different models in order to reaffirm the common basic principles. Besides, to make that each learner identify with his particular way of doing, even when is different, can be recognized as valid since it fulfils the objective, respects ethic and the epistemological structure of knowledge.

Pure Discovery Advantages:

Difficulties:

Helps the students to get involved

Takes more time to accom-

Encourages inductive thinking from the discoveries of the learner

plish Students can feel lost, which

Sufficient previous knowledge gives the students trust and empowers self-esteem

lowers their motivation and can even lead to withdraw

Encourages creativity

The students with lower de-

Enriches the educational community since it foments

parting levels of knowledge

differences and helps to argue positions, to be critical

can feel less capable, which

regarding their ways of doing and the ways of the oth-

can bring negative effects on

ers.

self-esteem and motivation

Helps to know (evaluate) previous knowledge of learners and adjust the design for future tasks.

The result of the students´ research can lead them to in-

Helps to think about mistakes and to learn from them

duce mistaken rules or norms.

More probability to transfer knowledge

Guided Discovery Advantages:

Difficulties:

Helps the students to get involved

Takes more time to accomplish

Students feel guided in their research

It is essential that there is an atmosphere of

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Encourages inductive thinking without

trust and respect that encourages to make

high risk to reach mistaken conclusions

questions, so they do not care to make ques-

Their is a certain kind of time control Tends to a more sustainable commitment

tions nor be evaluated by others Requires the teacher to master the subject

and motivation through the learning

and have resources for designing tasks that

process

help learners

Self-esteem is not threatened since the

Requires that the facilitatror os the scaffold-

student feels more secure and with a

ing strive to be alert to identify and know the

higher degree of freedom of action

real needs of the learners

Looks for diversity and values the contri-

The students with lower departing levels of

butions for enrichment that provide each

knowledge can feel less capable; leading to

other

negative effects on self-esteem, self-concept

Has a high level of transfer

and motivation

Ausubel helped us to get deep into learning through oral or written statements. One of the big contributions by Ausubel is the previous organizers. The lecture is a technique that consists on presenting a topic, more or less structured, either orally or in writing. In Secondary Education the teachers are the ones who structure the topic or turn to text books. If the lecture is used for facilitating transfer of learning, previous organizers should be used for helping the student to relate the new knowledge with the knowledge he had, that is, for helping to integrate the new knowledge with the one he/she had. It acts as a scaffolding of ideas that helps the learner to relate and organize the new knowledge in a non-arbitrary way. There are two types of previous organizers:

Lecture Organizers: when a previous knowledge is exposed to the learner and acts as a prerequisite for understanding and relate the new knowledge.

Comparative Organizers: when the previous knowledge of the learner is activated so to establish relations with the new knowledge that is to be learned.

The lectura method


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Advantages:

Difficulties:

Helps to learn concepts

Can jeopardize the interest of the student and reinforce

Facilitates time control Facilitates the student to get knowledge that is difficult to access Leaner feels the support and feels secure of having easy access to the presented knowledge

distractions Encourages extrinsic motivation Could favour superficial learning that does not facilitate transfer The teacher needs to strive to offer previous organizers If used in excess, then communication and the collaboration atmosphere deteriorate. Promotes dependency of the student

Modelling requires to provide some examples and challenges the learner to accomplish fake cases. The learners describe aloud what is happening in the mind as they are solving the task. Sometimes the teacher acts as an expert model, but other times he acts like the rest of learners; he acts to learn and enrich himself with the successes and mistakes of all participants and he teaches them to think.

Advantages:

Modelling Difficulties:

The student are enriched by the way of doing of others The student strives to make explicit his learning process and the strategies used The student develops his capacity of

The student could imitate other models and underrate his models by thinking that others are always better; eve more if the models are proposed by the teacher. Sometimes it requires effort and time, and

evaluation in order to enrich himself with

we have to be careful so the atmosphere of

what is beneficial to him, and he rejects

the classroom and the motivation do not

what hinders learning

deteriorate.

Values and attitudes are learned by living. To keep this in mind implies using time to think about attitudes and making the students aware of those attitudes that they should encourage and those that they should change. The teacher is an important resource when he makes explicit his ways of doing things in order to respect others and to take them into account. Many times the teachers have performances in the classroom that they themselves regret, but are just the outcome of a moment and a circumstance. To acknowledge it and analyze it with the students can have positive implications for all. This contributes to the class atmosphere and becomes a performance model for others.

c. Didactic techniques

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A didactic technique is a procedure that helps us to facilitate learning in the student. Below is a set of the most used techniques in the teaching of sciences.

Organization

What the students do

What the teacher does

Teaching goals

1. Mind mapping / clustering

Reflecting / ordering known facts Creating a structure Developing procedure Working in a team

Moderating

• Thinking about a topic

2. Working at different work stations

3. Group puzzle

4. Project work

5. Role play, discussion of experts, debate

6. Thesis

7. Experiments

a) Carrying out experiments Showing results fit into the overall scheme of things b) Obtaining information Working in a team Formulating tasks and procedures Getting information from at text Working in a team Presenting and passing on one’s knowledge Comparing results and correcting oneself Structuring a topic Obtaining information Experimenting on one’s own Assessing results Presenting results Identifying with roles Recognizing different points of view in controversial topics Communicating, taking sides Arguing and persuading Working on a topic independently: 1. Obtaining information 2. Carrying out experiments on one’s own 3. Assessing and summarizing results 4. Preparing a written presentation 5. Presenting results in a talk • Pay attention to the explanations of the teacher and it reflect on own (in)competences. • Set questions on the non clear point • Execute the experiment with the help of the sheet of the experiment

Making material available Forming groups Formulating tasks and procedures Assisting during experiments

• Working with a topic

In addition: Giving advice, councelling, assessing Dividing a topic into subtopics Preparing lesson materials Formulating tasks Forming groups Giving advice, councelling

• Revising • Working on a topic in different groups each doing a different task

Moderating Providing materials Councelling students during experiments Advising, assessing

• Getting deeper in a topic

Preparing roles Putting together groups Moderating the different phases

• Thinking about controversial social topics • Helping people understand complex issues • Showing the relevance of knowing about chemistry

Making available sources for research as well as material for experimentation Enforcing safety regulations Advising Assessing

• Working on a sub-topic, mainly in grades 11 or 12

Iillustrate the experiment Facilitate the connection between theory and experiment. Provides a flow cart of the experiment (sheet of the experiment) Stresses the hazards of the experiment and it recalls the safety norms.

• To perform experiments to strengthen the theory through demonstrations ond / or confirmations.


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• Collect the experimental data and it makes the calculations ( if this is foreseen) • Join the experimental results to the theory • Draft a written report

Verifies the operations of the pupils while they perform the experiment

d. The experiments in the classes. Problems and correlated needs in formative field Sciences are perceived by the pupil as an extraneous discipline to the daily common life. This collides against the reality of the chemical and physics laws that define and rationalize the world that surrounds us. It is necessary to make the student aware that nothing of magic governs the world. Integrating the lessons with the experiments can contribute to the attainment of this result. The experiment conducted in class by the student himself becomes the moment of preparation of the conceptualization and abstraction of the natural laws. In this way the students can overcome preconstituted hostility and contempts for the sciences, the culture and the school. Doing the experiments in class for the pupils implies a different didactic approach and a reorganization of the relationships among the teacher, the pupils and the discipline that is taught. Working in the training of teachers (and not only the training of the students) constitutes a cultural investment to the middle and the long terms. Giving a great motivation and self-confidence to the future teachers is an essential task because only in this way also the students will become surer and motivated. The goals of the project are:

• To solicit the interest of the students towards the scientific disciplines • To solicit and to satisfy the demands of education in the teaching staff • To develop competences in the teachers of the schools that are involved in performing the experiments

• To show to the teachers possible roads for doin experimental activity with inexpensive materials

• To let the pupils do the experiments in class

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References AA.VV (2004): Física y Química 3. Barcelona: Almadraba AAAS (1989). Science for All Americans. Summary. Washington: AAAS. AIKENHEAD, GS & RYAN, AG. (1992). The development of a new instrument: “Views on sciencetechnology-society” (VOSTS). International Journal of Science Education, 13 (1), 25-35. BRUNER, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. CAMPANARIO, J.M. (1999). ¿Cómo enseñar ciencias? Principales tendencias y propuestas. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 17 (2), 179-192. CHEVALLARD, Y. (1997). La transposición Didáctica. del saber sabio al saber enseñado. Buenos Aires: Aique CHI, M. y GLASER, R. (1986) Capacidad de resolución de problemas. En J. Sternerg, Las capacidades humanas: un enfoque desde el procesamiento de la información. Barcelona: Labor, 293324. DRIVER, R. (1988). Un enfoque constructivista para el desarrollo del currículo de ciencias. Enseñanza de las Ciencias Experimentales, 6 (2), 109-120. GARRETT, R. M. (1987). Issues in Science Education: problem-solving, creativity and originality. International Journal of Science Education, 9(2), 125-137. GIL, D. (1993). Contribución de la historia y de la filosofía de las ciencias al desarrollo de un modelo de enseñanza-aprendizaje como investigación. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 11 (2), 197-212. LOPES, B. y COSTA, N. (1996). Modelo de enseñanza-aprendizaje centrado en la resolución de problemas: Fundamentación, presentación e implicaciones educativas. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 14 (1), 45-61. MAYER, R.E. (2002). The Promise of Educational Psychology. Teaching for Meaningful Laerning. N.J: Pearson Education, Inc. MEMBIELA, P. (1997). Una revisión del movimiento educativo ciencia-tecnología-sociedad. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 15 (1), 51-57. MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA (1991). Real decreto 1345/1991 de 6 de septiembre, por el que se establece el currículo de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria. Boletín Oficial del Estado nº 220, Suplemento. MONEREO, C. (Coor) (2002). Estrategias de aprendizaje. Madrid: Visor. PORLÁN, R. (1998). Pasado, presente y futuro de la Didáctica de las Ciencias. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 16 (1), 175-185. POSNER, G.J., STRIKE, K.A., HEWSON, P.W. y GERTZOG, W.A. (1982). Accomodation of a scientific conception: toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education 66 (2), 211-232. PUTNAM, R.T., & BORKO, H. (1997). Teacher learning: Implications of new views of cognition. In B.J. Biddle, T.L. Good, & I.F. Goodson (Eds.). The international handbook of teachers and teaching (Vol.II, pp. 1223- 1296). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. SCARDAMALIA, M., & BEREITER, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building SHULMAN, L.S. y KEISLAR, E.R. (editors). 1966. Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal. Chicago: Rand McNally. (Spanish edition, 1974, Buenos Aires: Trillas). VYGOTSKY, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Published originally in Russian in 1930. WOOD, D., BRUNER, J. S., & ROSS, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89-100.


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II. Guidelines to use the science experiments Science experiments with inexpensive materials

Editor, Matthias KREMER

II. Guidelines to use the science experiments

Experiments titles Experiments PARTICLES (P)

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE (H)

P1: The mysterious glove * P2: Does air have weight? P3: The untied balloon P4: Playing with pressure P5: The movement of particles P6: Visualising atmospheric pressure

H1: Heat and temperature * H2: The boat with self propulsion *

WATER AND ITS PROPERTIES (W)

W1: The water elevator * W2: Capillarity phenomena and transpiration of leaves in a green plant W3: Gases made from water W4: Bubbles W5: Mixtures of oil, water and alcohol W6: The surface tension of the water W7: Thermal Expansion: the anomalous behaviour of water

CHEMICAL REACTION (C)

C1: Mixture or chemical reaction? * C2: "Dissolving" an effervescent tablet in water C3: The oxidization of iron C4: Chemical reactivity of metals C5: Physiological action of some metals

* Experiment described within the socio-constructivist paradigm

In this part of the GUIDE, 20 experiments or sets of experiments are described. They can be used to enhance a contradiction to the (mis)conceptions of the pupils. The experiments are according to the following topics: Particles: ………………............. P Heat and temperature: ……….. H Water and its properties: …….. W Chemical reaction: ……………. C But almost each experiment belongs to all of these topics. We have chosen the main aspect. The experiments (or set of experiments) consist of two or four parts. Five experiments are described within the socio-constructivist paradigm and it is presented in four parts: introduction, diagnostics, experiment and some ideas and tools; and the rest of experiments are described in two parts: introduction and experiment. 1. Introduction: the reasons are given why we suggest using this specific experiment in school. Pupils’ misconceptions, the prerequisites they should have and the objectives of the lessons with the experiment are collected in a table. 2. Diagnostics: the base of a well-prepared lesson is the knowledge of the pupils’ preconcepts or misconceptions. Therefore we suggest to inquire their ideas some time before. There are some questions to discuss or put together in a test (multiple choices). The result will be better if the pupils are allowed to be anonymous. In this case they could stick colored ®Post-its to "their" answer on a poster where the teacher has prepared all possible answers. 3. Experiment: this is the "core" of the work. The experiment (or the experiments) should create a conflict between the conceptions of the pupils and the observation they make in order to favour their


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conceptual change. The teacher should choose the experiments fitting best the misconceptions s/he detected in the diagnosis. 4. Some ideas and tools (to bee used in the lessons): the teacher is responsible for his group of learners. S/he has to choose the methods, the tasks and the materials which fit them best. Ideas and tools useful for her/his lessons are collected in this part. We suggest that the mentors who will be trained for the mobility phase of the project "CON-SCIENCE" work out some more ideas and tools which we will add to this paper.

-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-

Pilot testing the experiments In springtime 2007 Graziella Margheritis (Pavia, Italy) and Jens Mühlhoff (Singen, Germany), who presently teach both in secondary school and in the School of Specialization for teachers (physics / biology) proposed to their pupils / students revised versions of the CON-SCIENCE experiments. "Heat and Temperature" was tested in Pavia, the other experiments in Singen. We want to thank all the pupils and the teachers, who supported our tests. Conclusive note The use of the material we have prepared in CON-SCIENCE seems to be useful and productive for the students at the different level of instruction. In each condition analysed the teacher used, as we expected, our proposals in a personal and productive way, by introducing personal changes and interesting variations. We are grateful to all the teachers for their wide and inspiring collaboration, the student teachers and the pupils for the enthusiasm in carrying out the laboratory activity proposed. Graziella Margheritis presented additional material to their students. They had to work on it in a similar way, the pupils did before in a way similar to that proposed to pupils. This choice confirms our belief that science teachers must be given, in their initial training, the opportunity to carry out (in the laboratory) activities very similar to those they will propose to their pupils. Only in this way they can reflect on the different faces of experimental work and gain confidence in their actions to help pupils in the classroom. The whole report about the pilot testing can be received from Lidia Borghi (University of Pavia, Italy) and Matthias Kremer (Seminar Rottweil, Germany).

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II.1. The mysterious glove (P-1) Ulrich BEE, Seminar Rottweil (Germany)

a. Introduction Plastic gloves are common every day products. Pupils know their properties from experience. The Gore-tex glove, however, is different! To understand the phenomena observed in this experiment, you need an idea of matter which is not continuous but exists of single particles (in this case, molecules) because liquid and gaseous water behave different. So there must be a difference in their intermolecular structure. Additionally, the pupils learn something about water vapour: it exists also under 100°C, called humidity. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

MISCONCEPTIONS

Water as a substance A "plastic"-glove prevents Use of plastic in every day water from going through in either direction products Have a conception of humid- Matter is continuous, homoity (e.g. water parti- geneous and static Drying under water in a glove cles/molecules in air) although the "body" is completely under water is impossible You need a temperature of 100°C to make water evaporate Hands in plastic gloves get always sweaty

OBJECTIVES There are different types of plastic with different characteristics Water vapour also exists at a temperature of less than 100°C (humidity) The molecules of water vapour are small enough to go through the Gore-tex membrane In liquid water, the forces between the water molecules are too strong, for the single water molecule to go through the membrane

b. Diagnostics No.1: Think of plastic gloves and decide which of the following sentences are correct: a.) Plastic gloves seal your hands so that nothing can get through to them b.) Plastic gloves are permeable, that means things/liquids can get through them c.) Plastic gloves are impermeable so you get sweaty hands when you wear them No. 2: Ice melts into water but is it still the same? Look at the following statements and decide which of them are correct a) Water is always liquid


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b) Water exists in different states of aggregation: solid, liquid, gaseous c) Water and ice are different substances and have nothing in common No. 3: Which sentence(s) is(are) correct? a.) Matter is continuous b.) Matter is made of little particles c.) Matter is homogenous and static No. 4: What happens to water when you heat it from 20°C up to 100°C or when you cool it down from 20°C to –5°C. Describe what happens with the water.

c. Experiment Apparatus: Gore-tex® membrane glove; PE-glove and Bowl filled with cold water Procedures: Immerse both bare hands just shortly in a bowl filled with cold water so that they are moist. Now put on the gloves: on one hand the Gore-tex®-membrane glove and on the other hand the PE-glove. Immerse both hands with the gloves in the cold water for about 3 minutes. Pay attention that no water is running into your gloves. Observations: After taking out your hands, both of them feel cold, maybe the one with the PEglove a bit colder. The hand in the PE-glove is still wet, the hand in the gore-glove is dry! Conclusions: The water inside the glove can’t go through the PE-Material but it can go through the Gore®-glove. Water outside the gloves can’t go inside in both cases. Results: No matter which state water is in, it can’t go through the PE-Material, this material is sealed. Vaporized water, however, can go through the Gore®-membrane, but liquid water can’t. This depends on the different intermolecular structure of water in liquid and gaseous form:

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In gaseous form the water molecules are nearly single. So they can go through the pores of the Gore-tex® membrane. This effect is better the bigger the temperature difference is between the water- and your hand-temperature. Water vapour exists also at a temperature of less than 100°C. In liquid form the water molecules are kept together by strong intermolecular forces (H-bonds) and build big clusters. Referentes: Picture: http://www.goretex.de/published/gfe_navnode/de.prod.glove.technologie.html. Gore-tex, Der Handschuhtest. You can get it from the customerservice by phone: Germany: 00800 23144000.

d. Some ideas and tools (to be used in the lessons) The start: The teacher demonstrates the two gloves and asks about the differences in their look and their use. If the pupils describe the gloves as waterproof, you can demonstrate this by filling them both with water or you can put them on and dip the hands with the gloves under cold water. Be careful, that no water runs inside the gloves. Here you can also observe that the hand in the PE glove feels sweaty. If you want to be sure, that no water runs in the glove or water vapour comes out of the glove, you can put an elastic band around the wrist or you seal the wrist with a tape. Pupils might have the idea that the water has been soaked from the hand itself like moisturiser in case of the Gore-tex® glove. To disprove you just repeat the experiment: change the gloves to see it doesn't depend on the hand.


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II.2. Does air have weight? (P-2) Piedad MARTÍN, Mª del Carmen PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, Lina SIERRA, University of Alcala (Spain)

a. Introduction A high percentage of students thinks that only gases with colour are considered material but invisible gases as air are immaterial (Séré, 1982). Due to this, they think that air has no weight and tends to go upwards; an inflated balloon weighs less than one where air is not blown into it (Furió and Hernández, 1983). These reasons together with their everyday experiences in life in a world full of air, will lead them to think that gases are penetrable, and therefore do not occupy space and do not have any volume (Benson, Wittrock and Baur 1993; Séré, 1982; Stavy, 1988). According to these reasons it is worth working with pupils on the properties of air.

EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES • To know the concepts of volume, of mass and of weight. • To have a general idea of the concept of pressure. • To know that air in the atmosphere exerts a pressure.

MISCONCEPTIONS • Invisible gases as air are immaterial. • Air does not occupy space and does not have any volume. • Air has no weight and tends to go upwards.

• To possess the intuitive model of behaviour of the gas

• Atmospheric air exerts pressure but the air inside a bottle does not exert any pressure.

• To possess the intuitive concept of pressure, force and equilibrium.

• Some students consider the terms gas and air as synonymous; • Gases are immaterial, or only gases with colour are considered material but invisible gases as air are immaterial; • To suck attracts the liquid in the straw. • The vacuum withdraws a liquid.

b. Experiment

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OBJECTIVES The pupils shall: • Know that air occupies a volume and so it must be extracted before putting another substance in its place. • Know the difference between volume and mass. • Know that the air exerts a pressure that prevents to completely compress a syringe sealed off at one end. • Explain the observed • Phenomenon using basic ideas of the kinetic molecular model.


Gases, as well as solids and liquids occupy a place in space and have mass (and therefore, weight). Students live in an atmosphere that consists of a mixture of gases. This fact can be used to provide them experiences that may help them understand these characteristics of air which for some students are not easy to understand. Apparatus − 1st experiment: two plastic bottles of the same kind; a funnel with a thin neck which perfectly fits into the bottle; water; plasticine − 2nd experiment: a graduated plastic syringe (if possible) with its needle; a rubber cap (or a very dense cork); silicone (if for safety reasons needles are not used) − 3rd experiment: a big container; alight-weight glass (for example, a long clear plastic; whisky glass); water; a clear plastic tube. Procedures − 1st experiment: put the funnel into an empty bottle and cover all the remaining space between the funnel and the mouth of the bottle with plasticine (the best way is to mold the plasticine into a long cylinder and wrap it around the mouth of the bottle placing the funnel in such a way that it would completely seal the gap between bottle and funnel). It is vital that the joint between bottle and funnel is hermetically sealed so that no air can escape from the bottle. Fill up the second bottle with water and try to pour the water from the second bottle to the first one through the funnel. For better observation it is recommended to colour the water (i.e., ink, coffee, etc.). − 2nd experiment: begin the experiment with an uncovered needle and the piston of the syringe pushed halfway down as indicated in figure 2A. Afterwards stick the needle into the cap and pull or push the piston trying to change the air volume inside the syringe (Figure 2B). If you do not wish to use a needle, the air seal of the syringe can be accomplished using silicone.


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-

3rd experiment: fill the big container up with water and try to put the glass upside-down inside the container, as indicated in Figure 3. In the second part, put the plastic tube into the glass, as indicated in Figure 4 and suction up the air in the glass little by little.

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Observations In the 1st experiment, at the beginning it is observed that the water easily enters the bottle but it reaches a point where no water drops—the water level becomes stable. It is impossible to fill up the bottle with water. Teachers can suggest that students design procedures to completely fill up the bottle with water based on their everyday experience (i.e., passing a thin straw through the funnel as when they are having a soft drink). In the 2nd experiment, it is observed that once the needle is sealed up there is no difficulty in pulling the piston upwards and increasing the air volume in the syringe (expansion). However, when the piston is pushed down to decrease the air volume (compression) a point is reached where further compression is not possible. Another important observation is when the piston is released and no force is employed, the piston returns to its initial position both in compression and in expansion. When the experience is repeated using different initial air volumes, it is observed that the maximum compression obtained depends on that specific initial air volume: If the piston initially contains 5ml, air can be compressed up to 2ml; then when the starting point is at 10ml it is difficult to reach the 3ml level, and so forth. In the 3rd experiment, it is observed that in order to insert the glass into the water it is necessary to apply force and that also the water level hardly goes up inside the glass. When the plastic tube is inserted into the glass and the air from the glass starts to be suctioned, the water level in the glass begins to increase. However, the water level decreases if the plastic tube is blown through. Students can also be asked to design (previously) a method in order to make the water level in the glass go up. Conclusions •

In the beginning, the bottle, the syringe, and the glass are filled up with air: In order to fill up the bottle with water it is necessary to remove the air inside which cannot be achieved due to the air-tight sealing between the bottle and the funnel. If a straw is inserted through the funnel the air inside the bottle can escape and water can drop. The escape of air when water enters is observable if a lighted match is placed close to the upper part of the straw.

•

The piston cannot be brought to level zero due to the presence of air in the syringe. Air is compressed easily until it reaches a certain point.

•

The air inside the glass is what impedes the water level to go up. The water level in the glass can only increase with the help of a plastic tube used to suction out part of the air contained in the glass. Pupils think that water level in the glass goes up because the atmospheric pressure pushes on the surface of the water. They do not think that water level goes up because the air inside the glass was taken out using the plastic tube, and the pressure exerted by the air on the glass was diminished (Hierrezuelo et.al., 1992). Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Results All these experiences show how air occupies a place in space and therefore demonstrate that air has volume: the volume varies by compressing or expanding as observed in the example using syringes but only up to a certain extent. These experiences allow discussing pupils’ alternative ideas about compression and expansion of gases; they either leave a space in the area where the air is taken out or they think that air is transferred from one place to another. Another well-known alternative idea is that upon pulling up the piston and releasing it later, the piston goes back to its place because of “the vacuum sucks out” (Hierrezuelo et. al., 1992). Another possibility is to ask what students think about the quantity of air that is in the syringe in the three situations, to find out if volume and mass are differentiated concepts for them. This experience also permits the introduction of the concept that gases (and therefore the atmosphere) exert pressure due to their mass. It also permits the introduction of some other basic ideas as how a kinetic molecular model explains the observed phenomena. Questions like: -

What happens to the air when the piston is pulled up?

-

Will it occupy all the volume?

-

What happens when the piston is pushed down?

Pupils can be asked to demonstrate these processes by drawings and to introduce the model using their drawings (even though these experiences in themselves do not cause any conflict to the alternative ideas about the model from the students). Care should be taken so that pupils do not assign properties of observable matter to unobservable microscopic particles: the molecules become compressed, they dilate, or change to a different temperature. As a Spanish study (Pozo et al., 1991) shows, this model is more intuitive for students than the model of particles in movement.

References BENSON, D.L. , WITTROCK, M.C. y BAUR, M. (1993). Students’ preconceptions of the nature of gases. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 30 (6), pp. 587-597. FURIÓ, C. y HERNÁNDEZ, J. (1983). Ideas sobre los gases en alumnos de 10 a 15 años. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 1 (1), pp. 83-91. HIERREZUELO, J. Y MONTERO, A. (1991). La ciencia de los alumnos. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir. HIERREZUELO (Ed.) et al. (1992). Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Educación Secundaria Obligatoria Ciclo 12 – 14. 1er Curso. Comentarios. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir. (1st experience).

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POZO, J.I., GÓMEZ CRESPO, M.A., LIMÓN, M. y SANZ SERRANO, A. (1991). Procesos cognitivos en la comprensión de la Ciencia: Las ideas de los adolescentes sobre la Química. Madrid: C.I.D.E., M.E.C. SÉRÉ, M.G. (1982). A study of some frameworks used by pupils aged 11 to 13 years in the interpretation of air pressure. European Journal of Science Education 4, pp. 299-309. STAVY, R. (1988). Children’s conception of gas. International Journal of Science Education 10 (5), pp. 553-560. VALLEJO NÁJERA, A. (1999). Ciencia mágica: experimentos asombrosos para genios curiosos. Editorial MR (3rd experience).


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II.3. The untied balloon (P-3) Rodica STĂNESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), ROMANIA; Constantin STĂNESCU, Physicist, Associate professor, (University of Pitesti), ROMANIA,

a. Introduction When we walk, the muscles of the feet work in pairs to move it. At each tread, the foot pushes back the ground. The force used to walk is the action, and the force with that the ground push the soles is the reaction. EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVES

PREREQUISITES MISCONCEPTIONS

• Pupils know the notions of force, action, reaction

• A body moves only if a force is driving it.

• To understand that the action and the reaction act simultaneously on two different bodies.

b. Experiment Introducction The action and the reaction explain the recoil of the gun. When the projectile starts from the barrel, it is pushed – the action – and simultaneously, it pushes the barrel back – the reaction. To relieve the action and reaction, one can use two balloons. Apparatus Two balloons; Two straws; adhesive tape; wire (2 m). Procedures One swells up the two balloons and ties them. One fixes the straws on the balloons, so the straw is parallel to the axe of the balloon. The wire is passed through the straws, and the balloons are positioned in the middle of the wire, maintained tight horizontally. One unties one balloon. Observations The untied balloon will slip on the wire. The reaction of the air that gets out from the balloon pushes them forward. The second balloon will be pushed back, because of the air that passes out from the first balloon.

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Conclusions /results The experiment shows the principle of the action and the reaction.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine http://www.howstuffworks.com/rocket.htm http://www.physics.upenn.edu/courses/gladney/mathphys/subsubsection3_1_3_3.html http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/kinema/rocket.html http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577900/Rocket_(physics).html http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ph9002.html http://www.spaceline.org/history/25.html http://www.uaf.edu/asgp/atrm/space/space1.html http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ph9116.html http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/Newton3.htm


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II.4. Playing with pressure (P-4) Piedad MARTÍN, Mª del Carmen PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, Lina SIERRA , University of Alcala

a. Introduction Although when defining the term pressure it is clearly established that force and pressure are of two different magnitudes, it may be difficult for students to distinguish between them. The root of this difficulty can be the indiscriminate use of both terms in classrooms. On the one hand it is said that fluids (gases and liquids) exert pressure on the walls of the container where they are placed as well as on the other, that these fluids exert force on these walls. Thus, in some way, both terms are putting at the same level. (Hierrezuelo et al., 1992).

EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES MISCONCEPTIONS The pupils shall:

• To know the concepts of

• Pupils often cannot see the

force and of pressure.

difference between force

• To know the concept of surface and of area of a surface. • To know the properties of liquids (especially its incompressibility).

and pressure. • Pupils have problems to

• Differentiate between force and pressure. • Know that liquids due to the fact that they cannot be

work with inverse propor-

compressed, transmit

tions.

pressure (not force). • Know some applications of the transmission of pressure by liquids. • Assimilate the meaning of an inverse proportion: due to transmitted pressure, a small force upon a small surface can overcome a greater force upon a larger surface.

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b. Experiment This experience permits the establishment of the relationship among the concepts of pressure, force, and surface. At the same time, it involves technical applications (hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes in cars, etc.) where students can associate their daily experiences in life and increasing their motivation about the topic. Apparatus: a big syringe; three smaller syringes of the same size; two clear plastic tubes; coloured water; silicone or plasticine (silicone is better than plasticine). Procedures Join two syringes of the same size using one of the plastic tubes, making sure that the joint is sealed by using silicone. The system is carefully filled up with coloured water trying to avoid the formation of air bubbles and always leaving the possibility of transferring the liquid from one syringe to the other (Figure 1). The set up procedure is repeated by joining the big syringe to one of the

Figure 1

smaller ones (Figure 2). It is convenient to leave some air in the syringes so that students can experiment the difference between the compressibility of air and water. Students should first explore by using the syringes of the same size. Then, they must compete among themselves in trying to transfer the water from their syringe to the syringe of their opponent (using moderate force as sometimes the set up can be dismantled).

Once the appropriate force necessary to win the opponent is known (using the syringes of the same size) the same procedure is repeated using syringes of different sizes (in order for the experience to be more effective, it is suggested that the big syringe should be given to a heavily-built student and the smaller syringe to a slimmer one).

Figure 2


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Observations The first observation is that the piston is easily pushed in the beginning, but it becomes more difficult at the point where the water is reached. Then, greater force needs to be applied. A further observation is the transmission of force by liquids. The two students using the syringes of the same size must try hard to win each other. However, the case is different in the experience using the syringes of different sizes. The student with the smaller syringe easily wins over the student with a bigger one who has to apply a much greater force to avoid being defeated. Conclusions Gases like air can be compressed easily. Liquids like water are incompressible. Upon pushing the piston at the start of the experiment, we compress air until the point of maximum compression is reached. From that point on, we try to compress the liquid which is practically impossible to do. What we are doing is applying force to the liquid and this force is eventually transmitted to the other syringe. But, are we really transmitting force? On using the different syringes, it is proven that a small force applied using the smaller syringe is able to counteract the stronger force of the bigger one. We employ force on the piston, but the water inside the syringes and the tube transmit pressure. Therefore, as the areas of the pistons are different, the forces are different. Results Different compressibility of gases and liquids can be analyzed by using this experience. On the one hand, liquids have their own volume although they adapt to the shape of the container where they are placed in. On the other hand, gases do not have their own volume; their volume depends on the pressure they are subjected to (and also on the temperature of the gas, but this observation is not implied in this experiment). It can be discussed that due to the fact that liquids cannot be compressed, they transmit pressure. The motivation incited by this experience can be utilized as an introduction to the study on hydrostatic pressure. The experience permits the differentiation of the concepts of pressure and force. The pressure depends on the force as well as on the surface applied. The fact that, the greater surface the less pressure is experienced while using the same force, allows students to work on inverted proportion. Calculations can also be worked out using this experience: students can determine the area of the pistons and calculate the relationship of the applied forces. Finally, students can work on technological applications, not only relating to the principle of Pascal, as well as others that are more common: skis, racquets, and so forth.

References HIERREZUELO (Ed.) et al. (1992). Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Educación Secundaria Obligatoria Ciclo 12 – 14. 1er Curso. Comentarios. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir.

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II.5. The movement of particles (P-5) Rocio ESTEBAN, SEK University (Spain)

a. Introduction Science, chemistry and physic classes should enable the student to explain occurrences which take place in their world life. The energy that triggers particles to move with more or less speed is a simple example of how chemistry or physics explain simple things that we can observe in Nature. In this experiment, if we use crystals that are very coloured, we will be able to observe how the particles move as they dissolve in water. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES MISCONCEPTIONS

• This experiment may be

• Fluids are not consisting of

• It should be evident that

used in a course about par-

particles, but homogenous

particles, as well as others

ticles or about energy.

stuff.

objects, cannot move

• The movement of particles in settled liquids depends

• Solving is the result of convection streams.

unless they have energy. • To be able to explain the

on various factors, among

difference of the move-

them, temperature.

ments of Condy's crystal

• Higher temperature produces higher molecular movement.

(potassium permanganate) in the hot and the cold glasses.

b. Experiment Apparatus. Each group needs: • Glass of precipitates with hot water • Glass of precipitates with cold water • Potassium permanganate (Condy´s crystals) Procedures Once we have the glasses with hot water and cold water, we have to be sure that the water is really settled and it does not move at all. Then, we drop a big crystal in each one of the recipients and observe carefully what happens.


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Possible Hazards We have to be very careful with potassium permanganate because it is a strong oxidant and reacts with combustible materials and reducers, causing the danger of fire or explosion. The substance is corrosive to eyes, skin and throat. It is corrosive if swallowed. Observations • At the beginning, what happens to the Condy's crystal of each glass? • What happens in each recipient after a while? • What was the most important difference between the recipients at the beginning? Conclusions • Which is the most probable cause for the different results? • Particles in hot water move faster than those in cold water.

References OSBORNE, R. and FREYBERG. P. (1991). The learning of sciences. Madrid: Narcea.

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II.6. Visualising atmospheric pressure (P-6) Piedad MARTÍN, Mª del Carmen PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAl, Lina SIERRA, University of Alcala (Spain)

a. Introduction Gas exerts pressure and the air which surrounds us also exerts pressure on us and other objects: it is called atmospheric pressure. This experience allows students to visualise easily the action of pressure. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

• To know the concepts of • According to many students, The pupils shall: force and of pressure

air and gas in general only exert force when they are in

Eventually:

• Know

that

gases

exert

pressure in all directions.

movement or when they op• To manage correctly physical units • To

erate

on

(Hierrezuelo calculate

volumes

areas

and

moving y

the observed objects • Explain Montero, phenomenon using basic ideas

1991). • In other occasions, students affirm that gases only exert

of

the

kinetic

molecular model. Eventually

force when they themselves • Know how to calculate the are subject to force (as when we push the piston), or when they are heated (Hierrezuelo and

Montero,

Ruggiero,

Cartelli,

1991; Dupré,

weight of a column of liquid. • Know

the

relationship

between

units 2

(1 atm – 1 N/m )

Vincentini-Missoni, 1985;Séré, 1982). • Students may have difficulty recognising that atmospheric air (and fluids in general) exerts pressure in all directions (Hierrezuelo et al., 1992). Students tend to believe that the pressure is exerted in the Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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direction where the action is applied (Driver, Guesne, and Tiberghien, 1985). • Scientists explain the situations of balance where atmospheric pressure operates (as in this experiment) considering the two systems between which a difference of pressure operates. Students rarely consider both systems and centre their attention on only one of them (Hierrezuelo and Montero, 1991).

b. Experiments Apparatus: a glass jar with its lid; water; a hammer and a nail. Procedures Make a hole in the centre of the metal lid with the help of a hammer and a nail (4 or 5mm in diameter is sufficient). Fill up the glass jar completely with water, put the lid on the jar, and make sure that the lid is completely sealed. Afterwards, turn the jar upside-down. Will water drop out?

Observations Most students’ hypothesis is that water will drop out of the jar, but this is not the case. Even though the jar is lightly shaken, only a few drops are observed—no water pours out. Conclusions Gases exert pressure on the walls of their containers and on the objects inside these containers. The air that surrounds us is a mixture of gases and so it exerts pressure both on the walls of the jar

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as well as on its base. Due to the fact that the pressure is higher than that exerted by the column of water inside the jar, the water cannot drop out. Results Air (as well as all gases) exerts pressure in all directions. Therefore, atmospheric pressure works in all directions, not just up - down. Again, the kinetic-molecular model allows explaining the atmospheric pressure. This happens through the supposition that air molecules surrounding the objects are in continuous movement and hit them in all directions. The taller the bottle, the more effective the experiment will be. Students can be asked to calculate the height the jar should have so that the pressure of the column of water is superior to that of the atmospheric pressure. This will enable students to understand the order of magnitude of atmospheric pressure.

References DRIVER, R., GUESNE, E. y TIBERGHIEN, A. (1985). Children’s ideas in science. Open University Press, Milton Keynes. (Spanish edition: Ideas científicas en la infancia y la adolescencia, (1989). Madrid: Morata y Centro Publicaciones M.E.C. HIERREZUELO, J. Y MONTERO, A. (1991). La ciencia de los alumnos. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir. HIERREZUELO (Ed.) et al. (1992). Ciencias de la Naturaleza. Educación Secundaria Obligatoria Ciclo 12 – 14. 1er Curso. Comentarios. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir. RUGGIERO, S., CARTELLI, A., DUPRÉ, F. y VICENTINI-MISSONI, M. (1985). Weight, gravity and air pressure: mental representation by italian middles school pupils. European Journal of Science Education 7, pp. 181-194. SÉRÉ, M.G. (1982). A study of some frameworks used by pupils aged 11 to 13 years in the interpretation of air pressure. European Journal of Science Education 4, pp. 299-309.


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II.7. Heat and temperature (H.1) Lidia BORGHI, Anna DE AMBROSIS, Paolo MASCHERETTI, Patrizia BETTI, Giacomo BRUNI, Daniela ROGNONI (University of Pavia, Italy); Mario BRANCA (University of Sassary, Italy); Matthias KREMER (Seminar Rottweil, Germany)

a. Introduction Measurement of temperature with a conventional thermometer is based on the principle of thermal equilibrium. When we measure the temperature of a system the thermometer must be in equilibrium with the system. So the concept of thermal equilibrium is essential to understand the working of a thermometer. Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if they are at the same temperature. Then the definition of temperature is based on thermal equilibrium. Two bodies in contact and at the same temperature do not exchange energy. It is worth working with pupils on the difference between “heat” and “temperature”. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

The concepts of mass and of • The temperature is the quan- To improve the pupils’ contemperature and heat (in a general sense at least)

ceptions step by step

tity of heat in an object.

• An object with a higher tem- They shall:

• To be able to take meas-

perature has more heat than

urements with a thermome-

the one with a lower tem-

ter

perature.

Eventually: • To know equations and their properties • To be able to make and interpret graphs representing relations like y=f(x)

• Temperature is a property of a particular material or object (metal

is

naturally

cooler

than plastic). • The temperature of an object depends on its size. • Both coldness and heat can flow from one body to another.

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• Know the difference between heat and temperature. • Know that there is no linear relation between the temperature of an object and the transported heat. • Recognize

the

difference

between temperature and heat • Know that there is no relation between the temperature of an object and its size.


• Recognize that heat can flow only from a warmer body to a colder one.

b. Diagnostics No 1: 1 kg of water is cooled to -20°C. Which graph describes the process in the best way?

No 2: Ice is continuously warmed up. Which answer is correct? a) Temperature is increasing continuously b) There will be a moment when temperature does not increase for some time c) Temperature does not exceed 0°C. No 3: A glass of oil and a similar glass of water (both 100 g), initially at the same temperature, receive the same amount of heat. Which answer is correct? a) After the same time they will have the same temperature b) After the same time the fluids will have different temperatures c) If you do not take 100 g but 100 ml of each fluid, both of them will have the same temperature after the same time. No 4: A man puts his hand on iron, plastic, ceramic and wood. All materials have been in a room for a long time (1 hour). Which answers are correct?


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a) The temperature of a metallic object is the lowest b) The temperature of the wooden object is the highest c) The temperature of all objects is the same. No 5: A piece of wood is at the temperature 40°C. By breaking it into two pieces of equal size a) You get two pieces of 20°C b) You get two pieces of 40°C c) You get two pieces that are warmer or colder than 40°C. Choose the right answer. No 6: Two bodies at different temperature are put in contact. Which sentence is correct? a) Heat flows from the colder to the warmer body b) Cold flows from the colder to the warmer body c) Heat flows from the warmer to the colder body d) Cold flows from the warmer to the colder body.

c. Experiment Introduction The path we suggest to introduce basic concepts on thermal phenomena is presented here. Initially we propose activities that help pupils to become aware of the fact that a thermometer measures the temperature of an object when it reaches thermal equilibrium with the object. Then we suggest activities that pave the way to introduce basics on the exchange of energy between objects of different material (initially at different temperatures) when they are put in contact. 1. First steps It is useful that students work in small groups (2–3 pupils each) and: a.

Measure the temperature of samples of water at different temperatures and list the samples from the coldest to the hottest one;

b.

Carry out the same activity by using samples of ®Pongo. A discussion of their work should make the students recognize that the bulb of the thermometer has been put in close contact with each sample in order to measure its temperature. This can be easily connected with their experience in measuring the temperature of their body. After a time long enough so that all the samples considered in steps a) and b) are in thermal equilibrium with the environment, it is useful to ask students to measure again the temperature of the different specimens (Pongo included) so that everybody can observe that they are now at the same temperature.

2. Predictions of temperatures of equilibrium

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Material: a thermos, hot water, water at room temperature, a graduated cylinder, a cylinder of metal (brass, for instance) of mass 200 g. a. The teacher pours 200 g of hot water (80 °C) in a thermos and covers it. Then s/he asks pupils

to express their predictions on the temperature that will be reached after adding 200 g of water at room temperature. When pupils have annotated their previsions, the teacher carries out the experiment and measures the equilibrium temperature so that the results obtained can be compared with the previsions of each group of pupils. m1 (T1 –Tf) = m2 (Tf –T2) According to the level of interest and of the formal skills of the pupils, the teacher could suggest putting together different materials. b. The teacher asks pupils to express their predictions about the temperature of equilibrium of

the system obtained by inserting in a thermos, containing 200 g of water at 80°C, the metallic cylinder of mass 200 g (at room temperature). After recording their predictions, the teacher carries out the experiment, measures the equilibrium temperature and discusses the results obtained. According to the interest of pupils, the teacher could proceed with experiments in which the two masses of water, at different initial temperatures, are different too. These experiments should guide pupils to grasp the fundamental law of the exchange of energy between two systems at different temperatures. When two systems at temperatures T1 and T2 (with T1>T2) are put in contact and are isolated from everything else they reach an equilibrium temperature Tf according to the equation: c1 m1 (T1 –Tf) = c2 m2 (Tf –T2) where c1 and c2 indicate the specific heat of the two systems. Discussion with the pupils should point out that the change of temperature of each system is due to a transfer of energy form the system at higher temperature to the other. The energy transferred is called heat. 3. Rate of cooling It is useful that pupils measure at equal time intervals the temperature of water, initially at about 60°C, until it arrives at the room temperature. Then they should report their data in a graph of temperature vs. time and, when they are comfortable with this type of measurement (and representation of data) the teacher should propose: “Imagine to offer a cup of tea to your friends Mario and Carlo. Tea is initially too hot! Mario waits a few minutes, then adds milk and drinks his tea. Carlo adds at the very beginning the same quantity of milk (as Mario) and waits the same time before drinking. Who will drink the colder tea?” Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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The predictions of pupils should be written on the blackboard and pupils divided in groups, should verify their predictions by organizing appropriate their plan of work. The teacher should propose the use of hot and cold water (instead of tea) and help pupils to carry out the planned experiments and to discuss the results of the work. (Reference: http://www.unipa.it/~sperande/IMOFI/IMOFI.html) 4. Cubes of ice a. Two cubes of ice of equal mass are now used. While the first one is placed on a support of

metal, the other one is placed on a support of an insulating material. The students’ task is to predict the time necessary for the fusion of each cube of ice, then the predictions are compared with the times measured. (This activity takes into account the preconception that objects of metals are colder than plastic or wooden objects.) b. Two cubes of ice of equal mass are on a dish. Then one of them is inserted in a woollen sock.

The students’ task is to predict the time necessary for the fusion of each cube of ice. Then the predictions are compared with the times measured. (This simple proposal takes into account the preconception: “Wool is warm, and warms things.”) 5. The fusion heat of ice Introduction For young people (and often for adults too!) the difference between temperature and heat is not clear. Experience and the activities carried out until now in the classroom indicate that when two bodies with different temperatures are put into contact, heat is transferred from the hotter body to the colder body, and this process continues until both bodies have the same temperature. The final temperature reached (if there are no changes of state) depends on the mass of each body and on its specific heat. If we supply energy to a body, the students often maintain that the body’s temperature increases. This is true if there is no change of state. If there are changes of state then the temperature remains unchanged until the change of state is completed. If we supply the same quantity of heat to the same mass of ice, or to water, both at 0°C, then the final temperature will be different. The activity presented here helps to differentiate the concepts of temperature and heat. Materials: hot water at 80°C; a mixture of crushed ice and water at 0°C.; a strainer; 500 ml foam cup; balance; two thermometers Procedure Measure the temperature of the mixture of water and ice with the thermometer and check that it is 0°C. Measure the temperature of the hot water which should be 80°C. a. Part 1

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Pour into the foam cup a mass m, for example 100 g, of cold water at 0°C taken from the mixture of ice and water. Pour a double mass of hot water at 60°C into the same container. Ask the students to predict the equilibrium temperature and then ask them to measure it. Taking care to insulate the system from the environment. This value should be 40°C. b. Part 2 Place the foam cup on the balance and place in it about 100 g of ice removed from the ice-water mixture with the strainer (ice should be at 0°C). Weigh the ice and quickly add 200 g of water at 60°C. All the ice melts. Stir the mixture and measure the temperature. In this case the final temperature is lower then the one obtained in Part 1. In Part 1 the energy (heat) from the water at 60°C increased the temperature of the water initially at 0°C. The final temperature was about 40°C In Part 2 we can see that the energy (heat) from the water at 60°C was used not only to increase the temperature of the water but also to melt the ice. This explains why the final temperature of the system is lower. According to the level of interest and of the formal skills of the pupils, the teacher could propose to evaluate the energy necessary to melt the ice. If the measured final temperature of the water is Tf one can write: 2 m c (60 – Tf ) = m c (Tf – 0) + Q where c is the specific heat of water: c = 4180 J/(kg K) = 1 cal/(g °C) Q = 2 m 60 – 3mTf = m (120 - 3Tf ) Q/m is the latent fusion heat of water. An interesting case If we use a mass m of water at 80°C and an equal mass m of ice at 0°C, we can observe that all the ice melts and the final temperature Tf is 0°C. In this case is: m (80-0) = Q

and

Q/m = 80 cal/g (value of the latent fusion heat of water). This experiment introduces: •

The difference between heat and temperature

•

Specific heat

•

The latent heat involved in a change of state.

d. Some ideas and tools (to be used in the lessons) 1. The start The teacher demonstrates measuring the temperature of hot water in different ways: Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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•

At the outer side of the glass

•

At the bottom of the glass while it is still warmed up by a flame

•

Stirring and not stirring

•

Only a part of the bulb of the thermometer is under water

•

Waiting a time too short

•

Putting the wrong end into the water

•

…

"Now it is your turn. Here is your work sheet." 2. Work sheet for the pupils: "How warm is it really? Measuring temperatures correctly" (That paper could be drawn up in the training course.) 3. Test after the first steps: There are 2 (very) different thermometers used to measure the temperature in a glass of water which is getting warmer and warmer. The temperatures are compared all the time during the experiment. The thermometers will not show the same temperature at the same time. Pupils should be invited to give an explanation. 4. "Rate of cooling" The teacher initiates a little drama scene together with three pupils. They play the roles of Mario, Carlo and the pupil who offers tea. They have to play the quarrel about the best moment to put the milk into the cup of tea but without solution. Task to carry out in groups of three pupils: "Give a prediction and design an experiment to prove it. You can only use the materials in the room”. (Milk and tea are not in the class-room.)

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II.8. The boat with self propulsion (H-2) Rodica STANESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti, ROMANIA; Costantin STANESCU, Physicist, Associate professor, University of Pitesti, ROMANIA

a. Introduction This experiment may emphasize the conservation of the momentum and energy and the principle of the jet engine that means the principle of propulsion trough reaction used in the flight of planes and rockets or in the movement of some boats and sky-jets. This question has to be cleared in school very often. With this experiment the pupils can learn it. It can mark out the conservation of impulse and of energy also the principle of propulsion by reaction. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

• The students know the con- • Vapour cannot be seen, so it • To improve pupils’ concepcepts of momentum, me-

is "nothing", especially it can

chanical energy, kinetic en-

not perform pressure.

ergy, heat. • Concept of energy.

tions step by step • To use the notions of mo-

• Confusion between energy

mentum, energy, heat cor-

and force.

rectly.

• Energetic nature of the heat. • Pupils often cannot see the • To understand the flow of • The transformation of the heat in kinetic energy.

difference between them.

energy

(transformation

of

the heat into kinetic energy).

• Confusion between momen-

• To have fun.

tum and energy. • Confusion between energy and

energy

variation

(or

transfer).

b. Diagnostics 1) Which answer is correct? a) The momentum of a body changes under the action of a force b) The momentum of a body is constant. c) The momentum of a body depends on the material whence the body is made. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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2) Which answer is correct? a) The kinetic energy is the energy of a body which moves with a certain speed. b) The kinetic energy of a body is the greater the force is greater. c) The kinetic energy of a body depends on the nature of the body. 3) Which answer is correct? a) If a body is heated, his kinetic energy raises. b) The energy and the force are the same thing. 4) Which answer is correct? a) Any kind of energy transforms in heat. b) In nature, the energy does not losses, but transforms from a form in another one. c) The heat may determine the variation of the kinetic energy of a body.

c. Experiment Apparatus Pupils are given materials, they probably know from there daily life: -

Boat made of plastic or board, adhesive

-

A candle

-

A cap piece made of plastic or metal (is used to fix the candle)

-

Two pieces of wire 1 mm thick, 15 cm long

-

An egg

-

A syringe

Procedures Procedure 1: Out of board we make a boat 16-18 cm long and 4-5 cm wide, conform to the next picture or we use the plastic boat. Using the egg we make the boiler thus: we make a 1-2 mm hole with a needle at one extremity of the egg and we empty it. We make the holder for the boiler using wire and we fix it to the boat. The source of heat is a candle fixed on the cap piece. We put the candle on the bottom of the boat, we fix the boiler-egg on the holder above the candle and with the syringe we introduce water in the egg. Observation 1: The boat floats on the surface of the water.

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Procedure 2: We light the candle. In a short while the water starts to boil and steam blows out like a jet trough the hole of the boiler. Observation 2: The boat will start to slide on the water faster and faster, in the opposite direction of the jet. Conclusions The heat produced by the burning candle is transformed in kinetic energy for the boat. Results The impulse of the system of moving objects (the boat and the steam jet) remains constant concordantly with the law of impulse conservation. The steam jet is moving one way and represents the action applied on the boat. For the sum of impulses to be null (such as the initial value) the boat must move with the same impulse but in the opposite direction

Propose: Observation: The impulse of the boat is independent of the presence of air around the boat. Conclusion The boat is propelled because of its impulse, and not because of the jet which pushes the air and so pushing the boat concordantly with the principle of mutual actions.

d. Some ideas and tools The experiment may be used also to point out the floating of the bodies (Archimedes’s law). Moreover, one can develop some facts about the history of the rockets (especially the contribution of some less known scientist, such Henri Coanda and Hermann Oberth),


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References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_rocket http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Coand%C4%83 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Oberth http://www.howstuffworks.com/rocket.htm http://www.howstuffworks.com/rocket1.htm http://www.howstuffworks.com/rocket2.htm http://www.physics.upenn.edu/courses/gladney/mathphys/subsubsection3_1_3_3.html http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/kinema/rocket.html http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577900/Rocket_(physics).html http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ph9002.html http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/AERO/coanda.htm http://www.deltawing.go.ro/history/coanda.htm http://www.kiosek.com/oberth/ http://www.oberth-museum.org/ http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/oberth/SP2.htm http://www.spaceline.org/history/25.html http://www.uaf.edu/asgp/atrm/space/space1.html http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ph9116.html http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/Newton3.htm

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II.9. The water elevator (W-1) Matthias KREMER, Seminar Rottweil

a. Introduction This subject gives the opportunity to discuss the differences between so called physical and chemical reactions and it offers a possibility to apply the particle model. If water is boiling a change of state will take place (physical process). The constitution of particles is not affected. The process is reversible. It is not a chemical reaction, otherwise there should be new substances with new properties built from new particles. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

MISCONCEPTIONS

OBJECTIVES

• To have a concept of sub- • Vapour is something different To improve the pupils’ constances and particles.

ceptions step by step

from water.

• Observe changes of state in • Bubbles from boiling water They shall: water.

consist of air, oxygen gas,

• Experience with solutions of gas (e.g. mineral water) • Knowing, that air is a mixture of gases

hydrogen gas. • Freezing and boiling are examples of chemical reactions: e.g.

boiling is inter-

preted as a thermal splitting in hydrogen and oxygen. • Heat has the properties of matter: e.g. bubbles from boiling water are made of heat.

• Know, that the bubbles in boiling

water

consist

of

steam (that is gaseous water). • Know, that in the steam the particles have bigger distances, but they are unchanged. • Recognize, that not boiled liquid water still contains dissolved gases, particularly oxygen and nitrogen from the air • Know, the dissolved gas is expelled from the water by warming and these gases do not dissolved any more entirely in the water by cooling.


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b. Diagnostics No. 1 Which of the following substances can be dissolved in water? a) Sugar. b) Acid. c) Oxygen. d) Air. e) Iron. f)

Petrol.

No. 2 Water boils in a pot and the pot empties step by step. Look at the following statements and decide which of them are correct. a) Water disappears. b) Steam is gas and gas is nothing. c) Water exists in different states of aggregation: solid, liquid, gaseous. d) Water and steam are different substances, because they have different properties. No. 3 There is a pot with boiling water. Bubbles arise. What are the bubbles made of? a) Heat. b) Air. c) Oxygen/hydrogen. d) Steam. No. 4 Which sentence(s) is (are) correct? a.) Matter is made of little particles. b.) There is a vacuum between the particles. c.) There is air between the particles. d.) The distance between the particles is always the same.

c. Experiment Apparatus:

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Hotplate, cooking pot, slim, very heavy glass (e.g., jam jar or olive glass). Laying the glass must fit in the cooking pot. Second glass filled with water in order to fasten the first one. Water. Procedures: 1. Possibility: Not boiled water The open glass is laid in the pot, which is filled by water. As soon as the glass is full of water, it is set up with the opening downwards in the pot, so that it is completely filled with water. Then the pot is warmed up on the hotplate. If the glass threatens to fall down, it could be fastened by the second glass. If the glass is filled entirely with gas, the pot is pulled carefully beside the plate. The cooling can be accelerated by supply of cold water in the pot. 2. Possibility: boiled water This experiment is executed with already boiled water in the same way. Both experiments can be done at the same time to be compared in a better way. Observations: 1. Possibility After some time small gas bubbles arise and gather also in the glass. If the water begins to boil, big gas bubbles arise and edge out the water from the glass. While cooling the water level rises in the glass again. However, a small gas bubble survives in the glass. 2. Possibility In the phase before boiling no little gas bubbles arise. After complete cooling no more gas bubble exists in the glass. Conclusions: While the water is boiling there appears a colorless gas or a mixture of colorless gases. This gas edges out the fluid water from the glass. While cooling the fluid water rises in the glass again, because the gas condenses or is dissolved in the water. With not boiled water already before reaching of the boiling temperature small vesicles are formed in the pot ground. Some of them rise in the glass. There a small gas portion is gathering, which also survives on cooling. This could be a gas dissolved in the water (mixture), which has been expelled by boiling. Possible assumptions of the pupils: The gas could be air, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide or steam.


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Following experiments can produce lucidity, e.g. producing a mixture of the supposed gas with water in the glass and comparing it with the observed gas. The supposed splitting of the water in the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen can be compared to a real splitting by electricity. Results: After the examinations and considerations to the assumptions of the pupils is cleared: The bubbles in boiling water consist of steam (that is gaseous water). In the steam the particles have bigger distances, but they are unchanged. Not boiled water still contains dissolved gases, particularly oxygen and nitrogen from the air. While warming up the dissolved gas is expelled from the water, while cooling these gases do not dissolve any more entirely in the water.

d. Some ideas and tools (to be used in the lessons) 1. Gases are soluble in water If the pupils already know that plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis you can put pieces of Canadian waterweed Elodea in… • •

boiled water water poured with carbon dioxide

and illuminate the plant. The plant builds bubbles only in water with solute carbon dioxide. Theoretical experiment: A young boy wanted to protect his fishes from bacteria by boiling the water of his aquarium. First step: he took the fishes off. Second step: he boiled the water. Last step: after the water cooled down to normal temperature he inserted the fishes. Unfortunately all the fishes died! Why? 2. The solubility of gas in water depends on temperature Take a bottle of mineral water and open it for a few days until it doesn’t bubble any more. Take a glass, fill in the water, put a thermometer into the water and heat the water. Why do you observe bubbles, even if the water is colder than 100°C? 3. Gas is not nothing Take a pump, close the hole with a finger and press. Why is impossible to press the space completely? Take a ball of table tennis and blow at it. Why does the ball move itself? 4. Volume depends on state of aggregation Take a test tube, fill in a block of ice and put a balloon on the opening. Heat it until the ice transferred into steam. DEVRIES, TÖNJES, M. OETKEN, A. PASCHMANN: Schülervorstellungen zum Sieden, MNU 55/7, 413 – 420.

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II.10. Capillarity phenomena and transpiration of leaves in a green plant (W-2) Lidia BORGHI, Anna DE AMBROSIS, Paolo MASCHERETTI (University of Pavia)

a. Introduction Forces of inter-molecular attraction and forces of adhesion to surfaces explain why water, as other liquids do, rises in a tube if the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small. Inquiring on capillarity and on transpiration of plants may help to explain why water rises even to great height within thin vessels through the roots and the trunk of a tree. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES • Hydrostatic pressure • Gravitational force

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

Forces due to pressure in a • Pupils understand that the fluid act always downward

molecules of a liquid interact both with other molecules in the liquid (cohesion) and with molecules of the container (adhesion) • Pupils recognize the role of evaporation of water from leaves (transpiration) and of capillarity for the life of plants

EXPERIMENT 1: Capillarity in a “vessel” with walls at variable distance Introduction As shown in figure 1, water rises in tubes with a sufficiently small diameter. The experiments described below show capillarity in different systems.


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Figure 1

A direct observation on capillarity can be carried out by means of the material shown in figure 2. Apparatus: two well clean glass panes (10 cm x 10 cm); a match; an elastic rubber band; a basin with a small quantity of water

Figure 2 The two glass panes are separated along a side by a match. They are kept fixed at a small angle by a rubber band (figure 2a): the distance s between the internal surfaces decreases from a side to the other one (figure 2b). Procedure The system is put in a basin containing a small quantity of water as shown in the figure 2. Observations When the system is standing in the basin, as figure 2 shows, the water rises in the space delimited by the glass surfaces. As the space between surfaces decreases, the height reached by the water level increases, its free surface taking the shape of a hyperbola. Results

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It can be shown that the height reached is in inverse proportion to the distance between the glass walls. Tip: The visibility of the liquid can be improved by adding to the water a drop of coloured ink.

EXPERIMENT 2: Transpiration of plants Introduction It is well known that leaves transpire: it is sufficient, for example, to cover with a plastic bag the leaves of a house plant to observe the formation of drops of water on its inner surface. Apparatus: two equal transparent cylinders; a small branch with green leaves Procedure Insert in one of the two cylinders the branch with the green leaves and fill the cylinders with water at the same level. Mark with a pencil the level in each cylinder in order to measure, during the experiment, the changes of the water level. Observations After some time the water level in the cylinder containing the branch is lower than in the other one. Results The observation suggests that the change of the water level is due to the presence of the branch that produces a higher rate of evaporation of water. Indeed, water evaporates from the green leaves through specific cells on their surfaces: this process is named transpiration. Conclusions The fact that evaporation takes place from leaves requires that water be present inside the whole branch, starting from its base. Indeed, it is possible to put in evidence that a number of small channels are present in the branch from the base to the leaves. Channels are so thin that capillarity phenomena keep them always full of water. In the case of the bottle with the branch, transpiration moves the liquid from the bottom of the branch to the leaves and then to the air. (In plants living in nature, channels are kept full also by pressure generated in roots). EXPERIMENT 3: Towards a simple model of transpiration in a plant

Introduction Transpiration from the leaves of a plant is modelled by evaporation from a mass of plaster, connected with a little tube inserted in water. The model of branch with transpiring leaves is shown in figure 3. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Figure 3

Apparatus Material: 2 equal transparent cylinders containing water (a); a glass tube with an internal diameter of about 2 mm (b); a short flexible tube (c); cotton (d); plastic funnel (e); powder of plaster. Assembling Mix powder of plaster in water until the system is semi fluid then pour part of it on a plastic sheet (the ideal material is that used for transparencies) put on a table. Model the semi fluid mass until a disk high about 1- 2 cm is obtained. Pour the remaining semi fluid mass in the funnel (e) and turn it upside down on the disk. After about half an hour the disk (f) is tough and water soaked (and it can be separated from the plastic sheet). The short flexible tube (c), containing water-soaked cotton (d), must be connected to the base of the funnel. Keeping upturned the system (plaster disk, funnel and plastic tube with cotton) connect the glass tube (b) with (c) and fill it with water. The complete system must be fixed to a support and its lower part be inserted in water as figure 3 shows. Procedure Pour water in the second cylinder until the level is equal to the one in the cylinder containing the “transpiring” system. Attach on each cylinder, by means of scotch, a strip of paper with a scale and mark the initial levels of water (figure 4).

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Figure 4

The level of liquid in the cylinder with the “transpiring” system should be marked and registered in order to prepare a graph of water height (or of the volume of water lost due to evaporation through plaster) versus time. The level of liquid in the cylinder with the “transpiring” system should be marked and registered in order to prepare a graph of water height (or of the volume of water lost due to evaporation through plaster) versus time. Observations It is possible to see in a short time that the level of the water changes only in the cylinder containing the “transpiring” system. It is possible also to observe that, if the system is raised and maintained vertical in air out of the cylinder, water does not drop from the glass tube. Results The first observation suggests that the evaporation from the hard plaster lifts up water from the cylinder. The second one indicates that the gravitational force acting on the water in the tube is balanced by the forces due to capillarity inside the high number of pores, cavities, and holes present in the hard plaster mass.


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conclusions The model shows the different roles of evaporation and capillarity. The first causes the motion of water, the second produces the replenishment of the system. So, in the life of plants, leaves transpiration is essential for maintaining the motion of lymph from the roots to the leaves and produces the passage of water (and mineral salts) from roots to leaves.

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II.11. Gases made out of water - are they the same? (W-3) Matthias KREMER, Seminar Rottweil

a. Introduction Often pupils say, the gas of boiling water consists of oxygen and hydrogen. So it is useful to show both types of gases: water vapour made by boiling and the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen made by electrolysis. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES Pupils should know: • How to collect bubbles of gas

MISCONCEPTIONS

OBJECTIVES

• The bubbles of boiling water • Pupils shall see, that the gas consist of hydrogen and oxy-

made out of water is not the

gen.

same as the gas in the bub-

• Energy given to a substance can start a chemical reaction or a change of state

bles of boiling water. • The main differences are : one gas can explode, water

• Energy can be heat or electric energy

vapour can not explode; • At room temperature water vapour can not exist, it becomes fluid.

b. Experiment Apparatus A) producing gas from water by boiling: a little box or glass, to be closed containing gas; cooking pot with water, fireplace B) producing gas by electrolysis:


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Pupils can make it for themselves: Battery 9V, 150 mAh, rechargeable; adapter to the battery, connected to two wires; lustre terminal, two black leads. Or: one nail connected to the minus pole, two black leads connected to the plus pole: Procedures A). Water in a pot is boiling, while a glass filled with water is standing in the pot upside down. After becoming cold again, there could be a little bit gas in the glass. Fill it under water in a little box, which you can close very well. B). Add sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate to the water, (not salt!) and put the lustre terminal into it. Collect the gas in a little box, closed under water.

A) and B) Put the closed box into another little basin with soap water and let the gas come out. There will be some bubbles of foam. Come nearer to them with a burning wooden stick. (!!) Observations A) Bubbles from boiling water: The burning stick will be extinguished by the foam. B) Bubbles from Elektrolysis: You can here something rather loud. Conclusions: There are two different gases. Results • If you give thermal energy to water, there will not happen a chemical reaction, but a change of state. • If you give electric energy to water, then will happen a chemical reaction. Its product(s) can burn. • Don’t make confusion with water vapour and the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.

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II.12. Bubbles (W-4) Rodica STĂNESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry) Pitesti, ROMANIA; Constantin STANESCU, Physicist, Associate professor, (University of Pitesti) ROMANIA

a. Introduction In childhood, an amusing game accessible for anyone is the bubbles one. With a cat around, that hit the bubbles with his paws, the amusement is sure. How can we explain the spherical form of the bubbles? What properties has the film of water and soap? What happens at the surface of a liquid film? Making the following experiment maybe we will find the answers to these questions. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

The sphere is the geomet- •

There are thin films on the •

To become conscious of

ric shape whose surface is

surface of liquids, which

the

minimal for a given vol-

have “special” properties.

forces as a macroscopic

ume.

superficial

tension

result of the interaction forces between the molecules of the liquid. •

To explain the orientation of the superficial tension forces.

b. Experiment Apparatus • Circular wire frame, provided with a line a little bit longer than the frame diameter; • Strong solution of water and soap. Procedures 1. One slips completely the frame in the solution, that to form a liquid film. With the point of a pencil, one slowly move the line, that to maintain it inside the film. One can see that the position of the line is indifferent in the film. 2. One breaks the film on one side of the line. What can we see?


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3. With the point of the pencil, one pulls the line to increase the surface of the film. Observations •

When the film occupies the whole surface of the frame, the line is in equilibrium in any position.

•

When the film is broken on the one side of the line, one can see that the line is completely tight, forming a circular curve. When one pulls the line with the point of the pencil, the line tightens as if the rest of the film tends to decrease his surface.

Conclusions: The surface tension forces are a macroscopic result of the superposition of the microscopic forces acting between the molecules of the liquid. Results: At the surface of the liquid act surface tension forces, to reduce the area of the surface.

References http://dwb.unl.edu/chemistry/dochem/DoChem068.html http://education.usace.army.mil/clubhouse/science/list.cfm?Topic=surften http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water http://isu.indstate.edu/ahalpern/labman/exp16.html http://library.thinkquest.org/11771/english/lo/chemistry/surfacet.html http://www.carolina.com/calendar_activities/2002/0209.asp http://www.creativekidsathome.com/science/water.html http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm http://www.epa.gov/nps/kids/TENSION.HTM http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/experiments-with-water-science-project.html

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http://www.Isbu.ac.uk/water http://www.kidszone.ourfamily.com/sciencepage.html http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen99/gen99977.htm http://www.online-tensiometer.com/oberfl/surface_tension.html http://www.wateraid.org


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II.13. Mixtures of oil, water and alcohol (W-5) Rodica STANESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti, ROMANIA; Constantin STANESCU, Physicist, Associate professor, (University of Pitesti), ROMANIA,

a. Introduction The most representative liquid substance used to study liquid substances is water, a matter indispensable to life. By studying and knowing his behavior in the phenomena at the surface or inside the water, we can understand and explain, what happens in practice and in common life. Do water and alcohol mix? How about water and oil? Why? Why the drops are spherical? The following experiments will try to answer these questions. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

Liquids – things with own •

Confusion

volume but without own

mass, weight and the den-

miscible and nonmiscible

form

sity of a body

liquids

Oil is floating over every •

You can mix fluids, but if

liquid.

they aren't soluble, they

•

Solubility

•

Miscible and nonmiscible

•

between

the •

To differentiate between

will separate. This phe-

liquids

nomenon is called "nonmiscible fluids". •

To understand that a liquid with a lower density can float over a higher density liquid.

b. Experiment Apparatus: two glasses of 250 ml and one glass of 400 ml; 10 ml vegetable oil, 200 ml water, and 200 ml alcohol. Procedures 1. In a 250 ml glass one pours the water, and in the second one the alcohol. 2. One pours one mL oil in each glass. One observes the mixture of the liquids, when they are in rest position.

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3. One pours gently the mixture of alcohol and oil in the big glass, and when the liquids are in rest position, one pours gently water, so that the oil rests in the middle of the big glass. Observations • Water and oil do not form a homogenous mixture, they are non-miscible. The oil floats on the water. • The alcohol and the oil do not form a homogenous mixture, they are non-miscible. The oil drops at the bottom of the glass with alcohol. • The water and the alcohol form a homogenous mixture, they are miscible. The oil floats inside the mixture of water and alcohol in form of spherical drops.

Conclusions • Oil floats on water (the fat at the surface of soup) • Alcohol floats on oil with which it isn’t miscible. • Oil floats in the shape of spherical drops inside the homogenous mix of water and alcohol. Results 1. The density of the oil is less than the density of the water. 2. The density of the alcohol is greater that the density of the oil. The density of the mixture of water and alcohol is equal to the density of the oil. Can be used also Archimedes law, for the applications concerning the floating of bodies.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water http://www.Isbu.ac.uk/water http://www.wateraid.org http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water


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II.14.The surface tension of the water (W-6) Rodica STANESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti–ROMANIA; Constantin STANESCU, Physicist, Associate professor, (University of Pitesti) Pitesti–ROMANIA

a. Introduction The free surface of a standing liquid is plane and horizontal, but when the liquid stands in a recipient, between the liquid molecules and the wall molecules there act forces. What kind of form has the free surface of the liquid near the recipient wall? We can easily answer this question in the case of the liquid water by using a glass filled with water and by performing a very simple experiment.

EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

Liquid, solid

•

Surface tension

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS •

•

•

The surface of a liquid in a •

To demonstrate that the

vessel is plane and hori-

surface of a liquid near the

zontal.

contact region with a solid

There are no interactions

is curve.

between a liquid and a •

To demonstrate that the

solid.

liquid surface acts with a

You can not put anything into a full glass of water

force to reduce the area of the surface.

without pushing out some water.

b. Experiment Apparatus: cylindrical transparent container - 100 ml; water; wire stitches. Procedures One pours water in the container, so that it is completely filled. Although the container is filled, and no water can be added, we can slip in the water, carefully, some wire stitches (or stings). One counts how many stitches one can slip in the water, before this effuse over the brim of the container.

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Observations While apparently it is no more room, one can find out that one may slip many stitches (or needles) in the container, the surface of the water curves more and more, as one add more stitches.

Conclusions The liquid surface, near the contact region with the walls is curve that permits to add more stitches in the container. The liquid surface acts with a force to reduce the area of the surface, that assures the convex (or, otherwise, concave) form of the surface and the rise of the volume, by adding the stitches. Results The surface tension holds the water to reflow from the recipient.

References http://dwb.unl.edu/chemistry/dochem/DoChem068.html http://education.usace.army.mil/clubhouse/science/list.cfm?Topic=surften http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water http://gbn.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GADGET/history/1999-2000/sumposium/sympsurfacetension.htm http://isu.indstate.edu/ahalpern/labman/exp16.html http://library.thinkquest.org/11771/english/lo/chemistry/surfacet.html http://wald.heim.at/schwarzwald/520974/apahunza.htm http://www.carolina.com/calendar_activities/2002/0209.asp http://www.creativekidsathome.com/science/water.html Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm http://www.epa.gov/nps/kids/TENSION.HTM http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/experiments-with-water-science-project.html http://www.Isbu.ac.uk/water http://www.kidszone.ourfamily.com/sciencepage.html http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen99/gen99977.htm http://www.online-tensiometer.com/oberfl/surface_tension.html http://www.wateraid.org

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II.15. Thermal expansion: the anomalous behaviour of water (W-7) Mario BRANCA, University of Sassari

a. Introduction This is a simple experiment to observe variations in the density of water and other liquids at different temperatures. Using it one can observe the anomalous behaviour of water at temperatures between 0°C and 4°C. According to Archimedes principle, less dense layers of liquids come to the surface, while heavier ones sink to the bottom. Because liquids tend to expand as the temperature increases one can expect that at deeper levels the temperature will be lower. This is known to anyone who has swum on the surface of the sea and then dived deeper and this can also be observed experimentally in most liquids. One important exception is water but only at temperatures lower 4°C. In the interval between 0° C and 4° C water behaves in an anomalous way.

EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

• How to measure tempera- • Water density does not de- • To understand, how fish can tures

pend on the temperature

survive in a frozen lake.

• The function of a thermome- • The deeper the water in a • To know the temperature of terchanges of state: melting

sea, the cooler is it.

maximum density of water • It is normal to become less dense, when temperature increases, but water does not behave normally between 0°C and 4°C. • To understand the properties of a good thermometric liquid


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b. Experiment

Figure 1 Water density vs temperature

Beginning at 0°C its density increases as the temperature increases. (Figure 1). At 4°C water reaches its maximum density and tends to sink to the bottom. Above 4 °C its density decreases as the temperature increases (1), as does that of all other liquids. Our experiment consists of following simultaneously at different depths the changes in temperature over time in a pre-cooled liquid. This slowly tends to warm up to the temperature of the surrounding environment over time. Apparatus Assuming that the class is divided into three groups one needs: -

Water at a low temperature and crushed ice (for the first group)

-

500 cm³ of cooled denatured alcohol (for the second group)

-

500 cm³ of cooled cooking oil (for the third group)

Each group needs: a 35 cm high, 500 cm³ cylinder; an insulating cloth; 2 thermometers; 1 chronometer

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Procedures The two thermometers are bound together with rubber bands so that the parts which read the temperature are about 10 cm one from the other. The two thermometers are then inserted in the 35cm high cylinder taking care that the lowest probe is very close to the bottom and that the probes do not move during measurements. The thermometers must not touch the bottom or walls of the cylinder. The pre-cooled liquid is poured into the cylinder which is wrapped in insulation to prevent the heat exchange with the surrounding environment being too rapid. The top of the cylinder is closed to minimise surface evaporation, and collection of data begins. Ideas for the lesson This experiment may be used in a course on temperature, on heat transmission and in particular in the study of convection currents. All the measurements are easy to take and a laboratory is not necessary. The experiment may be carried out in a single two hour lesson by groups of three or four students working in parallel on three different liquids. At the end of the lesson the students compare their results and come to conclusions on what they have observed through a group discussion guided by the teacher. At the end of the experiment there should be a discussion period where the students describe their results to the rest of the class. Apart from noticing the anomalous behaviour of water, which is of vital importance for the existence of life on earth, other points may be raised. In our example the measurements were taken for 45 minutes. The students read the time and the temperature each five minutes. Comparing the data from the different experiments on one graph one may observe that: Observations 1) The liquid has the same temperature throughout only if it is stirred or after thermal equilibrium has been reached. If the liquid is not in thermal equilibrium and is heating or cooling there will be zones inside it where the temperature is different. In water between 0 and 4°C the temperature decreases from bottom to top while above that temperature the opposite is true, as is the case for other liquids. 2) The behaviour of water is anomalous between 0°C and 4°C. Oil and alcohol are better thermometric liquids. In addition alcohol does not change state even at low temperatures and is therefore the most suitable of the three for use as a thermometric liquid. Furthermore water is not very sensitive to temperature changes, is thermical very inert and needs more time to reach environmental thermal equilibrium.


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Conclusions 1) There are always temperature gradients in a liquid as it heats or cools.

TbTt

A

B

2) Water is not a good thermometric liquid. Tt= top temperature, Tb= bottom temperature. A) Temperature changes in water above 4.0°C; B) Temperature changes in water between 0 and 4°C.

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II.16. Mixture or chemical reaction? (C-1) Matthias KREMER, Seminar Rottweil

a. Introduction Mixture or chemical reaction? This question has to be cleared in school very often. By the following experiments pupils can learn the difference by doing and observing it with all-day-materials. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

• The pupils know the destil-

• Pupils think: Every mixture

• In a chemical reaction a

lation as a method of

of at least two substances

new material has to be

separation of components:

can be separated by heat.

produced. A change of

Whiskey for example can be

separated

into

the

components water, ethanol and sugar by destillation.

difference between mixture and

chemical

reaction.

They say. "Water is a mix-

energy

belongs

to

a

chemical reaction, too. • Not in every case a mixture does really react.

ture of hydrogen and oxy-

• Pupils know a few about simple chemical reactions like the combustion. • Pupils

• Pupils often cannot see the

know

the

gen." • Pupils are convinced, if you mix

three

types of solution: sour,

two

materials,

a

chemical reaction will happen in every case.

neutral and alkaline.

b. Diagnostics No.1: Which answer is correct? a) Ironsulfuric is a mixture of iron and sulfur. b) Ironsulfuric consists of magnetic iron and yellow sulfur. c) Ironsulfuric consists of neither iron nor sulfur. No 2: Which answer is correct? a) Air is a compound of oxygen and nitrogen. b) The main components of air are oxygen and nitrogen. c) Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen.


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No 3: Which answer is correct? a) If gas bubbles arise, you can be sure that there is a chemical reaction. b) If gas bubbles arise, it is possible that there is a chemical reaction. c) If gas bubbles arise, a fluid is bowling.

c. Experiment Apparatus Pupils are given 4 materials, they probably know from there daily life. For example: 1. citric acid, 2. sugar, 3. sodium bicarbonate, 4. cement (short time to harden). Procedure 1: Produce 6 different mixtures out of two of the given components. (Picture 1) Observation 1: Nothing will happen. Procedure 2: Put water into all the glasses. (Picture 2) Observation 2: Changes can be observed only in 1 + 3: gets colder, produces gas and in 1 + 4: gets warmer. Conclusions: These are 2 chemical reactions: realized and proved by changing matter and energy. Results: In a chemical reaction a new material has to be produced. A change of energy belongs to a chemical reaction, too. Propose To observe the reaction 1 + 3 or any mixture else in a slower way in order to realize, that a new matter is arising, using water together with an indicator (for example: solution of cabbage) in a flat glass or a white plate and put in the two substances near the edge of the plate. Observation Where the substances are in contact, gas bubbles arise. (Picture 3) Conclusion A chemical reaction takes place. (If pupils say, the bubbles arise because the water is boiling, they have to remember, that the tube became colder after having added water to the mixture of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate.) References Idea for that type of experiments: Wobbe de Vos: Vernachlässigte Aspekte des Reaktionsbegriffs im Anfangsunterricht des Faches Chemie in Minssen, M et al.: Strukturbildende Prozesse bei chemischen Reaktionen und natürlichen Vorgängen, IPN Kiel.

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d. Some ideas and tools (to be used in the lessons) 1. Give the pupils "Brause-Pulver" (fizzy powder: picture 4): When they put it into their mouths, the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid starts. They can feel the gas bubbles on the tongue. Then they have to read the text on the wrapping (picture 5) Task: Explain what happens in your mouth, when you eat "Brausepulver" 2. Try to find out the different crystals in the powder: Which is/are necessary to produce gas? 3. Let start a "rocket": Effervescent tablet and water in a little film tin. Pupils have to explain, what happened. 4. Let combine in the same way (on the flat plate) materials, which react and those that don't react: Potassium thiocyanate and iron(III)-chloride and on the other side sodium chloride and sugar. Pupils have to decide: mixture or reaction?


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Picture 5

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II.17. “Dissolving” an effervescent tablet in water (C-2) Jens MÜHLHOFF, Seminar Rottweil

a. Introduction Pupils do frequently not differentiate between dissolving and chemical reaction. Initial materials disappear during the chemical reaction and final products appear. From view of many pupils the material „disappears" with the dissolving also. [4] The origin of the gas in the following experiment is often unclear. Pupils do not distinguish between gases, because they do not recognize that "dissolving" an effervescent tablet is a chemical reaction. [1]; so some describe the carbon dioxide in the experiment as air. [2] EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

•

Pupils know the states of •

Pupils do not realize that •

Pupils

aggregation

gases are material, gases

gases have a defined vol-

are frequently described as

ume, it displaces water

Pupils know the character-

"nothing" or as "vacuum";

istics of chemical reac-

according to this concep-

tions •

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

•

recognize

that

Carbon dioxide (gas) dissolves in water.

tion they have neither a

Pupils know, that an effer-

defined mass still another •

The solubility of carbon

vescent tablet in water

defined volume. [3]

dioxide in water is limited.

Some pupils think that only •

A solution, in which no

solid material can be dis-

further carbon dioxide can

solved.

take up, is saturated.

produces carbon dioxide

•

•

Boiled water is free from solved gases.

b. Experiment Giving an effervescent tablet in water, the tablet "dissolves" producing gas. The following experiment is part of a more exact investigation of this procedure. It shows that gases disolve in water. Apparatus •

Big basin of glass

•

Measuring cup (V=500ml)


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•

Effervescent tablets (m=90g)

•

Cold, boiled water (V~5L)

Procedures The basin of glass is filled with cold, boiled water. The measuring cup is dipped into the water. The bubbles freely filled cup is set up downward with the opening in the basin. An effervescent tablet is given under the opening of the measuring cup. Determine the gas volume at the end of the gas-production. The experiment is repeated with at least two further effervescent tablets. The water in the basin is not exchanged between the partial tests. Waste Disposal: Put all wastes into the drain. Observations 1. tablet

112ml gas

2. tablet

205ml gas

3. tablet

209ml gas

Conclusions In boiled water almost no gases are solved. The carbon dioxide developing with the reaction of the components of the effervescent tablet dissolves in the water. As soon as the solution is saturated, the carbon dioxide turns into the gaseous phase. With the first effervescent tablet approx. 100ml dissolves in the water, about 100ml change into the gaseous phase from the developing carbon dioxide. With the following attempts the water is saturated with carbon dioxide and the entire carbon dioxide formed with the reaction already changes into the gaseous phase. Results Carbon dioxide (gas) dissolves in water. The solubility of carbon dioxide in water is limited. A solution, in which no further carbon dioxide can take up, is saturated. Boiled water is free from solved gases.

References [1]

Vanessa Kind. Beyond Apperances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. www.chemsoc.org/pdf/LearnNet/rsc/miscon.pdf p. 33

[2] Vanessa Kind. Beyond Apperances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. www.chemsoc.org/pdf/LearnNet/rsc/miscon.pdf p. 33 [3] Vanessa Kind. Beyond Apperances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. www.chemsoc.org/pdf/LearnNet/rsc/miscon.pdf p. 7, 36

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[4] Vanessa Kind. Beyond Apperances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. www.chemsoc.org/pdf/LearnNet/rsc/miscon.pdf p. 24 The experimental idea is published: Die Loeslichkeit von Kohlendioxid in Wasser - ein

van der Veer,W.;de

verblueffendes Experiment

Rijke,P.

Chemkon 2 1994

83 84


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II.18. The oxidization of iron (C-3) Mario BRANCA, University of Sassari

a. Introduction Aristotle said that the air was one of the four basic elements, along with water earth and fire. Everything that was found in a gaseous form was "air" and was considered to be the same element. Only at the end of the 18th century was it established that the gaseous state is a physical state, and not a specific chemical element, and that air was composed of different gases. Air is basically nitrogen (c. 79%) and oxygen (c. 20%), with traces of other gases such as noble gases, carbon dioxide, etc. Different chemical substances react differently, irrespective of their physical state. The two principal gases in the atmosphere react differently to iron. Oxygen forms ferrous oxide, while nitrogen does not react with iron. This behaviour can be used to obtain nitrogen without oxygen ( as was done until the end of the 18th century) by trapping the air in a closed container which contained iron filings. A gas is identified from its chemical behaviour, as are all other chemical substances. If two substances behave chemically in the same way then they are the same substance. For example the noble gases were only discovered at the end of the 19th century because they are largely inert, only react with great difficulty, and thus do not make one aware of their presence. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

•

To be able to take meas- •

In the atmosphere there is •

What is the atmosphere

urements

only a single gas named

composition

•

•

Calculation a percent

•

Understand

the

term

•

A gas has no weight.

•

The iron nail becomes a fewer wight by rusting

Know the existence of the atmosphere

•

To possess the concepts

Oxygen is "added" when rust forms

of pressure, volume and •

If a piece of iron rusts

temperature.

completely the final mass

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•

All the gases act in the same way.

chemical reaction

•

air

To be able to collect data in a chart

•

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

How much oxygen is in the air

•

Oxidation

•

Reduction

•

Rusting is a redox reaction

•

Understand the different reactivity of the air components

•

Behaviour of the gaseous


•

To known the Pascal prin-

will be the same. (they

ciple and to understand

confuse the hardness of

the effects of the atmos-

the metal with its mass)

pheric pressure.

•

mixture •

The role of the catalyst

Water is added when rust forms.

b. Experiment It is well known that if iron is left in air it “rusts". Rust is the result of the oxidization of iron. When the iron oxidizes it reacts with the oxygen present in the air to form ferrous oxide. If we place iron filings or steel wool in a closed chamber full of air, then the iron reacts with the oxygen and removes all the oxygen from the air. The gas which remains we call Nitrogen. This gas does not react with iron and does not support fire or life. With 2nd year high school students a double experiment could be conducted (two pipettes, etc.). In this case some drops of vinegar should be added to one solution show how an acid acts as a “catalyst” in iron oxidization. Here the experiment will take little more than three hours but the difference when a catalyst is used can be seen from the very beginning of the experiment. Apparatus •

Two10 ml graduated pipettes, possibly made of plastic

•

Or two transparent plastic pipe 30 cm long, diameter 0,5-1,5 cm.

•

Chronometer

•

A steel wool pad such as that used in the kitchen

•

A thin rod to push the pad into the pipette

•

A glass beaker with a little water

•

Some drops of liquid wax

•

Worksheets

•

Acetone

Procedures a. Wash the steel wool with acetone to remove the protective coating that prevents rusting. b. Dry it with a paper towel. c. Wet the steel wool with water and push it towards the tip of the pipette. d. Invert the pipette and place it in the beaker with the water and mark on the scale of the pipette e. The starting level of the water (do it so that it is near to the zero on the scale); Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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f.

Seal the tip of the pipette with some drops of wax.

g. Record in the time the level of the water. h. Starting from point D to F repeat the procedure with the second pipette without the steel wool. The rising level of the water in the pipette with steel wool can be observed within one or two hours. The level of the water in the pipette without steel wool doesn't change. Next morning the level of the water will be stable and the new level should be noted and from this you can calculate the percentage reduction, as a proportion of the gas inside the pipette: The students make observations of the immediate rise of the level of the liquid and at the end of the experiment (at least five hours later). If the final observations cannot be made on the same day then they can be left until the next day, as stable state will have been reached. When the final data is collected the apparatus is dismantled and, either at the same time or in a later lesson, the calculations are made, the conclusions reached and the final test carried out. The reaction starts immediately so great care must be taken from the beginning of the experiment. Observations The students should be shown the change in colour of the steel wool, which becomes orangebrown (the typical colour of “rusty” material). They should observe the decrease of volume of the gas only in presence of steel wool. Results and conclusions With 2nd year high school students the chemical reaction of oxide–reduction which the experiment demonstrates can be pointed out: 4 Fe + 3 O2 + x H2O→ 2 Fe2O3·xH2O x = 6 sometime With 2nd year high school students the additional experiment shows how an acid acts as a “catalyst” in iron oxidization. Here the iron oxidizes, passing from oxidization state 0 to oxidization state +III and the oxygen is reduced, passing from oxidization state 0 to oxidization state –II. The percentage of absorbed gas should be near 20 % of the trapped volume, in the case of a completed reaction. In our experiments we obtained lower values of around 18 – 19%. These were however good enough to validate the experiment. Questions • Why does the water level change in presence of steel wool? • The volume diminution is related to the pipette diameter? Variations

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A second group may filled the pipettes with air breathed and the results are compared. If a cylinder of oxygen is available, the pipette is filled with pure oxygen and the results are compared. If a cylinder of nitrogen is available the pipette is filled with pure nitrogen and the results are compared. Safety Acetone is toxic. Manipulate in a hood!

References http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_ideas/Weather_p004.shtml?from=Home


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II.19. Chemical reactivity of metals (C-4) Daniela VASILESCU, Chemistry teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti – ROMANIA; Rodica STANESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti –ROMANIA

a. Introduction Most metals are chemically unstable, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over varying timescales (for example iron rusts over years and potassium burns in seconds). The alkali metals react quickest followed by the alkaline earth metals, found in the leftmost two groups of the periodic table. The transition metals take much longer to oxidise (such as iron, copper, zinc, nickel). Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, some steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are basic (as opposed to those of nonmetals, which are acidic), although this may be considered a rule of thumb, rather than an absolute condition. EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES

MISCONCEPTIONS

OBJECTIVES

• Metals, ions, chemical re- • “Copper refers to the iron • To observe a simple chemiaction, salt

wire”

cal reaction

• Know the differences be- • The elements are trans- • Redox reaction tween element compound mixture.

muted from one to another • The iron dissolves (as in

• Known the change of state

the change of state)

• Understand

chemical • Coppers solidify (as in the

changes

change of state)

• Introduction to the standard reduction potential scale. • Chemical reactivity • To know. in fact, copper replaces the iron (the mass of iron decreases, the Fe2+ ions pass in solution)

b. Experiment Introduction The metals have similar chemical properties, due to their capacity to lose electrons and to form positive ions: •

The metals can react with non-metals, with water (H2O), with acids, and with some salts.

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•

Not all metals show the same chemical reactivity. Some are more reactive, transfer easily valence electrons (sodium Na, potassium K), others are less reactive (silver Ag, platinum Pt, gold Au).

To emphasize the metal reactivity and the order in witch they arrange, in the chemical reactivity series, there are some simple experiments. Apparatus •

Berzelius glass;

•

copper sulphate solution (CuSO4. 5 H2O) c=0,16mol.l-1;

•

a short wire, a nail or a pin of iron (Fe).

Procedures One put the iron wire in a concentrated solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4. 5 H2O). * What happens after one minute? * What happens after 10 minute? * What happens after one hour? Explain the chemical phenomena that happen. Observations Initially, one can see no change. After 10 minutes, on the wire appear some copper-colored spots. After 60 minutes, a “great” amount of Copper refers to the wire (very fine particles of Copper are even on the bottom of the glass), and the copper sulphate solution changes its color from blue to green. Conclusions A slow reaction takes place, and the few copper-colored spots are Copper metallic. The color of the final solution is based to the color of iron sulphate (FeSO4). The iron displaces copper from the salt. The reaction is also an example of reduction oxidation reaction. There is a direct transfer of electrons from iron metal to copper ions. Copper ions gain electrons and are reduced to metal and therefore iron atoms lose electrons and are oxidized to iron ion (water soluble) Results Iron (Fe) is a more reactive metal than Copper (Cu), and can replace it in chemical combinations. Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)


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VARIATIONS a second group may use instead of copper sulphate a magnesium sulphate solution. The iron is "less" reactive than magnesium and there will be no reaction.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mettals http://www.laserprofessor.com http://chemistry.about.com/cs/demonstrations/a/aa022204a.htm http://www.suite101.com/welcome.cfm/kids_chemistry http://dmoz.org/Kids_and_Teens/School_Time/Science/Chemistry/Elements/ http://www.hometrainingtools.com/articles/metals-101-science-explorations-newsletter.html http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/explore/chemistryclass.htm http://hogan.chem.lsu.edu/matter/chap27/demos/dm27_011.mov

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II.20. Physiological action of some metals (C-5) Daniela VASILESCU, Chemistry teacher, (School Group of Light Industry) Pitesti –ROMANIA; Rodica STANESCU, Physics teacher, (School Group of Light Industry), Pitesti –ROMANIA

a. Introduction Among all known chemical elements, 52 are found in composition of living mater. 11 elements represent 99.99% from atoms in human body (H, C, N, O, Na, Mg, P, S, Cl, K, Ca). One distinguishes the presence of 4 metals: potassium K, magnesium Mg, sodium Na and calcium Ca. Calcium represents 1.65% from the mass of human body. It is in the skeleton (as calcium phosphate), tendons, muscles, nerves. Its fixation needs the vitamins D2 and C, phosphorus, magnesium, flour, copper. It is found in milk, cheese, cereals, carrots, spinach, celery etc. The presence of the Ca2+ ions in blood regulates the function of the heart. The lack of calcium in the human body produces rickets. The sodium and potassium alkalinises the blood. The potassium is a muscular tonic, preventing the fatigue of the muscles. It is found in wheat, rice, grapes, cabbage, beans, leek, onion, olives oil, pears, potatoes, bananas, etc. The excess of Na+ produces cardiovascular and renal illness. The K+ ion has a role in heart function. One can not imagine the biochemical reactions in absence of some ions of heavy metals, respectively, of transitional metals. These are found in animal bodies in very little amounts. They are named essential microelements: Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Co, Cr, Fe, V. The concentration modification of some microelement, as a result of the interaction of many factors (alimentation, environment, etc.), may represent the cause or the effect of some diseases. It was observed the increase of the Cu2+ concentration and the decrease of Zn2+ concentration in case of heart infarcts, atherosclerosis, hypertension, hepatic cirrhosis, leukaemia etc. The copper plays a role in the calcium and iron fixation, in goitres secretion; it has also an immunity role. The heavy metals derive from the industry and automotive traffic, from the metallic packages used to keep food (Al, steel), from vessel used to prepare the food (Al, Cu), and from led pipes used to transport the potable water.


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EXPERIMENT

PREREQUISITES •

Inorganic

and

organic •

matter •

OBJECTIVES

MISCONCEPTIONS

Precipitate

•

Transition metals

•

Ions

•

Insoluble substances

•

Some metals, like steel, •

To know the physiological

are indestructible

importance of the transi-

Albumin

coagulates

tion metals' ions (Cu2+,

in

Cr3+, Fe3+) for the human

contact with salt. •

Albumin

forms

body. a

com-

pound (a precipitate) that

•

To know an efficient and easy to administrate anti-

contents also the transition

dote in case of accidents

metal’s salt

with salt solutions of the transition metals. •

To demonstrate that some heavy

metals

can

be

“blocked” in a harmless combination by forming a precipitate.

b. Experiment Introduction A cheap antidote and easy to find in case of some poisons with heavy metals is the albumin from the white of the egg. We can demonstrate this fact by a simple experiment. Apparatus •

Berzelius glass;

•

Copper sulphate solution (CuSO4.5 H2O); c=0,16 mol.l-1

•

White of the egg.

Procedures Albumin is an organic substance, principal component of the white of the egg. Pour the white of the egg in a Berzelius glass.

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Pour on it copper sulphate solution. Try to dissolve the precipitate in a great amount of water. Observations The albumin precipitates. The precipitation is not soluble. Conclusions The albumin coagulates in presence of heavy metals salts. Results That property makes that albumin be used as an antidote in case of poisoning with that kind of salts. The person poisoned eats an egg. The albumin coagulates in contact with the salt and do not permits the poisoning action no longer. References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://paul.brandt.faculty.noctrl.edu/teaching/CHM205/lab/6_complexation.pdf http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aatp103101.htm http://www.crscientific.com/article-redox3.html http://www.laserprofessor.com http://www.anachem.umu.se/eks/pointers.htm


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III. Glossary of specific scientific vocabulary

Authors: Lidia BORGHI Mario BRANCA Georgeta CHIRLESAN Matthias KREMER Piedad MARTÍN María del Carmen PEREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL Lina SIERRA


ENGLISH

Acid

Action/reaction

adiabatic system

Definition

Area

ITALIAN

GERMAN

ROMANIAN

Its solution can be harmful, its taste is sour. Following Arrhenius definition it is a substance that in water releases hydrogen Ácido ions. Following Brønsted definition is particles are able to donate hydrogen ions to a base.

Acido

Säure

Acid

Two forces of equal magnitude and of opposite direction acting on two interacting bodies

Acción/reacció n

Azione/reazione

Actio/Reactio

Acţiune/reac ţiune

A system is adiabatic when it can not exchange heat with its environment

Sistema adiabático

Sistema adiabatico

Adiabatisches Sytem

Sistem adiabatic

Estructura del aire

Composizione dell'aria

Zusammensetzung der Luft

Compozitia aerului

Pupils’ conceptions about natural phenomena which are different from those accepted by the scientific community.

Ideas alternativas

Preconcezioni

Präkonzepte, Schülervorstellungen

Idei alternative

Extension of a surface: its measure is 2 expressed in m (square metres)

Área

Area

Fläche

Arie (suprafata)

Presión atmosférica

Pressione atmosferica

Luftdruck

Presiune atomosferica

Air composi- Air is a mixture of gases (the most abuntion dant are nitrogen and oxygen).

Alternative ideas

SPANISH

The pressure of air in the atmosphere. Its Atmospheric value is equal, in each point, to the ratio of pressure the weight of a column of air and the area of its base.

Balance

Condition of a system in which changes are not observed, quantities of the same nature (for example forces) are in equilibrium

Equilibrio.

Equilibrio

Gleichgewicht

Echilibru

Base

Its solution can be harmful, its taste is bitter. Following Arrhenius definition it is a substance that in water releases hydroxid ions. Following Brønsted definition its particles are able to accept hydrogen ions from an acid.

Base

Base

Base

Baza

Black lead

Graphite; stick of graphite used in a pencil

Grafito

Mina

Bleistiftmine

Grafit, mina

Boiling

The process that takes place when a liquid becomes vapour everywhere in its volume.

Ebullición

Ebollizione

Sieden

Fierbere

Cabbage

Cultivated plant with a round head of reddish-purple leaves; this head is the sprout

Berza/col

Cavolo

Blaukraut

Varza

Carbon dioxid

A gas composed by Carbon and Oxygen (formula: CO2). It arises by burning coal and organic materials and it is also produced by respiration.

Dióxido carbónico

Biossido di Carbonio (o anidride carbonica)

Kohlenstoffdioxid

Dioxid de carbon


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ENGLISH

elsius scale

Definition

SPANISH

Temperature scale. The Celsius scale sets 100 units (°C) as the difference between the temperature of boiling of water (100 °C) and the temperature of melting ice (O °C) Escala Celsius , when the pressure is 1 atmosphere. The relation between the temperature in Celsius degrees and in Kelvin degrees is: T (°C) = T (K) – 273,15.

Grey powder which, after being wetted, Cement (fast becomes hard quickly. It is used for buildhardening) ing and it contains calcium oxide.

Cemento rápido

ITALIAN

Scala Celsius

GERMAN

CelsiusTemperaturskala

ROMANIAN

Scara Celsius de temperatura

Cemento a Blitzzement presa rapida

Ciment cu intarire rapida

Change of state

the processes of change of state of aggregation of a substance ( without a change of Cambio de the constitution of molecules). For example estado melting and solidification, evaporation and condensation, sublimation...

AggregatCambiamenzustandsüto di stato bergänge

Schimbarea starii (de agregare)

Chemical reactions

A process with a change of the constitution (or the charge) of molecules, atoms or Reacción química ions: for example, elements combine to compounds

Reazione chimica

Chemische Reaktion

Reactii chimice

Citric acid

Acid from fruits such as lemons and limes

Ácido cítrico

Acido citrico

ZitronensäuAcid citric re

Cognitive conflict

Situation of a pupil when she/he finds an incompatibility between her/his own ideas or knowledge about natural phenomena and the results of an experience or experiment.

Conflicto cognitivo

Conflitto cognitivo

Kognitiver Konflikt

Composición de la materia

Struttura Aufbau der della materia Materie

Compozitia materiei

Composto

Verbindung

Compus

Composition Matter is composed by atoms, molecules of matter and ions

Compound

A substance that can be produced by chemical reactions out of at least two different elements. The molecules/Ions of a Compuesto compound are built by at least two different atoms.

Conflict cognitiv

Compressibi- It is the fractional change in volume of a lity material per unit of pressure.

Compresibilidad

Compressibilità

Kompressibilität

Compresibilitate

The process of reducing the volume of a Compression body or a fluid when increasing pressure upon it.

Compresión

Compressione

Komprimierung

Compresie

Continuous model of matter

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Scientific model that describes matter with its parts connected without interruption. It is Modelo a model useful in explaining some phecontinuo nomena, for example, the fluid dynamics.

Modello Konticontinuo nuumshydella materia pothese

Modelul continuu al materiei


ENGLISH

Definition

Cross-study

Research study comparing at the same time the behaviour of students of different regions (or countries), ages and academic levels

Density

The ratio between mass and volume of a body or of a sample of a given material or substance. The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. That is, a substance of mass m and volume V has a density ρ given by ρ≡m/V

ITALIAN

GERMAN

Estudio transversal

Studio comparativo

Kreuzstudie

Studiu transversal

Densidad

Densità o massa specifica

Dichte

Densitate

A straight line passing through the centre of a circle (or of a sphere), terminated by Diámetro the circumference (or by the spherical surface). It divides the circle into two equal parts

Diametro

Durchmesser

Diametru

A process producing a solution

Disolución

Passare in soluzione

Auflösen

Dizolvare

Effervescent tablet

A pill which gives off bubbles of gas, when put into water

Compressa Tableta Brausetaeffervescenefervescente blette te

Electrolysis

Separation of a substance into its chemical Electrólisis components by means of electric current

Elettrolisi

Elektrolyse

Electroliza

Energy

It is defined as" the capacity to do work". The energy can not be created or destroyed. The total amount of energy remains unchanged in the universe. In the system of measure SI the unit is joule (symbol: J).

Energía

Energia

Energie

Energie

Energy conservation

In an isolated system the total amount of energy has a constant value

Conservación de la energía

Conservazione dell'energia

Energieerhaltung

Conservarea energiei (mecanice)

Uguagliare

Ausgleichen

Egaliza

Diameter

Dissolving

Equalize

SPANISH

To make equal something to someting else Equiparar until the same level is reached

ROMANIAN

Tableta efervescenta

Equilibrium temperature

Common temperature reached by two or more objects, initially at different temperatures, when they are put in contact.

Temperatura Temperatura Temperatude equilibrio di equilibrio rausgleich

Evaporation

It is the change of state from liquid to gas

Evaporación

Evaporazione

Verdampfen

Evaporare

Exchange of thermal energy

Passage of kinetic energy from one object to another at different temperatures when they are put in contact (temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles). The energy so exchanged is named "heat".

Intercambio de energía térmica

Scambio di energia termica

Ausgleich thermischer Energie

Schimb de energie termica

Expansion

The process of increasing the volume of a gaseous body.

Expansión

Espansione

Ausdehnung Expansiune

Fluid

Any liquid or gaseous substance or material.

Fluido

Fluido

Flüchtiger Stoff

Temperatura de echilibru

Fluid


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ENGLISH

Definition

SPANISH

ITALIAN

GERMAN

ROMANIAN

Foam

Heterogeneous mixture of gas and liquid composed by small gas bubbles

Espuma

Schiuma

Schaum

Spuma

Force

Physical quantity that measures the interaction between bodies. In the SI the unit is Newton (symbol: N)

Fuerza

Forza

Kraft

Forţă

Forces of adhesion

Forces at the surfaces of two bodies. They keep molecules/ions of different types sticking together.

Fuerzas de adhesión

Forze di adesione

Adhäsionskräfte

Forte de adeziune

Forces of intermolecular attraction

Attractive forces which bond a molecule to the nearby ones at a distance lower than the molecular attractive radius (a quantity in the range of a few molecular diameters).

Fuerzas de atracción intermolecular

Forze di attrazione intermolecolare

Zwischenmolekulare Wechselwirkungen

Forte de atractie intermoleculara

Freezing

It is the change of state from liquid to solid: it is the opposite of melting

Congelación

Congelamento

Erstarren

Inghetare

Tube or pipe that is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, used for pouring liquids or powders into a small opening.

Embudo

Imbuto

Trichter

Pilnie

Energy transferred from one body to another at contact by virtue of a difference of temperature. A body does not possess heat. In the SI of measure the unit is joule. Heat flow is an energy transfer that takes place as a consequence of temperature difference only.

Calor

Calore

Thermische Energie (Wärme)

Caldura

Capacidad calorífica

Capacità termica

Wärmekapazität

Capacitate calorica

Hermetic

Hermético Tightly closed so that gases cannot escape (adjetivo); or enter. Hermetically (adv.): a container Herméticahermetically sealed does not permit that mente (adgases can escape or enter into it. verbio)

Ermetico (aggettivo); ermeticamente (avverbio)

Gasdicht

Ermetic

Homogeneous

When a body or mixture is formed by a single-phase system (as opposed to a heterogeneous system)

Distribución homogénea

Distribuzione omogenea

Homogen

Omogen

Ratio of water concentration in air to water concentration at saturation.

Humedad (del aire)

Umidità

(Luft)feuchti gkeit

Umiditate (a aerului)

Hydraulic brakes

A device that actives brakes by using pressure in a liquid

Frenos hidráulicos

Freni idrauli- hydraulische Frane ci Bremsen hidraulice

Hydraulic press

A device that achieves a favorable mechanical advantage by using different areas of piston at each end of a column of fluid.

Prensa hidráulica

Pressa idraulica

Funnel

Heat

The amount of energy that a body has to exchange so that its temperature changes of one degree. In the SI of measure the Heat capacity heat capacity of a body is the product of its specific heat capacity by its mass in kilograms; the unit is J/K.

Humidity (of air)

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hydrostatischer Druck

Presa hidraulica


ENGLISH

Definition

Hydrogen

The element with a symbol H. Naturally occurs as dihydrogen (symbol: H2), it is the gas with the lowest density. It may explode when mixed with oxygen.

Hyperbola

SPANISH

GERMAN

ROMANIAN

Idrogeno

Wasserstoff

Hidrogen

Path traced by a point that moves such that the distances difference from two fixed Hipérbole points (focus) is constant.

Iperbole

Hyperbel

Hiperbola

Hypothesis

Idea or suggestion that is based on known facts and is used as a basis for reasoning or further investigation. In science it must be corroborated or falsificated.

Hipótesis

Ipotesi

Hypothese

Ipoteza

Immaterial

Without substance.

Inmaterial

Immateriale

Immateriell

Imaterial

Incompresible

Incomprimibile

Nicht komprimierbar

Incompresibil

Material aislante

Materiale isolante

Isolierender Stoff

Material izolator

Incompressi- That cannot be reduced in volume when ble compressed Substance or material that prevents the flow of electric current and/or transmission of heat.

Insulating material

Hidrógeno

ITALIAN

Inverse proportion

The variable y is inversely proportional to the variable x if there exists a non-zero constant k such that y=k/x. Basically, the concept of inverse proportion means that as the value of one variable gets higher, Proporción inversa the value of another gets lower, such that their product is always the same (the constant of proportionality k). The graph of two variables varying inversely on the Cartesian coordinate plane is a hyperbola.

Proporziona- Umgekehrt lità inversa proportional

Proportie inversa (inversa proportionalitate)

Iron sulphide

Compound of iron and sulphur; formula FeS

Sulfuro de hierro

Solfuro di ferro

Eisensulfid

Sulfura de fier

Isolated system

A system that can not exchange energy and matter with its environment

Sistema aislado

Sistema isolato

Isoliertes System

Sistem izolat

Joule

The joule (symbol: J) is the SI unit of energy. The joule is a derived unit defined as the work done by a force of one Newton which displaces its application point of 1 metre along its direction.

Julio

Joule

Joule

Joule

Kelvin scale

Temperature scale. The Kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature. Temperature expressed in Kelvin is named absolute temperature The relation between the temperature in Kelvin degree (T(K)) and Celsius degree T(°C)) is T(K)=T(°C) + 273,15.

Escala Kelvin

Absolute Scara Kelvin Temperade temperaScala Kelvin turskala tura (Kelvinskala)

The energy a body has because it is in motion. The kinetic energy of a particle of Kinetic enermass m moving with a speed v (where v is gy small compared with the speed of light) is defined as K≡1/2mv²

Energía cinética

Energia cinetica

kinetische Energie

Energie cinetica

A model that describes the matter as comKinetic mole- posed by molecules in continuous microcular model scopic movement: molecules collide and exchange kinetic energy.

Modelo cinético molecular.

Modello cinetico molecolare

Kinetische Gastheorie

Modelul molecular cinetic


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ENGLISH Liquid free surface

Definition The layer of molecules at the surface of a liquid

SPANISH Superficie libre

Lustre termi- Device used to connect two ends of electric Filamento nal wires (for example, in a lamp)

ITALIAN

GERMAN

ROMANIAN

Superficie libera

Oberfläche

Suprafaţa liberă a lichidului

Morsetto

Lüsterklemme

Filament

Visible to the naked eye, as opposed to microscopic

Macroscópico

Macroscopico

Makroskopisch

Macroscopic

Mass

Property of a body that can be measured by the ratio between an applied force and the acceleration produced. Its SI unit is kg.

Masa

Massa

Masse

Masa

Matter

It is what constitutes all objects

Materia

Materia

Materie

Materie

Melting

Change of state from the solid state to the liquid one.

Fusión

Fusione

Schmelzen

Topire

Method

Way of doing something

Método

Metodo

Methode

Metoda

Miscibility

Property of two or more substances forming a mixture

Miscibilidad

Miscibilità

Mischbarkeit Miscibilitate (Löslichkeit)

Miscible

That can be mixed with another substance

Miscible

Miscibile

mischbar (ineinander löslich)

Macroscopic

Ineinander Líquidos Liquidi lösliche miscibles / miscibilii/non Flüssigkeino miscibles miscibili ten

Lichide miscibile / nemiscibile

An idea not coherent with the scientific interpretation

Errores conceptuales

Misconcetto

Fehlvorstellung

Misconceptie (conceptie gresita)

Combination of two or more substances which do not react with each other. Mixtures do not have a fixed composition.

Mezcla

Miscela

Gemisch; Mischung

Amestec

Slightly or moderately wet

Mezcla

Umido

feucht

Jilav (umed)

A product (for example, a cream) used to moisturize the skin

Crema hidratante

Crema idratante

Feuchtigkeitscreme

Hidratant

Molecola

Molekül

Molecula

Miscible / Liquids which mix each other/don’t mix non-miscible each other liquids

Misconception

Mixture

Moist

Moisturiser

Molecule

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Miscibil

Smallest unit - usually consisting of a group of atoms - into which substances can be Molécula divided without a change in their composition.


ENGLISH

Definition

SPANISH

It is defined as m v where m is the mass of the body and v is its velocity. The momentum p of a particle is the product of the mass m and the velocity v : p≡mv. MoMomento mentum is a vector quanty that is in the direction of v and has dimensions of kg·m/s in SI units.

Momentum

ITALIAN

GERMAN

Quantità di moto

Impuls

ROMANIAN

Impuls

Momentum In a isolated system the momentum does conservation not change.

Conservación del momento

Conservazione della quantità di moto

Conservarea Impulserhalimpulsului tung mecanic

Nitrogen

The element with the symbol N. Naturally occurs as dinitrogen (symbol: N2), it is the gas of our atmosphere with the greatest (about 80%) amount of volume.

Nitrógeno

Azoto

Stickstoff

Normal boiling point

The boiling temperature in the case of an external pressure of 1 atm

Punto de ebullición

Punto di ebollizione

Siedetempe- Punct de ratur fierbere

Normal solidification point

The solidification temperature in the case of an external pressure of 1 atm (it is the same as the normal melting temperature)

Punto di Punto de congelasolidificación mento

Gefriertemperatur

Punct de solidificare

Open system

A system that can exchange energy and matter with its environment

Sistema abierto

Sistema aperto

offenes System

Sistem deschis

Order of magnitude

An approximation to a value expressed to the nearest power of 10.

Orden de magnitud

Ordine di grandezza

Größenordnung

Ordin de marime

Oxygen

The element with the symbol O. Naturally occurs as dioxygen (symbol: O2), it is the gas of our atmosphere with the second greatest (about 20%) amount of volume. A gas produced by photosynthesis, that carries on burning and it is necessary for the respiration of most living organisms.

Oxígeno

Ossigeno

Sauerstoff

Oxigen

Particle

In the chemistry experiments proposed in this Project the term "particle" refers to atoms, ions and molecules.

Partícula

Particella

Teilchen

Particula

Particle model

A theory, that considers matter to be built by particles

Modelo de partículas

Modello particellare

Teilchenmo- Modelul dell particula

Physical quantity

It is a quantity that can be measured (e.g. mass, volume, etc.)

Cantidad física

Quantità fisica

physikalische Größe

Marime fizica

A process without a change of the constituTransformation of particles: for example change of ción física state, expansion of a gas…

Trasformazione

physikalischer Vorgang

Transformare fizica

Piston

A solid cylinder that fits closely inside another cylinder (or tube) and can move inside it.

Pistón

Pistone

Kolben

Piston

Plasticine

Substance similar to clay but which does not harden like clay, used for modelling, especially by children

Plastilina

Plastilina

Plastillin

Plastilina

Physical transformation

Azot


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ENGLISH

Definition

ITALIAN

GERMAN

Prerequisiti

Voraussetzungen, benötigtes Vorwissen

Cerinte intiale

Pressure

It is defined as the ratio between the magnitude of the net force, acting normally on a surface, and the area of the surface. In the Presión 2 SI the unit is Pascal (symbol: Pa = 1 N/m ). 1 atm is equal to 1.01 x 105 Pa

Pressione

Druck

Presiune

Principle

A proposition or scientific law shown in the way a natural phenomenon or a thing works.

Principio

Principio

Prinzip

Principiu

Process

A change in a physical state or a chemical modification.

Proceso

Processo

Prozess

Process

Recoil (return)

A backward motion of a body that interacts with another one, which moves into a certain direction considered as "forward” direction.

Retorno

Rinculo

TeilchenmoRecul dell

What students or pupils should know bePrerequisites fore they start a new topic

Room tempe- A temperature from 293 to 298 K. i.e. 20 to rature 25 °C

SPANISH Prerrequisitos

ROMANIAN

Temperatura Temperatura Raumtemambiente ambiente peratur

Temperatura camerei

Saturated

A solution that is unable to take any more of the soluted stuff

Saturada

Saturo

gesättigt

Saturat(a)

Sealed up

Closed tightly so that gases or fluids can not enter or escape

Sellado

Sigillato

abgedichtet

Sigilat

The International System of Units.

Sistema Sistema Internaziointernacional nale

Sistemul InternationaInternational les Einheial Unitatilor tensystem de Masura

Silicone

Any of a large class of polymeric synthetic materials that usually have resistance to water, and chemicals, and good insulating properties, making them suitable for wide use

Silicona

Silicone

Silikon

Silicon

Soap

Substance used for washing and cleaning

Jabón

Sapone

Seife

Sapun

A compound. Formula: NaHCO3

Bicarbonato sódico

Bicarbonato di sodio

Natriumhydrogencarbonat = Natron

Bicarbonat de sodiu

It is the change of state from liquid to solid: it is the opposite of melting

Solidificación

Solidificazione

Erstarren

Solidificare

Homogeneous mixture (solid, liquid or gaseous) of two or more substances.

Solución

Soluzione

Lösung

Solutie

Calor específico (de una sustancia)

Calore specifico (di una sostanza)

Spezifische Wärme

Caldura specifica (a unei substante)

SI

Sodium bicarbonate

Solidification

Solution

The amount of energy required to modify Specific heat the temperature of one kilogram of the (of a subsubstance by one Kelvin. The SI unit is stance) J/(kg K) Sphere

Regular geometrical shape: the points of its Esfera surface are equidistant from a central point

Sfera

Kugel

Sfera

Stable

Tending to stay in the same state, resisting change in chemical composition, position Estable or form.

Stabile

beständig, stabil

Stabil(a)

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ENGLISH

SPANISH

ITALIAN

There are three basic states of aggregation: gaseous, liquid, solid

Estados de agregación

Stato di aggregatione

Aggregatzustände

Stari de agregare

Gaseous water

Vapor

Vapore

Wasserdampf

Vapori (aburi)

Substance

A material constituted by the same type of molecules. It possesses well defined chemical and physical properties.

Sustancia

Sostanza

Reinstoff

Substanta

Superficial tension

The force which is acting tangent to a liquid Tensión surface and tends to decrease the area of superficial that surface

Tensione superficiale

Oberflächenspannung

Tensiune superficiala

It is the boundary between the interior and the exterior of the body

Superficie

Superficie di Oberfläche un corpo

Sweaty

Wet of sweat

Transpiración

Sudato

schweißnass

Transpirat

System

It s a part of the universe closed by a boundary. The system is classified as open (if it can exchange energy and matter), Sistema closed (if it can exchange only energy), and isolated (if it can not exchange energy and matter).

Sistema

System

Sistem

States of aggregation Steam

Surface of a body

Definition

GERMAN

The temperature is the physical quantity measured by a thermometer. When two bodies, initially at different temperatures, are put in contact always it is observed that the temperature of the hottest body diminishes and that of the coldest body inTemperature creases until they reach the same tempera- Temperatura Temperatura Temperatur ture. In this process energy flows from the hottest system to the coldest one. From the microscopic point of view temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules. In the SI the unit is Kelvin degree (symbol:K)

ROMANIAN

Suprafata unui corp

Temperatură

Test tube

A glass (or plastic) tube frequently used by chemists

Tubo de ensayo

Provetta

Reagenzglas

Eprubeta

Thermal equilibrium

Situation in which energy does not move from one object to another in contact. This happens when they are at the same temperature

Equilibrio térmico

Equilibrio termico

thermisches Gleichgewicht

Echilibru termic

Transpiration

Transpiratie (la o planta)

Non equilibrato

im Ungleichgewicht

Dezechilibrat(a)

The process by which water absorbed by TranspiraTraspirazioTranspiration plants through the roots, evaporates into ción (en una ne (in una (in a plant) the atmosphere principally from the leaves. planta) pianta) Unbalanced

Lacking balance

Desequilibrado

Vacuum

Space that is empty of matter; for example, space in a container from which the air has Vacío been pumped out.

Vuoto

Vakuum

Vid

Vapour

A substance in the gaseous state as distinVapor guished from the liquid and solid state

Vapore

Dampf

Vapori (aburi)


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ENGLISH

Volume

Watertightness

Weight

Work

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Definition

SPANISH

ITALIAN

GERMAN

ROMANIAN

A quantity that measures the extent of a three-dimensional space; the volume of a body is the space that it occupies.

Volumen

Volume

Property to be watertight, so tight as to retain or not admit water

Estanqueidad

Impermeabi- WasserdichImpermeabil le tigkeit

The force on a body due to gravity (usually the gravitational field of the earth), equal in magnitude to its mass multiplied by the gravitational field strength in the point where it is.

Peso

Peso

Gewicht

Greutate

Lavoro

Arbeit

Lucru mecanic

Quantity defined as product of a force and the displacement of its application of point Trabajo in the direction of the force. In SI the unit is joule

Volumen

Volum

IV. Essential common topics and misconceptions in science


Authors: Lidia BORGHI María del Carmen PEREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL Matthias KREMER


IV.1. Selection of essential common topics in Science IV.1.1. Selection At the beginning of the project we decided to collect in tables the common science topics, which the future teachers study in the institutions of all partners. Soon we became aware that the common topics dealt with in the initial training of teachers reported in the tables are very similar and it seemed reasonable that in all institutions represented in CON-SCIENCE the situation be almost the same. On the other side this simple collection of topics does not make clear in which way the topics are presented to the students. Even if the conditions of work in our institutions depend in a large measure on local factors, everywhere our student teachers are guided to pay attention to pupils’ conceptions in planning their action in the classroom. We considered not useful to concentrate the attention on the possible existing differences because a wide cohesion on fundamentals has been reached by the partners, thanks to the work carried out first in the meeting held in Madrid and then in Rottweil. The cohesion is documented by the agreement on the choice of topics made in Rottweil and in the method of work we designed on the topics we selected: • Particles • Heat and Temperature • Water and its properties • Chemical reactions

IV.1.2. Reasons for our selection of essential topics a. Particles (P) Let me now report here what Richard P. Feynman affirms in his book “From six easy Pieces”3: “If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations of creatures, what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is the atomic hypothesis (or the atomic fact, or whatever you wish to call it) that all things are made of atoms - little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another). In that one sentence, you will see, there is an enormous amount of information about the world, if just a little imagination and thinking are applied.” b. Heat and temperature (H) Basic problems we tackled with in preparing a proposal of work in the classroom are:

3

Perseus Books Group (http://www.aw.com/gb/)

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High school students have problems in using correctly the terms “heat” and “temperature”. It is useful to resort to pupils’ experience with thermometers and to help them, by proposing them properly designed experiments, to reflect on what they know on a thermometer and to grasp the idea of thermal equilibrium. In classroom pupils should use thermometers and become aware of the fact that a thermometer measures the temperature of an object when it reaches a thermal equilibrium with the object; The concept of thermal capacity of a system and the concept of specific heat should be well understood; Pupils should carry out experiments on exchanges of energy between two systems, initially at different temperatures, when they are put on contact. c. Water and its properties (W) Water is an essential topic in physics, chemistry, natural sciences (biology). Main problem: How to explain to 13-15 years old students that the “strange” properties of water are due to water’s molecular structure? Water has unusual properties! How to present information like the properties of water? Taking into account the age of the pupils we are interested in, we must recognize the difficulties of directly deepening with them the peculiar characteristics of water. d. Chemical reaction (C) Many processes in daily life are chemical reactions: combustion, baking bread, etc. But most people cannot really understand or explain this kind of phenomena. It is hard to believe that stuff does not longer exist and a new one begins to exist after a chemical reaction has happened. If you make a mixture, the materials you mix still exist in the mixture. This difference often is not clear. If students have understood the phenomenon of a chemical reaction, they ask themselves about the result of the combustion of gas in the engine of their car. So they become conscious of the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air, at the basis of the greenhouse effect. Searching for experiments concerning these four essential topics we realized, that almost each experiment involves all of these topics. So we have chosen the main aspect of the experiment when we put it under the headline of one of the four essential topics. So, after work we found out that a good solution would have been to connect the topic “Water and its properties” to both “Particles” and to “Heat and Temperature”.

IV.2. Misconceptions about basic ideas of Science a. The beginnings


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This collection of misconceptions is the starting point for the main work of the Comenius 2.1-project CON-SCIENCE: Designing modules for a training course for future science-teachers. A teacher who wants to follow constructivism has to know a lot about the conceptions and concepts of his/her pupils. So the future teachers have to learn about the possible misconceptions which the pupils might have in their minds. It is one of the main tasks of “Didactics” to identify the misconceptions in order to inform the teachers4. So they can design experiments or adequate tasks by which their pupils can be confronted with those phenomena which they could not explain with the help of the conceptions they have at that moment. This can be the beginning of a conceptual change. We planned the experiments to propose to our student teachers for their work in the classroom during their mobility, because, since the very beginning, in the Madrid meeting, we decided to design the experiments by taking into account the results of the research on misconceptions (and not by carrying out ourselves new investigations on misconceptions). In Rottweil we decided to: 1. choose the science topics on which to concentrate attention and efforts by resorting both on the results available in the literature on misconceptions and on the research experience of each research group participating in the CON-SCIENCE project, 2. design the experiments to propose to our student teachers for their actions in the classroom during their mobility, starting from research results on misconceptions and on our direct experience in initial teacher training. b. Collection of misconceptions There are several collections of misconceptions published in the literature and in the World Wide Web. The following collection refers mainly to Vanessa Kind5, to a list compiled by the Operation Physics Elementary/Middleschool physics education outreach project of the American Institute of Physics6 and to the results of a workshop of the Arizona State University.7 Additional to the misconceptions chosen from the literature there are written down results of the own observation of pupils and students who have been involved in the CON-SCIENCE project. In the following text there are considered only the misconceptions we collected in relation to the four chosen topics. c. Preconceptions and misconceptions of secondary school pupils

4

Barke, Hans-Dieter: Chemiedidaktik. Diagnose und Korrektur von Schülervorstellungen. Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2006, p. 21 5 Kind, Vanessa: Beyond Appearances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. 2004. www.chemsoc.org/pdf/learnnet/rsc/miscon.pdf 6 www.amasci.com/miscon/opphys.html 7 Student Preconceptions and Misconceptions in Chemistry. Integrated Physics and Chemistry Modeling Workshop. Arizona State University, June 2001 www.daisley.net/hellevator/misconceptions/misconceptions.pdf

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Preparing secondary school teachers requires attention to the results of research in physics education on students’ conceptions and actions to inform the future teachers on the wide literature on this subject and, possibly, on interesting resources on the web concerning results of meetings organized for in-service teachers. A good example of this type of initiatives, devoted to teachers of Physics and of Chemistry, is the “Integrated Physics and Chemistry Modeling Workshop”, organized in the Arizona State University in June 2001. The participants of CON-SCIENCE were invited to analyze the results of research reported in the literature on preconceptions and misconceptions of secondary school pupils. Then they were invited to indicate what preconceptions (among those analyzed) they had regularly found in their pupils during their experience of teaching and to discuss how to tackle them. In order to take advantage of these results within the Project CON-SCIENCE, at the University of Pavia the high school teachers who collaborate in the Project analysed the list of misconceptions built in the Arizona Workshop. Then, each of them wrote what misconceptions regularly s/he finds in pupils. d. Working on preconceptions with our student teachers “It is necessary to take account of student preconceptions. The preconceptions are not viewed as something to be 'overcome‘, but are used as a starting point, which can be worked on in order to achieve understanding of the accepted scientific view”. This is true, we think, not only for pupils but also for student teachers. Then, in designing the work with student teachers, we consider it important to take into account their conceptions in dealing with physics topics in the perspective of their future teaching in the classroom. So a significant initial step is to gain information about the initial level of knowledge of our student teachers in the subjects that we plan to reconsider together. At the University of Pavia we started by proposing to a group of student teachers simple questions on this subject. Below the questions and the answers we obtained by 19 students teachers of the second year, before addressing thermal phenomena, are reported. The analysis of these data allowed designing the laboratory activities suitable to help student teachers overcome their difficulties, to advise them on the resources available on texts etc. More about our results can be obtained by the author Lidia Borghi, Pavia. e. Miconceptions we collected in relation to these topics: Particles, Heat and Temperature, Water and its properties, Chemical reactions.

Misconceptions about particles (P) • Particles can change their form [solid to liquid]; explode, burn, expand, change shape and colour, or shrink • Expansion of matter is due to expansion of particles rather than to increased particle spac-


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Misconceptions about particles (P) ing. (Molecules expand when heated). • Water molecules in steam are larger than those in ice. • Matter is continuous, homogeneous and static. • Matter is continuous, but contains particles. • Fluids are not consisting of particles, but homogenous stuff. • Air in a closed container is concentrated somewhere inside the container (idea of a continuous model of air structure) • Copper consists of atoms of copper embedded in a matrix like raisins in bread. • Grinding is how one makes “matter” from “objects”. • Substances and atoms are different names for the same things. • Copper atoms have the properties of bulk copper. • Gold atoms are golden in colour. • Atoms can disappear (decay). • Atoms are hard, like billiard balls. • Atoms are soft and fuzzy. • Atoms are like building blocks. • Atoms can be seen with a microscope. • Atoms can be seen with an electron microscope. • Collisions between atoms affect their size. • Molecules are small particles formed by successive partitioning of matter and hence keep their macro properties such as hard, soft, etc. (Particles are viewed as mini-versions of the substances they comprise.) • To allocate to unobservable microscopic particles of matter the same properties of observable matter (molecules become compressed, they dilate, they change to a different temperature, they melt) • Molecules of solids are hard, molecules of gasses are soft. • Gas molecules are round, molecules of solids are cubes. • Molecules of solids are the biggest; molecules of gases are the smallest. • Particles of solids have no motion. • Pressure affects the shape of a molecule. • 3N2 can be represented as NNNNNN. • When asked, "Why don't the particles of a gas fall to the bottom?", pupils cannot explain that, because they don't think that the particles were in constant motion. • Atoms are alive (because they move.) • The space between particles is either filled, for example, with dust and other particles; other gases such as oxygen and nitrogen; air, dirt, germs; maybe a liquid; unknown vapours. • The space between the particles is non-existent, for example: the particles are closely packed, there is no space between them" or "No place is completely empty". • The existence of vacuum between particles is not recognized. (Molecules are very separated and in continuous movement due to air molecules existing among then.)

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Misconceptions about particles (P) • Relative particle spacing among solids, liquids and gases (1:1:10) is incorrectly perceived and not generally related to the density of the states. • Pupils use attractive forces between gas particles to help explain air pressure. • Some students suggest the strength of the forces is temperature dependent. • They don't think forces exist between particles in the solid state • A body moves only if a force is driving it. • To become dry under water in a glove although the "body" is completely under water is impossible. • You need a temperature of 100°C to make water evaporate. • Invisible gases as air are immaterial. • Air does not occupy space and does not have any volume. • Air has no weight and tends to go upwards. • Atmospheric air exerts pressure but the air inside a bottle does not exert any pressure. • Gas and air are synonymous; • Gases are immaterial, or only gases with colour are considered material but invisible gases as air are immaterial; • The vacuum withdraws a liquid. • Solving is the result of convection streams. • Melting/freezing and boiling/condensation are often understood only in terms of water. • Air and gas in general only exert force, when they are in movement or when they operate on moving objects. • Gases only exert force, when they themselves are subject to force (as when we push the piston), or when they are heated. • The pressure is exerted in the direction where the action is applied. • Particles are often misrepresented in sketches. No differentiation is made between atoms and molecules. • Particles misrepresented and undifferentiated in concepts involving elements, compounds, mixtures, solutions and substances. • Failure to perceive that individual substances and properties correspond to certain types of particles (i.e. formation of a new substance with new properties is seen as simple happening rather than as the result of particle rearrangement).

Misconceptions about heat and temperature (H) • Heat has the properties of matter (heat is a substance or a fluid similar to air or vapour). • Heat is not energy. • Heat is just energy that is added to something. • Heat can add weight to the object being heated.


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Misconceptions about heat and temperature (H) • Heat is a sensation. • Hot and cold are different kinds of substance. • Heated copper is heavier than cold copper. • Heat is in the fuel being burned and is not formed during combustion. • The state of hotness or coldness depends on the material from which a body is made. • Wool is warm, and it warms things. • Metal is cold, and cools things. • Metals hold cold better than wood does. • Metals attract cold better than wood does. • Metals hold heat better than wood does. • Conductors conduct heat more slowly than do insulators. • Two liquids heated with equally hot flames to the same temperature will receive the same amount of heat. • A change in temperature is synonymous with a flow of heat. • A cold body contains no heat. • Temperature is a property of the material from which a body is made: "Metal is naturally cooler than plastic" or "water is naturally cooler than oil." • Temperature is a measure of a body’s heat: "An object with a higher temperature has more heat than the one with a lower temperature." • Temperature is considered as the mixture of heat and cold of a body. • Temperature is the amount of heat in a space. It tells you the hotness of the stuff in that space. • Two objects sitting in the same environment for a long period of time don’t necessarily reach the same temperature. • Temperature is something which can be transferred. • Heating a body always means raising its temperature. • When temperature at boiling remains constant, something is "wrong". (The constancy of temperature during phase transition is not assimilated.) • A conductor is something that keeps things cold. • Substances which insulate hot objects won’t insulate cold objects. • Foil is better for keeping things cold than is a blanket, because metal is cold and blankets are warm. • Electrical and heat conductivity are the same thing. • The temperature of an object depends on its size. • There is no difference between energy and energy variation (or transfer). • All liquids become solid at a 0 °C. • Ice cannot change temperature. • Boiling is the maximum temperature a substance can reach • Both coldness and heat can flow from one body to another.

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Misconceptions about heat and temperature (H) • Heat only travels upward. • Heat rises.

Misconceptions about water and its properties (W) • Water vapour molecules weigh less than ice molecules. • Water disappears as it evaporates. • The weight of a substance changes as it melts or evaporates. • A sealed container with a bit of liquid in it weighs more than after the liquid has evaporated. • Vapour is something different from water. • Bubbles from boiling water consist of air. • Bubbles from boiling water consist of air and oxygen gas. • Bubbles from boiling water consist of hydrogen gas. • Bubbles from boiling water are made of heat. • Boiling water becomes smoke. • Drops of water on the outside of a cold bottle of water come from inside the bottle. • Drops of water on the outside of a bottle are made by the cold. • Water needs a force (e. g. heat) to lift it upwards, when it is evaporating. • The temperature at which water boils is the maximum temperature to which it can be raised. • Freezing is like drying. • When butter melts, water is formed. • Water from melting ice is different from running water. • If ice is melted the resulting water will weigh less. • Solid, liquid and gas are three types of same substance. One disappears as the other appears. Thus, melting and freezing may not necessarily involve the same substance: "Vapour is something different from water." • Melting and dissolving are used frequently as synonyms. • Vapour cannot be seen, so it is "nothing", especially it can not perform pressure. • The ice temperature is always 0°C. • The thermal conductivity of water is high. • You need a temperature of 100°C to make water evaporate. • Forces due to pressure in a fluid act always downward. • There are thin films on the surface of liquids, which have “special” properties. • There is no difference between the mass, weight and the density of a body. • Oil is floating over every liquid. • The surface of a liquid in a vessel is plane and horizontal.


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Misconceptions about water and its properties (W) • There are no interactions between a liquid and a solid • You can not put anything into a full glass of water without pushing out some water. • Water density does not depend on the temperature. • The deeper the water in a sea, the cooler is it. • The water and the cooking salt (NaCl) are elements

Misconceptions about chemical reactions (C) • Freezing and boiling are examples of chemical reactions. • Physical changes are reversible while chemical changes are not. • The original substance vanishes "completely and forever" in a chemical reaction. • Mass is conserved, but not the number or species of atoms. • Chemical reactions are reactions which produce irreversible change: “The chemical transformations are irreversible." • Chemical reactions are caused by mixing of substances: "If you mix two materials, a chemical reaction will happen in every case." Or "Oxygen is added when rust forms." • Reactions that proceed more rapidly also proceed further (more completely.) • The concentrations of all species in a reaction mixture are equal. • Chemical reactions will continue until all of the reactants are exhausted. • Chemical reactions must be driven by external intervention, e.g. heat. • Chemical reactions are caused by active agents acting on passive agents. • The “driving force” in a chemical reaction refers to an external causative agent. • The substance changes in colour, mass and state, so it would appear to be obvious that a chemical change has taken place. • The weight of an iron nail decreases, when it is rusting. • If a piece of iron rusts completely the final mass will be the same. (they confuse the hardness of the metal with its mass) • Each individual substance is considered to be conserved, whatever happens to it. • Every mixture of at least two substances can be separated by heat. • There is no difference between mixture and chemical reaction, for example: "Water is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen." (To confuse mixture and chemical compound. Then, compound’ composition can be variable. ) • Only solid material can be dissolved. • The elements can be transmuted from one to another • The heat is not involved in chemical reactions. • Freezing and boiling are examples of chemical reactions: f. e. boiling is interpreted as a thermal splitting in hydrogen and oxygen. • Frequent disregard for particle conservation and orderliness when describing changes. • Absence of conservation of particles during a chemical change.

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Misconceptions about chemical reactions (C) • Chemical changes perceived as additive, rather than interactive. After chemical change the original substances are perceived as remaining, even though they are altered. • Pupils do not use the characteristics properties of substances to explain the production of a chemical reactions They only use descriptive properties (change of colour, volume variation) • No difference between phase transition and chemical reaction (vaporization and combustion of alcohol, evaporation and electrolysis of water) • Chemical reactions are not explained in terms of atoms and molecules

f. Conclusive remarks The first step necessary to design effective teaching actions is reaching a clear vision of preconceptions and difficulties that learners have on the subject to be dealt with, This is true whatever is the school level of the learners, and specific attention must be devoted to choosing the ways and teaching tools appropriate to the age of students. An important aim of our work in CON-SCIENCE is to help each other to overcome the partiality and the exclusiveness of the different points of view from which science teaching problems are considered, such as the psychological one (stressing cognition and cognitive development) and the scientific one (discipline-centred). The approaches are integrated to achieve a better educational intervention, founded on a unified framework and not on a simple juxtaposition of point of views. Our theoretical framework is really linked with the “practical” work of designing, implementing and testing our proposals for the activity in classroom of our student teachers during their mobility. If practical work and theoretical reflection are permanently related, one would see that many problems that have been discussed in learning scientific disciplines could be easily overcome. g. Implications for teaching and for teacher training The misconceptions of the pupils in a class can be very different. Of course not all the pupils really have in their minds and in their ways of thinking the misconceptions listed above. The list above represents only a summary relying on many different reflections and remarks made by pupils and students of different ages. But it is intended to give an idea about what kind of misconceptions are possible and which could be these misconceptions. If a teacher is going to plan the next theme of his science lessons in a class, he has to identify which (mis)conceptions really exist in his group of pupils. So the first step would be to make a diagnosis, for example by applying a questionnaire to the group of pupils. Then he designs an experiment, which will produce a confrontation with the existing ideas/misconceptions of the pupils. In order to explain the phenomenon, the pupils will have to construct a new conception. According to the fact that this is an individual process, the teacher has to give to every pupil the possibility of going ahead in his own pace. It is important to talk about misconceptions. It is not enough to provide pupils with a "better" concept without discussing the reasons for changing the initial concept. The Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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last step in this constructivist way of teaching is to apply the "new" conception/concept to other phenomena as well. Referring to this way of teaching, the experiments put together in the CON-SCIENCE project consist of four parts: 1. Introduction (prerequisites, misconceptions, objectives) 2. Diagnostics 3. Experiments 4. Some ideas and tools to be used in the lessons For a future teacher it is necessary to practice teaching this way several times, in order him to be able to perform and acquire positive experiences. So he will have the experience of a conceptual change, too - concerning his way of teaching. This is necessary for improving the science education in Europe - the main objective of the CON-SCIENCE project.

References Collection of misconceptions ARIZONA “Student Preconceptions and Misconceptions in Chemistry”, Integrated Physics and Chemistry Modeling Workshop, Arizona State University, June 2001 KIND, Vanessa (formerly Vanessa Barker) “Beyond Appearances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas” prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry; MILLAR, Robin: Beyond 2000: Science education for the future, “The report of a seminar series funded by the Nuffield Foundation”, Robin Millar and Jonathan Osborne (Editors) http://ideasprevias.cinstrum.unam.mx:2048/searching.htm www.amasci.com/miscon/opphys.html Basics about misconceptions BARKE, Hans-Dieter: Chemiedidaktik. Diagnose und Korrektur von Schülervorstellungen. Springer Berlin , Heidelberg 2006 BORGHI, Lidia, Anna De Ambrosis, and Paolo Mascheretti (2000) “Reform in Science Teacher Education in Italy – The Case of Physics”, Science Teacher Education, 31-43, S.K. Abel (Ed.) Kluwer Academic Publishers GUIDONI, P. (2001) Explaining and understanding in physics, Physics Teacher Education beyond 2000, Roser Pinto and Santiago Surinach Eds. (Paris Elsevier), 245-248. ARONS, A.B. (1996) Guida all'insegnamento della fisica, Zanichelli, Bologna. PFUNDT, H., R. Duit, Bibliography: Students’ Alternative Frameworks and Science education, Kiel, IPN, 1994 McDERMOTT, L.C., Shaffer P.S., Costantiniou C.P., Preparing teachers to teach Physics and Physical science by inquiry, Phys. Educ. 35, 6, 2000 MILLAR, R. (2001) The contribution of institutions to the improvement of physics teaching, Physics Teacher Education beyond 2000, Roser Pinto and Santiago Surinach Eds. (Paris Elsevier), 8384. ROSER, Pinto (2002) Introduction to the Science Teacher Training in an Information Society (STTIS) project, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 24, 227-234.

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TIBERGHIEN, Andrée, Leonard Jossem E.L., Barojas J. (Eds) (1998) Connecting Research in Physics Education with Teacher Education I.C.P.E. Book published by The International Commission on Physics Education, http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/BOOKS.html VIENNOT, Laurence (1996) Raisonner en physique, De Boeck & Larcier, Paris Heat and temperature ANDERSSON, B. (1979). Some aspects of Children’s understanding of Boiling-point. In Archenhold, W.F., Driver, R.H., Orton, A. and Wood-Robinson, C. (eds.). Cognitive Development Research in Science and Mathematics. Leeds: The University of Leeds, pp. 252-260. BROOK , A. and DRIVER, R. (1984). Aspects of Secondary Students’ Understanding of Energy. In Children’s Learning in Science Project. Leeds University: Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education. DRIVER, R. and WARRINGTON, L. (1985). Students’ use of the principle of energy conservation in problem situations. Physics Education 20, pp. 171-176. DUIT, R. (1981). Students’ notions about the energy concept – before and after Physics instructions. Problems concerning students’ representation of Physics and Chemistry Knowledge. Ludwigsburg, West Germany. DUIT, R. (1983). Energy conceptions held by students and consequences for science teaching. Seminar on misconceptions in Science and Mathematics, pp. 334-340. Ithaca: Cornell University. ERICKSON, G.L. (1979). Children’s conception of heat and temperature. Science Education 63 (2), pp. 221-230. ERICKSON, G. and TIBERGHIEN, A. (1985). Heat and Temperature. En R. Driver, E. Guesne y A Tiberghien (eds.). Children’s ideas in science. Open Univ. Press, Milton Keynes. GARCÍA HOURCADE, J.L. and RODRÍGUEZ DE AVILA, C. (1985). Preconcepciones sobre el calor en 2º de B.U.P. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 3 (3), pp. 188-193. MACEDO, B. and SOUSSAN, G. (1985). Estudio de los conocimientos pre-adquiridos sobre las nociones de calor y temperature en alumnus de 10 a 15 años. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 3 (2), pp. 83-90. PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, M.C. and MORENO REBOLLO, J.M. (1998). Evaluación y detección de dificultades en el aprendizaje de física y química en el segundo ciclo de la ESO. Madrid : CIDEMEC PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, M.C., GARCÍA-GALLO, J. and MORENO REBOLLO, J.M. (1991). Eficacia didáctica de una metodología en el diseño de unidades didácticas de Física con ordenador. Memoria de investigación. Madrid : CIDE y CSIC. STRAUSS, S. and STAVY, R. (1983). Educational – Developmental Psychology and Curriculum Development: the case Heat and temperature. Seminar on misconceptions in Science and Mathematics, pp. 310-321. Ithaca: Cornell University. TIBERGHIEN, A. (1983). Revue critique sur les recherches visant à élucider le sens des notions de temperature et chaleur pur les èléves de 10 à 16 ans. Actes Atelier International d’été, pp. 5574. La Londe les Maures, France. VARELA, M.P., FAVIERES, A., MANRIQUE, M.J. and PÉREZ-LANDAZÁBAL, M.C. (1993). Iniciación a la Física en el marco de la teoría constructivista. Madrid: CIDE, MEC. VIENNOT, L. (1979). Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics. European Journal of Science Education 1, pp. 205-221. WARREN, J.W. (1982). The nature of energy. European Journal of Science Education 4 (3), pp. 295-297. WATTS, D.M. (1983). Some alternative views of energy. Physics Education 18, pp. 213-217. Particles


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BROOK, A., BRIGGS, H. and BELL, B. (1983). Aspects of secondary students’ understanding of the particulate nature of matter. Children’s Learning in Science project. Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education: University of Leeds, U.K. CAAMAÑO, A., MAYÓS, C., MAESTRE, G. and VENTURA, T. (1983). Consideración sobre algunos errores conceptuales en el aprendizaje de la Química en el Bachillerato. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 1 (3), pp. 198-200. DRIVER, R., GUESNE, E. and TIBERGHIEN, A. (1985). Children’s ideas in science. Open Univ. Press, Milton Keynes. FURIÓ, C. and HERNÁNDEZ, J. (1983): Ideas sobre los gases en alumnos de 10 a 15 años. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 1 (1), pp. 83-91. HIERREZUELO, J. and MONTERO, A. (1991). La ciencia de los alumnos. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir. NOVICK, S. and NUSSBAUM, J. (1978): Junior high school pupils understanding of the particulate nature of matter: an interview study. Science Education, 63 (3), pp. 273-281. NOVICK, S. and NUSSBAUM, J. (1981): Pupils understanding of the particulate nature of matter: a cross-age study. Science Education 65 (2), pp. 187-196. PÉREZ DE LANDAZÁBAL, M.C. and MORENO REBOLLO, J.M. (1998). Evaluación y detección de dificultades en el aprendizaje de física y química en el segundo ciclo de la ESO. Madrid : CIDEMEC POZO, J.I., GÓMEZ CRESPO, M.A., LIMÓN, M. and SANZ SERRANO, A. (1991). Procesos cognitivos en la comprensión de la Ciencia: Las ideas de los adolescentes sobre la Química. Madrid: C.I.D.E., M.E.C. STAVY, R. (1988). Children’s conception of gas. International Journal of Science Education 10 (5), pp. 553-560. Water and its properties BRIGGS, H. and HOLDING, B. (1986). Aspects of Secondary Students’ Understanding of elementary ideas in chemistry: Full Report, in Children’s Learning in Science Project. Leeds University: Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education. Chemical reaction CARBONELL, F. and FURIÓN, C. (1987). Opiniones de los adolescentes respecto al cambio sustancial de las reacciones química. Enseñanza de las Ciencias 5 (1), pp. 3-9. BRIGGS, H. and HOLDING, B. (1986). Aspects of Secondary Students’ Understanding of elementary ideas in chemistry: Full Report, in Children’s Learning in Science Project. Leeds University: Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education. HESSE, J.J. and ANDERSON, C.W. (1992). Students’ conceptions of chemical change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 29 (3), pp. 277-299 HIERREZUELO, J. and MONTERO, A. (1991). La ciencia de los alumnos. Vélez-Málaga: Elzevir.

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V. Education systems: Germany, Ireland, Italy, Romania, Spain


Compilators: Mario BRANCA Rocío ESTEBAN


V.1. Levels of control and administrative organization SECOND LEVEL

(National) Federal 16 Länder Government

Ministry

20 regions

THIRD LEVEL

INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL

NOTES

Local school districts

Länder set guidelines; local school districts recruit staff, determine curricular content, choose texts etc. Standing Conference of Ministers of Education & Cultural Affairs of the 16 Länder is main instrument of cooperation between Länder.

Provinces and communes

School councils

Centralized policy making. Increasing delegation of administrative powers from central government via regions, provinces and communes to schools.

Boards of management

Ministry formulates policy, monitors quality, allocates resources, responsible for some organizational and administrative functions. Boards of management are recent initiative to devolve more responsibility to schools.

Ministry

Spain

Romania

Ireland

Italy

Germany

NATIONAL LEVEL

Ministry

17 Autonomous Communities

Local (municipal) authorities, eg. Municipal School Councils

Governing / educational coordination bodies, e.g. School Councils of individual schools

Ministry responsible for general regulation of system, policies and guidance. Autonomous Communities oversee implementation of such nationally defined standards, adapt these to local situation, set up teaching establishments, administer personnel etc.

Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk

V.2. Educational phases V.2.1. Pre-school, primary and lower secondary Pre-school Primary/basic Lower secondary 3 -6 6 -10/12 (128) 10/12 – 15/16 Germany 3 - 4/5 4/5 -12 (130) 12 – 15 Ireland 3–6 6 – 11 11 – 14 (132) Italy Romania 0 -6 6 - 12 12 – 15 Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk

V.2.2. Compulsory full time education V.2.2.1. Germany Grundschule (primary education)

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6 - 10 years of age (6 -


12, Berlin & Brandenburg) Lower secondary education -Orientierungsstufe (‘orientation’ phase within the different school types or as a separate organisational unit) Gymnasium/Realschule/Hauptschule/Gesamtschule/ Types of schools offering several courses of education such as the Mittelschule Upper secondary education (see section 5)

10 - 12 years of age 12 - 15/16 years of age 15/16 - 18/19 years of age

V.2.2.2. Ireland Primary level Second level (junior cycle) Community / Comprehensive / Vocational / Voluntary secondary (selective until 1994)

6 - 12 years of age 12 - 16 years of age

V.2.2.3. Italy Primo ciclo dell’istruzione(first cycle of education) Scuola primaria (primary school) Scuola secondaria di I grado (lower secondary school)

Age 6 - 11 Age 11 - 14

V.2.2.4. Romania Scoala primara(primary) Gimnaziu (first phase of general lower secondary) Liceu – ciclul inferior (second phase of general or specialised lower secondary) or Scoala_de Arte si Meserii(vocational lower secondary)

Age Group 6 - 10 years 10 - 14 years 14 - 16 years 14 - 16 years

V.2.2.5. Spain Educación Primaria (primary education) Educación Secundaria Obligatoria(ESO, or lower secondary education)

6 - 12 years of age 12 - 16 years of age

V.2.2.6. Comparative analysis Starting age

Minimum school leaving age 18 15 15

Duration in years

FT = full-time PT = part-time

6 9/10 FT + 3 PT (110) Germany 6 (114) 9 Ireland 6 9 (115) Italy Romania 6 16 10 Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004; www.inca.org.uk

V.2.3. Upper secondary and post-secondary education V.2.3.1. Germany General upper secondary school (Gymnasiale Oberstufe) at the following school types: Gymnasium/Berufliches Gymnasium/ Fachgymnasium/ Gesamtschule Vocational education

16 - 18/19 years of age


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Berufsfachschule (full-time vocational school) Fachoberschule (full time vocational school) Berufsoberschule (full-time vocational school) Duales System (Dual System: part-time vocational

school

and

15/16 - 18 years of age 16 - 18 years of age 18 - 19 years of age 15/16 - 18/19 years of age

V.2.3.2. Ireland 15/16 - 17/19 years of age

Second level education (senior cycle) Community / comprehensive / vocational / Voluntary secondary(until 1994) selective V.2.3.3. Italy Classical education Liceo classico (classical upper sec Liceo scientifico (scientific upper s econdary school)

Age 14 - 19

Artistic education Liceo artistico(artistic upper secondary school) Istituti d’arte(art schools) Technical education Istituto Tecnico(technical school) Vocational education Istituto professionale (vocational school)

Age 14 - 18/19 Age 14 - 17/19 Age 14 - 19 Age 14 - 17/19

V.2.3.4. Romania Completion year (vocational upper secondary) Liceu – ciclul superior (general and specialized upper secondary) Scoala postliceala(post-secondary education)

16 - 17 years of age 16 - 18/19 years of age 18 - 20/21 years of age

V.2.3.5. Spain Bachillerato (general upper secondary education) Formación Profesional Específica de grado medio (intermediate level specific vocational training)

Age 16 - 18 Age 16 - 18

V.2.4. School structures This table indicates whether there is a unitary system of schools catering for all students (comp), distinct school types for students of different educational aptitudes (select) or a mixed system offering both types of schools (mixed). Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary comp select select Germany comp comp comp Ireland comp comp select Italy Romania comp comp Mixed Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk.

V.2.5. Access This table indicates whether access to educational phases is automatic (open) or subject to performance in school leaving certificates or other evidence of performance (cert). In the case of higher education, this indicates whether holders of relevant upper secondary school certificates

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(e.g., Abitur in Germany) have automatic right of access to higher education (open) or whether they have to meet additional selection criteria operated by higher education institutions (select).

Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Higher education open/cert cert open Germany open (169) open open open open (170) Ireland open cert, age 11 cert, age 14 open Italy Romania open open cert, age 16 Select Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk.

V.2.6. Progression within phases This table indicates whether students automatically move to the next class (open) or whether this is subject to their achieving certain minimum standards (perf). In most countries where performance governs progression, the decision is made by all the teachers of the relevant class/year group and includes consultation with parents. Primary Lower secondary perf 7+ perf Germany open open Ireland open - mostly perf - mostly Italy Romania perf Perf Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk.

V.2.7. National standardised assessment system Bold figures indicate that assessments/examinations are compulsory for admission to the next phase National standardAt school enized assessment try system no (206) 6 (207) no no yes no

During compulsory primary education no no (210) 11

During compulsory secondary education 15/16 15 14

Germany Ireland Italy Romania yes no INCE,12 INCE,16 Spain Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk.

V.2.8. National examination or certification framework to mark the end of an educational phase Bold figures indicate that assessments/examinations are compulsory for admission to the next phase


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Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary no 15 / 16 18 / 19 Germany no 15 17 / 18 Ireland 1 14 18 / 19 Italy Romania 2 16 18 Spain Source: INCA; International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks; December 2004; www.inca.org.uk

V.3.Teacher training system V.3.1.Germany All pre-school staff is trained at upper secondary level. Teachers are trained at universities and colleges of art and music, and pass the first and second Staatsprüfung (state examination) in usually two subjects and in educational science. Primary teachers are generalists and secondary teachers are subject specialists. Teachers are generally employed by the Land and have civil servant status.

V.3.2.Ireland Staff in day-care centres and playgroups either hold a national certificate or have been trained privately. Teachers within the primary system obtain a Bachelor of Education degree after a three- or four-year course in a college of education. Teachers at secondary level usually hold a Bachelor degree in their specialist subject and complete a one-year Higher Diploma in Education. Primarylevel teachers are generalists and secondary-level teachers are subject specialists. Teachers are employed by the school but are paid by the State and classed as public servants.

V.3.3.Italy Teachers in nursery and primary schools must obtain the diploma di laurea. A two-year postgraduate course at a scuola di specializzazione is necessary for secondary school teachers who want to participate in a competitive exam to obtain the qualification of abilitazione all’insegnamento. Primary school teachers are generalists, but assume responsibility for a subject area. Secondary teachers are specialist teachers. Teachers are civil servants.

V.3.4.Romania Pre-primary education teachers (educatori) and primary education teachers (învatatori) are trained in pedagogical high school (upper secondary education). Institutori, primary education teachers specialized in a subject like foreign languages, music and sports are trained in university colleges (short-term education), providing courses which last two years (for graduates of pedagogical high schools) or three years (for graduates of other high schools). Lower and upper secondary school teachers (profesori) are trained in long-term higher education, four to five years, depending on the subject they will teach. Higher education teachers must hold a graduation diploma of long-term higher education as well as a diploma of doctoral studies.

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V.3.5. Spain Pre-primary and primary teachers must have a Maestro teaching diploma. Secondary school teachers must have a Licenciado, or architecture or engineering degree, plus a pedagogical specialization course. Primary school teachers are trained to teach all subjects except music, physical education and foreign languages, for which specialist teachers are employed. Primary teachers are generalists and secondary teachers are specialists in one subject. In public establishments both professors and teachers are usually civil servants.

V.3.6. Comparative analysis Teacher training usually includes a general and professional component. The general component is given over to courses covering general education and study of the one or more specific subjects to be taught. The professional component involves courses devoted to the required teaching skills and school teaching placements. This theoretical and practical professional training may be provided either from the outset of tertiary education and thus at the same time as general training (the concurrent model), or get under way in a distinct second phase in which some general courses may also be taken (consecutive model). An upper secondary school leaving certificate is the qualification required to undertake training in accordance with the concurrent model as is also, in some cases, a certificate of aptitude for tertiary education. In the consecutive model, students who have received tertiary education in a particular field at university then move on to postgraduate professional teacher training. V.3.6.1. The structure The structure of initial teacher training for general lower secondary education (ISCED 2A), 2000/01: 8 Germany: concurrent model 8 Italy: consecutive model 8 Ireland: coexistence of both models 8 Romania: concurrent model 8 Spain: consecutive model V.3.6.2. Level of training In all countries, teacher training for general lower secondary education is provided in tertiary education and leads, in most cases, to a university level qualification (ISCED 5A). V.3.6.3. Length of training The duration of teacher training for general lower secondary education may vary from one country to the next, but in many countries, training lasts between four and four-and-a-half years and is more often provided in accordance with the concurrent model than the consecutive model. Minimum length and model of initial teacher training for general lower secondary education (isced 2a), 2000/01: Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Length 4 - 4,5 YEARS 6 OR MORE YEARS Source: Eurydice.

Concurrent model Ireland Romania Germany

Consecutive model Ireland Spain Italy

V.3.6.4. Restricted or open access to training Access to initial teacher training for general lower secondary education (ISED 2A), 2000/01: Restricted: Ireland, Italy, Romania and Spain Open: V.3.6.5. Selection criteria a.

Selection criteria for access to initial teacher training (concurrent model) for general lower secondary education (ISCED 2A) and the decision-making level which is responsible for the selection procedure, 2000/01:

Criteria for selecting candidates Germany Ireland Performance at upper secondary level (-) M A tertiary education entrance examination has to be taken (-) An examination specifically for admission to teacher train(-) ing has to be taken Candidates are interviewed (-) M M = the selection criterion is established at central level G = The selection criterion is established at institutional level b.

Romania G G G G

Selection criteria for access to initial teacher training (consecutive model) for general lower secondary education (ISCED 2A) and the decision-making level which is responsible for the selection procedure, 2000/01

Criteria for selecting candidates Performance criteria Performance at upper secondary level for access to general training A tertiary education entrance examination has to be taken for access to general training Attainment in the course of the ‘general education’ phase An entrance examination has to be taken for the ‘professional training’or final ‘on-the-job’ qualifying phases Candidates are interviewed Additional kinds of training or qualifications are considered Place of residence M = the selection criterion is established at central level G = The selection criterion is established at institutional level

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Ireland

Italy

Spain M M

M

M M

G M

M

M M


V.3.6.6. Curricular autonomy of training institutions • No autonomy: institutions follow very precise regulations issued by the top-level education authority which specify compulsory subjects, core curriculum options and optional subjects and their precise time allocation. • Total autonomy: institutions are entirely free to decide how the training they provide will be organised in terms of both content and/or time.Limited autonomy: official documents, issued by the top-level education authority, form the basis on which institutions may develop their own curricula. • These regulations may specify either minimum requirements regarding compulsory groups of subjects and/or the share of provision to be devoted to general and professional training in terms of time, examination targets, or the minimum standards required of teachers on completion of their initial training. Autonomy granted to institutions providing initial teacher training for general lower secondary edu-

Professional training

General training

cation (ISCED 2A), 2000/01:

Total autonomy

Limited autonomy

No autonomy

In terms of content

Ireland

Italy Spain Romania

In terms of time

Ireland

Italy Spain Romania

Germany

In terms of content

Ireland Italy Spain Romania

Germany

In terms of time

Ireland Italy Spain Romania

Germany D

Germany

Autonomy may be restricted as follows: a.

In minimum requirements regarding compulsory groups of subjects: • Official documents on initial training usually cite at least the following compulsory groups of subjects for inclusion in training: pedagogy, educational theory, psychology, subject knowledge, subject-related teaching and teaching practice. • The time allocation for these compulsory groups is often indicated in terms of minimum hours or credits or not indicated at all.

b.

Examination goals or minimum standards required of teachers at the end of initial training:

The guidelines setting out a framework for the standards/skills or final qualifications required for entry to the teaching profession, cover at least two aspects, namely subject knowledge and the Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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ability to teach. A list of desirable attitudes on the part of teachers, such as social skills in the classroom or in contacts with parents, as well as the ability to take into account the development of individual pupils, is also often included. The time allocated for acquisition of these skills may be indicated. V.3.6.7. Level of specialization The qualifications of teachers may be classified in accordance with three main categories: • General (non-specialist) teachers are trained to teach all subjects in the curriculum; • Semi-specialist teachers are trained to teach a group of at least three subjects; • Specialist teachers are trained to teach just one or two specific subject(s), one of which is normally subsidiary. In certain cases, specialist teachers are trained for three subjects, the third of which is subsidiary. In the majority of European countries, teachers at general lower secondary level are trained as specialists. Source: INCA, International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks, December 2004, www.inca.org.uk

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VI. Cultural aspects of the receiving country


Editors, Rocío ESTEBAN Pilar ARAMBURUZABALA


VI.1. Germany VI.1.1. Introduction a. History Founding of the Federal Republic of Germany: in 1948, the minister presidents of the federal states convened as an assembly to draw up a constitution for the state that was emerging from the Trizone. From the very beginning this constitution was intended to be provisional until reunification of the country, and was thus known as the Basic Law. It included many of the intentions of the western occupying powers but above all reflected experiences with the fallen Weimar Republic. The constitutional convention at Herrenchiemsee and the Parliamentary Council, which consisted of members of the state parliaments, decided in favor of a democratic and social federal state. It was these men and women of the republic’s first hour who incorporated the spirit of the democratic traditions of 1848-49 and 1919 as well as the “revolt of the conscience” of July 20, 1944. They personified the “other Germany” and won the respect of the occupying powers. The formal proclamation of the Basic Law on May 23, 1949 marked the beginning of a new era. Following the elections to the first Bundestag on August 14, 1949 parliamentary life rounded out the constitution. The first federal government, led by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, prepared for Germany’s return to an “honorable position among the free and peaceloving nations of the world”, a project that US Secretary of State Byrnes had announced three years earlier. Adenauer, along with the first Federal President Theodor Heuss (FDP), Ludwig Erhard (CDU), the father of the “economic miracle”, and the great opposition leaders of the SPD such as Kurt Schuhmacher and Erich Ollenhauer, gave the new party system in West Germany an unmistakable profile and created new confidence in the German state. Step by step they extended German say and its political influence on the occupying administration and committees. A consistent policy of reparation towards Israel and Jewish organizations helped to further the new respect Germany enjoyed throughout the world. As early as 1952 an act was signed in Luxembourg that regulated the payment of integration aid for Jewish refugees in Israel. Of the total of some DM 90 billion that has been paid for reparations over the course of time, around one third has been committed to Israel and Jewish organizations, in particular the Jewish Claims Conference, a hardship fund for Jewish refugees throughout the world. The fact that Germans identified with their country, the young Federal Republic, was helped by a buoyant economy. At a time of immense personal hardship, millions of CARE packets from the USA had formed the basis for a feeling of solidarity between conquerors and conquered. American foreign aid had also laid further foundations. A decisive tool for the economic recovery was the European Aid and Reconstruction Program that US Secretary of State George C. Marshall had announced in June 1947, and from whose funds between 1948 and 1952 around USD 1.4 billion flowed into West Germany.

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The peaceful revolution: the “gentle revolution” in the GDR seemed to paralyze the state authorities. On the evening of November 9, 1989 Günter Schabowski, a member of the SED Politburo in Berlin announced new, less restrictive travel regulations that kindled enormous expectations on the part of GDR citizens and prompted the opening of the border crossings in Berlin. With the Berlin Wall to all intents and purposes now down, the streets leading to the border and the Kurfürstendamm in West Berlin witnessed scenes of indescribable joy during the night. The Lord Mayor of West Berlin, Walter Momper, summed up the atmosphere throughout Germany at the time when he said: “At the moment, we Germans are the happiest people on earth.” The peaceful upheaval in the GDR now provided an opportunity for what people had aspired to for decades, although many had given it up as a lost cause, namely the reunification of Germany. On November 28, 1989 Chancellor Kohl presented a ten-point program outlining a path to a confederation: a reunified Germany that included current economic aid, a fundamental change in the political and economic system, a contractual community and confederal structures. The opposition agreed with this point of view, but to the people in the GDR who had taken part in the demonstrations and protest actions it came across as too long-winded. The chants on the streets of “We are the people” had long since become “We are one people”. On January 15, 1990 a total of 150,000 people gathered in Leipzig chanting the slogan “Germany - A United Mother Country”. The civil rights movement distrusted the new government headed by Hans Modrow. By the week, citizens became increasingly drawn to the West and the process of destabilization in the GDR accelerated rapidly. The “Berlin Republic”: following the reunification of Germany, the German Bundestag resolved on June 20, 1991 by 337 to 320 votes to move the seat of government from Bonn to Berlin. The “core of government functions” was established in Berlin, and on January 31, 1994 President von Weizsäcker moved his primary seat of residence to that city. In 1996, the Bundesrat likewise decided to move there. Following extensive alterations to existing buildings and the construction of a host of new ones to accommodate the Bundestag, Bundesrat and governmental buildings, the final relocation took place in the summer of 1999. Six ministries remained in Bonn and at the same time several government authorities were moved there. On May 2, 2001 the Chancellor was presented with the keys to the newly constructed Federal Chancellor’s Office on the Spreebogen opposite the Reichstag. All in all, the move to Berlin by parliament and government has injected new life into the German capital. b. Economy Ranking third in terms of total economic output, Germany is one of the world’s leading nations. In terms of exports, Germany takes first place worldwide. The country continues to be an attractive market for foreign investors, offering a superbly developed infrastructure and a highly motivated, well-qualified work force. Top-notch research and development projects are additional hallmarks of the country. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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The social partnership between trade unions and employers ensures a high degree of social harmony. Reforms to the social security system and structural reforms to the labor market are intended to reduce ancillary labor costs and rejuvenating economic growth, which, in comparison with other EU countries, is on a low level. Compared with other industrial nation, the German economy has an almost unprecedented international focus. Companies generate almost a third of their profits through exports, and almost one in four jobs are dependent on foreign trade. The high level of international competitiveness is most evident where companies vie with others in the international arena. Despite the slump in world trade, the share of exports expanded at a higher than average rate. In addition, the continuous rise in direct investments by international companies in Germany and by German companies abroad underscores the strong position of the German economy in comparison with its international competitors. It is buttressed at the national level by a favorable inflation rate and unit labor costs as well as by a stable society. c. Education Germany is a country which highly values education and vocational training, research and the sciences. The country has produced Nobel Prize winners, high-level scientific work is undertaken here, international projects are promoted, and students from all over the world study here. Education, science and research are structured in line with the federal nature of the Federal Republic of Germany. As a result, central government is only able to decide on and implement goals and measures in conjunction with the federal states, which are for the most part responsible for the school system and cultural matters. Central government is, by contrast, responsible for the organization of vocational training in the dual system. Central government and the federal states work together on the “Commission of Central Government and the Federal States for Education Planning and Research Support” The federal states agree policy among themselves as part of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Federal States. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany guarantees everyone the freedom of selfexpression and freedom in their choice of profession, training, and workplace. In this context, education policy aims to provide each individual with the best possible education as well as high-quality vocational training that corresponds to their interests and abilities, thus raising young people to become mature citizens prepared to shoulder responsibility in democratic society. d. Politics The Federal Republic of Germany is located in the heart of Europe, linking the west with the east, the north with the south. The most densely-populated country in Europe, Germany has been flanked by nine neighbouring states since the unification of the two German states in 1990. An integral part of the European Union and NATO, Germany is a partner to the central and eastern European states that are en route to becoming part of a united Europe.

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The Federal Republic of Germany covers an area of 357,022 square kilometres. The longest distance from north to south as the crow flies is 876 kilometers, and from west to east, 640 kilometers. There are some 82.6 million people living in Germany; the country boasts a great cultural diversity and special region-specific qualities, charming towns and attractive landscapes. Additional information about the population, economy, education or environment can be obtained from a leaflet of the Federal Statistical Office Germany. (Reference: http://www. tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de )

VI.1.2. The city Rottweil Rottweil is the oldest town in southwestern Germany in the State of Baden-Württemberg. It was founded by the Romans, traces going back to 2000 bc. Until 1803 it was a Imperial Free City. Rottweil is located between the Black Forest and the Swabian Alb, it is a small town of about 25.000 inhabitants with a medieval center. It is mainly known for its carnival (or also called Fasnet) with very old traditions. The Rottweiler dog is named after this town; it used to be a butcher's dog in the region. (Reference: http://www.rottweil.de )

VI.1.3. The city Konstanz (Bodensee) Konstanz (English traditionally Constance) is a university town of around 80,000 people on the shore of Lake Constance (Bodensee) in the south-west corner of Germany, bordering Switzerland. a. Location Konstanz is situated on the river Rhine which starts in the Swiss Alps and runs through Lake Constance. North of the river lies the larger part with residential areas and industrial estates; while south of the river is the old town which houses the administrative centre and shopping facilities. To the south, the old town is grown together with Kreuzlingen, a Swiss town. b. History The first traces of civilisation in Konstanz date back to the late stoneage. Around 100 AD, the first Romans settled on the site. Its name, originally Constantia, comes from the emperor Constantius Chlorus who fought the Alemanni in the region and fortified the town.Probably in 585 the first bishop took residence in Konstanz and marked the beginning of the city's importance as a spiritual center. By the late Middle Ages, about one fourth of Konstanz' 5'000 inhabitants were extempt from taxation on account of clerical rights. Trade thrived during the Middle Ages; Konstanz owned the only bridge in the region which crossed the Rhine, making it a strategic place. Their linen production had made an international name and the city was prosperous. In 1192, Konstanz got the status of Imperial City so it was henceforth subject only to the emperor. 1414-1418 the Council of Constance took place during which, on July 6, 1415, Jan Hus was burned at the stake. It was here that the Papal Schism was ended and Pope Martin V was elected during Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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the only conclave ever held north of the alps. Ulrich von Richental's illustrated chronical of the Council of Constance testifies to all the major happenings during the Council, as well as showing the everyday life of medieval Konstanz. The Konzilgebäude where the conclave was held can still be seen standing by the harbor. Closeby stands the Imperia, a statue that was erected in 1993 to remind of the Council. In 1460 the Swiss Confederacy conquered the Thurgau, Konstanz' natural hinterland. Konstanz then made an attempt to get admitted to the Swiss Confederacy, but the forest cantons voted against its entry, fearing an overnight of the city cantons. Konstanz then entered the Swabian League instead. In the Swabian War of 1499, Konstanz lost its last privileges over the Thurgau to the Confederation. The Reformation took hold in Konstanz in the 1520's, headed by Ambrosius Blarer. Soon the city declared itself officially Protestant, pictures were removed from the churches, and the bishop temporarely moved to Meersburg, a small town across the lake. However, in 1548 Emperor Charles V imposed the Imperial Ban on Konstanz and it had to surrender to Habsburg Austria which had immediately attacked. Thus, Konstanz lost its status as imperial city as well as the last remainder of its former glory.The new Habsburg overlords were eager to re-Catholicise the town and in 1604 a Jesuit College was opened. Its accompanying theater, built in 1610, is the oldest theater in Germany still performing regularly. c. Konstanz Today Because it practically lies within Switzerland, Konstanz was not bombed by the Allied Forces during World War II. The Altstadt (Old Town), which is big considering the small size of modern Konstanz, has many old buildings and twisted alleys. The city scene is marked by the majestic Münster ("Münster Unserer Lieben Frau") (cathedral), several other churches and three towers left over from the city wall, one of which marks the place of the former medieval bridge over the Rhine. The University of Konstanz was established close to the town in 1966. It houses a top library with approximately 2 million books, all freely accessible 24 hours a day. Konstanz was the birthplace of Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, constructor of the famous Zeppelin airships. (Reference: http://www.konstanz.de )

VI.1.4. The receiving secondary school The students will be guests in different schools near Konstanz and Rottweil. They will be informed especially.

VI.1.5. Living in Germany a. Pre-departure logistics International students need a visa for study purposes to enter Germany (a residency permit in the form of an entry stamp). The visa must have been issued by the German Embassy or the German Consulate in your native country. Exempt from this regulation are applicants and students from EU

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member countries and from countries with which the Federal Republic of Germany has reached a special agreement. At the present time, this is the case for Australia, Honduras, Monaco, San Marino, Israel, Japan, Canada, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Switzerland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and the USA. By no means should you enter Germany as a tourist! You cannot have a tourist visa changed into a student visa after you have entered the country. Students and applicants from non-EU countries are issued a residency permit. This permit is only valid for a specific purpose, in your case to apply or study at a recognized institution of higher education or a similar educational institution or to prepare for studies (e.g. by taking a language course). In the case of preparation for studies or for studies, you can / should be granted residency for two years. Residency permits for applying for studies have a maximum validity of nine months. In order not to lose any time, you should inquire as early as possible at an agency of the German government in your native country as to what documents you need to apply for a visa. The addresses of German embassies and consulates may be found on the internet at the following address: http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/adressen If you need more detailed information, please consult the brochure „Informationen zu den rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen für Einreise und Aufenthalt von ausländischen Studierenden und Wissenschaftlern“ (“Information on the Legal Conditions for the Entry and Residency of International Students and Scientists” – available only in German) from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). b. Getting to the country and the city This depends on the destination (Konstanz or Rottweil). So the students will be informed individually.


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VI.2. Ireland VI.2.1. Introduction of Ireland Ireland’s location and proximity to Britain have in large measure shaped her history. As an island to the west of continental Europe, Ireland, which has been inhabited for about 7,000 years, experienced a number of incursions and invasions, resulting in a rich mixture of ancestry and traditions. The first settlers, mostly hunters from Britain, brought with them a Mesolithic culture. They were followed around 3,000 B.C. by farmers who raised animals and cultivated the soil. After these neolithic settlers, around 2,000 BC came prospectors and metalworkers. By the sixth century B.C. waves of Celtic invaders from Europe began to reach the country. While Ireland was never unified politically by the Celts, they did generate a cultural and linguistic unity. The introduction of Christianity in the fifth century is traditionally credited to St Patrick, though there is evidence that there were Christians on the island before his arrival. Ireland never experienced the barbarian invasions of the early medieval period and, partly as a result, the sixth and seventh centuries saw a flowering of Irish art, learning and culture centring on the Irish monasteries. Irish monks established centres of learning and Christianity in many parts of Europe in the period before 800 A.D. During the ninth and tenth centuries, Ireland was regularly raided by the Vikings. They were also traders and they did much to develop town life at Dublin, Cork and Waterford. Following the defeat of the Vikings by Brian Boru, the High King of Ireland, at Clontarf in 1014, Viking influence in Ireland faded. For the next four hundred years the Normans were an influential presence in Ireland. However, many areas of the country remained in Irish hands and, by the early sixteenth century, there were widespread fears in England that English influence was in danger of collapse, both as a result of Gaelic incursions and of the progressive Gaelicisation of the Norman settlers. Religious change in England at this time had a major impact in Ireland. Following a series of revolts in Ireland - which arose largely in response to religious differences and to the English crown’s policy of introducing new settlers from Britain - Gaelic resistance was worn down and in 1603, the last Gaelic stronghold, Ulster, was brought under crown control. The seventeenth century witnessed a struggle for supremacy which was, after numerous ebbs and flows throughout the period, finally settled at the Battles of the Boyne (1690) and Aughrim (1691). The Old English and the Gaelic Irish, both largely Catholic in religion, were crushed and many of their leaders and followers (“The Wild Geese”) left Ireland to pursue military, religious or commercial careers abroad. The Protestants of the Established Church monopolised political power and ownership of the land and in time would come to see themselves as the Irish Nation. The developing dispute between Britain and her colonies in North America from the 1760s helped create a tradition of radical patriotism that was ultimately, under the impact of the French Revolution, to produce the Society of United Irishmen. In 1798 the United Irishmen staged an insurrection in Ireland, with the objective of establishing an independent Irish republic. The rebellion was

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crushed and the Act of Union of 1800 created a full parliamentary Union between Britain and Ireland. By this time however, Britain and Ireland were moving apart, especially in economic and demographic terms As Britain industrialised and urbanised, Ireland, outside of Ulster, in effect deindustrialised, with the bulk of its rapidly growing population becoming ever more dependent on the potato for sustenance. In the late 1840s, as a result of the wholesale failure of the potato crop in successive years, a terrible famine occurred: one million people died and a further million fled Ireland. Within ten years (1846 - 56) the population had fallen by a quarter (8 million to 6 million), and would fall further as emigration became a dominant feature of Irish society. The question of self-government, or “Home Rule” had not, however, been settled: attempts by Daniel O’Connell and Isaac Butt in the 1840s and 1870s came to little, but under the leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s, the Irish Parliamentary Party placed the Irish question at the centre of British politics. In 1886, the Liberal party under WE Gladstone gave its support to a limited form of self-government for Ireland. Unionists in Ireland, who were predominantly Protestant, and were a majority in the province of Ulster, were galvanised into action by the prospect of Home Rule. Along with their allies in England who feared that Home Rule for Ireland would lead to the break-up of the Empire, Unionists set out to prevent the granting of Home Rule. In an increasingly militarised atmosphere, private paramilitary armies (the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Irish Volunteers) marched and drilled, and hostilities were only averted by the outbreak of the First World War and the consequent postponement of Home Rule. The war changed everything: at Easter 1916 a republic was declared in Dublin and an armed insurrection took place. This rising, which initially enjoyed little public support, was suppressed but its supporters, capitalising on public revulsion at the execution of its leaders, were successful in the General Election of 1918, when they swept aside the Irish Parliamentary Party which had campaigned for Home Rule. Sinn Féin (“Ourselves”), the election victors, refused to take their seats at Westminster and set up the first Dáil (Parliament) in Dublin in 1919. A war of national independence ensued and, by the time an Anglo-Irish treaty was concluded in 1921, six counties in North-East Ulster had already been given their own Northern Ireland parliament. As a result of the treaty, the remaining twenty-six counties formed the Irish Free State. The establishment of the Free State was followed by a short Civil War between those who accepted the treaty and those who wanted to hold out for a republic. Despite its brevity, the Civil War was to colour attitudes and determine political allegiances for decades. The first government of the new State was headed by W.T. Cosgrave of the Cumann na nGaedheal, later Fine Gael party. From the 1930s until the 1970s the Fianna Fail party, founded by Eamon de Valera, dominated Irish politics. Building on a progressive diminution of the constitutional links between Britain and Ireland, a new constitution was introduced in 1937 and Ireland remained neuCon-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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tral during the Second World War. In 1948, the Republic of Ireland Act severed the last remaining constitutional links with Britain. Ireland was admitted to the United Nations in 1955. During the last 20 years, coalition governments have, as elsewhere in Europe, been the norm. These coalitions have involved one of the two larger political parties in combination with the Labour Party, Democratic Left, or the Progressive Democrats. Ireland's membership since 1973 of what is now the European Union has had profound effects. The intervening period has witnessed major changes in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the country.

VI.2.2. Tralee a. Demographic data Area & Population: the area of Kerry is 1,189,786 acres with a population of 126,130. The county Town is Tralee and this is where the Education Centre, and Institute of Technology are located. The ITT Web site should be consulted for additional information: http://www.ittralee.ie b. Geography Kerry is the fifth largest county in Ireland, 38% covered by mountains and lakes, 11% covered by bog and 51% by lowland mineral soil Based on the last census (1996) Kerry's working population is approximately 35,500 employed as follows: Agriculture & Fisheries 10,000, Tourism 8,200, Manufacturing Industry 6,000, Services 11,300. c. Economy Based on the last census (1996) Kerry's working population is approximately 35,500 employed as follows: Agriculture & Fisheries 10,000, Tourism 8,200, Manufacturing Industry 6,000, Services 11,300 d. Weather Southwest weather phoneline 1550-122115. Local weather on the hour on Radio Kerry. Met Eireann Munster forecast 1550 123 850. In general the weather is mild and wet! e. Media Four national daily papers, two evenings and five Sundays. Four weekly papers are published in Kerry. Radio Kerry (97FM - also 97.6 & 96.2) broadcasting in Tralee on 96.6FM - daily 7am to 1am. Mix of music and talk programmes. National and international news every hour. Local news and weather (Monday to Friday) 8.30am and every hour from 9am with last local news 5.30pm. Saturday and Sunday local news 1pm and 6pm. Special visitor Signpost to Kerry Attractions at 8.45am & 1.45pm daily during Summer season. For detailed national (& cross-channel) radio & TV see national papers f. Cultural activity and entertainment

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The Steam train: the old steam train that huffed and puffed for 60 years between Tralee and Dingle was taken out of service in 1953. Most of the track has since disappeared. But a stretch of the line was recently restored, as was one of the original locomotives. And so now you can enjoy the trip by steam between Tralee and Blennerville. Folk theatre: the handsome stone and brick building that adjoins the carpark of the Brandon Hotel houses Siamsa Tíre, the National Folk Theatre of Ireland. Nightly stage shows portray in song, dance, and mime the social and domestic traditions of rural life. The costumes are colourful, the music is brilliant, and the dance routines are electrifying. The Aquadome: water has a universal appeal - especially when it comes in the form of slides, waves, rapids, and whirlpools designed for children of all ages to cavort in. The Aqua Dome, Tralee´s £4.5 million waterworld, has all these and more. For example, it even has an exclusive adultsonly sauna / steam suite for those who want to unwind rather than make a splash. The building itself is unmissable - stunningly imaginative in design and construction. It´s no wonder the Aqua Domeis so popular; it´s a great place for all the family - whatever the weather. Blennerville Windmill: blennerville Windmill is Ireland´s only commercially operated windmill. It is also the tallest of its kind in Europe, 21.3 metres high. This 18th century windmill is now open to the public. There are many fascinating workings to be seen as the giant sails rotate. The adjoining building houses absorbing exhibitions on emigration and the history of milling. Kerry County Museum: Kerry County Museum, housed in the Ashe Memorial Hall, presents the history and archaeology of Kerry in novel and exciting ways. Kerry the Kingdom shows artefacts in their real context with the aid of audio and visual media. The highlight of your visit is the Time Car, which takes you back several centuries and through the streets of medieval Tralee. Attractions galore: Kerry´s biggest town is booming. Tralee has prospered in recent years from a huge inflow of investment. Hotels have expanded; restaurants and pubs have flourished; and a huge range of leisure and entertainment complexes have evolved to meet the growing demand. So not only have you the many traditional out door recreations: golf, swimming, fishing, sailing, walking. You now have a rich choice of indoor and all-weather pursuits from theatre and cinema to aquafun to museums to galleries. Message in a bottle: the rugged coast of Kerry has seen many shipwrecks, some caused by the weather but other brought about purposely by professional ´wreckers´ onshore. While you walk the beaches keep a lookout for treasure. Some years ago a man found a German stoneware bottle of the type struck in c. 1680, bearing the William of Orange crest. The bottle is now in the safe hands of Maurice and Jane O´Keeffe in Tralee. The O`Keeffes have converted their Georgian townhouse into a shop with a difference, furnished with Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian pieces. If you love history or antiques, this place will fascinate you. Kingdom Greyhound Stadium: the new ultra-modern Kingdom Greyhound Stadium is the place to go for a great night out: fun, excitement, and great food, all in luxurious surroundings. The specCon-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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tacular new grandstand offers panoramic views of the track. With restaurant, lounge bar, and hospitality suites, all your needs are catered for. Racing happens every Tuesday & Friday evening and also on Saturdays during the summer months. Racing starts at 8pm. It´s a jungle in here!: jungle Jim`s is a fun-filled area for would-be Tarzans and Janes from one to 14 years of age. It´s equipped to offer a different level of challenge and play for every age. Kids can swing over obstacles, and make their way through the monster maze, testing their bravery on the big slide, and crashing into the lagoon of soft balls. Lots of other amusements also for young and old in this feast of in door fun. Useful Links Blennerville Windmill Aquadome Tralee Siamsa Tíre – Folk Theatre Geraldine Tralee Crag Cave

Fenit Seaworld Greyhound Stadium Tarbert Bridewell Visitor Centre Aquadome Tralee

g. Sports Golf Driving Ranges •

Ardfert Golf Centre: 9am until late. Self Service, €2-30 balls. Address: Sackville, Ardfert, Tralee. Tel/Fax: 066-7134744.

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Ballybunion Golf Club: address: Ballybunion, Co. Kerry - distance 61kms. Tel: (068) 27146. Fax: (068) 27387

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Dunloe Golf Range Centre: Professional available. 36 Balls €2, Putting Green €3, Single Club €2. Open 8.00am-Sunset, 7 days. Address: Gap of Dunloe, Killarney. Tel: (064) 44578Fax: (064) 44733.

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Lathair Spoirt an Daingin: 18 hole Pitch & Putt & Driving Range. Open 10.00am - Dusk, April - October. Café and pool room in the clubhouse. Address: Dingle Pitch & Putt Driving Range, Milltown, Dingle, Co. Kerry Tel: (066) 9152020, 087 9346621.

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Ring of Kerry Golf and Country Club: address: Templenoe, Kenmare, Co. Kerry. Tel: (064) 42000. Fax: (064) 42533

Pitch & Putt •

Deerpark Pitch & Putt: Lewis Road, Killarney. 18 hole course. Open 10.00am-9.00pm, 7 days. Admission: Adults €6, Children €5 (incl. clubs), golf balls €1 each (deposit). Tel: 06436768

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Gleneagle Hotel. Distance 2km. Muckross Road, Killarney. Two 18 hole courses. Open 9.00am to dusk, 7 days. Shower facilities and refreshments. Adm.: Adults €7, Children €5; Clubs €3.50 hire, €1.50 charge for lost balls. Tel: 36000/34063.

Outdoor education Centres

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•

Celtic Adventures: Caherdaniel - distance 96 kms. Hill walking, Campcraft, 5 day navigation course, abseiling, rock-climbing, orienteering. Cost per day includes equipment, instruction. Expedition (Weekend or 5 day), Survival Training (6 day course), Sea Angling and Scuba Diving courses for beginners cost extra. Corporate team building. Rates on request. Tel: 066-9475277.

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Outdoor Education Centre: Cappanalea, Killorglin (distance 28kms). Orienteering, rockclimbing, wind-surfing, canoeing, bouldering, hill-walking, swanaborie (following a stream). Limited availability, booking necessary. Cost (includes equipment, instruction & insurance): Adults €33 full day, €17 half-day, Children €20 full day, €10 half-day. Lunch available (€5 approx). Open 10.00am-1.00pm, 2.00pm-5.00pm, 7 days. Tel: 066-9769244 Fax: 0669769266.

Swimming Pools & Gyms Warning: never swim in rough seas, alone or immediately after eating. It is advisable to swim only when and where there is a lifeguard on duty. There are 13 blue flag beaches in Kerry (awarded for water quality, facilities for visitors and beach management) and as well have lifeguards on duty from early July to early Sept. These are: Ballybunion North, Ballybunion South, Ballinskelligs, Ballyheigue, Banna, Derrynane, Fenit (Inch. Lifeguard: Early July to Mid Sept), Castlemaine-Dingle Road (distance 49kms), Kells, Maherabeg, Rossbeigh (Lifeguard: Mid July to Mid Sept. Glenbeigh. Distance 37kms), Ventry, White Strand, Cahirciveen, Dundag (near Muckross Gardens, Killarney National Park. Warning: No Lifeguard). Boating •

Killarney Lakeland: boat Tours. March-October. Address: Brosnans Rd, Woodlawn, Killarney, Co. KerryTel: (064) 20865 or 087 2789335.

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Passenger Boat Service: boat trips to Skellig Rock. Address: Valentia Island - Distance 80kmsDes Lavelle, Tel: (066) 9476124. Fax: (066) 9476309. Eoin Walsh, Tel: 066-9476327 or 087-2833522

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Seafari: fun eco/nature & seal watching cruises for all ages. April-Oct. 2-hr duration. Singing & humour on board. Address: Kenmare Pier. Tel: 064-83171, 087-2508803.

Open Farms •

Coolwood Wildlife Park: Coolcaslagh (off Cork Road), Killarney. Open 10am-6pm daily, April to October 50 acres wildlife sanctuary. Coffee shop, childrens play area, nature walks and zoo. Adm. free except for zoo (Adult €4, child €3, Family (2 adults, 4 children): €17. Tel: 064-36288

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Kennedy's Animal & Pet Farm: all weather. Brewsterfield, Glenflesk - N22 distance 8kms. 75-acre family farm. Wide variety of animals and birds, pony rides, playground, vintage ma-


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chinery, refreshments, indoor adventure playground, tiny tots corner, walks. Open all year 10am-6pm (-7pm Summer months), 7 days. Adm.: €5 (babies free). I.T.B. approved.Tel: 064-54054. •

Millstreet Country Park: open daily March-October 10am-7pm. 203 hectare park - gardens (ornamental, sensory, tertiary), arboretum, herb meadow, lakes, deer farm, field studies laboratory, visitor centre, restaurant etc. Admission: Car (& passengers) €10, last admision 5.30pm. Tel: 029-70810, Fax: 029-70899

Wind Surfing •

Derrynane Harbour Watersports Centre: Derrynane (approx. 100kms). Water skiing, canoeing, wind-surfing, dinghy sailing. Contact Helen Wilson. Tel: 066-9475266, 087-9081208

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Jamie Knox Watersports: Paddle boats, surf boards & banana rides. Also surfing, dinghy sailing, canoeing, wind surfing, wake boarding, boogie boards for hire. On site accommodation. Lessons available. Tel: 066-7139411, fax: 066-7139011

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Waterworld: Sandy Bay, Castlegregory. Wind-surfing, surfing, water-skiing, boogie board, sailing, scuba diving. Tel: 066-7139292 or 087-2778236.

Snooker •

Cue Snooker Club: 9 High Street (entrance via Hilliard’s Lane). Open 11am-midnight, 7 days. €6 per hour. Pool €1 per game. Tel: 064-30057

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Gleneagle Hotel: Muckross Rd. €10 deposit refundable, €4 per hour for lights. Tel: 06436000/064-34063.

VI.2.3. Living in Ireland a. Medical Treatment & Medicine British visitors holding a current national health card or E111 are entitled to emergency medical treatment. Other EU visitors with an E111 are also entitled to emergency medical treatment. NonEU visitors will be charged and given a receipt which they can claim back against their own national health or medical insurance as appropriate. In cases of Emergency telephone 999 or 112. b. Student offers Students with a valid ISIC card benefit from numerous travel discounts, as well as reduced admission to museums, concerts, etc. c. Money The unit of currency is the Euro, divided into one hundred cent. Ireland, like most EU countries (with the exception of the UK), changed over to Euro on January 1st 2002. Banks are open Monday to Friday 10am - 4pm with late opening until 5pm on Wednesdays. Bureau De Change facilities in Killarney are available until much later and seven days a week

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d. Postal Charges Postal charges are: Ireland and Britain: postcards or letters 41c; Rest of EU 44c; Airmail to the U.S. and Australia and rest of world: postcards or letters 57c. Killarney Post Office is open from 9am 5.30pm Monday and Wednesday to Saturday, from 9.30am on Tuesday e. Telephone Charges & Enquiries Standard land line charges within Ireland are 6c per minute - local call; up to 20c per minute for a long distance call (direct dial). Cheaper rates are available after 6.00pm and at weekends. Directory Enquiries for Ireland dial 11811; International Enquiries 11818 f. Electrical Current The standard electrical supply is 220 volts AC (50 cycles). To use small appliances, you may need a plug adaptor (3-pin flat or 2-pin round wall sockets). g. Public Transport CIE, the national transport company, provide bus and train services to, from and within Kerry through two of their subsidiaries – Iarnrod Eireann (rail) and Bus Eireann. In general public transport in Ireland is expensive and infrequent, all journeys should be planned carefully! h. Restaurant - Tankard Seafood Restaurant - Kilfenora, Fenit (066 7136164) - Johnny Franks,The Meadowlands Hotel, Oakpark, Tralee (066 7180444) - Bailys Corner, 52, Ashe Street, Tralee (066 7126230) - B Bar, The Brandon Hotel, Tralee (066 7123333) - Old Market Place, The Abbeygate Hotel, Tralee (066 7129888) - Kirbys Brogue Inn, Rock Street, Tralee (066 7123221) - David Norris, Ivy House, Ivy Terrace, Tralee (066 7185654) - Pikeman, The Grand Hotel, Denny Street, Tralee (066 7121499) - Acorn, Killarney Oaks Inn, Muckross Rd. Killarney (064-37600) - Brook Restaurant, Brook Lodge Hotel, High Street. Killarney (064-31800) - Castlerosse Hotel, Fossa. Killarney (064-31144) - Dunloe Castle Hotel, Beaufort. Killarney (064-44111) - Fáilte Family Restaurant, College St. Killarney (064-33404) - Foley’s Steak & Seafood Restaurant, 23 High Street. Killarney (064-31217) i. Pubs Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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The social hub of Irish life is the pub, and Kerry is no different. Pup opening hours: Mondays, Tuesdays & Wednesdays from 10.30am until 11.30pm: on Thursdays, Fridays & Saturdays until 12.30am, and on Sundays from 12.30pm until 11pm. Closing time on the eve of public holidays is 12.30am j. Shopping The opening hours of most shops are 9am until 5.30pm or 6.00pm Monday to Saturday. In Killarney, in the Summer/Autumn period, quite a number of shops remain open until 10 or 11pm. Most shops are also open on Sundays in the summer. k. Lodging Accommodation: there is a student accommodation service on the Campus and it should be consulted to find suitable accommodation in Tralee. There is a lot of student accommodation available throughout the year. Accommodation prices are approximately €50/week per person.

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VI.3. Italy a. History of Italy The concept of Italy as a geographic entity goes back to the time of the Etruscans, but Italy’s history is one of discord and division. Prior to the 19th century, the only time the peninsula was united was under the Romans, who by the 2nd century BC had subdued the other Italian tribes. Rome became the capital of a huge empire, introducing its language, laws and calendar to most of Europe before succumbing to Germanic invaders in the 5th century AD. Another important legacy of the Roman Empire was Christianity and the position of the pope as head of the Catholic Church. The medieval papacy summoned the Franks to drive out the Lombards and, in 800 AD, crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor. Unfortunately, what seemed to be the dawn of a new age turned out to be anything but a period of peace. For five centuries popes and emperors fought to decide which of them should be in charge of their nebulous empire. In the centuries that followed Venice, fabulously wealthy through trade with the East as well as other cities, such as Genoa, Florence, Milan, Pisa and Siena were the centre of cultural and economic development. Northern Italy became the most prosperous and cultured region in Western Europe and it was the artists and scholars of the 15th century Florence who inspired the Renaissance. Small, fragmented states, however, could not compete with great powers. In the 16th century Italy’s petty kingdoms fell prey to foreign invaders, Spain, and, next, Austria. Unification was achieved in 1870. In the 1920s the Fascists seized power and, in the 1946, the monarchy was abandoned for today’s republic. Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957. b. Demographic data Full country name: Italian Republic. Area: 301,230 sq km. Population: 57.99 million. Capital City: Rome. Language: Italian. Religion: 84% Roman Catholic, 6% Jewish, Muslim and Protestant. Government: republic. Head of State: President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi. Head of Government: Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. Major Industries: tourism, engineering, textiles, chemicals, food processing, motor vehicles, clothing and footwear. Major Trading Partners: EU (especially Germany, France, UK, Spain, Netherlands), USA c. Economy overview


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Italy has a diversified industrial economy with roughly the same total and per capita output as France and the UK. This capitalistic economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed, welfaredependent agricultural south, with 20% unemployment. Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. Over the past decade, Italy has pursued a tight fiscal policy in order to meet the requirements of the European Economic and Monetary Union and has benefited from lower interest and inflation rates. The current government has enacted numerous short-term reforms aimed at improving competitiveness and long-term growth. Italy has moved slowly, however, on implementing needed structural reforms, such as lightening the high tax burden and overhauling Italy's rigid labour market and over-generous pension system, because of the current economic slowdown and opposition from labour unions. d. Education The debate is actually focused on the reform of the educational and training system, from kindergarten to the university. After years of debates and proposals, the centre-left majority of the previous government approved a reform of school cycles (Law of 10 February 2000, no. 30, issued under delegated power) that provided for a 3-year non compulsory scuola dell’infanzia, a 7-year primary cycle scuola di base and a 5-year secondary cycle, this latter subdivided into areas (classicalhumanities, scientific, technical and technological, artistic and music areas), whereas the educational institutes were all called licei. However, the above mentioned law has been abrogated by the present government, whose centre-right majority approved Law of 28 March 2003, no. 53, that foresees a 3-year non compulsory scuola dell’infanzia, a first school cycle including 5-year primary school, a 3-year cycle (scuola secondaria di primo grado) followed by a 5-year cycle (scuola secondaria di secondo grado). According to the above mentioned law, the study path still lasts 16 years and is completed when students are 19 years old; according to the abrogated law, the study path lasted one year less and finished when students were 18 years old. However, this difference is reduced, due to the possibility offered by the new law to anticipate enrolment in scuola dell’infanzia and primary school for pupils who reach respectively 3 and 6 years within the 30th of April of the school year in which they are going to attend school. Implementation decrees have to be issued within 24 months after approval of Law 53/2003. University sector as well as financing and recruitment procedures of its teaching staff and their legal status are also subjects under debate. However, the present degree system is another subject that will be probably discussed, despite its recent reform (Law 509/99). e. Politics For administrative purposes Italy is divided into 20 regions, which roughly correspond to the historical regions of the country, each of which has some degree of autonomy. The regions are then subdivided into provinces and municipalities. Five regions (Sicily, Sardinia, Trentino-Alto Adige, FriuliVenezia Giulia and Valle d'Aosta) are semi-autonomous or autonomous, with special powers

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granted under the constitution. The country is a parliamentary republic, headed by a president who appoints the prime minister. The parliament consists of a senate and a “Camera dei Deputati”, both of which have equal legislative power. The seat of national government is in Rome. Until reforms were introduced in 1994, members of parliament were elected by what was probably the purest system of proportional representation in the world. Two-thirds of both houses are now elected on the basis of who receives the most votes in each district.

VI.3.1. Pavia a. History Although dating back to pre-Roman times, during the Roman Empire the town of Pavia was a municipality and an important military site. Subsequently, it became a fortified citadel and the last bulwark of the Goths and the Byzantines. After the Longobard conquest, Pavia became the capital of their kingdom and later of the Regnum Italicum until the 12th century. Afterwards Pavia became an important and active town. Conquered by the Visconti family ruling over Milan, it became an intellectual and artistic centre, being the seat of the University which attracted students from many countries. After the Franco-Spanish war and the battle of Pavia (1525) the town fell under the Spanish occupation until 1713. It was then ruled by the Austrians until 1796, when was occupied by the French army under Napoleon. In 1815 it again passed under Austrian administration until the Second War of Independence (1859) and the unification of Italy one year later. Pavia is now a municipality of some 90,000 inhabitants and the main centre of a fertile province essentially devoted to agriculture (wine, rice, cereals, dairy products). Some industries located in the suburbs do not disturb the peaceful atmosphere which comes from the preservation of past memories and the climate of study and meditation associated with its ancient University. b. Monuments Tourist and visitors get impressed mainly by Pavia’s amazing historical and artistic heritage: the Castello Visconteo, founded by Galeazzo Visconti II in the second half of the 14th century (incorporating the Municipal Museum as well) represent a significant example of medieval architecture. The Romanesque church of S. Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, dating back to the 12th century preserves the bodies of the two philosophers St. Augustine and Severino Boezio and of the Longobard king Liutprand. The main theatre, Teatro Fraschini (1771-1773) and the buildings of the central part of the University officially founded in 1361 by the Visconti family, are both built along Strada Nuova (the ancient Roman road running north to south). The Crypt of S.Eusebio (11thC) still connected with a 7thC Arian cathedral and three Medieval Towers are in Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, right behind the main University entrance. The City Hall Palazzo Mezzabarba was built in the 18thC in Corso Mazzini (the Roman road running east to west), by G. A. Veneroni. Piazza della Vittoria is the heart of Pavia where Broletto (12th -13thC) residence of Municipality up to 1875 is set. The Cathedral was founded in 1488 by Cardinal Ascanio Sforza and the 19thC Dome is the third largest in Italy. Its Torre Civica collapsed in 1989. A lot of churches make Pavia artistically beautiful: the Gothic church Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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of S. Maria Del Carmine, the late-Romanesque S. Teodoro and, not far from the river the 12thC S. Michele. The Ponte Coperto (covered bridge) is a reconstruction of the Fourteenth Century Bridge that was destroyed during the last war bombing and it leads to Borgo Ticino. We will end this worthy visiting list with the Certosa, above five miles north of Pavia. Part of a monastery, now under the care of the Cistercian monks from the community of Casamari, the Certosa was founded by Gian Galeazzo Visconty in August 1396. It took more than two centuries to built and decorate the Certosa. The result is a sequence of styles (Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque) well displayed on the facade and in the other parts of the complex. c. Climate Pavia is situated in the plain of the river Po and enjoys a temperate continental climate. The winter months are pretty cold (between –5°C and +5°C), frequently rainy. The spring season is usually warm (between +10°C and +20°C). Summer is characterised by a hot (between +25°C and +35°C) and humid climate. The autumn: temperatures vary between +18°C and +20°C, but make sure you bring some heavy clothes and a raincoat. d. Culture activity and entertainment •

Museums: Musei Civici / Castello Visconteo / (Ingresso da Viale XI Febbraio) / 27100 PAVIA / 0382-33853

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Museo per la Storia dell'Università di Pavia Palazzo Centrale dell'Università/ C.so Strada Nuova, 65 / 27100 PAVIA/ 0382-29724

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Museo di Archeologia del Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichità Università di Pavia / C.so Strada Nuova, 65 / 27100 PAVIA / 0382984497

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Theater:

Teatro Fraschini / Corso Strada Nuova, 138

For further information on cultural activity going on in Pavia please visit the following web pages (in Italian): http://www.miapavia.it and http://www.pavianet.com/ e. Sports: There are several sporting facilities and activities in Pavia. An extensive list of various sporting clubs and gyms can be found in the Yellow Pages under Associazioni e federazioni sportive or Palestre. You may also enrol at the University of Pavia's sports association, "C.U.S." (Centro Universitario Sportivo), which allows you access to their many facilities and lessons, as well as a discount at many gyms and pools. The C.U.S. offers the structures and promotes courses for beginners and professionals. It is possible to practise the following sports activities: Aerobics, Soccer, Canoeing, Rowing, Physical Conditioning, Modern Dance, Fitness, Swimming, Volleyball, Beach Volley, Basketball, Fencing, Step, Stretching, Archery, and Judo...

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VI.3.1.1. The University of Pavia The University of Pavia is one of the most ancient Universities in Italy. In Pavia, education was ruled first through one of Emperor Lothar’s edicts that allowed the creation of a School of Law, which provided the Regnum Italicum with lawyers and judges (enacted in 825 A.D.). The official founding of the University took place in 1361, when the proposal made by Galeazzo II Visconti, was recognised by Charles IV, and gave finally birth to the Studium Generale Utriusque Iuris. It is on 1389 that Pope Bonifacius IX approved the foundation granting the complete protection of the Church, on the Institution. During the XV the University lived a great period since Professors such as Lorenzo Valla (14071457) gave a very important contribution to the development of the Humanistic Thoughts or people such as the German scientist and philosopher Nikolaus Krebs von Cues (1401-1464) to the field of Medicine and Mathematics. With the beginning of the Spanish domination, 1559, the University passed through a deep crisis, mainly because of the affirmation of new universities both in Italy and in Europe. After a long period of decadence, during the XVIII century, the University of Pavia blossomed again, thanks to Empress Maria-Theresa of Austria. In 1796, the Austrian army closed the University as French troops invaded Italy, until June 1800 when it was recognised as University of the Kingdom of Italy. In 1923, thanks to the reform proposed by Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944), the academic organization was renewed and therefore improved. After the end of the Second World War, the University of Pavia has blossomed again due to the initiative of Chancellor Plinio Fraccaro. During the 1960’s more teaching programmes were added, such as the Faculties of Commerce and Engineering. The development of educational and scientific structures, libraries, and laboratories has improved year after year, giving to the University of Pavia its qualities and turning it into what it is at present. VI.3.1.2. Living in Pavia a. Pre-departures logistics Identity Card or Passport (for all EU citizens): as a citizen of another EU Member State your identity card will be sufficient to enter Italy. Passport: passports are essential documents for anybody from Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Visas can be obtained at the Italian Consulates present in these Countries. International Student Identification Card: registered students can save money with an International Student Identification Card (ISIC). Substantial discount are provided on many forms of transport


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(including airlines and local public transport), cheap or free admissions to museums and sights, and inexpensive meals in some student cafeterias and restaurants. International Driver’s license: for those students who want to drive either a private or rented car while in Italy, driver's license from EU countries and Romania are valid. Personal property insurance: a travel insurance policy -one that covers theft, medical treatment, emergency evacuation and personal liability- is recommended. Currency: since 2002 the currency is Euro b. Getting to Pavia and to the University Pavia is located in the north of Italy, 35 km South of Milan. It can be reached easily by train. All express trains leaving Milan (Stazione Centrale) to Genoa take about 25 minutes to reach Pavia. Both the Milan airports (Malpensa and Linate) are connected by bus to Milan (Stazione Centrale). Pavia can be reached by car through the Milan-Genoa A7 Highway, or state way n 35. A coach service connects Milan (Piazza Castello) with Pavia (Piazza Stazione) in about 50 minutes. By Plane: the airports nearest to Pavia are: Milano Linate and Milano Malpensa. If you fly with lowcost companies, you might check for the Airport of Orio al Serio (Bergamo) or Montichiari (Brescia). From these airports, you usually reach Milano by bus and then Pavia by train (www.trenitalia.it) or bus (timetable at http://www.sgea). By Train: Pavia is served by frequent trains from Milan. The journey takes approximately 30 minutes. Pavia is on the Milano-Genova railway line (for timetable visit http://trenitalia.it). From the Pavia railway station you can reach the University by walk or: BUS: line 3 direction "TEVERE" from "STAZIONE" to "GOLGI/TARAMELLI" bus stop. Ticket may be purchased inside the station building. TAXI: Piazzale della Stazione 9 TEL: 0382 27439 By Car: if you travel by car from Milano you should take the A7 Highway (Milano-Genova); to get into Pavia from Milano you should take the Bereguardo (Pavia Nord) exit of the A7. c. Getting around Buses: Pavia is a small town and you can get almost wherever you want by riding a bike. Line buses can get you around in the town. Bus tickets have to be purchased before getting on newsstand, tobacco shop or bars. For more detailed information please contact Line S.p.a. at: www.lineservizi.it Trains: The Railway Station is in Piazzale Stazione. Tickets either can be purchased in the Train Station, in authorised Travel Agencies, or on the Internet with a Credit Card (www.trenitalia.it). If you are 26 or even younger and if you decide to leave in a group of three or more you can ask for special discounts. Remember that tickets must be validated before you get on the train.

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Taxi: Piazzale della Stazione / 038227439 // Piazza Vittoria / 038229190 // Piazzale Golgi / 0382526288 d. Medical issues, health and safety: Healthcare and Medical Assistance: tourists requiring urgent medical care should go to the nearest hospital emergency room (airports and many train stations also have medical teams and first aid facilities). Those with serious illnesses or allergies should always carry a special note from their physicians certifying in detail the treatments in progress or that may be necessary. Medical facilities: Policlinico San Matteo I.R.C.C.S. / Viale Golgi, 19 / 0382-5011. Dial 118 for Medical Emergency Safety: In Pavia criminality is very low. However not all places are as safe as they seem. Train station and tourist attractions are places you are likely to run into pickpockets and thieves. Emergencies: emergency phone numbers are as follows: 118 For Medical Emergency

112 for Carabinieri's service

113 for Emergency Police Help

115 for the Fire Department

118 for Medical Emergencies

176 International Inquires

116 for the A.C.I. (Italian Automobile Club) for road side assistance 12 Phone Directory Assistance e. Other useful information Public Telephones: Public telephones are available throughout Italy. Either local or international calls require the use of a phone card (Carta Telefonica) which may be purchased at any newsstand, tobacco shop or "bar"(coffee shop). If you want to call Pavia from abroad you have to dial: 0039+0382+numbers. From Italy to your country: 00 + country code + local code + telephone number. Meals: the University Canteens are run by the I.S.U. and they are mainly located close to the student residences. In order to be entitled to use the university restaurants you should go at the I.S.U. office and ask for a card (Tesserino Mensa). This will allow you to pay only € 5 for a full meal. I.S.U. / Via Calatafimi, 11 / 038222392/27741/29218 / http://www.isu.pv.it Opening hours: 9:30-12:00 a.m. and 2:00-3:00 p.m. Monday to Thursday, 9:30-12:00 a.m. Fridays To know where the University Canteens are located please check the web site at http://www.isu.pv.it/documenti/Mappa%20collegi.htm f. Tourist offices in Pavia:


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Post office: post Offices are open from 8.00 am - 1.30/2.00 pm from Monday to Friday, Saturday 8.00-11.45 am. Some counters (e.g. registered mail, telegrams, etc.) have different hours and in the main cities they may also open in the afternoon. Information about postal services can be obtained by dialling 160. Stamps can be obtained in any post office and any appointed tobacco shop. Main post office in Pavia is Posta Centrale, Piazza della Posta 1 (www.poste.it).

VI.3.2. Sassari The second largest Sardinian city Sassari (population 130.000) is the administrative centre of the largest province in Italy. It lies on a range of hills overlooking the strait between Northern Sardinia and the Southern coast of Corsica. Its position in the middle of the Western Mediterranean sea and its altitude of 225 meters above sea level produce a pleasant all year round climate. Commerce, service industries and tourism form the economic base of the city and its province. Wine, olive oil, dairy and meat are still produced within a short distance from the suburbs. Educational, cultural, economic and health services are provided within the city centre. Like many other Italian cities, Sassari prides itself in its traditions. Two expressions of this are worth mentioning: La Cavalcata Sarda: In late May, thousands of people come from all over Sardinia to take part in the Sassari parade through the city in their local costumes accompanied by hundreds of the best examples of Sardinian horses (and the occasional donkey). Festa dei Candelieri: Another procession, in which enormous wooden candles are carried by members of the city guilds from the town centre to the Church of Santa Maria of Bethlehem in commemoration of the end of the plague in 1582 (14 th August). a. Climate Temperatures rarely fall to 0 °C in the winter and can reach 35 °C in the summer. b. A brief history Any traces of Sassari's prehistory probably lie a few meters below your feet, a couple of kilometers outside town or in the local museum. Sassari has been in continuous expansion, outwards from the centre and upwards as new buildings are erected on the sites of previous ones. Sassari (originally called Tathari or Tattari) began to flourish as an urban centre in the eleventh century when refugees from the coastal area near Porto Torres (once an important Roman port) moved to the hinterland to avoid pirate attacks. Like many cities in this part of the world, Sassari history is part and parcel of the rise and fall of Mediterranean empires. Aragon, Spain, Genova, Pisa and Italy (to mention but a few) have passed through and left their mark. The population was, of course, not always prepared to accept this foreign domination, and rose in revolt in 1236, 1325 and 1798 in defense of what they considered their natural, traditional, civil rights.

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This involvement in political events may explain the fact that Sassari is the birthplace of a number of important political figures of national importance. Antonio Segni (1891-1972) was the President of the Italian Republic from 1962 to 1964, Francesco Cossiga was President from 1985 to 1992, and Enrico Berlinguer was General Secretary of the Italian Communist Party. VI.3.2.1. Università degli studi di Sassari Università degli studi di Sassari / Piazza Università 21, 07100 Sassari / 079-228211 079-228816 The University of Sassari was founded by Alessio Fontana, a distinguished gentleman of the town of Sassari in 1558. The official opening dates back to the month of May 1562. It was firstly run by the Jesuits. Today, the University, which is of medium size, with a total number of over 18.000 students and about 700 teachers, consists of 11 Faculties and over 40 Departments, Study Centers and Institutes. There are several Specialist Schools, Research Institutions, and Schools for Special Research and Postgraduate Schools. The Schools: Agriculture (Degree Course in Agriculture and Forestry), Architecture ,Economics and Business ,Pharmacy (Degree Courses in Pharmacy and in Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Technology), Law ,Arts (Degree Courses in Italian, Philosophy, Education, and Foreign Languages and Literatures), Surgery (Degree Courses in Medicine and Surgery and in Dentistry), Veterinary Medicine ,Mathematical Sciences ,Physical and Natural Sciences (Degree Courses in Chemistry, Biological Science, Natural and Environmental Sciences) and Political Science . Overseas guest and exchange students: Places are available for overseas students in a limited number. Students from foreign countries who want to apply for admission to an Italian State University should forward their request through the Italian consulates in their country. Prior to being admitted overseas students are required to pass a test intended to give satisfactory evidence to the University of their proficiency in written and spoken Italian indicating that they are able to take full advantage of their studies in Italy. Students moving in the frame of EU programmes (e.g. ERASMUS or ECTS), or of agreements signed by the University of Sassari with overseas Universities, will be received irrespective of the above limits. Courses: The University of Sassari offers short-term courses (Scuole dirette a fini speciali), undergraduate courses (Corsi di laurea) and different kinds of post-graduate courses, not only valid in the sphere of academic research (Corsi di laurea specialistica, Dottorati di ricerca, Scuole di specializzazione, Corsi di perfezionamento). The main degree awarded is called Laurea; it is conferred on students having passed the prescribed number of examinations and presented a written thesis on a specific topic. The duration of the studies to obtain such a degree depends on the Faculty and ranges from 3 to 6 years. Health and insurance: By law, Italian students are covered by a compulsory health insurance scheme administered by the regional health services. Guest students from EU countries, who are Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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members of their national health insurance scheme, are entitled to receive the health services of the A.S.L. (Azienda Sanitaria Locale) in Italy, by exhibiting the card issued by their Local Health Authority. University Central Library: Biblioteca Universitaria / Piazza Università 22, (first floor) / 079235179 079-235787 The 350.000 books belonging to the library deal with general and specific subjects, am there are also valuable early editions. The library is open to all adults, not only university students. A loancard can be obtained from the library office if you provide a letter from your course coordinator, an identity document and two passport phopographs. University sports centre: The "Centro Sportivo Universitario" (C.U.S.) offers the chance to take part in sporting activities at very reasonable prices. The well equipped structure is at San Giovanni on the outskirts of the city, and can be easily reached by public transport. Students can also obtain discounts via the Centre for membership and use of associated sporting facilities for athletics, body building, martial arts, fencing, horse-riding, swimming and gymnastics. In order to get a C.U.S. membership card it is necessary a letter from your coordinator, a medical certificate, two passport photographs to: C.U.S., viale Umberto, 72. VI.3.2.2. Living In Sassari a. How to get to Sassari Sassari is in the northwest of the island of Sardinia. It can be reached by plane, ferry, train, bus and car. Plane: The nearest airport is ALGHERO - FERTILIA (about 30 Km from Sassari). There are flights to ALGHERO - FERTILIA from a number of Italian cities, such as Rome, Milan, Pisa, Bologna, Genoa, Turin and Cagliari. From the airport there is a bus service to the centre of Sassari. Ferry: The nearest seaport is PORTO TORRES (about 20 Km from Sassari). Ferries run from Genoa and Civitavecchia (Rome). From PORTO TORRES to Sassari there is a frequent bus service. If you arrive in Sardinia at other points than those already mentioned, such as Cagliari, Olbia or Arbatax, there are bus and train services to Sassari. b. Accommodation If you have not already organized accommodation before your arrival you should contact your tutor, who will be able to give you advice. ERSU (Ente Regionale per il diritto allo Studio Universitario) tries to offer accommodation to all its visiting students, but if this is not possible you might have to look for your own lodgings. Information can be found on the University notice boards or in local newspapers and small magazines. Prices vary according to size and situation. c. University dining hall

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The "Mensa Universitaria" is placed in Via dei Mille, not far from the Agricultural Sciences building. You need a diner's card to eat here. To get your card, ask your tutor for an attendance certificate. Take this with two passport size photographs to the ERSU office (Via Carbonazzi, 10) where you will receive your card. You will then be able to buy dinner tickets at student rates. The dining hall is open in term time from 12 to 2 pm, and 7 to 9 pm every day except Sunday. d. Public transport The local bus company (ATP) provides a service which covers the city and the surrounding area. It is possible to buy single, return and season tickets. These are on sale at tobacconist’s, newsagent's and bus stations. An intercity coach company connects Sassari to other Sardinia e. Useful information for guest students The following is a list of information (places, addresses, phone numbers, etc.) which may be of help to visitors. You can find out more by talking to your tutor, other students and teachers, or by looking at the University notice-boards, the telephone directory or the local newspaper, La Nuova Sardegna . f. Health insurance All guest students should have an insurance policy covering medical care and third party liability. It is advisable to obtain this in your own country before you arrive. You should also bring your EIII medical insurance form. g. Documents Before you set out, check that your essential documents are in order and will be valid for the whole period of your stay as renewal from abroad can be difficult and time consuming. Within 8 days of your arrival you will need to obtain a residence permit ( permesso di soggiorno ) from the local police station ( Questura ). h. Reception and leisure With the aim of quickly integrating foreign students within our institution, free courses of Italian are organized. Foreign students have the same treatment as local students, which means, for example, that they can stay in the Student Hostel and make use of the University Canteen - thus gaining a real economic advantage. i. Emergency telephone numbers Police 113 // Fire Brigade 115 // Ambulance 118 j. Office and shop opening hours As a general rule, shops and offices are open in the morning and the afternoon-evening, but closed at lunch time, and all day Sunday. k. Eating out Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Almost every bar offers cakes, crisps, ice-cream and snacks. There are also take-away, trattorias, pizzerias and restaurants. l. Time Compared to G.M.T. Italy is one hour ahead from October to March, and two hours ahead from April to September. m. Electrical appliances The voltage in Italy is 220. Plugs and sockets are not always the same, so it is a good idea to bring universal adaptors. The T.V./Video system is PAL.

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VI.4. Romania a. History of Romania Romanians have an old and rich history. The ancient name of this territory was Dacia. It was inhabited by Getic and Dacian populations. After the wars against Rome, between 101-102 and 105-106, Dacia became a Roman province providing the basis for the formation of both the Romanian people and language. During the Middle Ages Romanians lived in three provinces, namely Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. These got united during the 19th and 20th c., forming modern Romania. The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adopted the new name of Romania. The country gained full independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and acquired new territories following the conflict (the third Romanian principality, Transilvania). In 1940, it allied with the Axis powers and participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist "people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in 1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and executed in late 1989. Although Romania completed accession talks with the European Union (EU) in December 2004, it must continue to address rampant corruption - while invigorating lagging economic and democratic reforms - before it can achieve its hope of joining the EU, tentatively set for 2007. Romania joined NATO in March of 2004. From: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ro.html and www.edu,ro b. Demographic data Location: Romania lies in the Central-South-Eastern part of the European continent, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Ukraine. Population: 22,329,977 persons. Geographic coordinates: 46 00 N, 25 00 E. Area: total: 237,500 sq km. land: 230,340 sq km. water: 7,160 sq km. Land boundaries: total: 2,508 km. Border countries: Bulgaria 608 km, Hungary 443 km, Moldova 450 km, Serbia and Montenegro 476 km, Ukraine (north) 362 km, Ukraine (east) 169 km. Coastline: 225 km. Religions: Eastern Orthodox (including all sub-denominations) 87%, Protestant 6.8%, Catholic 5.6%, other (mostly Muslim) 0.4%, unaffiliated 0.2% (2002). Languages: The official language of the state is Romanian, belonging to the Latin family of languages; within the local public administration, where the percentage of inhabitants belonging to another ethnic populations is over 20%, their language can also be used.The foreign languages most frequently spoken in the country are English, French and German. c. Economy Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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Romania began the transition from Communism in 1989 with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited to the country's needs. The country emerged in 2000 from a punishing three-year recession thanks to strong demand in EU export markets. Despite the global slowdown in 2001-02, strong domestic activity in construction, agriculture, and consumption have kept growth above 4%. An IMF standby agreement, signed in 2001, was accompanied by slow but palpable gains in privatization, deficit reduction, and the curbing of inflation. The IMF Board approved Romania's completion of the standby agreement in October 2003, the first time Romania had successfully concluded an IMF agreement since the 1989 revolution. In July 2004, the Executive Board of the IMF approved a 24-month standby arrangement for $367 million. The Romanian authorities do not intend to draw on this arrangement, viewing it as a precaution. Meanwhile, recent macroeconomic gains have done little to address Romania's widespread poverty, and corruption and red tape handicap the business environment. d. Culture In spite of these modern developments, Romania still offers a variety of customs, traditions, and forms of folk art. Wood carvings, brightly ornamented costumes, skillfully woven carpets, pottery, and other elements of traditional Romanian culture remain popular and, with the onset of tourism, have become known internationally. Folk art is characterized by abstract or geometric designs and stylized representations of plants and animals. In embroidery and textiles, designs and colour schemes can be associated with particular regions of the country. Special folk arts of Romania are the decoration of highly ornamental Easter eggs and painting on glass, which, however, is becoming a lost skill. Folk music includes dance music, laments and ballads, and pastoral music. Major instruments are the violin, the cobza (a stringed instrument resembling a lute), the tambal (a dulcimer played with small hammers), and the flute. Folk melodies are preserved in the music of modern Romanian composers such as Georges Enesco. Romanian culture is largely derived from the Roman, with strains of Slavic, Magyar (Hungarian), Greek, and Turkish influence. Poems, folktales, and folk music have always held a central place in Romanian culture. Romanian literature, art, and music attained maturity in the 19th century. Although Romania has been influenced by divergent Western trends, it also has a rich native culture. Romanian art, like Romanian literature, reached its peak during the 19th century. Among the leading painters were Theodor Aman, a portraitist, and landscape painter Nicolae Grigorescu. Between 1945 and 1989 Romanian art was dominated by socialist realism, a school of art that was officially sponsored by the Communist government, and through which socialist ideals were promoted and advanced. A notable contribution to modern concepts of 20th-century art was the work of Romanian-born French sculptor Constantin Brancusi. From: http://www.traveldocs.com/ro e. Education Years compulsory - 10. Attendance - 98%. Literacy - 98%.

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Higher education in Romania is provided in higher education institutions: universities, institutes, academies, conservatories and colleges. Higher education institutions are coordinated, financed and supervised by the Ministry of Education and Research, which is the National Authority for Education. At the end of every academic year, rectors of higher education institutions must submit a report on the state of the higher education institution to the MEdC, which is a public document. Under the authority of the ministry a number of councils and agencies play a very important role in fields such as financing and scientific research. The national higher education system comprises both state and private accredited education institutions and units. The academic year starts at 1st of November (the Friday or the Monday which is the closest to this date). Based on their institutional autonomy, universities may also decide on the academic schedule. Each year is divided into two semesters. Each semester lasts fourteen weeks. Students have a summer holiday, a Christmas holiday, an Easter holiday and a holiday at the end of the first semester. Examination takes place at the end of each semester. They may be oral or written. A reexamination period is scheduled before the beginning of the new academic year. The Romanian higher education system provides full time courses, evening courses, part time courses and distance learning. The part time and distance learning courses may be provided only by higher education institutions that organize full time courses. The programs of such courses are usually one academic year longer than the full time courses programs. Romania has made major steps towards the European Higher Education Area by reorganizing the entire higher education system. A new higher education structure has been adopted following the discussions that occurred within the National Rectors Council in November 2003 which have shown a general consensus regarding the adoption of this structure. The Declaration of the National Higher Education Conference released on 5 November 2003 expressed the commitment of all academic representatives (Universities, National Rectors Council and Ministry of Education and Research) to sustain the objectives stated in the Bologna declaration and in the Prague 2001, and Berlin 2003, ministerial meetings. The new legislation of June 2004 (law no. 288/2004) stipulates the reorganisation of university studies in three cycles (Bachelor, Master, and Doctoral). Starting with the academic year 2005-2006, Romanian higher education structure will be as follows: • First cycle (180-240 ECTS) – Bachelor degree; • Second cycle (90-120 ECTS, exceptionally 60 ECTS) – Master degree; • Third cycle (3 years and in special situations 4 or 5 years) - Doctoral degree. All candidates for the title of doctor must be graduates of master’s study programmes. Higher education institutions in Romania have been involved in SOCRATES and LEONARDO da VINCI programmes since 1997. Responsible for academic mobility are National Agency Socrates Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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and Leonardo da Vinci Agency, both under the coordination of the Ministry of Education and Research. For the academic year 2003/2004 the sum allotted for Erasmus mobilities was 3.100.000 Euros and 3.122.308,38 were spent (due funds transfer from the decentralised action "Mobilities") and a number of 3005 students have participated in mobility programmes (Source: Socrates National Agency). Some minor visa problems of Romanians students have been solved. f. Politics National holiday: Unification Day (of Romania and Transylvania), 1 December (1918) Form of Government: constitutional parliamentary republic Executive branch: chief of state: President Traian BASESCU (since 20 December 2004); head of government: Prime Minister Calin Popescu TARICEANU (since 29 December 2004); cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister; elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 28 November 2004, with runoff between the top two candidates held 12 December 2004 (next to be held 28 November 2009 and 12 December 2009); prime minister appointed by the president Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (137 seats; members are elected by direct, popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve fouryear terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Adunarea Deputatilor (332 seats; members are elected by direct, popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve four-year terms) •

Administrative divisions: 41 counties (judete, singular - judet)

•

Constitution: 8 December 1991; revised 29 October 2003

•

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

•

From http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ro.html

IV.4.1. Pitesti a. Introduction Argeş is a Romanian county (Judeţ) in the Wallachia region, with the capital city at Piteşti (population: 187,558). Its common abbreviation is AG. Pitesti is an important commercial and industrial center, near this city the Dacia car is produced. This region is also famous for its alcohol drinks: ţuică (the traditional Romanian drink) and wine. Piteşti lies in the central-southern part of Romania, between the Meridional Carpatheans and the Danube, in the north-western part of Wallachia. It lies at a 120 km distance from Bucharest being situated at the confluence of the rivers Argeş and Doamnei, at the intersection between the parallel of 44°51'30" north latitude and the meridian of 24°52' eastern longitude, at a relatively equal dis-

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tance from the North Pole and the Equator; the 45° parallel runs through the village Merişani, 20 km north to Piteşti. From: http://www.primariapitesti.ro b. History The earliest traces of human settlements in this area come from Paleolithic, however, it was not earlier than May 20, 1386, when the town was first mentioned in a known written source. Pitesti was one of the temporary residences of the Wallachian rulers. Due to its position, at the crossroads of travel routes, the town was long-renowed as an important commercial center. In the 1950s, the town gained an ill notoriety, when the communist authorities used the local detention facility to subject the political detainees to the infamous Reeducation, in which the violence between inmates was encouraged. The experiment was cancelled after five years. Ever since the beginning of the last century the population of Piteşti has been growing proportionally to its territorial extention. After 1965 great economic objectives were set up in Piteşti and in severeal of its surrounding villages. In 1968, during the administratice reorganisatrion, Piteşti is declared a municipality, and thanks to all the transformations / accumulations, the city of Piteşti occupies fourth place in Romania for the volume of its industrial production. Within the area of research there were set up the Institute of Fruit-Growing Research and Production Piteşti-Mărăcineni şi and the Centre of Agricultural Research Albota. Numerous commercial spaces were created, schools and cultural centres were built, streets and boulevards were modernized. The existing residential districts were extended and new ones were built: Trivale, Războieni, Negru-Vodă, Banat, Găvana, Petrochimiştilor, Eremia Grigorescu, Popa Şapcă, Tudor Vladimirescu. From. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitesti and http://www.primariapitesti.ro c. Climate Lying among high hills, on the terraces of Arges River, the city of Piteşti has a valley, calm, moderate climate. The annual average temperature veries between 9° and 10°C, the average for January being of -2,4°C, and the average for July of +20,8°C. the rainfall exceeds the average of the country, going form 680 to 700 mm per year. d. Monuments In The Middle Age, in Pitesti City there were built many churches with a very precious architecture, and more of them exist even today. One of these, named Buna Vestire-Greci “Sfantul Mina”, dates from XIV century, and it was built by the great chancellor Ioan Norocea, in 1546. The most popular medieval church in Pitesti, that attracts the attention in a special way with its original architecture is Biserica Domneasca “Sfantul Gheorghe”. The Church “Sfanta Treime”, the ex hermitage Bestelei, it was built on the place of an old wood church. Vaarlam, the bishop of Romanian County (16721679), built the Hermitage “Trivale” who had the origin in these places. The Church “Sfanta Vineri”


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is located near the downtown, on the street with the same name, a monument with a great architectonic value. The most constructions, which were built in the second part of XIX century and in the first decades of our century, decorated their fronts, following the fashion trends. On the streets of Crinului, Sfanta Vineri, Targul din Vale, Victoriei, Bulevardul Republicii, etc. there are even today edifices with a remarkable classic architecture (sometimes from French school trend) like: The Arges Restaurant on Victoria street, House of Aron Baiulescu in Targul din Vale (today - the place of U.A.P.-Arges), the School of Arts-Pitesti (ex house of Fostiropol). In 1886 it was build the old townhall, the actual Art Museum. Between 1898 and 1899 it was built The Palace of Arges Prefect office, today the Arges County Museum. In 1910 it was built the building of Poplar Bank, with French eclecticism architecture, very modern for those times. Here, today it is the location of the Modern Cinema and The House of Culture Tech Club. The Justice Palace – between 1955-1996 it was the headquarter of The Culture Palace – was established between 1912 and 1914, after the projects made by Eracle Lazarescu too, but that time, in cooperation with architect Arghir Culina. The monument has the principal front in neoclassic style, and on the others three sides it has the French eclecticism architectonic style. Other interesting buildings to visit in the city are: the Public Finance Administration, where, now is Pitesti City Hall; the Military Circle; the building of Girls Lycee, named today “Zinca Golescu” College; the theatre and the communal bath, both placed first in the same building. (today it is “Alexandru Davila” Theatre); the Union Cultural House; the Trivale Store; Arges Prefect's office; the Design Institute

in

1978.and

the

“Casa

Cartii”,

the

main

cultural

residence.

From:

http://www.primariapitesti.ro e. Cultural activity and entertainment In Pitesti there are 4 local TV stations, 4 local radio stations, 6 newspapers, 6 weekly newspapers, 3 monthly magazines and 3 quarterly magazines. Unique event in Romania, started in 1978 during springtime, Tulips Symphony attracts every year, more and more participants and visitors, from inside and outside the country. In a traditional way, the floral event is developing during three days, usually on April, heaving as location the Exhibition Hall of Casa Cartii . Each of the three levels of the Exhibition Hall is decorated with different season flowers, exotic flowers, apartment and dendrologycal plants, cact flowers arrangements, decorative earth pots, gardens and parks endowments, stamp collections, paintings and different plastic art and hand crafts, all inspired from flowers universe. The cultural events developed during these three days were appreciated by everbody: The National Festival of Folk and Slow Music «Golden Tulip», Icon exhibition opened at Art Gallery, Visual art exhibition, the new books, official launched at “Dinicu Golescu” County Library, Piano concerts and chorus songs at Union House with Adina Badea and “D.G. Kiriac” chorus, Chess contest where the

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great international master Mircea Parligras was involved, The contest “Young talents”, The music show

hosted

by

“Vasile

Milea”

square,

all

those

followed

by

a

fireworks.

From.

http://www.primariapitesti.ro

VI.4.2. The University of Pitesti Education in Pitesti goes from kindergarten to university. Preschool education is represented by 64 kindergartens (special and private kindergartens included) and 10 crèches. Primary and secondary education comprises 20 schools, whereas preuniversity education comprises five colleges, four high schools and eight school groups. There are two universities in Pitesti: The University of Pitesti (state university) and Constantin Brâncoveanu University (private university): Constantin Brâncoveanu University has functioned since 1991, having its headquarters in Pitesti and branches in Brăila and Râmnicu-Vâlcea. The university comprises six faculties and nine specializations, within the area of Economic Sciences and Social and Political Sciences. Constantin Brâncoveanu University is an accredited higher education institution. University of Pitesti is a state university of medium size (approx. 17,000 students, 800 persons as teaching staff and administrative personnel) with 10 faculties (1. Faculty of Economics, Law and Administrative Sciences; 2. Faculty of Electronics and Electro mechanics; 3. Faculty of Physical Education and Sports; 4. Faculty of Sciences; 5. Faculty of Mechanics and Technology; 6. Faculty of Letters; 7. Faculty of Social Sciences; 8. Faculty of Orthodox Theology; 9. Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Sciences; 10. Faculty of Educational Sciences; see www.upit.ro) and many specialized departments (Management for Quality of Education Dept., Strategy and Curricular Marketing Dept., International Relations and European Integration Dept., Publishing House, Research Centers, Scientific Research Dept., “Eudoxiu Hurmuzachi” Training Dept., Continuing Training Dept., University Library, etc.). University of Piteşti represents a strong educational factor for the SMEs in the region and has developed a collaborative network of partners which interconnects it with the main employers in the local economy agents such as: the Motorcars Building Plant “DaciaRenault”of Pitesti, the Refinery of Pitesti, the Institute for Nuclear Research, the Footwear Factory, the Commercial Bank, and the Romanian Bank for Development. The academic staff is composed by a body of experts and professionals with accredited and recognised results in various fields. University of Piteşti was involved in numerous transnational projects under Programs such as Socrates, Leonardo da Vinci, PHARE, Tempus, e-Learning Initiative, etc.

VI.4.3. Living in Romania a. Pre-departure logistics: Passports – Visa: Visa required, except for: holders of normal passports for: - a stay of max. 30 days being nationals of: Bulgaria, Czech Rep., Croatia, Cyprus, FYROM Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia), Hungary, Ireland, Poland, Slovak Rep., Slovenia, Yugoslav Fed. Rep., Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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United Kingdom, U.S.A. - a stay of max. 90 days being nationals of: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong (SAR), Iceland, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macau, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russian Fed., San Marino, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine. International Student Card: it is recommended that students obtain an International Student Identification Card (ISIC) before leaving their country. It allows small discounts on transportation, museums, shows, exhibitions, etc., and it also serves as an acceptable form of identification. International Driver’s license: for those students who think they might want to drive either a private or rented car while in Romania, driver's license from EU are valid. Currency (Romania): national currency: Romanian Leu (ROL) For various transactions and money exchange, we recommend you to contact only authorized institutions, such as the exchange offices in the arrival terminal. At the entry in Romania you must inscribe in the customer declaration: - local currency (ROL) in amount of over 500000 - foreign currency in amount of over USD 10000 or equivalent in other currencies. At the exit from Romania you must inscribe in the customer declaration: - local currency (ROL) in amount of over 500000 - foreign currency in amount of over USD 10000 or equivalent in other currencies. 1 Euro = about 37,000 Romanian Lei (ROL). From 1 July 2005, the Romanian Leu (ROL) was transformed in New Romanian Leu (Ron): 10,000 ROL = 1 RON It is possible to convert Euros into RON after arrival in Romania. You will find ATMs or change offices at the airports, banks, where you can use a credit or debit card. b. Getting to the country, the city and the Residence Students are responsible for their own travel arrangements and expenses. Pitesti is 110 km away from Bucharest. The major Romanian air carrier is Tarom. The arrival airport is Otopeni, near Bucharest. The Otopeni Airport is connected to Bucharest by RATB transportations means, the most important being line 783 - Otopeni Airport - Otopeni - Baneasa Airport - Piata Presei Libere - Arcul de Triumf Piata Victoriei - Piata Romana - Piata Universitatii - Piata Unirii; Transportation in the city: you will be able to walk everywhere in Pitesti. Taxis are reasonably priced (less 25 eurocents/km). A bus service is available, or the maxi-taxi network. There is no subway. Travelling around (outside our city): - Dambovita Valley and Gorges, - Dambovicioara Cave, - Topolog Gorges, - Vidraru lake (dam on Arges River) - Natural reservations and natural monuments : Albesti, Mihaiesti, Suslanesti (paleonthological reservation), Negrasi (botanical reservation) - Resorts: Badesti (60 km form Pitesti), Bradetu (28 km from Curtea de Arges) - Monuments and historical vestiges: Jidava Fortress ( 4 km from Campulung, a powerful Roman fortress built during the

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Emperors Commodus (181 - 193 BC) and Septimius Severus (193 – 211BC)), The Princely Court of Curtea de Arges (founded during the 12th century, Wallachia’s first capital), Poenari fortress (built during the reign of Vlad Tepes), the feudal constructions at Glavacioc and Aninoasa- Monasteries and churches: Curtea de Arges Monastery (situated at 38 km from Pitesti, was built by Neagoe Basarab in 1517), Negru Voda Monastery (lying in Campulung, built by Negru Voda (1215), rebuilt by the first ruler of Wallachia, Basarab I, and completed by the latter’s son, Nicolae Alexandu Basarab (1352 - 1364), The Princely Church in Pitesti (built by Constantin Serban Basarab and his wife,

Lady

Balasa),

Cotmeana

Monastery

(built

by

Mircea

the

Old).From:

http://www.traveldocs.com/ro c. Medical issues, health and safety Safety: local Police. Tel.: 955 Emergencies: in case of an emergency, the members of the team of the CON-SCIENCE project are ready to respond to students' concerns. In case of an emergency requiring your family to contact you on short notice, there are a number of options: (1) They can try to contact you directly by phone; (2) They may contact University of Pitesti at +40 248 222 260 and (3) They may contact the sending institution, and the staff will phone or send an e-mail message to [email protected] Departamentul de Relaţii Internaţionale şi Integrare Europeana (acronim: DRIIE) – the English name being Department for International Relations and European Integration: România, Pitesti, str. Târgul din Vale, 1 (Rectorat), parter, camera 17. // 110040 – Pitesti, Romana // Tel./Fax.: +40 248 222908 www:

http://die.upit.ro/

;

E-mail:

[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

;

Webmaster:

[email protected] mailto:[email protected] d. Regulations Alcohol and drug use: alcohol and drug use which involves or contributes to an infraction of regulations or interferes with the educational program may result in disciplinary action and may be viewed as a health issue. University of Pitesti opposes the possession and use of illegal drugs and use of prescription drugs for purposes other than those prescribed by a licensed physician and will take disciplinary action up to and including suspension of the mobility action. Duty regulations / customs: we suggest you consult with the Romanian Embassy in your country if you are planning to bring back goods for personal use or gifts, including alcoholic beverages. Embassy of Romania in Spain (Embajada de Rumania). Address: Avenida de Alfonso XIII nr.157, Madrid 28016 – España. Phone: 0034-91-350.44.36 / Fax: 0034-91-345.29.17 / E-mail: [email protected]


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Embassy of Romania in the Federal Republic of Germany (Botschaft von Rumänien).Address: Matterhornstrasse 79, 14129 Berlin. Phone: 0049-30-80.33.018 / Fax: 0049-30-80.31.684 / E-mail: [email protected] Embassy of Romania in Italy. Address: Via del Serafico, 69-75 – 00142 ROMA. Phone: 06.51.53.11.55 / Fax: 06.51.53.11.51 / E-mail: [email protected] Embassy of Romania in the Republic of Ireland. Address: 47 Ailesbury Road Ballsbridge, Dublin 4. Phone: 00353-1-269.28.52 / Fax: 00353-1-269.21.22 / E-mail: [email protected] At the entry in Romania: the following items must be inscribed in the entry customs declaration: local currency (ROL) in amount of over 500000 (or new currency RON in amount of 50); foreign currencies in amount of USD 10000 or equivalent in other currencies; guns, ammunition, explosives, radioactive and nuclear materials; drugs, essential chemicals or toxic materials; jewelry exceeding quantities for the personal purpose; alcoholic drinks exceeding 2 liters; cigarettes in a quantity exceeding 200 pcs; any kind of goods with a total value of over Euro 100 (mobil phones, video cameras, etc); cultural, historical and art objects in order to get the permissions for taking out later. Prohibited: all kinds of uncanned animal products, meats, milk or dairy products. Pets: cats and dogs need a combined health and Rabies Inoculation Certificate (legalized by Veterinary Service in country of Origin), issued at least 1 month but not more than 12 months (for cats 6 months) before transportation. No vaccinations are required to enter Romania, whatever your country of origin Note: valuable goods, such as jewellery, art, electrical items and foreign currency should be declared on entry. Endorsed customs declarations must be kept, as they must be shown on leaving the country. At the exit of Romania: the previous articles must be inscribed(registered) in the customs declaration of exit. Prohibited Exports : articles of cultural, historical or artistic value. From: http://www.traveldocs.com/ro e. Other Useful information Banking/ATMs: banks are open in Romania from 8:00 to 16:00. Major credit cards, VISA – Master Carge – American Express – etc. are accepted everywhere. There are ATM all over and they work very well. Meals: budget: €2-4; mid-range: €4-15; high: €15-25 anf deluxe: €25+ Lodging: budget: €5-20; mid-range: €20-45; high: €45-200 and deluxe: €200+ For a turist, accommodation will be the biggest expense in Romania. Cheap accommodation is scarce in Bucharest. Expect to pay at least US$25 for a double room with shared bath in any hotel within walking distance of the centre of most Romanian cities and towns. Accommodation in private homes in the countryside starts at US$10 a night, including a home-cooked breakfast.

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The cost of dining is rising - Romanians can't afford to eat out, so most restaurants are geared to 'rich foreigners'. In Bucharest it's tough to eat for less than US$5 per head, not including alcohol. Eating out is cheaper elsewhere, and a bottle of good Romanian wine can be as little as US$1.50. Seeing a film or play costs about US$1, and entrance fees to museums are about 20 cents. Public transport is dirt cheap by Western standards. US$3 will take you approximately 100km by bus or comfortable express train. Petrol is around US$1.2 a litre. It's easy to cash travelers checks in Romania, but not very easy to replace stolen ones. Only American Express has an office that issues replacements in Bucharest. Cash-dispensing ATMs accepting Visa, MasterCard and plenty of other plastic are becoming increasingly widespread in Romania. Credit cards are widely accepted in hotels, restaurants and shops. They are essential for hiring a car, unless you want to pay cash up-front. Marked, torn or very used notes will often be refused at exchanges. Ensure whatever currency you bring is in good condition. Tipping is not common in Romania, though you should always round up the bill to the nearest 500 lei. Some bartering, but not much, goes on at flea markets. Taxi drivers drive a hard bargain, so always haggle. A five to ten per cent service tip is customary in restaurants. Porters, chambermaids and taxi drivers expect tips. From: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/europe/romania Food: Restaurants still serve traditional, sometimes tedious fare: grilled pork, pork liver, grilled chicken, tripe soup and greasy potatoes, though things are turning around. You can find excellent offerings in the larger cities with a little perserverance. Romania's most novel dish is mamagliga, a hard or soft cornmeal mush which is boiled, baked or fried. In many Romanian households, it's served as the main dish. The other mainstay of the Romanian diet is ciorba (sour soup). The sweettoothed won't starve: typical desserts include placinta (turnovers), clatite (crepes) and sarailie (almond cake soaked in syrup). Romanian wines are cheap and good. Tuica (plum brandy) and palinca (distilled two times as much as tuica) are mind-blowing liqueurs taken at the beginning of a meal. Avoid the Ness, an instant coffee, and try cafea naturala, a 'real' coffee made the Turkish way, with a thick sludge of ground coffee beans at the bottom and a generous spoonful of sugar. From: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/europe/romania


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VI.5. Spain a. History of Spain Most of the Iberian Peninsula has been populated since prehistoric times. Early evidence of human habitation unearthed at the Atapuerca site in northern Spain are some 800,000 years old. Modern man made his appearance around 35,000 BC. Sometime around 4000 BC, much of Spain was settled by the Iberians, arriving from the east. The Celts arrived later, settling in the northern third of the peninsula. Bronze age civilization flourished in the south, culminating with the Tartessian civilization around Seville (1000-500 BC). Around 1100 BC, Phoenician seafarers from present-day Lebanon set up trading colonies in Cadiz and elsewhere along the Spanish coast. Phocaean Greeks also traded along the north-eastern coast. With the fall of Phoenicia, the Iberian peninsula came under the rule of Carthage (present day Tunisia), but was occupied by Rome following the Punic Wars. The Romans held sway in Iberia for six centuries, laying the foundations for Spanish language and culture. Following the fall of the western Roman empire in the fifth century AD, Spain was ruled by the Visigoths, a Germanic people who had migrated from central Europe. In 711, the Muslims of northern Africa launched an invasion across the Strait of Gibraltar, occupying most of the peninsula within a few years. Their presence lasted more than seven centuries, though the Christian kingdoms to the north increased in power over the generations, gradually driving the Moors southwards. The last Moorish kingdom, Granada (the eastern half of present-day Andalusia), was conquered in 1492. The discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus and the expulsion of Jews and Moors from Spain were to mark Spanish history forever. Treasure from Spain's vast overseas empire pushed Spain into the forefront of European countries, but constant warfare drained resources. With the accession of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne at the beginning of the 18th century, Spain came within the French sphere of influence for the following 100 years, up to the defeat of Napoleon's army during the Peninsular War. During the 19th century, Spain was sharply divided between conservatives and liberals, and rural and urban society. Coups d'etat and changes of government were frequent. With the increasing power of the working class, in 1931 king Alfonso XIII was forced to abdicate, and Spain was declared a republic. Conservative reaction from the church and army sparked the Spanish Civil War, which raged from 1936 to 1939 and was a prelude to World War II. Under the dictator Franco, who had been sympathetic to the Axis powers, Spain was ostracized from the community of nations until it became strategically attractive to the US during the Cold War. The first US bases opened in the 1950s. Spaniards working abroad and tourists arriving in increasing numbers brought in foreign revenue and fueled the emergence of a large middle class. When Franco finally died in 1975, the accession of King Juan Carlos to the throne and the transition to a democratic state were relatively smooth. (Text by Mark Little. http://www.spainview.com/history.html)

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b. Demographic data Area: 504,750 sq km; 194,884 sq miles; Population: 39.5 million (growth rate 0.2%); Languages: Castilian Spanish (official language) Catalonian, Galician, Valenciano, Vasco (are also official languages in the autonomous communities of Catalonia, Galicia, Valencia and Basque Country, respectively) Religion: 99% Roman Catholic; Capital of Spain: Madrid (2.881.506 inhabitants) (Reference: http://www.red2000.com/spain/culture-index.html ) c. Economy The center-right government of former President Aznar successfully worked to gain admission to the first group of countries launching the European single currency (the euro) on 1 January 1999. The Aznar administration continued to advocate liberalization, privatization, and deregulation of the economy and introduced some tax reforms to that end. Unemployment fell steadily under the Aznar administration but remains high at 11.7%. Growth of 2.4% in 2003 was satisfactory given the background of a faltering European economy. Incoming President Rodriguez Zapatero, whose party won the election three days after the Madrid train bombings in March, plans to reduce government intervention in business, combat tax fraud, and support innovation, research and development, but also intends to reintroduce labor market regulations that had been scrapped by the Aznar government. Adjusting to the monetary and other economic policies of an integrated Europe - and reducing unemployment - will pose challenges to Spain over the next few years. d. Politics •

Form of Government: Constitutional Monarchy

•

Head of State: King Juan Carlos (since 22 November 1975)

•

President: José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero (since 17 April 2004) (Socialist Party)

•

Government type: parliamentary monarchy

•

Administrative divisions: 17 autonomous communities (comunidades autonomas, singular - comunidad autonoma) and 2 autonomous cities* (ciudades autonomas, singular - ciudad autonoma)

•

Constitution: December 1978

(Reference: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html )

VI.5.1. Alcalá de Henares VI.5.1.1. The city Alcalá de Henares a. History


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Alcalá de Henares is situated in the Autonomous region of Madrid, and lies 30 Km away from Madrid city. Alcalá, the main town of the Corredor del Henares, is both a historical and modern town. Alcalá de Henares has its origins in Celtiberian settlements, and was one of the Roman empire sites. The Romans called it Complutum, a name which remains dear to Alcala’s inhabitans, however Alcalá is an Arabic name, as the town came under the Muslim power after the imperial decline. After the Christian conquest in 1118, Alcalá came under the powerful Catholic Archbishops of Toledo, and at the end of the fifteenth century, in 1499, the University of Alcalá was founded by Cardinal Cisneros, confessor to Isabel the Catholic, and thus the University of Alcalá became the most important intellectual centre of its time. Colleges, convents and palaces were built around the Colegio de San Ildefonso, main building of the University, and attracted the most outstanding thinkers in Spain. The Biblia Poliglota Complutense (1517) is an example of universal book consisting of translations of the holy scriptures in Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic. Alcalá was given the title of city by King Carlos II in 1687, in 1968 was declared a Historic/Artistic Site and it was declared a World Heritage Site in 1998. Alcalá has also had the honour of being the town where Miguel de Cervantes, the author of Don Quijote de la Mancha, was born. b. Climate Alcalá de Henares is located by the river Henares. Alcalá has a continental climate with rather dry and cold winters, and very hot summers. Due to the river, you can have some misty days in winter, however it is not a very rainy area. c. Monuments The old part of Alcalá contains more than 465 buildings, convents, monasteries, churches, chapels, palaces and colleges have survived past times showing to the visitor different styles in architecture. Thus, mudejar, neo-mudejar, late gothic, renaissance, baroque, neo-classical styles live together in Alcalá. Among the most important buildings, a great number of them belonging to the University of Alcalá, we can mention: the Catedral Magistral, the Ayuntamiento (Town Hall) was originally the Convento de los Agonizantes, the Casa de Cervantes, Cervantes’ house, is a museum which displays a collection of books including Cervantes’ works; the Palacio Arzobispal, the Palacio Loredo, the Casa de los Lizana; the Colegio del Rey, the headquarters of the Instituto Cervantes, the Real Colergio de Agustinos Descalzos; the capilla of the Oidor, built early in the fifteenth century, has a fine mudejar arch, the Oratorio de San Felipe Neri, the Monasterio de las Bernardas; the Convento de Clarisas de San Diego, renowned for the candied almonds made by nuns which can be bought at the cloister turnstile, the Convento de las Adoratices, the Convento de Santa Catalina, the Convento de la Imagen, the Convento del Corpus Christi, the convento de San Basilio Magno, the Convento de las Agustinas; Azaña´ s house, birthplace of Manuel Azxaña, President of the Second Spanish Republic, the Teatro Salón de Cervantes, the Hospital de Antezana, etc. It is important to mention Complutum, a complex of archaeological remains which have survived the ravages of time. It includes the Casa de Hipólito, whose courtyard is paved with a seafaring mosaic.

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Complutum shows what life was like in Spain from the first to the fifth centuries.We will enumerate the University buildings when we refer to the University de Alcalá in point 2. d. Streets and Squares Alcalá is a beautiful town whose streets and squares show its visitors Alcalá’s history. The Calle Mayor, the main artery of the Jewish district, is a long arcaded street dating back to the twelve century. It is a commercial area which reminds us when Jewish money changers did business in this street, in fact the Calle Mayor was the site of the chief synagogue, on the other hand, the Calle de Santiago is the reminder of Muslim domination, the Moorish quarter was established here in the twelfth century, and here was the mosque and the old market. For many centuries Arabs, Jews and Christians inhabited Alcalá de Henares in a spirit of tolerance. The Plaza de los Santos Niños is a tribute to the greatest moments of Alcalá’s history, including the Catedral Magistral and a monument built in 1986 to commemorate the meeting between Queen Isabel the Catholic and Cristobal Colón, as well as a tourist office. The Plaza San Diego with a statue of Cisneros from the nineteenth century, the Plaza de Cervantes, the calle Colegios, the calle Escritorios, the calle Trinidad, the calle Libreros are the University district with magnificent buildings holding different Faculties or administrative University buildings. Moreover, the Plaza de Cervantes became the town’s social and economic centre in the sixteenth century. In the middle of the square stands a monument to Cervantes, made by the Italian sculptor Pedro Nicoli in 1879. We also can see the Capilla del Oidor, the Ayuntamiento, and the Corral de Comedias. The original open-air theatre was inaugurated in 1602, in 1769 was roofed over, and in 1831 was converted to a modernstyle theatre. e. Cultural Activities and Entertaintment: Fairs and Festivals There are several museums in Alcalá already mentioned; Complutum, the Casa de Cervantes, etc, moreover all the other monuments, palaces, convents, churches are worth visiting. Furthermore, the University of Alcalá organizes conferences and exhibition, so the town offers a great choice of cultural activities. The year’s celebrations begins on the weekend closest to January 17, when a bonfire at the Puerta de Madrid marks the beginning of festivities to our San Antón. It is worth mentioning the Good Friday procession, and the 23rd of April, when the King and Queen of Spain present the Cervantes Prize, the Nobel of Literature in Spanish Language. The second fortnight in June is the drama festival ‘Clásicos en Alcalá’, and the 6th of August begins the festivities in honour of the city’s patron saints, the Santos Niños (the Holy Children), also at the end of August, the atmosphere of Alcala’s old fairs is evoked by the festivities surrounding Saint Bartholomew’s day, a tradition dating back to the twelfth century. On the third Sunday of September there is a romería to the hermitage of the Virgen del Val. Cervantes Week around October 9, the day of Miguel de Cervantes’ baptism in 1547, has been officially classified as a Festival of Tourist Interest. Early in November there is an


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itinerant performance of Don Juan Tenorio, written by Zorrilla, and a few days later the Film Festival. On the sports side, every year the veteran car rally travels from Madrid to Alcalá. VI.5.1.2.The University of Alcalá de Henares a. History The University’s origins reached back to 1293 when a Estudio General (General Study) was intended to be founded under the auspices of the King of Castile, Sancho IV, and in the mid-fifteenth century Archbishop Alonso Carrillo de Acuña who again tried to found a University, but his initiative was translated into the creation of Chairs of Grammar. It was Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Archbishop of Toledo, who founded the University in 1499. The number of colleges founded, the choice of the first professors and lecturers, the faculties’ study plans, the papal and regal protection, and the students gave the young university prestige and it became one of the three major universities in Spain with Salamanca and Valladolid. The period from 1499 to 1517, the year of Cardinal Cisneros’ death is the key to understanding the University’s history. Among the many works of art that fill Alcala’s streets, none rivals the marvellous plateresque façade of the University, the Colegio de San Ildefonso, constructed by Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón, it is a building which shows the University’s sixteenth century grandeur and the protection it received from the monarchs of Castile. The seventeenth century was one of crisis, during the nineteenth century the university was at the mercy of changing political fortunes. The decision of 1836 to remove the University of Alcalá to Madrid meant the loss of its rich architectural, bibliographic and documentary heritage. The University was reopened in 1977. The University has sought to forge links between its present and its past. As it has already been mentioned on December 2, 1998, UNESCO declared the historical nucleus of the city of Alcalá and the University a World Heritage Site. b. University’s buildings As it has been said the Colegio de San Ildefonso is the main building of the University, also we can see the Colegio San Pedro y San Pablo in the same square of San Diego, both buildings are dedicated to administrative tasks. The Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo has both a tower and a cloister in the style of the Tuscan Order. The Colegio San Ildefonso with three patios: the Patio de Santo Tomás de Villanueva, the Patio de Filósofos and the Patio Trilingüe so named because here Latin, Greek and Hebrew were taught. This is a plateresque courtyard by Pedro de la Cotera. The Paraninfo is in many ways the most significant place of the entire complex. With a splendid mudejar ceiling and plateresque galleries, it was once dedicated to examinations and academic ceremonies. Today the King and Queen of Spain preside the ceremony of the Miguel de Cervantes Prize for Literature in the Spanish language every 23rd of April. The Capilla de San Ildefonso is situated in the oldest part of the University, it was built between 1500 and 1510 to the design by Pedro Gumiel. The magnificent tomb of Cardinal Cisneros in Carrara marble, presides over the church. It is now empty as the cardinal is entombed in the Catedral Magistral. On the street side of the Patio Trilingüe is the Hostería del Estudiante, the second oldest of Spain’s Paradores, inaugurated in 1929.

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However many other marvellous buildings are dedicated to teach and research, we are going to mention some of them: The Colegio de Málaga, founded by Juan Alonso Moscoso, bishop of the town, is the Faculty of Arts, The Colegio de San José de Caracciolos is now the Faculty of Philology, a building in the baroque style, typical of the seventeenth century, with a fine central staircase; the Mínimos Convento which houses the Economic and Business Science Faculty; the Convento of El Carmen Calzado where the Advanced Thechnical School of Architecture and Geodesy is, and the Faculty of Law in the former Jesuit College. The Colegio de los Irlandeses, opened in 1630 by John O’Neill to accommodate Irish students is now the University’s Centre of Spanish for foreigners; The Convento de los Trinitarios Descalzos, a building dating back to around 1600, and the Colegio León, both house several specialized studies and postgraduate studies; the Colegio de Teólogos, now the headquarters of the Bar Association. c. University Organization The University is organized around three major built locations: The Alcala Campus which houses the Faculties of Experimental Science (Medicine, Pharmacy and Science), the Polytechnic School, the Computing School and the Botanical Garden. The City Centre Campus, site of the Faculties of: Arts, Humanities, Philology, Psychology and Education, Architecture, Law, Economic and Bussiness Science Studies, also the School of Library Science and Archive Work, Secondary School Teacher Training, and various Centres for specialized and postgraduate studies. The University Campus in Guadalajara houses the following Schools: The Primary Teacher Training School, Business School, Technical Architecture, and tourism Schools, as well as the Castilla-La Mancha Health Service University School of Nursing. The University of Alcalá aspires to take full part in the production and critical transmission of knowledge and in the training of good professionals who are at the same time cultivated and tolerant, with a view to covering the needs of tomorrow’s society. The quality of its studies, its international relations, the historical and artistic interest of its buildings, its new installations, and its effort to adapt itself to the demands of the labour market and of contemporary society all make of Alcalá one of the most appealing and most sought after destinations for new students. It is a gateway to the future. d. Degrees offered Degrees of ‘Diplomado’ (3years): Nursing, Physiotherapy, Business Science, Teacher’s Certificate (in: Foreign Languages, Infant Education, Music, Physical Education, Primary Education), Tourism, Computing for Management, Teleccomunications: (Data Transmisssion, Electronic Systems, Teleccomunications Systems), Industrial Electronics, Information Systems and Technical Architecture


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Degrees of ‘Licenciado’ (4-5 years): Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Science, Medicine (6 years), Pharmacy, Sports Science and Physical Activity, Bussiness Administration, Management, Economics, Law, Spanish Philology, English Philology, History, Humanities, Computer Science, Telecommunications, Architecture, Financial Studies, Educational Psychology, Library Science, Electronic Engineering and Geodesic Engineering and Cartography e. Other Studies Doctorate: doctoral studies aim to make third cycle students specialists in a particular field of knowledge Master Degrees: The postgraduate 3rd cycle degrees are a group of self-regulated courses leading to a higher degree and permitting notable levels of professionalism in their respective fields. The University of Alcalá’s Masters are interdisciplinary if we are to be in the vanguard of university research and teaching. There are also monographic courses and courses for specialisation, training courses and seminars, and summer schools for which no degree is required. Courses for Secondary School Teacher Training in different areas are held in the Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación (ICE) in the Colegio León to obtain the CAP certificate f. Student Services The University Library: the University Library is a network of 14 libraries spread across the three Campuses. The year–round opening hours are increased at exam time to twenty four hours a day. The University Information Centre: this Centre provides students with general information about the University and help on specific points: centres, courses, grants, services and academic rules. Telf: 902010555 by post or e-mail:[email protected] University Halls of Residence: the residential city, located at the Alcalá Campus, is a collection of buildings which meets the needs of university residents for comfort, services, shopping, sports and leisure facilities. Alcalá University web page www.uah.es offers more detailed information about conditions for entry, how to request a place. You, as a student teacher, will live in this Residence, in any case before you come, you will receive the right information. Cultural activities and sports: the University also offers sports and cultural activities: Fine Arts Studio, Music Studio, University Choir, Dance Studio, Studio of Dramatic Arts and Audiovisual Media, Flamecology Studio, University Music group (Tuna), Film Club and Student representation. g. Complementary Training Computing: the computer room network (at present there are 30 rooms) is in constant evolution year after year, inagurating new installations and modernising equipment Languages:

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•

Spanish Language and Culture for foreigners: Alcalingua is the Centre in charge of the organization of courses in Spanidsh Language and Culture for foreigners and training courses for teachers of Spanish as a foreign language.

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Other Languages: The University has agreements with recognized centres entrusted with English, French and German teaching, namely the British Council, the Alliance Française, and the Goethe Institut. Morover, a Foreign Language Centre offers teaching at elementary, intermediate and advanced levels in several languages: Italian, Portuguese, Hungarian, Russian, Swedish, Japanese and Arabic.

h. Grants, Scholarships and International Programmes Study Grants: these grants are intended to offer students who can demonstrate a situation of hardship. There are various kinds: Education Ministry grants, University of Alcalá training grants, and joint University of Alcalá /Alcalá Town Hall grants. There are travel grants and residence grants too. International Programmes: the University of Alcalá participates in the international world of Higher Education through various Socrates programmes: Erasmus, Tempus, Leonardo da Vinci, Lingua and Comenius. Furthermore, there are agreements with Canada and the United States, ALFA II Programme, a scheme for cooperation between European Union and Latin America, Language and culture scholarships with higher education institutions in China, Hungary, Ireland, Sweden, Russia, and Uzbekistan. Cooperation programmes are offered through the Centre for Initiatives for Cooperation in Development (CICODE)

VI.5.2. Madrid VI.5.2.1.The city Madrid Occupying the geographical center of the Iberian Peninsula and standing at a sea level altitude of 2,200 feet, Madrid is located nearly exactly on the earth's 40th parallel. It is a crossroad and a compulsory route for communications from one extreme to the other of our geography. It is a Cosmopolitan City, business centre, home of Public Central Administration, of the Government of the country and the Spanish Parliament as well as the habitual residence of the monarch. It is the most important city in the financial and industrial sectors; the latter concentrated in the southern outskirts, where one can find important textile, food and metallurgic industries, among others. The Manzanares is the river that flows through the city, affluent of the River Jarama. The origin of the city dates back to Paleolithic times. The abundance in bears and arbutus trees gave rise to the city's coat of arms. The city is cosmopolitan and multi-ethnical with its more than 1 million floating population. Its municipal district covers 607 km2. Next to old buildings of historic interest, there are other modern ones, of undoubtedly value as well. It consists of different centres that are clearly separated from each other and have a personality of their own. Particular areas have some peculiar characteristics: Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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there is a Madrid of the Austrians, another of the Bourbons; there is also a Madrid of Goya, the one of the Museum of El Prado, the Romantic, Isabelline Madrid, the one of the novels by Galdós. There is the peculiar Madrid of "El Rastro" (The Flea Market), of the bullfighters, of the flamenco dancers, of the antique dealers, of the artists, of the playhouses, etc. Madrid is characterised by its intense cultural and artistic activity as well as a vibrant nightlife. Reference: http://www.ucm.es/info/vicrint/guc/gucmin8.htm // http://www.descubremadrid.com a. History Arab domination - The Reconquest: The first historical records about the origin of Madrid date from the mid 9th century, when the Emir of Cordoba Mohamed I built an Arab castle on the site where today stands the Royal Palace.A walled military town soon was established around this fortress, known as al-Mudaina. During the Reconquest by the Christians it was subject to several attacks until it was finally conquered by Alfonso VI in 1083. Carlos I - Felipe II: In around 1200 it obtained its Charter and soon mediaeval Madrid became a small town visited frequently by some of the monarchs of the House of Trastámara (Enrique III, Juan II and Enrique IV) for hunting. The 16th century is the beginning of a new period in the history of Madrid. Carlos I granted it the titles of Coronada and Imperial (crowned and imperial) and began the transformation of the old Arab fortress into the Royal Palace. In 1561 Felipe II moved the Court from the Imperial Toledo to Madrid, where it has been since then. Dynasty of the Austrias: During the 16th and 17th centuries the town was to grow and become the capital of the vast Spanish Empire. Sumptuous palaces, churches, convents, etc. were built. They now conform what is called the Madrid of the Austrias. The reign of Felipe IV was an exceptional period of cultural splendour, with the presence in the capital of geniuses like Cervantes, Quevedo, Góngora, Velázquez, Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. Dynasty of the Borbones: The arrival of the dynasty of the Borbons, in the early 18th century, signified a renaissance of what had become a stagnant country after the reign of Carlos II. The most brilliant times were during the reign of Carlos III, known as the best Mayor Madrid ever had. This was the era of the Illustration and Madrid was filled with museums, academies and libraries. The reign of Isabel II brings a new stage in the urban development of the city: this is the Romantic Madrid of the early 19th century, characterised by social meetings or "tertulias" in the cafés, the rise of a middle class, the first industries and the turbulent politics with the alternation in power of the Liberal and Conservative parties. The Second Republic: An intellectual movement is to appear in the first half of the 20th century called Generación del 98 (Generation of 98) and it is the main representative of the political and cultural unrest that affected Spain at the time. It is the Madrid of the reign of Alfonso XIII, the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Second Republic and the siege of Madrid during the Civil War in 1936. After the War, especially from the 1950's on, Madrid is to grow enormously making it what it is

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now, a large city with all the problems that this brings but with a magnificent collection of monuments that make it one of the most interesting in Europe. The 20th century: In the 90's Madrid could be seen as a cultural city. In 1992 it was declared European Cultural Capital. The greatest growth has been seen in activities related to the movement of information, capital, goods and people, from financial and banking services, transport and travelling and business activities. The metropolitan area of Madrid became in the 90's one of the main centres of the European Union in the south, enlarging its traditional role as a service centre only for Spain. Reference: http://www.descubremadrid.com b. The weather The climate is Mediterranean-Continental. The annual average temperature is about 13ºC (55ºF). Bear in mind always that Madrid is basically a dry city, rain is rare, and high heat levels are often not as oppressive as one might think due to the low humidity, particularly at the beginning of the summer: Here we have the average temperatures in each month in Madrid: January: 9 ºC, February: 11 ºC, March: 15 ºC, April: 19 ºC, May: 22 ºC, June: 27 ºC, July: 31 ºC, August: 32 ºC, September: 25 ºC, October: 18 ºC, November: 13 ºC, December: 9 Reference: http://www.aboutmadrid.com/ ; http://www.ucm.es/info/vicrint/guc/gucmes1.htm c. Monuments Before 16th century: Walls of Madrid, Iglesia de San Nicolás de los Servitas, Iglesia de San Pedro el Grande and Casa de los Lujanes. 16th century: Capilla del Obispo, Casa Cisneros, Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales, Casa de las Siete Chimeneas and Bridge of Segovia. 17th century: Casa de la Panadería, Monasterio de la Encarnación, Palacio de Uceda (Capitanía), Claustro de San Jerónimo el Real, Plaza Mayor, Iglesia Colegiata de San Isidro, Casa de la Villa (Townhall), Convento de las Trinitarias Descalzas. 18th century: Palacio Real, La Casa de Correos (Post Office), La Casa de Postas, Real Casa de Aduana, Museo del Prado, Fountain of Cibeles, Fountain of Apollo, Fountain of Neptuno, Puerta de Alcalá, Botanical Gardens, Bridge of Toledo, Astronomical Observatory. 19th century: Plaza de Oriente, Teatro Real (Opera House): Puerta de Toledo, Palacio del Senado (Senate Palace), Palacio del Congreso, Teatro de la Zarzuela, Puerta del Sol, National Library and Archaeological Museum, Banco de España, Casón del Buen Retiro, Palacio de Cristal (Crystal Palace), Sociedad de Autores. Reference: http://www.red2000.com/spain/madrid/index.html d. Museums


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Madrid has magnificent painting museums where the visitor can admire some of the most famous works of art by classic and contemporary masters. There are also museums dedicated to sculpture, archaeology, science and other areas. •

Museo del Prado: is considered one of the most important art galleries in the world

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Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza: one of the most important private arts collections.

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Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía: a permanent collection of Spanish contemporary art and temporary exhibitions covering diverse modern artistic disciplines such as painting, sculpture, video, photography, films, etc.

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Palacio Real: The entire palace is not open to the public, but most of the more important rooms can be visited. The palace is interesting in its own right, in particular its architecture and gardens (there are two, the Jardines del Moro and the Sabattini gardens). There are also some excellent frescos inside the palace by Tiépolo, and paintings by Velázquez, Goya, Rubens, El Greco, Juan de Flandes and Caravaggio, among others.

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And many more that you can find in Madrid: Museum of Contemporary Art, Museum of Palacio Real, Museum of Horse Coaches, Open Air Sculpture Museum, National Museum of Decorative Arts, National Museum fof Artistic Reproductions, Romantic Museum, Museum Sorolla, Museum Cerralbo, Museum Lazaro Galdiano, National Archaeological Museum, Museum of Natural Science, Mineralogic Museum, Ethnological Museum, Geologic Museum, Railway Museum, Museum of Coins and Bank-Notes, Museum of the Town, Museum of Popular Art and Customs, Africa Museum, America Museum, Museum of Aviation, Museum of Navigation, Army Museum, Museum of Waxworks, Angel Nieto Museum and Bullfight Museum. References: http://www.madridman.com/, http://www.aboutmadrid.com/ http://www.red2000.com/spain/madrid/index.html

e. Madrid's parks •

Buen Retiro Park: You may like to go for a stroll afterwards in one of the big parks. The largest and most beautiful of all Madrid's parks is the Retiro. It has 130 hectares of woodland which form a green, tree-clad island in the middle of an asphalt sea

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The Botanical Garden: These gardens, which contain about 30.000 different species of trees and plants from all over the world, were founded by Charles III for the Faculty of Totany.

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Rosales and the Parque del Oeste: They are an ideal playground for children, with their spacious stretches of lawn, their shady trees and sandy paths.

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The Sabatini Gardens, Campo del Moro and Plaza de España: Not far from the Royal Palace there are several gardens: the children's playground in the Plaza de Oriente, the en-

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closed Sabatini Gardens on the northern side of the Palace; and the so-called Campo de Moro entered from the Cuesta de la Vega. There are gardens, too, in the Plaza de España, at the end of the Gran Vía. •

The Casa de Campo Park: It is an extensive estate, bought by Philip II, and reforested at his orders in 1559. The present park not only has a lot of woodland, but also a large lake where boats can be hired and a municipal swimming pool. There is a large Amusement Park and a Zoo, serviced by several bus lines or the Batán metro stop.

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Other gardens in the city: In addition to such gardens, parks and tree-lined avenues as the Prado, Recoletos, and the Castellana, there are gardens for children to play in to be found in very district. They include the garden of Arquitecto Ribera in the Calle de Fuencarral, Jardín de Eva Perón in the Calle de Francisco Silvela, the Plaza de la Villa de París in the Calle del General Castaños, the Fuente del Berro, that of Carlos Arias, in the south, and several others.

Reference: http://www.madridman.com f. Entertainment The nightlife in Madrid: Madrid is quite different from any other European capital after dark. This is mainly because people here do not only go to theaters, cinemas, and night-clubs; they also sit in cafés after dinner and have a coffee or a beer, or they may go for a walk. All this means that the streets in the center of Madrid are bustling with people until the wee small hours of the morning. Nightowls can take their choice among several nightclubs both in the city center and on the outskirts that have cosmopolitan floor shows. Visitors must keep in mind the late dining hours; restaurants do not even open until eight or nine o'clock. Many night establishments are open until the early morning hours. In the vicinity of the Plaza de Santa Bárbara, the Glorieta de Bilbao and Alonso Martínez, a large number of popular bars, pubs, fast food restaurants and ice cream parlors are concentrated. Santa Ana and Huertas: Between Puerta del Sol and Plaza de Santa Ana, specially in a street called Calle Huertas, you will meet a lot of folks. This region is ideal specially when you move around without having a car, as the many pubs, taverns, theater-cafés and fashionable bars here are pretty close one to each other, and you manage very well by foot. The bars in the districts of Arguelles and Moncloa are generally frequented by University students and a younger crowd. Malasaña, in the vicinity of the Plaza de Dos de Mayo, has countless cafés and bars with live music, in addition to moderately-priced restaurants. The streets of Paseo de la Castellana, Paseo de Recoletos and Paseo del Prado boast quality restaurants, cafés and popular night spots. In the Summer months and specially at night, open-air terraces abound in the areas of the Paseo de la Castellana and the Parque del Oeste. References: http://www.aboutmadrid.com/, http://www.madridman.com


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http://www.red2000.com/spain/madrid/index.html g. Festivals and Celebrations in Madrid •

Carnival, a carnival with parades and costume parties culminating on Ash Wednesday with the traditional burial of the Sardine, marks the beginning of Lent.

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During the Fiestas del 2 de Mayo, a festival of the Community of Madrid, celebrations include a wide variety of concerts, open-air dancing and sporting events. Bullfights are also held.

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May 15th marks the start of the celebrations surrounding the month-long Fiestas de San Isidro honoring the patron saint of Madrid and are the most lively popular festivities in Madrid. Tradition demands that one attends the Romería (pilgrimage) to the saint's meadow to drink from the miraculous water at the fountain of the hermitage.

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Traditional Castizo dress is worn and the typical barquillos (rolled wafers), buñuelos (fritters) and rosquillas (doughnuts) are for sale. This time of year also ushers in the famous Feria Taurina or bullfighting fair which also carries the name of the patron saint of Madrid and lasts from the middle of May to the middle of June at the Plaza Monumental Las Ventas bullring. Concerts, open-air dances and outdoor celebrations are also held during this period.

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The 13th of June, the day of San Antonio, young girls have a date at the hermitage of San Antonio de la Florida. According to dressmakers' tradition, a single girl must place 13 pins in the baptismal font, and if one of the pins sticks to her finger, she will marry during the year.

August is the month of celebration in some of the typical districts of Madrid. From the 6th to the 15th, the Fiestas de San Lorenzo, San Cayetano and the Virgen de la Paloma are commemorated with processions, open-air dancing, and sidewalk concerts in the park of the Vistillas and vicinity. Reference: http://www.aboutmadrid.com/ VI.5.2.2.The Complutense University The Complutense University of Madrid is a public institution under the jurisdiction of the Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid. It is one of the oldest universities in the world, as well as the largest (95.000 students, among them 3.700 foreign students, more than 5.989 staff teachers and aprox. 3.742 non academic staff - administration and services) and the most prestigious in Spain. The Campus is divided into a Central one, located in the Moncloa area, and there one can find most of its Faculties. The Faculties of Political and Social Science, Economics and Business and Psychology are located in the campus of Somosaguas; some University Colleges are located in downtown area. a. Short historical summary

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The Complutense University traces its origin to the 13th century (1293), as the "Studium Generale" that King Sancho IV of Castilla founded in a little town on the bank of the river Henares called Complutum by the Romans and Al-kala-en-el-Uhar (nowadays Alcala de Henares) by the Arabs. In the 15th century, Pope Kalixt III established three professorships for Latin Grammar. One of their former students, Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Archbishop of Toledo and Cardinal, promoted their growth into a full university. Following his request, Pope Alexander VI executed in 1499 the foundation papal bulls (permission) of the new University giving it the Roman name of its place of origin "Universitas Complutensis". In 1836 it was transferred to Madrid, which, in the meantime, had become the capital of Spain. Finally, the new law of 1970 on the Statutes of Universities gave it the definitive name of "Universidad Complutense de Madrid", in this way rewarding the initiative of its founder Cardinal Cisneros, being integrated by the campus of Moncloa and that of Somosaguas, opened up in 1969, as first extension of the Universidad Complutense. Five years later, and due to the great demand, the Universidad Complutense de Madrid expands again creating a new Campus in Alcalá de Henares that, in 1977 is segregates from Universidad Complutense giving place to the new university of Madrid denominated Universidad de Alcalá de Henares (BOE 30/06/77). b. University organization and structure The governing bodies are: Consejo Social, Claustro Universitario, Junta de Gobierno, Juntas de Facultades and Consejos de Departamentos. The Rector is the highest authority and presides over the Claustro Universitario and Junta de Gobierno with the Vice-Rectors, a General Secretary and a General Manager. The Faculty board is chaired by the Dean and Vicedeans, and the Department boards by the Department's Director. c. Academic organization The Complutense University comprises: 19 Faculties (Philosophy; Education; Philology; Geography and History; Chemistry; Physics; Mathematics; Biology; Geology; Medicine; Pharmacy; Veterinary Medicine; Odontology; Law; Political and Social Science; Economics and Business; Journalism; Psychology; Fine Arts), 1 Higher Technical School of Computer Science, 6 University Schools (Business Administration; Optometry; Statistics; Nursing, Physiotherapy and Podology; Social Work; Library Science and Documentation), 10 University Colleges and University Schools, 30 University Institutes and 12 Schools for Professional Specialization. See TABLES for further information. d. Academic calendar •

The Academic Year starts in the first week of October (depending on the faculty) and ends the first week of June, with the following holiday periods:

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Christmas Holidays (December/January) 2 weeks (from December 23 to January 7)

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Easter (March or April) 10 days (till the Monday after Easter) Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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•

Summer (July 15 to September 1)

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Other holidays: January 28, March 19, May 1 and 15, October 12, November 1, December 6.

e. General useful information UCM Information 34-91-394 10 00; http://www.ucm.es

VI.5.3. Segovia VI.5.3.1.The city Segovia Segovia is a beautiful city standing on a rocky outcrop between rivers next to the Guadarrama mountains and 60 miles from Madrid. Its proximity to high mountains favors the exuberance of nature, proliferation of forests, streams, and landscapes of great beauty. Segovia has been given the nickname of the Stone Ship. This is because the profile of the Medieval Alcázar Castle perched on the rocks resembles the prow of a ship while the gothic Cathedral tower serves as the mast. Segovia is one of the richest cities in Spain for monuments - including the 2000 year old Roman Aqueduct - as well as historical and cultural traditions. The UNESCO acknowledged this in 1985 by declaring it a World Heritage City. One of these well-known monuments is Santa Cruz la Real, a XIV Century Monastery in which our University Campus is located. The students will find that Segovia’s size is likewise ideal to share the Spanish culture. Segovia is in the heart of Castilla, the cradle of the Spanish language. It is a small town, easily accesible without a car, which keeps the quiet atmosphere and cordial hospitality of an old capital city. For more information about Segovia: http://www.infosegovia.com a. History Segovia is a town with an ancient history. Some rough zoomorphic sculptures confirm its remote Celtiberian roots, the magnificent Aqueduct and many other remains from the same period, its integration in the Roman empire, and the Visigothic necropolises discovered in the vicinity confirm the settlement of Germanic peoples. The absence of Moorish archaeological remains and the existence of one of the richest sources of Romanesque architecture in Europe give strength to the theory of many historians that the town was abandoned after the Moorish invasion and repopulated during the latter years of the eleventh century by Christians from the north of the peninsula and from the other side of the Pyrenees, led by Raymond de Bourgogne, son-in-law of king Alfonso VI, and by Pierre d'Agen, the first bishop of its reconstituted diocese, also of French origin. The last period of the Middle Ages was a time of splendour for Segovia. It colonised an extensive area over which it extended its Community, with limits on both sides of the Sierra. It was home to an important Jewish population, which finally had to be confined in the Juderia or Jewish quarter; it saw the commencement of a strong textile industry that in subsequent centuries made the town famous; it received the stamp of Gothic art, with noteworthy monasteries and convents; it was the court of

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kings of the Trastamara House and finally, on 13 December 1474, it was its inhabitants who proclaimed Isabella the Catholic queen of Castile. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, aristocratic families and proud textile manufacturers competed in the construction of palaces enhanced with courtyards, gardens laid out in the Renaissance style and baroque coats of arms. But the defeat of the towns of Castile in the Uprising against Carlos I, in which the militia of Segovia, with Juan Bravo as their captain, played an important role and the movement southwards of the centre of the Spanish economy as a result of the discovery of America saw the commencement of a decadence that could be detained neither by the Bourbons nor with the Royal Palaces of La Granja and Riofrio which they had ordered to be built in the surrounding neighbourhood, nor with the Artillery Academy, which they established in the town. The beauty of this town, which has best known how to maintain the essence of Castile in its worn stones, has reached us virtually intact due to its subsequent uncontainable impoverishment during the nineteenth century when Segovia was occupied by the French and by the Carlists. b. Climate Segovia is located on a rocky escarpment located between the Eresma and Clamores Rivers. It has a cold climate in winter and mild summers.The climate is highly influenced by the proximity of the Sierra de Guadarrama, where the highest peak, Peñalara, exceeds 2,400 metres above sea level. During the major part of the year the mountain is covered in snow, which has led to the existence of several skiing stations. Average temperatures (Celsius) in Segovia: January (max = 10; min = 1), February (max = 14; min = 2), March (max = 18; min = 6), April (max = 20; min = 15), May (max = 25; min = 18), June (max = 26; min = 20), July (max = 30; min = 24), August (max = 30; min = 22), September (max = 28; min = 18), October (max = 22; min = 10), November (max = 18; min = 5), December (max = 14; min = 3). c. Monuments The Aqueduct: This magnificent Roman structure, dating from the First Century, which carried water to an encampment located in the town. Within the city you can see a 700 meter section, with 163 arches, constructed of granite stone, reaching 29 meters tall in some points. This magnificent work suffered damage in the last half century especially from the increasing contamination from the passing of vehicles below the arches. Traffic is now prohibited through the archways. The Alcázar Fortress: built around the 6th century as a defensive fortress gained more and more prestige when it became a royal residence. It's most renowned moment was that of Felipe II time. The interior can be visited and it shows a series of interesting rooms, among them the Chimney room, Felipe II office and the Throne room, with Arab relief and decoration. Also interesting is the Kings Room adorned with caissons. You can appreciate a magnificent view of the area from the Juan II tower.


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Las Murallas: Practically the entire city is enclosed by an irregular series of defense walls, of unequal conservation. The length from the Alcázar to near the Aqueduct conserves many tall towers and some of its historical doorways, such as the Puerta de San Andrés. A walk along the walls is a beautiful way to enjoy the surroundings. It is recommended to follow the Paseo de Santo Domingo de Guzmán, from the Aqueduct to the Sanctuary of Fuencisla. It is a pathway which allows us to see the walls to the left and to the right side you can appreciate monuments such as the Monasteries of Santa Cruz la Real, San Vicente and El Parral. Later, crossing the bridge that exists before the esplanade of La Fuencisla, you move forward on Paseo de los Hoyos circling around the urban perimeter. The Paseo de los Hoyos provides another perspective of the city especially of the Alcazár and the Cathedral. The Cathedral: is Gothic, from the 16th century, originally planned by Juan Gil de Hontañón, to replace an anterior Roman style cathedral, which was destroyed in large part by a fire. This is one of the great temples of late Gothic in which the vigorous tower of 90 meters stands out. In the interior are three naves, lateral chapels and a semicircular sanctuary. There are numerous chapels which contain valuable works of Juan de Juni (una Piedad) y Gregorio Fernández (un Cristo yacente). The cloister is also interesting. In the Cathedral's museum you will find beautiful Altarpieces. d. Cultural activity and entertainment Segovia has seventeen museums (the "Museo de Arte Contemporaneo Esteban Vicente", the "Museo de la Brujería", the "Museo Academia de Artillería", ...) and galleries. If you need relax, you can make a walk or just lie on the grass in the small parks that you will find all over in the old Segovia Spaniards stay out until late everyday. This is especially noticeable on Fridays and Saturdays. Don´t be surprised to find streets full of people at 4:00 AM on the weekends. Spaniards in general don´t stay in the same local all night, they prefer to change all the time, from one to the other. In Segovia, you will find several areas where young people hang out. Two of them are sorounding the Plaza Mayor and the Aqueduct. Segovia has several small shopping areas. One is located in the old part of the city, inside the walls. Stores are opened from 9:30 AM – 13:30 and 17:00 – 20:00. The following web pages have information on cultural activities such as museums, holidays, traditions, legends, festivals, folklore and ethnographic patrimony. The information is provided only in Spanish. http://www.infosegovia.com and http://www.segoviayprovincia.com e. Sports In Segovia you will be able to play many different sports such as the following: Hoarse riding, hoarseback routes, tennis, ski, adventure sports, swimming, canoeing and other aquatic sports, gliding, 4x4 routes and trekking. For more information, you may want to contact one of the following

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addresses:

http://www.puentesdelcega.com/ing/describe.html

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http://www.parador.es/english/paradores/ficha.jsp VI.5.3.2. SEK University of Segovia SEK University is a private, non-profit institution, with five schools offering undergraduate degrees in Architecture, Technical Architecture, Biology, Journalism, Audiovisual Communication, Art History, Tourism and Psychology. The University also has four Graduate programs and a Doctoral program. The University was created in 1997 and is part of an international organization devoted to education since 1892. SEK International institution has schools and universities in 10 countries, and it has a tradition for innovative educational experiences and an international perspective. The University, which has one thousand two hundred students, is located in the center of Segovia, outside the walls, at a five minutes walk from the roman aqueduct. It is housed by a 15th century monastery.

VI.5.4.Living in Spain a. Pre-departure logistics Passports – Visa: EU citizens do not need a visa, and can enter Spain with an official ID document. Students from Romania can also enter Spain without a visa. For more information on this issue, you can consult the Spanish embassy in your country or http://www.spain-visas.com/VisasEndorsements-pag1.htm International Student card: it is recommended that students obtain an International Student Identification Card (ISIC) before leaving their country. It allows small discounts on meals at restaurants, trains, flights, hostels, museums, etc., and it also serves as an acceptable form of identification. You may get it through internet or find the nearest issuing office. With an ISIC you are also eligible for limited insurance. You should be advised, however, that this is not considered sufficient to serve as your only means of insurance. You may also be able to obtain the card in Spain. However, it will not include the insurance or some of the charter flight discounts that the card provides if you get it in your country. International Driver´s license: For those students who think they might want to drive either a private or rented car while in Spain, driver's license from EU countries are valid. Personal property insurance: You should consider purchasing insurance to cover loss of personal possessions while in Spain. It is possible that you may be covered under a policy held by your parents, so investigate this prior to departure. Currency (Romania): 1 Euro = 37,505.1 Romanian Lei. •

1 Romanian Lei (ROL) = 0.00002666 Euro (EUR) (as of Friday, March 11, 2005)

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Median price = 34,692.3 / 37,505.1 (bid/ask) Estimated price based on daily US dollar rates. (FXConverter™: Classic 164 Currency Converter © 1997-2005 by OANDA.com) Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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•

It is possible to convert Romanian leus into Euros after arrival in Spain. You will find ATMs at the airports, where you can use a credit or debit card. You also may wish to exchange a small amount of money prior to your departure from Romania so that you can become familiar with the Euro currency.

•

The introduction of a single currency has been a longstanding aim of the European Union and the Euro became the sole legal currency on January 1, 2002. The former currency has been withdrawn from circulation; however, you may want to know that one Euro equals 166 former Pesetas.

Expenses: In general, you should plan to spend at least as much in Spain as you would at home. Keep in mind that the amount of money you spend ultimately depends on the lifestyle you choose. b. Getting to the country, the city and the Residence Getting to the country By plane: the vast majority of persons visiting Spain arrive to Madrid by airplane at Barajas Airport, located east of the city. The major Spanish air carrier is Iberia. However, you may want to explore other air companies for reduced prices. From Madrid-Barajas (20 Km away) bus service and an underground line connect the airport with Madrid, then the usual transport from Madrid can be taken. You also can take a taxi. Students are responsible for their own travel arrangements and expenses. It is strongly recommended that you do not arrive late at night. Please, note that Segovia is 60 miles away from Madrid and Alcalá is 20 Km. from the airport. The last train to Segovia leaves Chamartin station at 20:16 and the ride takes 120 minutes. The last bus leaves Madrid at 22:30 and it is a 75 minutes ride. Students should make photocopies not only of their ID and credit cards but also their plane tickets. It can be very difficult to replace these items should one or more of them be lost or stolen. The best thing is to make two copies of the ticket, leave one at home and bring the other with you, packed separately from the original ticket. If your ticket is lost or stolen, contact the airline concerned to file a lost/stolen ticket report. You will need your ticket number to do this, and you may have to pay for this. Do not expect immediate replacement of your ticket. In most instances you will need to purchase an additional ticket to replace the lost/stolen one and then wait for up to six months for the airline to process your claim and send you a refund. Never throw away any part of your airline ticket until you have completed your entire journey. You will need it to justify the grant you will receive from your National Socrates office. Getting to the Madrid centre from Madrid airport (Barajas) •

Taxi: entering Madrid by taxi is probably the most popular mode of transportation into the capital city, but is also the most expensive. The taxi ride into the city could take 20-60 minutes depending on traffic and to where you're going. The cost really should not be much

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more than 30 Euros to go to the city center. If you think you're being "taken for a ride" (cheated) ask for a receipt from the driver and be sure it includes his name or I.D. number. •

Bus: The traditional bus from Madrid Barajas Airport to the Plaza de Colón has been discontinued as of February 1, 2005. This bus has been substituted by the new line #200 which ends at Avenida de América (not very central). The #200 bus has the same fares as any normal bus line in Madrid and the Metrobus 1-trip ticket can be used for this route as well as on any other bus or metro. At Avenida de América, one can also reach destinations by way of the metro station Avenida de América utilizing metro lines 4, 6 and 9. There are also other buses available for land-transport.

Take a taxi (preferible) or the subway for going to the bus or to the train station to Segovia or Alcalá, or to come to your destination in Madrid: By rail: Estación de Chamartín / Station: Calle Agustín de Foxá (Metro: Chamartín) Estación de Atocha / Station: Gta.del Emperador Carlos V (Metro: Atocha) RENFE/Railway Information & Reservations (Tel. 34-91-328 90 20) By bus: Estación Sur de Autobuses/Sur Bus Station Calle Canarias (Metro: Palos de la Frontera) (Tel. 34-91-468 42 00/45 11) Reference: http://www.madridman.com http://www.ucm.es/info/vicrint/guc/guade.htm •

Subway: your best deal is to take the subway. There is an express train from the airport to the center of Madrid, you'll find the Metro station entrance in Terminal 2 (T2). Get off at the second stop “Nuevos Ministerios”. The ride takes 12 minutes and it costs 0,95 Euros. It rides 6:05 AM through 1:30 AM. In Nuevos Ministerios take the RENFE train to Segovia or Alcalá. RENFE is the National Railway Company).

•

Getting around Madrid: public transportation: fortunately, most of Old Madrid can be reached within itself by foot. But when one chooses to cross-town or when one needs to rest after being onfoot after a long day of sight-seeing, Madrid's public transportation is at the ready. Whether going by metro (single-trip "MetroBus" metro tickets cost 1.15 €. Working from 6:00 untill 1:30), bus, or taxi (Radiotaxis: 534 91 47 82 00 / 447 51 80 / 445 90 08) you can be sure you'll have a safe, comfortable ride at reasonable prices.

Referene: http://www.madridman.com Getting to Alcalá de Henares from Madrid (city center) and the residence •

By train: Trains for Alcalá de Henares leave from the Madrid railway stations of Chamartín, Nuevos Ministerios, Recoletos and Atocha. Depending on the station you leave from, the train will take about 40/45/50 minutes to reach Alcalá. They run every fifteen minutes, at Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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rush hours there can be trains every 6/7 minutes. A fast CIVIS train allows students to reach the Campus in barely 20 minutes at certain hours. Train timetables are given on the RENFE. The same applies to go from Alcalá to Madrid. •

By bus: Buses, Autobuses La Continental, leave from the Avenida de América Interchange Station every fifteen minutes. The travel takes about 35/40/45 minutes depending on the traffic.

•

By car: From Madrid, the exit for Alcalá de Henares off the A-II motorway (MadridBarcelona) is at Km 23 (M-300: Loeches-Alcalá de Henares), while the exit for the Alcalá Campus is at Km 32.2 (Meco)

•

By taxi: a taxi to Alcalá from Madrid will cost about 30 euros.

Getting to Alcalá Campus from Alcalá Regular buses, numbers 2 and 3, leave from Alcalá to Alcalá Campus and viceversa. As the Faculties are located in Alcalá city centre, close to the railway and bus stations, it is to get around on foot. Of course, there are also buses from the railway station to Calle Libreros (for the Law Faculty) and to Plaza Cervantes, in the very heart of the city for the other Faculties. Getting to Segovia and the residence from Madrid center •

Bus: 5,33 Euros. Subway station: Principe Pio. Address of the bus station: Paseo de la Florida 11. Tel.: 91 530 48 00. Weekdays, the buses leave every 30 minutes; weekends: every hour starting at 8:00 AM. Last bus leaves Madrid at 22:30. The ride takes one hour and 15 minutes. Buses are confortable. Get off at the last stop and take a taxi to the residence

•

Train: 4,91 Euros O/W or 8,92 Return (valid for 15 days). There are several train stations where you can pick up the train to Segovia: Chamartín, Nuevos Ministerios, Recoletos and Atocha. I recommend Nuevos Ministerios because it is the closest to the stations of the bus and and the subway coming from the airport. The trains ride every two hours starting at 8:00 AM. Last one leaves Madrid at 20:00. The ride takes two hours (forty five minutes more than the bus). Trains are confortable. There is only one stop in Segovia (the last stop). In Segovia, pick up a taxi to the residence.

•

Transportation in Segovia: You will be able to walk everywhere in Segovia. Taxis are reasonably priced. The bus service is very limited. There is no subway.

Travelling around (outside Alcalá, Madrid and Segovia): Due its central location, you can visit a lot of Spanish cities without traveling during hours and hours. You can go to Madrid, Alcalá, Guadalajara, Ávila, Segovia, Toledo, Salamanca, Valladolid, Cuenca. Near Madrid there are interesting places, such as El Escorial, Aranjuez, etc. A fast train to Sevilla and Córdoba can take you there in two hours and a half from Madrid. This means that you

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can take one-day trips to special locations. For more information on touristic destinations around Segovia, see http://www.red2000.com/spain/t-map.html . You may either take an organized tour, rent a car, take the train or the bus. Some telephone numbers: Railroad company: 902 240202; La Sepulvedana (Bus company): 921 427707 (Segovia) and 91 5304800 (Madrid) b. Lodging • Alcalá de Henares: Students will use the Halls of Residence of the University of Alcalá. See above “University Halls of Residence”. No meals are provided in the Residence, but you have cooking facilities. At lunch time you can use the different Faculty restaurants except during the week-end, but probably you will be at school, only some Secondary schools have a canteen which provides meals at very cheap prizes. Further information will be sent to you in due time. • Segovia: Students will use the Residence System of SEK University. They will stay in one of its residences: SEK-Reyes Católicos, in the main campus, or Gabriela Mistral, located in the heart of Segovia. Informal conversation with fellow students will become a vital part of the cultural and educational experience. Our offers this opportunity for interaction with other students and faculty. c. The first day You will have a Seminar with the University Tutors and mentors in order to introduce you at the respective Secondary school, University and town (Alcalá, Segovia or Madrid), Spanish Education system, etc. In your free time you can visit the city. d. Medical issues, health and safety Medical and accident insurance: when you buy your ticket, you can buy a Health Insurance for the whole period of your stay in Spain. This will probably be paid by your National Socrates Office. This insurance will cover your medical expenses in case it is needed. Before leaving home you should check with your medical insurer to find out what documents you will need for reimbursement, how to handle questions of exchange rates, whether you present the original of the bill or a copy, what to do about translations, deadlines, etc. Student teachers from the European Community countries can also ask their National Healht System whether they need any special document or paper for travelling abroad, as medical care is normally covered in every European country for European citizens as long as you have the required documents for travelling abroad. Medical care: In the event of an illness or any medical problem, bring it to the attention of the personnel at your University: University of Alcalá, Dr. Lina Sierra or Dr. Piedad Martin, telephones 91 885 53 30 / 91 885 41 21 respectevily. Con-Science. Science as a tool for life: Conceptual change (Ref.: 118603-CP-1-2004-1-ES-COMENIUS-C21)

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University of Madrid, Dr. María Vega, telophone: 630-45 87 19 SEK University: Dr. Pilar Aramburuzabala, cel. Phone: 646 205297 If you are currently taking any medication prescribed by a doctor and your doctor has ascertained that you may need to continue taking it while abroad, be certain that you have a copy of the prescription with you indicating the generic name of the drug (not the brand name) and information concerning the use of the medication. In any case, bring enough to last through your stay as it may be difficult to renew the prescription. We also require that chronic and persistent health problems be attended to before leaving for Spain. No inoculations are required for travel in Spain. If you wear glasses or contact lenses, take an extra pair with you. Medical facilities Alcalá Hospital in the Alcala Campus, close to our Hall of Residence; Tel. 91 887 81 00 Public Health: • SAMUR (Accidents in public places): 092. • INSALUD (Urgencies): 061. Madrid • RED CROSS: Emergencies: 91 522 22 22 • Intoxications: 91 562 04 20 • Ambulances: 91 473 93 61 Segovia General Hospital. Tel: 921 41 91 00; Ambulances. Tel. 112

Safety: Alcalá and Segovia don´t present many of the usual urban problems: noise, pollution, traffic, and a lot of "lost". Pickpocketing and criminality are very low. However, as in any city, you will need to exercise good judgment, and always remember that local laws and regulations apply to you just as much as they do to the Spanish citizens. In Madrid watch for pick pocketing on buses, in subways, and on the street. In case of any problem, report it immediately to the personnel at SEK University.Report any stolen credit cards immediately. National and Local Police. Tel.: 112 Emergencies: In case of an emergency, the members of the team of the CON-SCIENCE project are ready to respond to students' concerns. In case of an emergency requiring your family to contact you on short notice, there are a number of options: (1) They can try to contact you directly by phone (2) They may contact receiving University: Dr Sierra or Dr Martin in the University of Alcalá, tel.: +34-91 885 53 30 / +34 91 885 41 21, e-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] University of Madrid, Dr. María Vega, telophone: 630-45 87 19 SEK University, tel.: +34-921 412410, fax: +34-921 445593, (Pilar Aramburuzabala cel. Phone 646 205297, e-mail: [email protected])

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(3) They may contact the sending institution, and the staff will phone or send an e-mail message to receiving University. e. Regulations Alcohol and drug use: Alcohol and drug use which involves or contributes to an infraction of the University of Spain regulations or interferes with the educational program may result in disciplinary action and may be viewed as a health issue. Duty regulations / costums: We suggest you consult with the Spanish Embassy in your country if you are planning to bring back Spanish goods for personal use or gifts, including alcoholic beverages. You can consult the list of Spanish embassies and conculates in the following address http://www.mae.es/ and click in “Embajadas y Consulados”, then: “Embajadas”, then: “Representaciones españolas en el extranjero”. f. Other Useful information Banking/ATMs: Banks are open in Spain from 9:00 to 14:00. There are no banks open, or very few, in the afternoons. Major credit cards, VISA – Master Carge – American Express – etc. are accepted everywhere. There are ATM all over and they work very well. Car rental: Renting cars is not cheap in Spain and prices may start at 50 Euros. Telephone: Calling direct from Spain to your country can be expensive. A less expensive way to make these calls is to have a long distance international calling card. You can buy these cards in many places (e.g. “kioskos” for buying newspapers). It is important to note that many prepaid phone cards that are bought in other countries cannot be used in Spain. Telephone service is expensive in Spain compared to other countries. Students can use pay phones at University, in restaurants or booths. You may use coins, credit cards or telephone cards. If you want to call Alcalá or Madrid from abroad you have to dial: International code + 34 91 + 7 numbers. Once in Spain, for a call to Alcalá or to Madrid or within Alcalá or Madrid: 91 + 7 numbers If you want to call Segovia from abroad you have to dial: International code + 34 921 + 6 numbers. Once in Spain, for a call to Segovia or within Segovia: 921 + 6 numbers. SEK University: 921 412 410 From Spain to your country: 00 + country code + local code + telephone number. From other country to Spain: 00 + 34 +91 (Madrid and Alcalá) o 921 (Segovia) + 7 numbers (Madrid and Alcalá) o 6 numbers (Segovia). Operators & Information: for general information in Spain, dial 003; the international information and assistance operator is at 025 (some operators do speak English). Internet: In Segovia the student teachers will have free access to internet at SEK University.


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Meals: Breakfast in Spain is light and it is never a big meal. It consists of coffee, tea or hot chocolate, and biscuits or bread with butter and jelly. Lunch is the main meal for a lot of Spaniards. Lunch is normally between 13:00 and 15:00, comprised of three courses. Dinner generally consists of a sandwich, cold meats, soup, salad, etc., and it is eaten between 20:00 and 22:00. g. Food: • Alcalá has a long tradition of good food, the old Castilian cuisine is well prepared. Meat lovers will not be disappointed by the wood-fired roasts of lamb and pig. In October there is a Cervantes Gastronomic Week, where dishes mentioned in Don Quijote can be tasted. For the sweet-toothed, they can have the “tarta costrada”, a pastry filled with crème, the sugar-coated almonds made by the “Clarissas” nuns of San Diego and the “rosquillas”, a kind of dough rings. • Food and Drink in Madrid: Madrid is a melting pot for the cuisines from all over the peninsula. Gourmets sometimes argue whether Madrid cuisine exists or not, but the truth is that the capital of Spain has enriched its gastronomy with the contributions of the Andalusians, Galicians, Asturians and other immigrants who have settled here. A good number of dishes and recipes can be named which can be considered typical of Madrid. Among them, the “Cocido Madrileño” must be mentioned; a stew combining chickpeas with vegetables (cabbage, celery, carrots, turnips and potatoes) and chicken, beef and pork and which is turned into a huge succulent meal. “Callos” or tripe is another of the typical dishes identified with local cuisine and may be found in some of the well-known restaurants in Madrid. We must not neglect the humble and savoury “Sopa de Ajo” (garlic soup), “Caracoles” (snails), “Tortilla de patatas” (potato omelette), the famous recipe of “Besugo al horno” (baked bream), so typical in the capital in spite of its distance from the ocean, or dishes in which “bacalao” (cod) is the main ingredient. Ideally fitting to such a meal are the young and aromatic wines from the region, “Vinos de Madrid”. To finish your dinner in a very typical way, try a cup of “Anisado de Chinchón”, anisette schnapps. Madrid's sweet tradition can be appreciated through its dessert; from “torrijas” (a type of French toast), typical in the springtime and likened to Holy Week, to the “barquillos” (rolled wafers), “bartolillos con crema” (a type of small pie with custard) the “buñuelos” (a type of fritter filled with custard whipped cream, etc.) in November, the “mazapán” (marzipan) and “turrón” (soft and hard nougat) at Christmas and the “rosquillas de anis” (anise-flavored doughnuts) during the festival of San Isidro. In Madrid, as well as in the rest of Spain, the “tapa” (savoury titbits of a variety of dishes served as appetisers) is an old gastronomic tradition. You can find numerous establishments specialised in serving these “tapas”. "Ir de tapeo"

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(going out for tapas) is a tradition; hundreds of bars scattered throughout the streets of Madrid serve a “tapa” accompanied by a small glass of wine or beer. Reference: http://www.red2000.com/spain/madrid/index.html; http://www.aboutmadrid.com/ • Segovian cooking gives rise to the leading industry in the province with its numerous restaurants, especially those with typical brick roasting ovens. The key to their success is the excellent quality of the products used and the expert hands of the master chefs who have made the region a mandatory gathering place for discriminating palates. Typical dishes include “judiones de la Granja” (a stew of oversize broad white beans), “sopa castellana” (soup with eggs, bread and garlic), roast suckling pig, roast lamb, “caldereta” (stewed lamb), veal, trout, tench, partridge, and quail. Sweets are represented by “ponche segoviano” (a liqueur-dipped, custard-filled cake frosted with marzipan). There are two wines produced in the region: Ribera de Duero and Rueda. Some restaurants will have the menu in English and other languages. You can allow yourself to be advised by waiters, as they are used to tourists. There is an infinite number of bars for “tapas”. A free “tapa” is given with any drink. Please, keep in mind that Spain is a smoking culture and you may not find “No Smoking” areas in restaurants. h. Tourist information Alcalá 0034918821354

Callejón de Santa María, 1; Tel: 0034 918892694

Plaza de los Santos Niños; Tel: 0034 918810634

Turespaña Tel: 900 300 600.

Chamartín Station/ Central vestibule, gate 16 / 91 315 99 76.

Municipal Office of Tourist Information / Plaza Mayor, 3 / 91 366 54 77.

Madrid

Madrid Community Tourist Informa- Municipal Board of Tourism and tion Offices / Calle Duque de Medi- Congress Offices / Calle Mayor, 69 / naceli, 2 / 91 429 49 51 91 588 29 00. Plaza Mayor, Tel. 921 460334

Segovia

Plaza del Azoguejo (Aqueduct), Tel. 921 462906

i. Transport

Alcalá

By plane

Railway RENFE (Spanish national railway): Tel: 902 240202; www.renfe.es

Bus Station Tel: 91 8881622.

Taxi 91 8822188 & 91 8822179


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Barajas Airport:

Madrid

Tel: 0034913058343; www.aena.es Barajas airport T1: 91 3058656 SERVIBERIA: Tel:902400500; www.iberia.com

RENFE (Spanish national railway): Tel: 902 240202; www.renfe.es. Atocha Station: C/Glorieta del Emperador Carlos V; 91 563 02 02. Chamartín Station: C/ Agustín de Foxá; 91 323 21 21.

Main Station: 91 468 42 00.

91447 5180

C/

91445 90 08

Continental Auto: Alenza 20;91 533 04 00

Autocares Herranz: C/ Fernández de los Rios: 91 543 36 45 Auto-Res: C/ Fernández Shaw 1; 551 72 00.

91

ALSA:

Segovia

C/ Méndez Álvaro; 91 468 42 00 RENFE (Spanish national railway): Tel: 902 240202; www.renfe.es

Station

921 445000

921427707

j. Useful telephone numbers Emergencies 112: Local Police 092. Civil Guard 062. National Police 091. Citizen information 010. Highway information: Tel: 900 123505; www.dgt.es. Lost or Stolen Credit Cards: American Express: 91 572 03 03; CajaMadrid: 91 519 38 00; 4B: 91 726 00 00; Eurocard-MasterCard: 91 519 21 00; Dinner's: 91 547 40 00; Sistema 6000: 91 355 30 00; Visa: 91 519 21 00. References: http://www.aboutmadrid.com/ . http://www.ucm.es/info/vicrint/guc/guade.htm

VI.6. The receiving secondary school Student teachers will have preparatory seminars in their own countries after having been selected for the Socrates mobility programme Comenius 2.2.a. In the preparatory seminars before the mobility, the student teachers will be advised to bring to the destination country materials to show to pupils who will help to understand different countries, ideas, customs, etc.; in other words, they will introduce to Secondary School pupils a different culture. The European student teachers enrich the receiving school with their culture; many intercultural activities will be suggested to the different receiving schools from the members of the project, such as preparing a presentation to parents, cooking sessions of typical dishes, singing typical songs, video sessions showing the geography, art, history of the respective European country, etc. Some guidelines will also be suggested to the receiving schools from the CON-SCIENCE group. The receiving school will assist the European student teachers in: •

Informing them about the organization of school

•

Introducing them to the school staff

•

Giving them access to teaching materials

•

Observing science lessons at school, and participant in them supervised by their respective mentor. (Also some other kind of lessons can be observed: English lesson, history lesson, etc.)

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•

Observing meetings of school teachers (general meeting of the whole staff presided over by the school headmaster/headmistress; meetings in the respective Department, assessment sessions, etc.)

•

Participating in other extra activity, for instance, a trip, a visit to an exhibition, in case some of these activities are planned during the student teachers’ stay.

•

Helping them to feel at home.

The key to successful mobility consist of its preparation and the coordination of the Universities, members of the CON-SCIENCE project with the receiving schools.


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