disaster risk management a resource book for

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

A RESOURCE BOOK FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ZIMBABWE PREPARED BY THE CIVIL PROTECTION ORGANISATION OF ZIMBABWE

Empowered lives. Resilient nations.

RESOURCE BOOK FOR

DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN

ZIMBABWE

PRODUCED BY THE NATIONAL CIVIL PROTECTION ORGANIZATION IN ZIMBABWE

FOREWORD

International trends indicate that disasters are increasing in intensity, complexity and magnitude. Zimbabwe has not been spared from this trend. It is against this background that the National Civil Protection Committee launched a strategy aimed at integrating emergency preparedness and disaster risk reduction into the education system of Zimbabwe in July 2003. The strategy seeks to mitigate against the effects of both natural and human induced emergencies on the education system thus contribute to improved awareness of disaster risk and readiness for emergencies in the country in general. A three pronged approach was adopted to ensure implementation of the strategy namely, disaster risk reduction initiatives in education infrastructure, development of an emergency preparedness and response manual for the education sector and inclusion of disaster risk management in education curricula together with the production of requisite reference materials. This book is a reference resource for use by teachers and educators. The book is a rich source of practical information drawn from scientific literature, disaster databases and field experiences from Zimbabwe. Teachers and educators should find this resource book useful in creating innovative training programs. These training programs should contribute to long term enhancement of national capacity for disaster risk management in this country. We applaud this remarkable achievement more so as disaster risk reduction is recognised as an intrinsic element of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005 – 2015). Hon, I.M.C Chombo M,P, Minister of Local Govt, Rural & Urban Development

Hon, D. Coltart, M,P, Minister of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture

i

Hon, I.S.G. Mudenge, M,P Minister of Higher &Tertiary Education

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgement to all who contributed to the successful publication of this book: ~Support and political will of the Ministers of Local Government Rural and Urban Development, Minister of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture and Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education ~ All members of the National Civil Protection Committee for nurturing the Strategy to Integrate Disaster Risk Reduction into Education culminating in the eventual publication of this book ~ The strategy planning team comprising ‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture, ‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education ‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development ~ National Civil Protection Committee experts on hydro meteorological, environmental, technological, geological and biological hazards for providing information on their respective areas of expertise ~The Technical Review Team comprising ‘Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, ‘World Health Organisation, ‘ Zimbabwe Electricity Distribution Company ‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture, ‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education ‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development for reviewing and updating the initial and subsequent drafts of the resource book ~Mr. Desmond Manatsa of the Bindura State University for compiling and consolidating draft submissions from various experts. ~UNDP for providing financial support for drafting, editing, typesetting and printing of this book **********************************************

ii

Ministry of Local Government, Rural & Urban Development Makombe Building, Harare, Zimbabwe P O Box CY7706, Harare Tel 263 4 791287 Fax 263 4 703715 E -mail : [email protected] Website : www.zimdrm.gov.zw © Ministry of Local Government, Zimbabwe 2009 Reprinted 2013 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of the publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in al, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without any form or by any means (electronic, mechanic the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book.

ISBN 978-0-7974-4149-1 Edited by Megan Allardice Text typeset in 10/12 Times by Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited Illustrated by:- Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited Cover photographs by:- Department of Civil Protection & Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited Cover design by:- Department of Civil Protection Published by:- Civil Protection Organisation of Zimbabwe Reprinted by:- Uniprint, A Division of Times Media (Pty) Ltd

Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms

iv

Chapter 1 Introduction

1

Emergencies and disasters worldwide Emergencies and disasters in Zimbabwe Desertification and drought Wetlands The Freshwater agenda The habitat agenda Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters An African initiative Disaster risk reduction efforts in Zimbabwe The national civic protection plan

1 3 8 8 8 9 9 9 11 12

Chapter 2 Disaster Risk Management Concepts

14

Hazards and disasters The disaster concept Risk analysis and risk management as a process The vulnerability reduction approach Total disaster risk management Risk management flow The legal framework for disaster reduction Promotion of education and public awareness

14 17 20 24 27 30 34 35

Chapter 3 Hydro-Meteorological Hazards

38

The drought hazard Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe Tropical cyclones History of the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe The impact of tropical cyclones tropical cyclone mitigation Flood hazards and disasters Flood mitigation Severe thunderstorms Lightning hazard Extreme wind gusts Fog and mist as visibility and barrier hazards Extreme temperature hazard Frost hazard

Chapter 4 Geological Hazards

38 39 39 47 51 53 55 56 58 60 60 64 65 66 68

70

Earthquake hazards and disasters Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake A history of Zimbabwean earthquakes Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones Causes of injury and damage

71 69 69 72 72 iv

Earthquake risk reduction strategies Landslide hazards and disasters Asteroids and comets (Extra-terrestrial)

72 74 76

Chapter 5 Biological Hazards General measures for outbreaks Common epidemics in Zimbabwe Surveillance systems and multi-sectoral approaches Dysentery Chicken-pox HIV and AIDS The Impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe Opportunistic Infections (OIs) Meningitis Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) Tuberculosis Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Disease vectors Malaria Food poisoning Zootomic diseases Anthrax Food and Mouth (FMD) Rabies New Castle Disease (NCD) Major and common pests in Zimbabwe

78 78 78 79 82 83 84 84 88 89 89 89 90 91 90 96 98 98 102 106 109 115

Chapter 6 Technological Hazards Transportation accidents Road traffic accidents Rail accidents Water transportation accidents Air transportation accidents Traffic related hazards Landslides and rock falls Wind School children, wildlife and domestic animals Hazardous substances Landmine hazards Electricity hazards Industrial hazards Drowning hazards First aid

120 120 120 126 127 127 129 130 130 131 134 138 140 147 151

Chapter 7 Environmental Degradation Soil erosion and gullies Gold panning as a hazard

153 154 161 v

The socio-economic hazard of illegal gold panning Deforestation Veld fires and bushfires An overview of pollution Types of water pollution and their effects Case study: Water hyacinth in Zimbabwe Air pollution as a hazard Litter as a hazard Global warming Ozone depletion International cooperation

162 163 167 170 172 175 178 181 183 187 189

Chapter 8 Disaster Risk Management in the Education Sector Personal tragedies Disaster risk management training and education in schools Personal and social skills Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum The roles of teachers and students Education & training on disaster management for communities

191 192 194 196 198 205 206

Terminology

207

Bibliography

210

Annex I Annex II Annex III

212 214 215

vi

Abbreviations and Acronyms ACDS ACMAD ADRC AfDB AIDS AREX ARPDM AU BCPR BOD CCA CCD CCHF CDF CDM CFC Cl CLIVAR CO2 CPD CRED DCCP DCC DDT DEM DFID DHF DiMP DMC DRM DRR DRRP DTM EIA ELCI EM-DAT ENSO EPR ERA EU FAO FAO/AGL FDR FEWS FEWSNET GDP GEF GHG

African Centre for Disaster Studies, Potchefstroom University, South Africa African Centre for Meteorological Application for Development Asian Disaster Reduction Center African Development Bank Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Agricultural Research and Extension Department Asian Regional Programme on Disaster Management African Union Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery of UNDP Biochemical Oxygen Demand Common Country Assessment Convention to Combat Desertification Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Comprehensive Development Framework Clean Development Mechanism Chlorofluorocarbon Chlorine Climate Variability and Predictability, Project, World Climate Research Programme Carbon dioxide Civil Protection Department Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Catholic University of Louvain District Civil Protection Coordination Committee Disaster Coordinating Council/Committee Dichloro Diphinyl Trichloro-ethane Digital Elevation Model Department for International Development, United Kingdom Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme, University of Cape Town Drought Monitoring Centre Disaster Risk Management Disaster Risk Reduction Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme, UNDP Digital Terrain Model Environmental Impact Assessment Environment Liaison Centre International Emergency Events Database, CRED, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium El Niño Southern Oscillation Emergency Preparedness and Response Environmental Risk Assessment European Union Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation/Land and Water Development Division Fire Danger Rating Famine Early Warning System Famine Early Warning System Network Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Greenhouse Gas vii

GHS GIS GMB GNP GTS HIV HMIS HSA HYCOS IATF/DR ICOSAMP IDNDR IDU IGAD IMF IMP INCD IPCC IRI IRLCO-CSA ISDR IUCN IWRM JICA LDC MDG MLGNH MOHCW NCC NCPCC NCPP NEPAD NEWU NGO NMHS NOAA OECD OFDA OHS OPD ORS Pb PCPCC POP PRSP PSI RBM REWU RSMC RTA

Globally Harmonised System Geographical Information System Grain Marketing Board Gross National Product Global Telecommunication System Human Immunodeficiency Virus Health Management Information System Hazardous Substances Act Hydrological Cycle Observing System Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990-99 Intravenous Drug User Intergovernmental Authority on Development International Monetary Fund Integrated Pest Management Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Desertification Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, Columbia University International Red Locust Control Organisation of Central and Southern Africa International Strategy for Disaster Reduction International Union for the Conservation of Nature Integrated Water Resources Management Japan International Cooperation Agency Least Developed Country Millennium Development Goal Ministry of Local Government and National Housing Ministry of Health and Child Welfare National Crisis Committee National Civil Protection Coordination Committee National Civil Protection Plan New Partnership for Africa’s Development National Early Warning Unit, Africa Non Governmental Organisation National Meteorological and Hydrological Services National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (in Europe) Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance, USA Occupational Health and Safety Out Patient Department Oral Rehydration Solution Lead Provincial Civil Protection Coordination Committee Persistent Organic Pollutant Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Population Services International Roll Back Malaria Regional Early Warning Unit, SADC Specialised Regional Meteorological Centre, WMO Road Traffic Accident viii

RVF SADC SADCC SAFIRE SAMC SARCOF SARDC SARS Sd1 SIRDC STI SWIO TDRM UCS UN UN/ISDR UNCOD UNCT UNDAF UNDESA UNDP UNDRO UNEP UNESCO UNFCCC UN-HABITAT UN-OCHA USAID UV UZ WEO WFP WHO WMO WRI WSSD ZESA ZIMAC ZINWA ZISCO ZOU

Rift Valley Fever Southern African Development Community Southern African Development Coordination Conference Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources Southern African Malaria Countries Southern Africa Region Climate Outlook Forum Southern African Research and Documentation Centre Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Shigella dysenteriae type 1 Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre Sexually Transmitted Infection South West Indian Ocean Total Disaster Risk Management Union of Concerned Scientists United Nations United Nations, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction United Nations Conference on Desertification United Nations Country Team United Nations Development Assistance Framework United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Development Programme Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Human Settlements Programme (formerly UNCHS) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs United States Agency for International Development Ultraviolet University of Zimbabwe World Economic Outlook World Food Programme, United Nations World Heath Organisation, United Nations World Meteorological Organisation, United Nations World Resources Institute World Summit on Sustainable Development Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority Zimbabwe Mine Action Committee Zimbabwe National Water Authority Zimbabwe Steel Company Zimbabwe Open University

ix

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Decadal Economic Impacts of Global Disasters 1973-2002

Emergencies & Disasters Worldwide

EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004

Disasters, be they natural or human inflicted, have occurred on every part of the globe at one time or another. All countries of the world are becoming increasingly vulnerable to disasters, whether large or small, industrial or agrarian, technologically sophisticated or traditionally focused. The types of hazards that trigger these disasters vary from the unexpected occurrence of tsunamis, to more predictable seasonal floods and periodic storms. Less widespread hazards, such as transport accidents, urban conflagrations, civil strife and bush fires have also taken their toll. Other, less immediate and slowly evolving hazards, such as drought and environmental degradation, affect even more people with potentially greater costs for their future. Since the final years of the 1990s, several powerful natural disasters have occurred in different parts of the world. Hurricane Mitch damaged up to 70 percent of the infrastructure in Honduras and Nicaragua in 1998, devastating the economies of all the Central American countries, which are yet to recover fully. One year later, the worst cyclone in 100 years hit the Indian state of Orissa, affecting ten times as many people as Hurricane Mitch and destroying 18 000 villages in one night. In 1999 also, Mexico experienced its worst floods since 1600. Almost 300 000 people were made homeless (UN/ ISDR, 2004). Hardly a year later, in 2000, Tropical Cyclone Eline induced floods of an unprecedented scale in Southern Africa, destroying homes and infrastructure on a previously unknown scale. At the end of 2001, the powerful typhoon Lingling caused extensive damage and over 500 fatalities in the Philippines and Vietnam. In 2002, unprecedented flooding occurred in many countries, with particularly severe events causing losses of more than US$ 15 billion in European countries in the Elbe, Danube and Vltava river basins. In August 2002, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) stated that “floods in more than 80 countries have killed almost 3,000 people and caused hardship for more than 17 million worldwide since the beginning of the year” (UN/ISDR, 2004). Then, in 2005, the worst known natural disaster ever occurred. The Indian Ocean Tsunami killed several hundreds of thousands of people in thirteen countries and left millions homeless. Figures 1.1 and 1.2, constructed using data from EM DAT OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, show an increase in both the number of natural hazard events and the size of affected populations, as well as an increase in the corresponding economic losses during the past three decades. However, although the number of disasters has more than tripled since the 1970s, the reported death toll due to these disasters has halved, as shown in the second graph (Figure 1.2). The number of disasters and their corresponding economic losses for the decade 1993 to 2002 are more than three times as high as they were during the two decades from 1973 to 1992. 1

Note: The data on both graphs above includes drought, earthquake, epidemic, extreme temperature, famine, flood, industrial accidents, insect infestation, miscellaneous accident, land/debris slides, transport accidents, volcanoes, wave surge, wildfire and windstorm.

Figure 1.2 Decadal Human Impacts of Global Disasters 19732002 EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004

The other data from the same source (not shown) also indicate that the 84 great natural disasters recorded in the 1990s are three times as many as those that occurred in the 1960s. The combined economic loss of US$ 591 billion in the 1990s was eight times greater than that of the 1960s. On the other hand, 10 000 people died in natural disasters in 2000, compared to more than 70 000 in the previous year, or over 500 000 in the previous ten years. The impact of these disasters depends on the level of development, preparedness and capacity to cope with disasters of the affected countries or regions. Ninety percent of the natural disasters and 95 percent of the total disaster related deaths worldwide occur in developing countries. The growth in the Figure 1.3 Disaster Increases in the Regions of the World World Disasters Report 2002 – IFRC

Recent events have proved that disasters do not only affect the poor and characteristically more vulnerable countries, but also those thought to be well protected. The emerging role of El Niño/La Niña events as significant global hazards is one example. The El Niño/ La Niña events of 1997 and 1998 were the most intense occurrences of cyclical climatic variation during the 20th Century. Beyond representing costly economic variations to normal climate expectations, these events also created conditions around the world that led to extensive flooding, extended drought conditions and widespread wildfires. In recent years, developed countries in Europe and America have experienced floods of such magnitude that previously accepted procedures for protection and the utility of structural barriers have had to be re-evaluated.

number of disasters in Africa is far greater than in other countries, while Europe has the slowest disaster increase rate (see Figure 1.3). Change and variability in the weather and climate continue to have a significant impact upon Africa. Excluding deaths caused by natural disasters, over 60 percent are weather or climate related (Preston-Whyte and Tyson, 2000). As shown in Figure 1.4, during the 1980s, weather related disasters dominated the recorded natural disasters. Droughts, which generally manifest themselves slowly, are probably the most damaging disasters. Figure 1.4 shows that they leave many of their victims dead or homeless. Over the years, drought induced crop failures have been the single greatest reason for loss in agricultural production in Africa.

Figure 1.4 Deaths and Homelessness Caused by Disasters in Africa during the 1980s WMO, 1980

2

Decade Hydrometeorological Geological Biological Total % of century total

19001909

19101919

19201929

19301939

19401949

19501959

19601969

19701979

19801989

19901999

20002004

Total(%)

32 34 5 71

73 26 7 106

61 27 10 98

75 33 3 111

120 51 3 174

235 55 1 291

469 82 37 588

779 121 64 964

1 497 227 167 1 891

2 037 314 360 2 711

1 750 186 372 2 308

7 1 1 9

1

1

1

1

2

3

6

11

20

29

25

100%

128 (77%) 029 (11%) 156 (12%) 313 (100%)

World Disasters Report 2002 - IFRC (1900-2004, by Decades)

Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported disasters in the world total has increased over the past decade. In addition to the socioeconomic losses, a substantial amount of financial and other resources for development has been diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance to disaster affected people each year. This has contributed to Africa’s poor standing in disaster management. By contrast, developed countries have well defined structures to manage disasters and emergencies, largely as a result of their socioeconomic strength. This allows for both the necessary education and research on risks and budget allocations towards effectively equipping disaster management agencies so as to adequately manage emergencies.

Table 1.1 Distribution of Natural Disasters by Origin

Emergencies and Disasters in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe and its communities face a wide range of natural and human-made hazards (see Figure 1.5). Natural hazards include all those of climatic, geophysical or biological origin, while human-made hazards include those arising from technology, human fault and hostile action. Some major natural hazards, such as cyclones and bushfires, are seasonal and regional but other types of hazards, particularly those made by human agency, are less predictable and could occur at almost any time or anywhere. Zimbabwe is one of the countries in Africa most prone to natural hazards of hydro-meteorological origin. Figure 1.5 The Most Common Hazards and Disasters in Zimbabwe

3

Double trouble. House destroyed during Tropical Cyclone Eline (2000) and gullies forming across the homestead. (Source: CPD)

Its complex climatic and varied geological conditions result in virtually every type of known natural hazard. Among them, floods, droughts, lightning, earthquakes and tropical cyclones cause the greatest economic losses.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the arm of the United Nations that acts to support and strengthen national capacities for disaster mitigation, prevention and preparedness. UNDP plays the role of the convener of the United Nations Disaster Management Team (UNDMT), an interagency working group consisting of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the International Labour Organisation (ILO), UNDP, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the United Nations Volunteers (UNV), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The UNDMT acts as a focal point for coordination of the natural disaster related activities of the UN system and works closely with the government to support coordination of disaster management activities in the country (AU, 2005).

Areas particularly vulnerable and prone to flood related disasters include the areas along the major rivers – Zambezi, Limpopo and Sabi. The southern parts of Zimbabwe, especially Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South have a high risk of drought while the Matabeleland provinces are also the hardest hit by floods. Earthquakes threaten the eastern border regions as well as both the Matabeleland provinces. The provinces in the eastern sector are prone to tropical cyclone effects as they lie in the usual overland path of the cyclones from Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. The photograph below shows a hut destroyed by Tropical Cyclone Eline in March 2000. Natural disasters are aggravated by several factors. Improper land management, lack of environmental awareness and disaster preparedness, and ineffective application of the rule of law are key issues for policy makers addressing disaster reduction. The same also applies to human-made disasters, as improper planning leads to the increased magnitude of the effect of these disasters. Zimbabwe also has a high rate of human-made disasters. The annual numbers of people who die from these disasters dwarf by several times those who die from natural disasters. For example, although drought is one the biggest natural disasters of the country, there is no record of even a single death due to drought induced famine. Of all local disasters, road traffic accidents cause the greatest number (several hundreds) reported dead or maimed annually. Rarely does a year pass without a serious road traffic accident having to be declared a national disaster by the President of the country. While, by world standards, Zimbabwe cannot be regarded as highly disaster prone in terms of deaths and injuries caused, the cost of the disasters that have affected this country, in terms of property destruction and social and economic loss, has been significant. This cost can be expected to increase unless effective measures are taken to deal with such emergencies and disasters. In the case of deaths from road traffic accidents in relation to the population, Zimbabwe is, however, prominent on the regional map. Lightning is also a major problem, causing injury and death to scores of people 4

annually. Zimbabwe is notorious, as recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records, as the country where a single bolt of lightning claimed the largest number of victims in the world.1 This occurred in a village near the eastern border town of Mutare in 1975, when 21 people were killed while sheltering in a hut. The world is not simply watching these disasters unfold at an increased pace, taking their huge toll on human life and property. At the international level there has been renewed commitment to disaster risk reduction under various processes. In recognition of the need to highlight to the world the necessity of taking action against disasters, the UN declared the last decade (1900 to 1999) the International Decade for Disaster Reduction IDNDR. The IDNDR expired with tangible results in many countries. Hence, the UN General Assembly founded the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) in 2000 to continue to promote the good work and commitment to disaster reduction (UN/ISDR, 2002). The results emanating from ISDR are already visible in many countries. There is now a general consensus on shifting the primary focus from hazards and their physical consequences, to emphasising the process of fusing the physical and socioeconomic dimensions of vulnerability into the broader understanding, assessment and management of disaster risk. Various multilateral conventions, such as those on climate change and desertification, demonstrate the importance and commitment attached by many governments to promoting disaster risk reduction. The ISDR now provides a global framework for action, with the objective of reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological and environmental phenomena. In achieving its basic aim of building disaster resilient communities, it has promoted increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development. To further strengthen the ISDR, the General Assembly confirmed the establishment of two mechanisms for the implementation of ISDR in December 2001. These were the Inter-Agency Secretariat and the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction. The General Assembly also called upon governments to establish national platforms or focal points for disaster reduction, and to strengthen them where they already exist, using a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach. The Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitating role, bringing agencies, organisations and different disciplines together, and providing a common platform and understanding of the scope of disaster risk reduction. The InterAgency Task Force provides the framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR. The framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR The Task Force, supported by the ISDR Secretariat, has four main objectives: 1 To increase public awareness towards understanding risk, vulnerability and disaster reduction; 2 To promote the commitment of public authorities to disaster reduction; 3 To stimulate multidisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the expansion of risk reduction networks; and 4 To improve scientific knowledge about the causes of natural disasters, as well as the effects that natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters have on societies. 5

The ISDR’s main objective: Reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological and environmental phenomena

Basic aim: Building disaster resilient communities

The Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitating role: Bringing agencies, organisations and different disciplines together, and providing a common platform and understanding of the scope of disaster risk reduction

The Inter-Agency Task Force provides: The framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR

APPLICATION OF RISK REDUCTION MEASURES · Environmental management · Land use planning · Protecting critical facilities · Networking, partnership · Financial tools

It also incorporates two additional activities specifically mandated to the ISDR Secretariat by the UN General Assembly: 5 To continue international cooperation to reduce the impact of El Niño and other aspects of climate variation; and 6 To strengthen disaster reduction capacities for the development of early warning systems. To achieve the objectives set by the framework for action, the following areas of common concern were prioritised: • Recognition and incorporation of the special vulnerability of the poor and socially marginalised groups in disaster reduction strategies; • Environmental, social and economic vulnerability assessment with special reference to health and food security; • Ecosystems management, with particular attention given to the implementation of an agenda on land use management and planning, including appropriate land use in rural, mountain and coastal areas, as well as unplanned urban areas in mega-cities and secondary cities; and • National, regional and international legislation with respect to disaster reduction. In 2003, during a global review of disaster reduction initiatives, the ISDR Secretariat in conjunction with UNDP developed a framework for guiding and monitoring disaster risk reduction.

Figure 1.6 The Disaster Risk Reduction Framework

The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action: • Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and vulnerability/ capacity analysis; • Knowledge development, including education, training, research and information; • Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action; • Application of measures including environmental management, land use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments; and

6

•

Early warning systems including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and reaction capacities.

Figure 1.6 demonstrates the general context and primary activities of disaster risk management, including the elements necessary for any comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. Note that there is limited emphasis on the preparedness, response and recovery functions. In Chapter 2 we have adapted the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM), which was derived by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) from this ISDR/UNDP comprehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. This has been included in more detail to give an appreciation and understanding of the current global strategies of shifting from disaster management to disaster risk management emanating from the efforts of the ISDR.

Existing hazards · Geological hazards · Hydro-meteorological hazards · Biological hazards · Technological hazards · Conflicts hazards

Emerging hazards · Climatic change hazards · Weather related hazards · Transportation accidents hazards Landslides hazards

Disaster Reduction Related International Agendas and Commitments

To reiterate the commitment of the international community to arresting the recently increasing disaster toll, several significant development declarations, agendas and conventions have been adopted over the past three decades. These cover almost all aspects pertaining to comfortable human life on this planet, free from disasters. They include the environment, freshwater management, climate change, desertification, social development, habitat and food security, and all of them contain commitments related to disaster reduction. Some of these are referred to frequently in the later chapters of this resource book. A total of 189 world leaders met and adopted the UN Millennium Declaration in New York in September 2000. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), taken from this Declaration, were established, as guiding principles for the international community, national governments and the UN. Many of these targets reflect areas that are closely linked to vulnerability to natural hazards. These include eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality, ensuring environmental stability and using partnerships for development. The aspects of the UN Millennium Declaration which are related to the ISDR include: • Developing early warning systems, vulnerability mapping, technological transfer and training; • Supporting interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, improved scientific research on the causes of natural disasters and better international cooperation to reduce the impact of climate variables, such as El Niño and La Niña; • Encouraging governments to address the problems created by megacities, the location of settlements in high risk areas and other human determinants of disasters; and • Encouraging governments to incorporate disaster risk reduction into national planning processes, including building codes. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was held in Johannesburg, South Africa in August and September 2002, ten years after the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Rio Earth Summit (UN/ISDR 2003). The WSSD provided a timely reminder to the international community that faulty development and inappropriate use of resources contribute to natural disasters. Natural disasters were also 7

Hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment then becomes an important tool for generating reliable disaster information (Figure 2.13). These diagnoses serve as a basis for good decision-making and efficient sharing of disaster risk information, resulting in the adoption of appropriate response interventions and the best use of limited resources.

The Kyoto Protocol contains legally binding commitments for developed countries party to the Convention. With the notable exception of the United States, most developed countries agreed to decrease their anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5 percent from 1990 levels in the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012. But, some countries with high emission rates have not yet ratified the Kyoto Protocol. This means that the Protocol is not yet in force, although by the end of 2007, the Convention counted 174 countries having ratified the Kyoto Protocol, while the other nineteen, including Zimbabwe, have not yet expressed their position. 2

recognised as posing a severe threat to sustainable development and therefore needing priority attention. Climate change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was presented for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992. Its ultimate goal is the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climatic system” (UNFCCC 1992). As a global review of disaster reduction initiatives, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and added to the Climate Change Convention. Desertification and drought

The international community has long recognised that desertification poses a major economic, social, and environmental problem of concern to many countries. In 1977, the UN Conference on Desertification adopted a Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. This Plan of Action did not yield the intended results, as noted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which concluded in 1991 that, despite the efforts made by the signatories, the problem of land degradation had, in fact, intensified. Examples of success were very limited. The problem was readdressed in October 2003. Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Preservation was adopted in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar. It came into force in 1975 and 131 countries are party to it. The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty dealing with a specific ecosystem. Its mission concerns the conservation and wise use of wetlands by national action and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world. Some of the main activities of the Convention are the development of national wetlands policies and maintaining inventories of wetlands. It deals with all wetlands issues from surface water to groundwater. The main partners for the implementation of policies are the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Wetlands International, the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Birdlife International. The freshwater agenda

The gender agenda The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, recognises that women are particularly affected by environmental disasters, disease and violence. It requests governments to, …promote knowledge of and sponsor research on the role of women, particularly rural and indigenous women, in food gathering and production, soil conservation, irrigation, watershed management, sanitation, coastal zone and marine resource management, integrated pest management, land-use planning, forest conservation and community forestry, fisheries, natural disaster prevention, and new and renewable sources of energy, focusing particularly on indigenous women’s knowledge and experience.4

In March 2000, the Second World Water Forum launched the World Water Vision and a Ministerial Declaration on Water Security in the 21st Century was announced. The declaration identifies seven challenges for the global community, including the “management of risk – to provide security from floods, droughts, pollution and other water-related hazards”.3 Water resource management is a challenge of worldwide significance. As water scarcity grows, quality declines, and environmental and social concerns mount. The threat posed by floods and drought is exacerbated by increasing population vulnerability and climate change. The reduction of vulnerability to floods and droughts will have to be included in many facets of the freshwater agenda. These include the involvement of all stakeholders in river basin management, an institutional framework to manage water demand more effectively and international trade arrangements that respect national water regulations. Such water management processes need to be accompanied by the increased delegation of responsibility and developed capacities to local authorities. In 2000, a review of the implementation of the Beijing platform identified 8

natural disasters and epidemics as emerging issues that deserved greater attention. The social and economic impacts of natural disasters and epidemics were noted as remaining relatively invisible as policy issues, in particular their impact on the status of women and the achievement of gender equality. The review suggested that gender perspectives be incorporated into disaster prevention, mitigation and recovery strategies. It also recommended that the UN system and international organisations should assist governments in developing gender sensitive strategies for the delivery of assistance and to respond to humanitarian crises resulting from natural disasters. The habitat agenda

The habitat agenda was defined during the Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Istanbul, 1996). It states that an increasing number of disasters are caused by vulnerability created by human action, such as uncontrolled or inadequately planned human settlements, lack of basic infrastructure and human settlements in disaster prone areas. UN-HABITAT takes actions to improve disaster risk management by working with partners that include local governments, insurance companies, non governmental organisations (NGOs) and the academic, health and scientific communities. The goal is to adopt appropriate norms for land use, building and planning standards.

Health The WHO looks at disasters as major public health issues and views disaster reduction as a core function of the health sector. It is concerned with management of environmental health responsibilities before, during and after emergencies and disasters. The WHO takes into consideration the following: · Reducing the vulnerability of communities to hazards and increasing their ability to withstand disruption and to recover rapidly; · Strengthening routine services so that the potential health effects of emergencies and disasters are minimised; · Responding to emergencies and disasters with appropriate environmental health activities (water supply and sanitation, vector control, etc.); and · Protection of hospitals and healthcare centres, with the ultimate goal of protecting the lives of patients, staff and other occupants and ensuring that these facilities can continue to function during and after a disaster incident.

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters

The Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005-2015 has as one of its strategic goals the “development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards”.5 It encourages the creation of and support for groupings such as multisectoral national platforms, which ensure that disaster risk reduction is treated not only nationally, but as a local priority as well, involving community participation. It also calls for the inclusion of disaster risk reduction in education curricula. These national platforms for disaster risk reduction6 facilitate communication of information with the ISDR secretariat. So that they can be effective and sustainable, it is necessary that they be built through a nationally owned and led participatory process of which a multi-stakeholder composition is mandatory. National platforms and Zimbabwe

Disaster risk reduction is a country specific and long term process. Its success relies heavily on sustainability, and national ownership and leadership. Therefore, each country needs to determine for itself how best to approach the establishment of a national platform and activity plans, depending on the prevailing economic, social, political and ecological circumstances. In Zimbabwe, the national platform has been developed in the context of existing mechanisms and processes whereby the existing Civil Protection Committee that held the disaster reduction mandate simply took over the platform role. National platforms, through their coordination, exchange, lobbying and awareness raising roles, contribute to strengthening present structures or national systems, institutions and processes. Under this Hyogo Framework, the Civil Protection Committee as the national platform has the opportunity to increase its access to and linkages with other relevant bodies nationally, regionally and globally. An African Initiative For Disaster Risk Reduction

As noted, Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported disasters in the world total has increased over the past decade. The occur9

The Hyogo Framework provides a reference for assessing and monitoring achievements on disaster risk reduction, thus facilitating the work of national platforms when undertaking roles such as: · Establishing existing baselines; · Identifying existing trends; · Benchmarking progress; · Ascertaining challenge areas and concerns; · Redirecting and refining efforts; · Exchanging lessons learned and best practices; · Setting out accepted targets; · Establishing credibility across different institutions and interest groups; and · Recording and reporting.

rence of disasters triggered by natural hazards and the social and economic losses caused as a result are rising in Africa, posing a great threat to Africa’s ability to achieve the MDGs and sustainable development (AfDB, 2003). One result of this is that a significant portion of development resourcing has to be diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance. A review of the status of disaster risk reduction in Africa showed that the continent’s development is at risk from disasters mainly because of gaps in the following areas: 1 Institutional frameworks; 2 Risk identification; 3 Knowledge management; 4 Governance; and 5 Emergency response.

By hosting the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development Africa brought to the attention of the ISDR the call for the mainstreaming of disaster risk management in development closer to home. The summit also urged that action be taken at all levels to assist Africa to deal with natural disasters and conflicts within the framework of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), with the aim of assisting Africa achieve the targets for sustainable poverty reduction in the MDGs. Although disaster risk reduction policies and institutional mechanisms do exist (at various degrees of completion) in African countries, their effectiveness is limited. Thus there is a need for a strategic approach to improving and enhancing their effectiveness and efficiency by emphasising disaster risk reduction. To address the issue of disasters comprehensively, NEPAD, within the framework of the African Union (AU), the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) Africa have been working together since the beginning of 2003 to provide strategic guidance and direction to the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction in sustainable development planning and processes (AfDB, 2003). The process for formulating a continental disaster risk reduction strategy started with a NEPAD workshop on Disaster Management in April 2003. The workshop called for interventions to address issues of food security and disaster management in Africa. The outputs of the workshop centred on the recognition of the need to develop a regional strategy and programme of action on disaster risk reduction. In light of the above concerns, the aim of the proposed African Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction is to contribute to the attainment of sustainable development and poverty eradication by facilitating the integration of disaster risk reduction into development.

The main challenge now is to transform this strategy and the guidelines into action by policy makers, decision makers, disaster managers and development practitioners at subregional, national and community levels. To meet this challenge, Zimbabwe, through its implementing body the CPD, is proceeding with the joint initiative with UN/ISDR Africa in the development of a programme to facilitate the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development planning and activities in the country. The education sector has been targeted in order to take advantage of the multiplier factor inherent in this sector to fuse disaster risk reduction into the school curriculum. This resource book for teachers is the product of this approach.

The Strategy’s objectives are to: 1 Increase political commitment to disaster risk reduction; 2 Improve identification and assessment of disaster risks; 3 Enhance knowledge management for disaster risk reduction; 4 Increase public awareness of disaster risk reduction; 5 Improve governance of disaster risk reduction institutions; and 6 Integrate disaster risk reduction in emergency response management. The Strategy to achieve these objectives was officially acknowledged at the AU Summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in July 2004, with an official call for a programme of implementation through the joint efforts of the AU and NEPAD, with continuous support from the UN/ISDR, in cooperation with the UNDP and UNEP. 10

Subsequently the joint initiatives among the AU, NEPAD, AfDB and UN/ISDR Africa have resulted in a set of strategic documents, drafted with support from experts, government officials, UNDPBureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) and UNEP (AU, 2005). The documents are: The Regional Review of Disaster Reduction; 1 2 The Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Management; and 3 Guidelines for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Sustainable Development. Disaster Risk Reduction Efforts in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe’s climate, physical geography, geology and vegetation make it prone to a range of disasters resulting from natural hazards such as severe storms, floods, droughts, cyclones, earth tremors and veld-fires. In addition, because Zimbabwe is a relatively industrialised and resource rich nation, it is subject to a variety of other emergencies and disasters resulting from human-caused and technological hazards that include transport and industrial accidents, major urban fires, and accidents involving hazardous materials. Every day, somewhere in Zimbabwe, emergency organisations have to respond to events that may threaten people’s lives or property. There are occasions however, when the scale or unusual nature of an event requires planned coordination between responding organisations. This resource book outlines arrangements in Zimbabwe which provide for this planned coordination during major emergencies or disasters in terms of national policy and the organisational structure of the CPD.

By road and by air. The CPD arrives in Muzarabani as part of the rapid response team during the floods of 2003 (Source: CPD)

Policy and Disaster Management Organisation in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe’s emergency management and counter disaster arrangements reflect the fact that, under the county’s Constitution, state, district and provincial governing bodies each have responsibility for protection and preservation of the lives and property of their citizens. Every citizen, in turn, has the responsibility to assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of disaster. As provided by the Zimbabwe Civil Protection Act of 1989, central government initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for implementing and maintaining its effectiveness. The structure is illustrated in Figure 1.7, below. They exercise control over most of the functions essential for effective disaster prevention, preparedness, response and recovery, through: • Legislative and regulatory arrangements within which the community and various agencies operate; • Provision of police, fire, ambulance and emergency services, and medical and hospital services; and • Government and statutory agencies which provide services to the community. The system uses the existing government, private, and non governmental organisations whose regular activities contain elements of disaster risk prevention and community development. Local government plays a major role, as do the many voluntary organisations, because of their intimate links with 11

Figure 1.7 The Structure of the Civil Protection Department

1 2 3 MLGPW&NH

4 5 6 Sister Ministry Departments

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8 9 10 NGO Representatives

The National Civil Protection Plan (NCPP) forms the overall framework for the promotion, coordination and execution of emergency and disaster management in Zimbabwe by: · Allocating responsibilities and duties to appropriate authorities at different levels so that organisations can prepare their own plans and make them operational when required; and · Providing guidelines for the planning execution and preservation of the civil protection system and its functions.

‘All disaster preparedness and response activities in the country are initiated through the National Crisis Committee and its sub-committees, with the assistance of technical experts who also constitute a sub-committee.’

the communities they serve. The role of the CPD is to provide guidance and support to the state and downwards, in developing their capacity for dealing with emergencies and disasters, and to provide physical assistance to requesting provinces or districts when they cannot cope during an emergency. Legislation

The Minister of Local Government and National Housing (MLGNH) is charged with the coordinating role, as empowered by the Civil Protection Act No. 5 of 1989. The Act provides for: 1 Establishment of the Civil Protection Directorate whose responsibilities are: a) Establishment, promotion and directing of civil protection organisations in civil protection provinces and civil protection areas. b) Appointment of planning committees in civil protection provinces and civil protection areas, which shall draft the civil protection measures, to be submitted to the Director then the Minister for approval. c) Assisting institutions, departments, private and non governmental organisations to come up with plans for emergency preparedness and disaster prevention. d) Consulting the Minister who in turn shall also consult the President to declare and gazette a state of emergency. e) Ensuring that the data gathered through different persons from various disciplines is not contradictory. f) Regular contact with international disaster management and disaster relief organisations. g) Arranging to get first hand information on major incidents. h) Development of public awareness programmes on emergency preparedness and response. i) Promoting research and training into matters relating to disaster management. 2

The CPD coordinates quite a number of public awareness programmes tailored to both the wet and dry seasons. Awareness campaigns on flooding, drowning and lightning hazards are carried out towards and during the wet season, while campaigns on fire hazards are conducted in winter. The campaigns use a multisectoral approach, with the CPD having the role of designing and coordinating the programmes. Information is disseminated through the press, by pamphlets and in road shows. Trade fair exhibitions on fire hazards that threaten the environment have also been mounted. Budgetary constraints limit the use of the electronic media although it has a potentially far reaching impact. The media has also demonstrated a keen interest and has proven an effective tool for information dissemination. The results show that there has been heightened awareness on hazards and their impacts among the general public. Developing this resource book is also one of the major endeavours by the CPD to create a Zimbabwean generation that is disaster management literate.

3 4

Special powers designed to establish, coordinate and direct the activities of both the public and the emergency services. Guidelines for action and maximum use of resources since disaster mitigation requires a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach. The establishment of a National Civil Protection Fund that receives money from both Government and the public. The fund is applied to the development of Civil Protection activities throughout the country.

The National Civil Protection Plan

A National Civil Protection Coordination Committee (NCPCC) derives its mandate from section (41) (2) of the Civil Protection Act No. 5 of 1989 and is responsible for the execution of civil protection functions. The permanent members of the NCPCC are senior officers selected from government ministries and departments, parastatals and NGOs. Other members, especially from the private sector, are co-opted as required. This multisectoral representation is replicated at the provincial and district levels. However, there are marked variations in the representation as some organisations 12

Figure 1.8 Organisational Structure of the Civil Protection Department

remain centralised and, even among those that are decentralised, the grades of staff working at provincial or district level affects the manner in which they are represented. In addition to ministries having special responsibilities according to their portfolios, members of the NCPCC, Provincial Civil Protection Coordination Committee (PCPCC) and District Civil Protection Coordination Committee (DCPCC) are grouped into functional sub-committees namely: • • • •

Food Supplies and Food Security, chaired by the Ministry of Public Service Labour and Social Welfare; Health, Nutrition and Welfare, chaired by the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare; Search, Rescue and Security, chaired by the Zimbabwe Republic Police; International Cooperation Assistance, chaired by the Ministry of Finance.

The Minister is helped in administering the Civil Protection Act and its policy by a series of administrative echelons starting at the national and going down to the district level, as depicted in Figure 1.8. Current work of the Civil Protection Department

The CPD carries out regular vulnerability and capacity assessments, especially during periods of disaster, to collect baseline data for intervention. The methods used include community and household interviews, particularly in the rural areas where the most vulnerable people are. Vulnerability assessments have also been carried out in urban areas with the similar objectives of identifying the most vulnerable groups in terms of food access and availability, and vulnerability to the impact of HIV and AIDS and other diseases. Zimbabwe has attempted to integrate lessons learnt from past major emergencies and disasters such as droughts, cyclones and major public transport into its ongoing strategies. Disaster review seminars held after an incident have resulted in an improved early warning system for the country’s hydrometeorological disasters, such as flooding, cyclones and droughts. The Meteorological Services Department monitors the weather closely and is mandated to give regular updates and warning information, including to the general public when necessary, through the prescribed channels of communication.

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Highfield theatre and dance group, Together as One, performing in Malipati during one of the public annual pre-rainfall season public awareness campaign. The CPD uses dance groups to attract villagers and schoolchildren to campaign rallies and drama based on related disaster themes to convey the necessary information to the audiences. (Source: CPD)

The CPD engages existing institutions for the execution of scientific research work that is in line with disaster risk reduction. For example, technical support for scientific research can be obtained from the University of Zimbabwe and from the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC), both of which are parastatals. The work they are involved in includes studying soil samples e.g. in communities that are vulnerable to flooding emergencies and developing sustainable construction materials. They also advise policy makers whether such sites are suitable for human settlement or not. Their expertise has also been called for in designing rural buildings and low cost sewage reticulation plants.

CHAPTER 2 Disaster Risk Management Concepts Introduction This chapter introduces and develops the working concept and principles for the Disaster Risk Reduction Approach. It is designed to introduce the subject of disaster risk management by starting with the definition of basic terms that will be used throughout the book, and goes on to look at the various forms of hazards and their phases. It also discusses four essential component topics: 1 2 3 4

The review of current approaches to disaster management; The development of risk management concepts; The essentials of the new risk management concept; and The Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach and how to integrate the community into this.

The chapter is primarily designed to increase the teacher’s awareness of the current nature and management of disasters, in line with current practice in disaster management. The aim is to make teachers and their students ‘disaster risk reduction literate’. We hope that this will lead to better performance in both disaster preparedness and response at community and local levels. Most of the disaster risk management concepts, definitions of terms and terminology are based on material from UN-OCHA/Kobe (2005) and ISDR (2004).

A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life, or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

Hazards and Disasters HAZARD A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life, or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. NATURAL HAZARDS Hazards with meteorological, geological, biological or extraterrestrial (space) origins. HUMAN-MADE HAZARDS Hazards or emergency situations in which the principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from ‘technological’ and ‘ecological’ hazards, this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations may suffer casualties, or loss of property, basic services and means of livelihood, as a result of war or civil strife for example. Human-made hazards or emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types and, in the case of internal conflict, can lead to ‘complex emergencies’ as well.

A condition or an impulsive event of significant destruction, disruption or distress to the normal functioning of a community, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources.

DISASTER A condition or an impulsive event of significant destruction, disruption or distress to the normal functioning of a community, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources. The damage caused by disaster is immeasurable and differs with variations in the geographical location, climate and the type of the earth surface. This influences the mental, socioeconomic, political and cultural state of the affected area. 14

Box 2.1 Difference between a Hazard and a Disaster

BOX 2.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HAZARD AND A DISASTER

“Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a natural disaster, but there are natural hazards, such as cyclones and earthquakes. The difference between a hazard and a disaster is an important one. A disaster takes place when a community is affected by a hazard (usually defined as an event that overwhelms that community’s capacity to cope). In other words, the impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard. This vulnerability is not natural. It is the human dimension of disasters, the result of the whole range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political and even psychological factors that shape people’s lives and create the environment that they live in.”

Source: Twigg, J. 2001

Variables of disaster

Disasters of all kinds and magnitudes happen when hazards seriously affect communities. They can occur anywhere at any time and they are generally unpredictable. However, disasters can vary in the following ways: CAUSE They can result from a natural or human-made hazard (e.g. flood or transport accident). FREQUENCY AND RISK Some occur more often and, therefore, present a greater risk than others (e.g. in Zimbabwe, there is a much higher risk of damage from severe thunderstorms than from landslides).

Therefore, in a broad sense, a ‘disaster’ has the following impacts in the affected area: · Complete disruption of the normal dayto-day functions of the community; · Increased demand for provision of fundamental necessities, such as food, shelter, and healthcare; · Drastic deterioration in the normal life process; and · The demand that emergency systems operate at their maximum capacity.

DURATION OF IMPACT Some may be of limited duration, while others may last for long periods (e.g. lightning may only last for a second, but a drought may go on for years). DESTRUCTIVE POTENTIAL This can vary enormously with the type of hazard (e.g. a bridge collapse is a localised event causing damage over a much smaller area than a cyclone which affects the whole country). PREDICTABILITY Some hazards follow certain patterns, and others do not (e.g. floods are usually confined to known floodplains but toxic gas emissions have no boundaries).

SPEED OF ONSET Some happen suddenly, while with others there is a warning period of perhaps hours, days or even months (e.g. there may be only a few minutes warning of a flash flood, whereas the relatively slow onset of a drought allows a much longer warning time).

CONTROL AND HUMAN VULNERABILITY In some disasters we are totally helpless and must leave them to run their course. In others we can do something to lessen their impact even if we cannot prevent them from occurring (e.g. unlike lightning, wild fires can often be prepared for and controlled, however more Zimbabweans are vulnerable to them as they happen more frequently than lightening and affect larger areas). Classification by Origin Meteorological origin

Parts of Zimbabwe suffer regularly from the effects of meteorological hazards in the form of tropical cyclones, droughts, bushfires, floods, lightning and severe storms. Less common but among the most dangerous weather hazards are tornadoes and extreme cold (explained in Chapter 3). Although in neighboring countries like South Africa, these two are the most deadly me15

SCOPE OF IMPACT Some disasters may affect a relatively small area, and others may affect whole countries or regions (e.g. floods in Muzarabani compared to widespread drought in Southern Africa). Others caused by a single hazard and initially affecting a small area, could cause a chain reaction involving several other hazards covering a much larger region (e.g. an earthquake which damages roads causing transport accidents, ruptures petrol pipes causing fires, and fractures a dam causing flash flooding).

Compared to some other countries, disasters regularly caused by these hazards in Zimbabwe do not often take a large toll in terms of lives, mainly because the country is not densely populated and is relatively well prepared. However, they often result in damage that can run into hundreds of millions of US dollars. This effect alone causes suffering to individuals, families and communities that can last for years.

teorological hazards, in Zimbabwe they rarely cause death except when people are caught in very cold conditions without adequate protection, or near an insecure structure in the case of tornadoes. Geological origin

Volcanoes are extinct in Zimbabwe and intense earthquakes scarcely occur, although several mild to moderate ones have caused minor building damage in Matabeleland North and South as well as in Manicaland. The Nyamandlovu Aquifer earthquakes from 1999 to 2004 caused some damage to weak rural structures, including the collapse of wells and boreholes, although there was no loss of life (see Chapter 4). In many countries, landslides are often caused by earthquakes but, in Zimbabwe, they are usually the result of soil saturation or human activity and, until recently, were not regarded as major hazards as they were seen to be responsible for only occasional serious damage to roads and houses. In 1996 and 1997, however, this view changed when landslide disasters became common as a result of rampant gold panning activities (see Chapter 7). Biological origin

The biological hazards with potential for disaster in Zimbabwe include human disease epidemics (e.g. cholera, TB, STDs, hepatitis, HIV), vermin and insect plagues (e.g. rabbits, mice, locusts), exotic animal diseases (e.g. foot and mouth, anthrax) and food crop diseases. These and other similar hazards could dramatically and suddenly affect both the health and wealth of any nation (see Chapter 5). Extraterrestrial origin

Although presenting a very low risk, the impact on earth of being hit by a comet or asteroid (large meteorite) could certainly cause anything from a major regional disaster, to a worldwide catastrophe. There are many past impact sites throughout the world, including in Zimbabwe (see Chapter 4). Human-made hazards and disasters

Classifications of hazards differ slightly at times depending on the defining organisation. The latest classification of hazards by the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) during the global review of disaster reduction initiatives in 2003 is presented in Table 2.1. This is the classification that we have adopted for use in all chapters of this resource book.

Human error or deliberate acts sometimes take on disastrous proportions. These may include urban fires, terrorist bombings, riots, wars, crowd crushes at mass gatherings, shooting massacres, and even sabotage of essential services (e.g. water or power supplies). Technological origin

These include major transport, mining and hazardous materials accidents (e.g. oil or chemical spills), as well as industrial explosions, fire and occasional bridge collapses. This category also includes dam failures and nuclear power accidents (see Chapter 6). Classification by Time Frame Hazards and the disasters they cause are classified as rapid onset or cataclysmic, and slow onset, long term or continuing. Rapid onset/cataclysmic disaster

In a cataclysmic disaster, one large scale event causes most of the damage and destruction. Following this event, there may be a tremendous amount of 16

suffering and chaos, but things soon begin to improve. In a long term, continuing disaster, the situation after the event remains constant or may even deteriorate as time passes. Cataclysmic disasters include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, cyclonic storms, and floods. Slow onset/continuing

Continuing natural disasters include droughts, crop failures, and environmental degradation, such as deforestation and desertification. The damaged area in a cataclysmic disaster is usually relatively small, while the area affected in a continuing disaster may be extremely large.

Cataclysmic disasters destroy buildings and entire human settlements. Loss of life is sudden and, therefore, dramatic. In terms of food and food distribution, cataclysmic disasters are normally more disruptive than destructive. For example, they may disrupt the transport and marketing systems. They can disrupt or damage irrigation systems and, to a limited extent, they may destroy food supplies. But the extent of destruction depends on the season, the location of the disaster, and the total area affected. On the other hand, while continuing disasters disrupt transportation and distribution networks, cataclysmic disasters can also bring them to a complete halt and even destroy the system itself.

The Disaster Concept

Hardly a month passes without media reports of a disaster in Zimbabwe or abroad. So what really are disasters? The definition of ‘disaster’ given earlier on seems not to say it all and leaves some areas not attended to. For example, an event that disrupts an entire family, such as having their home burn down may be seen as a ‘disaster’ by that family but it lacks the community level impact contained in the definition given. To a disaster manager it is clear that the word ‘disaster’ is often used inappropriately or as an exaggeration. The discussion below adds some further detail and distinguishing features to the description given. Disasters are human-made

Essentially, all disasters are human-made, for, a catastrophic event, whether precipitated by natural phenomena or human activities, assumes the status of a disaster when the community or society affected fails to cope. An earthquake or tropical cyclone, for example, is not a disaster in and of itself. Natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, floods, earthquakes and droughts tend to spring to mind when the word ‘disaster’ is mentioned but a disaster is correctly defined on the basis of its human consequences, not on the phenomenon that caused it (Hewitt, 1997). Natural hazards, however intense, inevitable or unpredictable, translate into disasters only to the extent that the population was unprepared to respond and unable to cope. Therefore, the extent of the disaster depends on both the intensity of the event and the degree of vulnerability of the society. Thus a natural disaster always consists of two elements, an external event (the hazard) and the impacts of this hazard on a vulnerable social group exposed to it. A very intense tropical cyclone occurring in an uninhabited area (as do scores of tropical cyclones in the ocean each month) is only of scientific interest and is not considered a disaster. Extreme natural events only become disasters if they have an impact upon vulnerable people, who may be exposed to natural hazards through carelessness or poverty, or who contribute to or aggravate the events by interfering with nature. Consider the tropical cyclone Eline that affected Mauritius and Southern Africa in February 2000. The cyclone had a lot of destructive strength when it hit Mauritius, but caused minimal damage to property, with no official death reported (Mauritius Met Services, 2000). Hence it was not declared a disaster in Mauritius. However, the way in which it affected Zimbabwe, with only a fraction of the original destructive force, made it one of the worst natural disasters of the century in terms of life and property lost. More 17

The vulnerability of humans to the impact of natural hazards is to a significant extent determined by human action or inaction. For example, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has traced the current climatic anomalies attributed to global climate change to human activities.

Table 2:1 ISDR Hazards Classification

HAZARD A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity which may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation NATURAL HAZARDS Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event. Natural hazards can be classified according to their geological, hydro-meteorological or biological origins ORIGIN: Hydro-meteorological hazards Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric,hydrological or oceanographic nature ORIGIN: Geological hazards Natural earth processes or phenomena that include processes of tectonic or exogenous origin, such as mass movements

Phenomena/Example of Hydro-meteorological hazards •Floods, debris and mudflows •Tropical cyclones, storm surges, wind, rain and other severe storms, blizzards, lightning •Drought, desertification, wild fires, temperature extremes, sand or dust storms •Permafrost, snow avalanches Phenomena/Example of Geological hazards •Earthquakes, tsunamis •Volcanic activity and emissions •Mass movements, landslides, rockslides, •Liquefaction, sub-marine slides •Surface collapse, geological fault activity

TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS Danger associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation, sometimes referred to as anthropogenic hazards. Examples include industrial pollution, nuclear release and radioactivity, toxic waste, dam failure, transport, industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills). ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION Processes induced by human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards) that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Examples include land degradation, deforestation, desertification, veld fires, loss of biodiversity, pollution of land, water and air, climate change, sea level rise and ozone depletion. Adapted from ‘Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives’

than 120 people died from direct effects with several hundreds more being indirectly affected. Development in many areas was set back by several decades (see Chapter 3). Therefore, the vulnerability of humans to the impact of natural hazards is to a significant extent determined by human action or inaction. For example, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has traced the current climatic anomalies attributed to global climate change to human activities (IPCC, 1995). Disaster impacts Each type of disaster can have a number of disruptive effects. These, in turn, cause generally predictable problems and needs of four kinds: environmental; health; social, economic, and political; and administrative and managerial. Environmental effects

Disasters can lead to destruction and damage to homes and buildings, decreased quantity or quality of water supplies, destruction of crops and/or food stocks, and the presence of unburied human bodies or animal carcasses. These environmental effects vary considerably from disaster to disaster. For example, earthquakes affect buildings but usually not crops, while tropical cy18

clones may affect both. Effects on health

Sudden natural disasters often cause not only widespread death, but also massive social disruption and outbreaks of epidemic disease and famine. There is a relationship between the type of disaster and its effect on health. This is particularly true of the immediate impact in causing injuries. Bus accidents cause many injuries requiring medical care, while floods and droughts cause relatively few such injuries. The risks of increased disease transmission are greatest where there is crowding and reduced standards of sanitation. Economic, social, and political effects

Disasters disrupt rather than destroy economies. Whether or not an economy is able to recover quickly depends on the losses sustained. Physical damage to businesses and industry may temporarily halt some activities, but most enterprises can operate at reduced levels, even with the loss of equipment. When a disaster strikes, large formal organisations may be disrupted. Widespread disasters can destroy or damage facilities that may be critical not only for responding to the disaster but also for maintaining a safe environment and public order. Among these are communications installations; electrical generating and transmission facilities; water storage, purification, and pumping facilities; sewage treatment facilities; hospitals; police stations; and private buildings. During the initial stages of most types of disaster, almost all surface means of transportation within a community are disrupted. Bridges might be washed out; landslides might block or damage roads; and rubble can block streets and highways (Cova and Conger, 2000). Can a Disaster Impact be Reduced or Prevented? Since we lay the disaster problem squarely on human influence, it must be also the actions of human beings that can reduce, if not prevent, disasters. To return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline and Mauritius, we can see that utilisation of advances in science and technology, including early warning and forecasting of natural phenomena, meant that the detrimental effects on the island’s population were curtailed and communities and their property were adequately protected. High exposure to the frequent impact of tropical cyclones on the island, together with innovative approaches and strategies for enhancing local capacities, resulted in tropical cyclone Eline being easily predicted and its effects mitigated. Hence it crossed Mauritius being perceived locally as just another storm but left an inerasable scar on the face of continental Southern Africa. This experience demonstrates that human societies have the capacity to recognise the risks and factors that could lead to disasters and the appropriate interventions to control or manage them. Disasters can be prevented or their impact on people and communities mitigated but the extent to which this happens depends on human action or inaction in response to high risk and vulnerability (Guzman, 2001). Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the importance of community action, such as capacity building, including planning responses to potential disasters, and managing and mitigating their effects. Preventing the occurrence or recurrence of disaster should be possible.

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Disasters can be prevented or their impact on people and communities mitigated but the extent to which this happens depends on human action or inaction in response to high risk and vulnerability (Guzman, 2001). Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the importance of community action, such as capacity building, including planning responses to potential disasters, and managing and mitigating their effects. Preventing the occurrence or recurrence of disaster should be possible.

Disasters need to be regarded as events that can be managed and responded to as necessary. A forward looking response to a hazard, before it escalates into a disaster also yields time for purposive social action, including adoption of innovative development strategies, to prevent or reduce the loss of life and property as well as degradation of the environment and deterioration of the economy.

HAZARD is a phenomenon, event or occurrence that has the potential to cause injury to life or damage to property or the environment. The magnitude of the phenomenon, the probability of its occurrence, and the extent and severity of its impact may vary. Usually the hazard related effects can be anticipated or estimated. Therefore, through careful study and understanding of the nature and prevalence of hazards, a community or public authority could anticipate future hazards and their impact, and minimise the risk of a disaster. For example, climate change impacts are now being studied through the UN’s IPCC and some of the effects, together with ways to mitigate them, are already known.

Risk and Disaster Risk Concepts It is very important that the concepts of ‘hazard’, ‘vulnerability’, and ‘risk’ be adequately understood in the context of disasters in order to be able to differentiate these terms. These three words are going to be used quite frequently throughout this resource book. They are defined below using examples from the UNDP’s disaster management working definitions. Risk Analysis and Risk Management as a Process Risk analysis

VULNERABILITY refers to the susceptibility of a community to a hazard and the conditions, including physical, socioeconomic and political factors, that adversely affect its ability to respond to hazards or disaster events. The community and its members may or may not be contributing intentionally or directly to these conditions but, altogether, they create factors and situations that define the vulnerability of the community. Vulnerabilities can be manifested as physical, social, or attitudinal vulnerability. For example, a community whose villages are situated on a flood plain is vulnerable to floods (physical vulnerability); a poor community is subject to a wide array of vulnerabilities (social vulnerability); a person who refuses to acknowledge the spread of AIDS through unsafe sex is vulnerable to the disease (attitudinal vulnerability). R ISK is the probability that threat to life or damage to property and the environment will occur. However, in disaster management, ‘risk’ refers to the combined susceptibility and vulnerability of the community to potential damage caused by a particular hazard within a specified future time period. Risk is rooted in conditions of physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerability that need to be assessed and managed on a continuing basis.

Figure 2:1 Interaction of Vulnerability Factors

Risk analysis involves the systematic use of available information to determine the likelihood of certain events occurring and the magnitude of their possible consequences. Guzman (2003) outlines activities in the process as: 1 Identifying the nature, extent, and risk of threat; 2 Determining the existence and degree of vulnerabilities; 3 Identifying the capabilities and resources available; 4 Determining acceptable levels of risk, i.e. cost-benefit considerations; 5 Setting priorities relative to time, resource allocation and effectiveness of results; 6 Developing methods to protect people and key resources and reduce over all losses; and 7 Designing effective and appropriate management systems to implement and control. Risk management

The systematic application of management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying, analysing, assessing, treating and monitoring risk is referred to as ‘risk management’. It includes estimating the potential effects of the risk through an evaluation of all the elements that are relevant to an understanding of existing or probable hazards and their effects on a specific community or environment, and setting out priorities. This evaluation, which also encompasses socioeconomic and political factors, enables the determination of appropriate vulnerability reduction, prevention and mitigation, as well as preparedness and response strategies. Understanding Disaster Risk Reduction

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the number of natural disasters has been increasing, as has their impact, due to such external changes as the concentration of populations and property in hazardous areas, and rapid urbanisation. We have already seen that the recent increases of earthquakes, tropical cyclones and torrential rains, are only natural phenomena we refer to as ‘hazards’ and are not considered to be disasters in and of themselves. For instance, a tropical cyclone in the ocean does not trigger a disaster if there is no existing population or property affected. Indeed, the annual floods in Muzarabani in the northeast of Zimbabwe are essential to the well being of the local inhabitants, as they are a prerequisite for the fertility of the soils found in the area. Once the natural phenomena have the potential to harm life and property, then they translate into natural hazards and when their effects are serious they become natural disasters. 20

Thus in addition to a hazard, some vulnerability to the natural phenomenon must be present for an event to constitute a disaster. ‘Vulnerability’ is defined as a condition resulting from physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increases the susceptibility of a community to the impact of a hazard. These four broad areas in which different aspects of vulnerability can be grouped can interact with each other to create even more vulnerable conditions. In Figure 2.1, the area where all the four spheres intersect signifies the most vulnerable situation. The following are ways in which each of these four broad areas bring about vulnerability: PHYSICAL FACTORS These refer mainly to aspects and susceptibilities of location and the built environment. They may be described as ‘exposure’, ‘being placed in harm’s way’ or simply ‘being in the wrong place at the wrong time’. Aspects such as, population density levels, remoteness of a settlement, the site, and the design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for housing may determine physical vulnerability. SOCIAL FACTORS These include aspects related to levels of literacy and education, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of governance, social equity, positive traditional values, customs and ideological beliefs and overall collective organisational systems. Some groups are more vulnerable than others. The sick and the disabled are particularly susceptible, as their evacuation and continued care is severely hampered during disasters. Predisposition to infection, high exposure to communicable diseases and lack of defensive mechanisms represent individual conditions of vulnerability. Increased vulnerability usually manifests itself in physical features, such as insufficient basic infrastructure, especially water supply and sanitation, as well as inadequate healthcare facilities and supplies. ECONOMIC FACTORS Levels of vulnerability are highly dependent upon the economic status of individuals, communities and nations. The poor, a disproportionately female and elderly group in most regions, are generally far more Figure 2.2 Examples of Exposure to Hazards through Location

This shows that the people as well as the property and the environment that is to be affected by hazards face different types and levels of ‘exposure’. Some examples of exposure elements are shown in Figure 2.2.

21

Figure 2.3 The Mechanism Behind the Emergence of Natural Disasters

Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Center

Figure 2.4 Mechanism for Natural Disaster Reduction Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Center

vulnerable than economically better off segments of society. An economy lacking in diversity is generally the most vulnerable. Inadequate access to critical and basic socioeconomic infrastructure, including communication networks, utilities and supplies, transportation, water, sewage and healthcare facilities, increase people’s exposure to risk. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The extent of natural resource depletion and resource degradation are key aspects of environmental vulnerability. For example, a polluted environment increases people’s exposure to health risks. As natural resources become scarcer the range of options available to communities becomes more limited, reducing the availability of coping solutions and decreasing local resilience to hazards and capacity for recovery following a disaster. Over a period of time, environmental factors can increase vulnerability further by creating new and undesirable patterns of social discord, economic destitution and eventually forced migration of entire communities. Risk can be further understood as the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, disruption to livelihoods and economic activity, environmental damage) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Hence the negative impact – the disaster – will depend on the characteristics, probability and intensity of the hazard, as well as the susceptibility of the exposed elements based on physical, social, economic and environmental conditions. If risk is something that has not happened yet but which is projected into the future, there are two possibilities for action if the level of risk is perceived as unbearable, either to eliminate the risk or to reduce it as far as possible. In Figure 2.3, locations and populations in the right hand region face some exposure, while those in the lowest region are subject to certain types of vulnerability. Possible natural events occur in the left hand region. However, the risk only arises in the central area, where hazard, vulnerability and exposure coexist. This shows that hazard and vulnerability must be simultaneously present at the same location (exposure) to give rise to risk, which then becomes a disaster if the event actually occurs. If we suppose that the disaster risk on the schematic diagram (Figure 2.3) is directly proportional to the real disaster risk, altering the size of the various spheres alters the disaster risk area, hence the disaster risk. Leaving the exposure to grow and delaying in reducing vulnerabilities will result in higher disaster risk and hence a potentially increased number of natural disasters and greater levels of loss.

It should be noted that disasters may be seen differently in different cultures. Whether those affected see an event as a risk or as a disaster, or whether they assess the risk as high or low depends on the value system they feel bound by. Perception of risk (or the lack such perception) is the most important factor in vulnerability. For example, followers of the largest Christian church in Zimbabwe, the ‘vapostiori’ (see Chapter 3), perceive lighting as a punishment sent by God which one cannot do anything to avoid.

In order to reduce disaster risk, it is essential that the level of vulnerability be reduced and to make sure that exposure is as far away from hazards as possible by relocating populations and property. Figure 2.4 shows how disaster risk can be reduced and indicates the area of disaster risk. It can be seen here that the disaster risk is considerably smaller than that shown in Figure 2.3. We have shown that the risk of disaster can be reduced either by restricting the hazard or by reducing vulnerability, as well as by simply avoiding hazardous areas. However, reducing the hazard is usually very difficult and may even be impossible. Vulnerability, on the other hand, is easier to influence by strengthening human response, planning and protective capabilities. Exposure is also relatively simple to deal with. 22

Effective mitigation and preparedness measures can be employed to achieve disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures are: ACTIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities promote desired actions by offering incentives. These are often associated with development programmes in areas of low income. PASSIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities prevent undesired actions by using controls and penalties. These actions are usually more appropriate for well established local authorities in areas with higher incomes. ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION MEASURES ranging from large scale engineering works to strengthening individual buildings and small scale community based projects. Training of local builders in techniques to incorporate better protection into traditional structures – buildings, roads, bridges and embankments – is likely to be an essential component of such measures. PHYSICAL PLANNING MEASURES including careful location of new facilities, particularly community facilities such as schools, hospitals and infrastructure, which plays an important role in reducing settlement vulnerability. In urban areas, deconcentration of communities, especially those at risk, is an important principle. ECONOMIC MEASURES noting that different sectors of the economy may be more vulnerable to disruption by a disaster than others. Diversification of the economy is an important way to reduce the risk. “A strong economy is the best defense against disaster” (UNDP DHA, 1994). Within a strong economy, governments can also use economic incentives to encourage individuals or institutions to take disaster mitigation actions.

To return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline, it is clear that the people of Mauritius are far less vulnerable to death and injury from tropical cyclones because Mauritius has strictly enforced building codes, zoning regulations and tropical cyclone hazard awareness/training, as well as the related up to date communication systems. The tropical cyclone early warning system is in such good shape that it offers official cyclone warning not only to its inhabitants, but to the whole of the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) basin as well. In relation to figure 2.4, Mauritius has managed to considerably reduce the disaster risk through reducing both their vulnerability and exposure, although the hazard remains.

MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES which need to be supported by a programme of education, training and institution building to provide the professional knowledge and competence required. Building disaster protection in this way takes time. SOCIETAL MEASURES which should aim to develop a ‘safety culture’ in which all members of society are aware of the hazards they face, know how to protect themselves, and will support the protection efforts of others and of the community as a whole. Vulnerability to Disasters

Landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked urbanisation, which forces low income families to settle on the slopes of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood prone rivers. Famines can be closely linked to shortages of purchasing power caused by rural unemployment or a sudden influx of refugees into a country from a strife torn neighbouring country. High numbers of deaths accompanying earthquakes almost always result from structural collapse of poor, low cost houses. In other disasters, such as floods, humans can increase their vulnerability by removing parts of their natural environment that may act as buffers to extreme natural forces. Such acts include cutting down trees, causing soil erosion and settling close to riverbanks. It is important to realise that natural hazards are agents or trigger mechanisms that can come into contact with a vulnerable human condition to result in a disaster. The disaster arises from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced to settle in areas susceptible to the impact of, say, a raging river or 23

Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages: UNDERLYING CAUSES A deep rooted set of factors within a society that together form and maintain vulnerability. DYNAMIC P RESSURES A translating process that channels the effects of a negative cause into unsafe conditions. This may be set in motion by a lack of basic services or service provision, or it may result from a series of macro forces. UNSAFE C ONDITIONS The most vulnerable context, in which people and property are exposed to the risk of disaster. It may include a fragile physical environment, an unstable economy or low income levels.

Figure 2.5 The Disaster Crunch Model Adapted from Blackie (2002)

THE PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY

X

a volcanic eruption. It is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognise that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the society’s vulnerability. Figure 2.5, below, illustrates this combination of forces. Geographies of vulnerability

No place or group of people is entirely safe, but the forms and severity of risk vary markedly between different parts of the world, areas and groups of people, as well as within local communities and even within the family. A first assessment of the geography of risk from given hazards is to show who and what is present in the area under study and who lives in proximity to dangerous phenomena or facilities. A map of vulnerability may be described as a visual expression of this assessment. The Vulnerability Reduction Approach

The advantage of the vulnerability assessment, which includes hazard analysis and risk assessment, is that it enables the community to know how vulnerable they are and how hazards may affect them. Hazard mitigation, which includes measures to prevent hazards from causing emergencies or lessen their likely effects, protects the community from undue risk. Preparedness for disaster response, including planning and training, also contributes to prevention of disasters by raising awareness of vulnerabilities and risks, thereby protecting the community and human development. This means that the application of the vulnerability reduction approach entails multisectoral involvement, coordination and sharing of responsibility with the affected community. Thus it seeks effectiveness by taking into account the practices that are best suited to local conditions and understanding.

Adapted from Hewitt (1997)

The vulnerability reduction approach views vulnerability as an interaction between a community, its environment and the hazards present. Instead of resulting in sustainable human development, this interaction can deteriorate into a crisis that can set development back. Since the vulnerability of a community is characterised by its susceptibility or the degree to which it is exposed to the risk posed by hazards, and its resilience or the capacity to cope with harm, the vulnerability reduction approach addresses both susceptibility and resilience. This is achieved by dealing with the causes of emergencies and disasters and strengthening communities at risk. Therefore, it requires a number of coordinated activities, including hazard and vulnerability assessment, prevention and mitigation, and preparedness for response. The Disaster Risk Reduction Concept

A life without risk is neither possible nor conceivable but both the level of acceptance and the perception of risk vary from one individual to another. 24

One person will take a sharp bend at 40 km/h, another at 100 km/h, depending on their assessment of risk. Awareness of risk in terms of the type of hazard, the extent of vulnerability and exposure is, therefore, a necessary condition for engagement in disaster risk reduction. A focus on risk management, rather than on disaster events alone, reflects a proactive attitude for dealing with potential threats to social and material assets before they are lost. Understanding risk relates to the ability to define what could happen in the future, given a range of possible alternatives. Assessing risks based on vulnerability and hazard analysis is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster reduction policies and measures. Levels of risk awareness depend largely on the quantity and quality of available information and on the difference in people’s perceptions of risk. People are more vulnerable when they are not aware of the exposure as well as the hazards that pose a threat to their lives and property (UN/ISDR, 2002). Risk awareness varies among individuals, communities and governments, and is influenced by the knowledge of hazards and vulnerabilities, as well as by the availability of accurate and timely information about them.

Figure 2.6 Disaster Risk Management as Part of Disaster Management Adapted from GTZ (2004)

While natural hazards may be inevitable, disasters are not. By seeking to understand and to anticipate future hazards, through the study of the past and monitoring of present situations, a community or public authority can minimise the risk of a disaster. Hazards are dynamic and have highly varying potential impacts. Due to changing environments, many countries and regional organisations require a greater knowledge of hazard characteristics. A wide range of geophysical, meteorological, hydrological, environmental, technological, biological and even sociopolitical hazards, alone or in complex interaction, can threaten lives and sustainable development. Disaster Risk Management Concepts

Before delving further into disaster risk management, let us see how two of the key concepts, ‘disaster management’ and ‘disaster risk management’ differ, taking note that the CPD is now moving from the former to the latter. As shown in Figure 2.6, disaster management (DM) includes measures for before (prevention, preparedness, risk transfer), during (humanitarian aid, rehabilitation of the basic infrastructure, damage assessment) and after (disaster response and reconstruction) disaster. Disaster risk management (DRM) is part of disaster management, focusing on the before (risk analysis, prevention, preparedness) of the extreme natural event, and relating to the during and after of the disaster only through risk analysis. DRM

IS AN INSTRUMENT FOR REDUCING THE RISK OF DISASTER PRIMARILY BY

REDUCING VULNERABILITY, BASED ON SOCIAL AGREEMENTS RESULTING FROM RISK ANALYSIS.

THESE

SOCIAL AGREEMENTS ARE THE RESULT OF A COMPLEX

SOCIAL PROCESS IN WHICH ALL SOCIAL STRATA AND INTEREST GROUPS PARTICIPATE.

THEY

ARE A NECESSARY BASIS FOR RESISTING THE FUTURE EFFECTS OF

EXTREME NATURAL EVENTS

(PREVENTION,

PREPAREDNESS).

(GTZ, 2004)

Therefore, the primary area of action of DRM is reducing vulnerability and enhancing self protection capabilities. The components at play in DRM are risk analysis, prevention and preparedness, as illustrated in Figure 2.7. 25

Figure 2.7 Areas of Action for Risk Management

Figure 2.8 The Relationship between the Development of a Country and Natural Disasters Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe

Although these concepts are explained in more detail later, the basic definitions are given here: RISK ANALYSIS (RA) consists of hazard analysis and vulnerability analysis, together with analysis of protective capabilities. DISASTER PREVENTION includes those activities that prevent or reduce the negative effects of extreme natural events, primarily in the medium to long term. These include political, legal, administrative, planning and infrastructural measures. PREPAREDNESS FOR DISASTERS is intended to avoid or reduce loss of life and damage to property if an extreme natural event occurs. Disaster Risk Management in the Context of Development The relationship between disasters and development is very simple. Disasters can destroy development inputs and years of development initiatives. Disasters can delay future development due to loss of resources, the need to shift resources to emergency response and the fact that they sometimes depress the investment climate. In the same vein, development can increase vulnerability to disasters through, for example, dense urban settlement, development of hazardous sites, environmental degradation, technological failures or creation of an imbalance in existing natural or social systems. On the other hand, disaster risk management can reduce disaster risk in ways that also contribute to sustainable development.

Figure 2.9 Obstacles to Sustainable Development

Political or Social Conflict

Natural Disaster Disease

Environmental Degradation

Figure 2.8 illustrates the relationship between the development of a country and natural disasters. The Trend Line indicates the original national development target. The Downtrend Line shows how development is slowed by disasters. Disaster risk management efforts act as a safety net in which the disaster impact is reduced instead of realising its full devastating potential. The improvement achieved through disaster risk management is shown by the Improved Line, indicating reductions in the levels of loss and the length of the reconstruction period through risk control (e.g. mitigation) and risk finance (e.g. insurance, disaster funds). Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development Under the current disaster circumstances, achieving sustainable development is of vital importance to Zimbabwe. Figure 2.9 shows that various impediments, such as political or social conflicts, financial crises, diseases (e.g. HIV and AIDS), environmental degradation and natural disasters hinder efforts to create a sustainable world. Natural disasters trigger especially devastating consequences, and are compounded by other factors. DRM is, therefore, essential for the realisation of sustainable development. The sustainable development approach has facilitated better understanding of the relationship between disaster, its various phases, environmental degradation, and sustainable development. As disasters retard or even reverse development, sustainable development efforts are jeopardised. This is because the 26

huge amounts normally needed for disaster recovery and rehabilitation efforts are diverted from other development programmes that are planned or under way. This makes it mandatory for disaster mitigation programmes to integrate developmental programmes. In this way, efforts to enhance the capacities of communities and the coping systems at various levels and in different sectors towards self reliance and self sufficiency in managing disasters effectively will be sustained (UNDP, 2004). Under the sustainable development approach, the adoption of disaster mitigation programmes at the local level is facilitated. These include structural and non-structural measures to protect populations susceptible to natural hazards, e.g. earthquake resilient school structures. Efforts to enhance early warning and forecasting systems are also encouraged. The sustainable development approach is essentially a holistic approach which facilitates the promotion of the ‘culture of prevention’ and the incorporation of disaster management in development planning. Total Disaster Risk Management Quite recently, ‘disaster reduction initiatives’ have been accepted by the UNDP as covering all initiatives that espouse the developmental approach with an emphasis on disaster prevention and mitigation. In pursuance of these initiatives, a disaster reduction concept has emerged that presents a new perspective on disaster management and integrates development oriented strategies and recent innovative approaches to disaster management, such as vulnerability and risk reduction. The new concept is known as ‘Total Disaster Risk Management’ (TDRM). It presents new opportunities to address the important areas of concern in disaster management on which there has been little focus in the past. Total Disaster Risk Management encompasses policy development, mostly in the context of sustainable development and long term socioeconomic development strategies. At the same time, it is a community oriented approach. This new concept has such a universal appeal in all sectors of disaster management that considerable space is devoted to explaining it in the sub-sections that follow. The concept of Total Disaster Risk Management The ever increasing magnitude of disasters at the global, regional and local levels continues to render less effective the existing approaches, strategies and mechanisms for disaster reduction and response. Unfortunately, the increasing prevalence of disaster risks and the growing vulnerability of communities to disasters tend to reduce the effectiveness of local capacities and coping mechanisms. This has brought to the fore the critical need for a holistic and proactive approach to disaster reduction, focused on the fundamentals of disaster risk and the vulnerability of communities, and with an emphasis on multilevel, multidimensional (cross sectoral) and multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among all stakeholders. It is, therefore, a response to shortcomings inherent in the usual disaster management cycle (UN/ISDR, 2005). The TDRM concept was introduced in line with the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction incorporating the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It 27

Risk management is paramount in this concept. The focus on risk stems from the compelling need to better understand the root causes and underlying factors that lead to disasters. The prevailing practices exert more thrust on managing response to disasters through preparedness than towards managing risks and the underlying conditions that lead to disasters. Thus TDRM brings to the fore the issues of risk assessment, vulnerability reduction, and capacity enhancement. It also emphasises multilevel and multidisciplinary cooperation and collaboration to achieve effective disaster risk reduction and response. The current knowledge and techniques on risk reduction and response is not discarded but is integrated into the new approach. Inherent in this concept is effective communication of knowledge and techniques from community to central levels. This facilitates appreciation by governments of the relevance and necessity of disaster risk management in achieving sustainable development objectives. In so doing, broad based participation in policy and programme development in disaster reduction and response becomes embedded in the process, as they relate to other development concerns – poverty reduction, land use planning, environmental protection and food security.

For example the impact of the Cyclone Eline disaster in 2000 inevitably went beyond the immediate devastation, as the toll in human lives, property and resources continues to exacerbate poverty and set back economic development. Among the possible programme activities under this approach are: · · ·

Human resource development in disaster risk management processes; Collaboration in disaster risk assessment of specific vulnerable communities; and Assessment of disaster risk reduction efforts (including development of measurement methods).

Figure 2.10 The Principle of TDRM

Figure 2.11 Enabling Mechanisms for the TDRM

was developed through the initiative of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center and the Asian Disaster Response Unit of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Kobe, Japan (UN-OCHA, Kobe). In the Zimbabwean context, the thematic breadth of necessary mitigation and prevention measures, as well as the intimate linkage between natural disasters and development, illustrate that TDRM needs the collaboration of a wide cross section of actors from different sectors, such as agriculture, natural resource management and the environment, infrastructure, education and health. Within the responsibilities and areas of activity of these sectors and actors, partial strategies and disaster prevention measures can be integrated through enhanced participation of the Civil Protection Department.

Approach Figure 2.12 A Policy Defining Government Objectives and Commitment to DRM

The principle of TDRM

Total Disaster Risk Management, as a holistic approach, covers all relevant stakeholders and all phases of the disaster risk management cycle, as illustrated in Figure 2.10 and discussed below. INVOLVEMENT OF ALL STAKEHOLDERS A holistic and comprehensive approach to the various shortcomings in the different phases of disaster management, in the context of the underlying causes of disasters (i.e. the conditions for disaster risk) and related issues. This calls for the promotion of multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among stakeholders in disaster reduction and response as they ensure the participation of the community and the integration of stakeholders’ action. The coordinated and collaborative approach is intended to lead to the best use of limited resources.

Figure 2.13 The Linkages of Key Components of TDRM

IMPLEMENTATION AT ALL PHASES OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT Effective response to the occurrence of disasters through the enhancement of local capacity and capability, especially in DRM through adequate prevention, mitigation and preparation. The preparation involves recognising, managing and reducing disaster risks, and ensuring good decision making in disaster reduction and response, based on reliable disaster risk information. Enabling mechanisms for the TDRM approach

Figure 2.14b The Disaster Risk Management Cycle

In order to effectively adopt the TDRM approach, several enabling mechanisms must be in place. These are more effective when a conducive environment is created and sustained by institutional enthusiasm, political will and commitment, and responsible focal points and advocates in government. These include policy, structures and systems, and capacity building and resources (see Figure 2.11). POLICY A clear and comprehensive policy that defines the objectives and commitment of the government, organisation, or community to disaster reduction and response efforts is important. These disaster risk reduction policies and measures need to be developed and institutionalised at national and local levels, through legislaton, policy guidelines, promulgated plans, or protocols. Some examples are shown in figure 2.12. Since the policy should effectively address the identified gaps in current practice, a strategic and consultative planning process might be necessary. As disaster reduction becomes essential to sustainable development, the policies should be crafted in a way that makes communities resilient to local hazards while ensuring that devel28

opment efforts do not increase vulnerability to the same hazards (e.g. dam construction does not introduce or increase the prevalence of bilharzia and malaria).

Figure 2.14a The Three Main Blocks constituting TDRM

S TRUCTURES AND S YSTEMS Organisational structures and systems that facilitate and ensure coordination of stakeholder’s actions and contributions should be addressed. This may include the establishment and strengthening of new or existing focal points, be they at national provincial or district level, local coordination bodies for disaster reduction and response activities, and disaster management systems. TDRM BLOCKS

CAPACITY BUILDING A constant undertaking in the building and development of national and local capacity is vital, especially in establishing and implementing disaster reduction and response measures for vulnerable sectors and communities. This may take the form of education and training in disaster reduction and related fields. RESOURCES Resource availability is fundamental to the TDRM Approach. Therefore, the identification and provision of resource requirements, including funds and trained human resources, should be given top priority. This includes the means to access and use authorised fund appropriations for disaster reduction and response. EMPHASIS OF THE TDRM CONCEPT The holistic approach to disaster reduction makes it essential that sectors are aware of prevalent risks and prevailing vulnerabilities and the methods to assess them. Thus the TDRM concept emphasises the importance of accurate and reliable hazard, vulnerability and disaster risk information. It then becomes important that vulnerabilities are assessed and understood in a broad context, including the human, sociocultural, economic, environmental and political dimensions. To achieve this end, a strategy that covers the following activities is necessary: 1 Promotion of hazard mapping, vulnerability and risk assessment at the local and community levels; 2 Collaboration and cooperation in vulnerability and risk assessment of critical facilities, such education institutions and hospitals; and 3 Collaboration and cooperation in assessment and enhancement of early warning systems. The essentials of the Total Disaster Risk Management approach The three essential pillars for the building of TDRM are shown in figure 2.14. How each of the pillars is essential and related to the whole approach is discussed in the paragraphs that follow. A ‘social action’ to cope with disasters could refer to any purposive undertaking in the pre and post disaster stages. This is exemplified in the prevailing concept of disaster management as a cycle with four distinct phases – prevention or mitigation, preparedness, response, and rehabilitation and 29

Figure 2.15 Risk Management Flow Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe

Table 2.2 Actions in Different Phases of the DRM Cycle Landslide Construction and operation of meteorological observation systems

Earthquake Prevention/ Seismic design Retrofitting of vulnerable Mitigation buildings Installation of seismic isolation /seismic response control systems

Flood Construction of dykes Building of dam Forestation Construction of flood control basins/reservoirs

Storm(tropical cyclone, thunderstorm) Construction of tide wall Establishment of forests to protect against storms

Construction and operation of earthquake observation systems

Construction and operation of meteorological observation systems

Construction of erosion Construction of shelters control dams Construction and operation of meteoConstruction of retaining rological observation systems walls

Preparedness

Response

Preparation of hazard maps Food and materials stockpiling Emergency drills Construction of early warning systems Preparation of emergency kits Rescue efforts First aid treatment Fire fighting Monitoring of secondary disaster Construction of temporary housing Establishment of tent villages Disaster resistant reconstruction Appropriate land use planning Livelihoods support Industrial rehabilitation planning

reconstruction (Figure 2.15). The significance of this concept is its ability to promote the holistic approach to disaster management as well as to demonstrate the relationship of disasters and development. The prevention or mitigation phase involves efforts to prevent or mitigate damage (e.g. construction of villages on high ground and upstream dams for flood control). The preparedness phase ensures effective response to the impact of hazards (e.g. emergency fire or earthquake drills and public awareness). Note that these are not aimed at averting the occurrence of a disaster. Response includes such activities as rescue efforts, first aid, fire fighting and evacuation. Finally, in the rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, the focus comes back to disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures taken in each phase are listed in Table 2.2, below. It is should be noted that taking appropriate measures based on the concept of disaster risk management in each phase of the disaster risk management cycle can reduce the overall disaster risk. Figure 2.16 The Concept of Risk Analysis

Risk Management Flow Risk management should be done in a systematic way, otherwise the intended objective of reducing risk may not be accomplished and, in some cases, the reverse may result. The important steps in the implementation of risk management under TDRM are outlined in Figure 2 15. Because disaster risk management is a process for good decision making that ensures economic use of limited resources, the standard principles, processes and techniques of risk management are adopted. Risk Management Flow presents a framework and systematic method for identifying, analysing, assessing and managing disaster risk, in six systematic steps. 30

Government initiative

The initial step is to have strong government initiative for implementing the DRM process from the national level to the community or local level. It is during this fist step that the strategic, organisational and risk management context in which the rest of the TDRM process takes place is established. The ‘strategic’ context refers to the operating environment (i.e. stakeholders, legislation, standards, etc.); the ‘organisational’ context to organisational goals, objectives and policies; and the ‘risk’ context to specific disaster risk issues.

Figure 2.17 Inputs and Outputs in Risk Analysis Source: GTZ (2004)

Objective setting

Risk management guidelines should reflect the social need for the protection of life and property from disaster, and should clarify the objectives to be achieved through the implementation of a risk management system. These also include the commitments by central and local governments, and other public authorities and organisations. Risk identification

This step identifies which, hazards, events or occurrences could translate into disasters, why and how. The sources of risk, areas at risk, and the existing disaster risk reduction measures are all identified. Target risks are isolated based on past disaster experiences and the losses and severity observed in those events locally as well as in other countries. Risk assessment

This step, sometimes also known as ‘risk analysis’, determines the existing controls and analyses disaster risk in terms of likelihood and consequences in the context of those controls. It is performed to estimate the quantitative damage that can be expected to result from hazards as well as their likely impacts on society. Risk analysis is based on the recognition that risk is the result of the link between hazard and vulnerability of elements affected by the hazard. The goal of risk analysis is to use this link to estimate and evaluate the possible consequences and impacts of extreme natural events on a population group and their livelihoods. Impacts of the social, economic and environmental types are measured. Hazard and vulnerability analyses are components of risk analysis (Figure 2.16) and are inseparable activities. Vulnerability analysis is not possible without hazard analysis, and vice versa. Risk analysis is a basic instrument of DRM, which is used to study the factors of disaster risk and provides the basis for planning and implementing measures to reduce risk and the impacts of disasters. Fig 2.17 shows the inputs and outputs of risk analysis. 31

Figure 2.18 Framework for Flood Risk Assessment and Management

Figure 2.19 The Concept of Disaster Risk Treatment

The analysis results in an estimation of the level of risk, the likelihood that an event will happen, the potential consequences and their magnitude. Technicians or engineers normally carry out these risk assessments. An example of risk assessment and management of flood hazards is shown in figure 2.18. It can be seen how the information on both the flood hazard potential together with the vulnerabilities are used to come up with an effective risk assessment and management plan. Planning

It is here that the assessment and prioritisation of the disaster risks is done. This stage is used to develop concrete objectives and policies that point to the identified target risks to be managed (e.g. disaster type, area to be protected) and to create effective countermeasures. Inevitably, the targeted risk criteria, budgets, projects and their time frames as well as priorities are established. Hence the formulation of a master plan for disaster risk management is accomplished. It is suggested that ample consideration be given to such topics as the continuity of contents in a master plan, adequate procedures, review mechanisms, and the assignment of responsibilities.

Figure 2.20 The Relationship between Probability of Loss and Actual Loss

Figure 2.21 The Concept of Disaster Risk Treatment

It is also critical that any disaster risk management plan is dynamic and remains relevant to the community, and that the roles and contributions of the members are defined. Evaluation and re-examination

In accordance with the dynamic nature of many risks, it is important to constantly monitor and review the performance of the operationalised disaster risk management system. The operating environment is not static and neither are the geographic features, social structures, localities and other factors. Evaluation or re-examination of the system, therefore, assists in identifying the changes that might affect it, and ensuring that the disaster risk management plan is not rendered irrelevant. Risk management performance (i.e. the implementation status of plans and countermeasures) and efficacy (e.g. the achievement of objectives, validity of the process and its components) need to be evaluated in order to confirm achievements. Basically this process involves a constant review of the risk identification and assessment processes, so that appropriate countermeasures are taken against frequent changes in the underlying hazard causes. Countermeasures

This step, sometimes referred to as ‘risk treatment’, involves identifying a range of options for treating the priority risks – prevention, preparedness, response and recovery – selecting intervention options, planning, funding and implementing intervention strategies. In this process, countermeasures are executed in accordance with policies. Disaster risk management countermeasures consist of four elements – risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transfer and risk retention – as illustrated in Figure 2.19. These countermeasures are formulated as public policy based on the master plan formulated in step 5 (planning) above. Policies should be open to the public in order to increase mutual understanding between governments and citizens in the context of risk communication. 32

Figure 2.19 sets out the concept of disaster risk treatment. This concept stems from the fact that risk treatment measures are the function of the actual loss incurred and the probability of realising the loss. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 2.20. It is clear from the diagram that the risk area, representing actual risk, can be increased or reduced by altering the area of either of the two spheres.

Figure 2.22 Best Matching of Risk Treatment Elements Risk Finance

Thus risk is at a minimum when either or both of the two is minimised. Risk can also be represented mathematically by the following formula:

Risk Control

Figure 2.23 The Main Components of a Strategy for Disaster Reduction (Risk) = f (Probability of Loss, Loss) = (Probability of Loss) × (Loss) The same deduction can be made as in the case above, i.e. that a case of low probability of loss with little loss would yield low risk, while a case of large loss with a high probability of loss would yield a high risk. Therefore, ‘risk avoidance’ is the rational option as a countermeasure if a significant degree of loss with high probability is expected. For example, it is better not to take the school bus with malfunctioning brakes and worn out tyres for a school field trip as both the probability of being involved in an accident and the loss of the large number children normally taken aboard a school bus is very high. On the other hand, transferring the risk would be an appropriate measure when a significant degree of loss with low probability is expected. In this situation, if the school bus is well maintained, the probability of it getting involved in an accident is significantly reduced, but the monetary loss of the bus and the cost to the school through claims from the parents remains astronomically high. Thus insuring (‘risk transfer’) is the best option. But in the case of a messenger’s bicycle, which is normally used within the university complex, the accident risk can be retained. This is because of the relative low degree of loss and the accompanying insignificant accident probability that suggests ‘risk retention’ (living with the risk) as one of the options to be selected. However, risk treatment is not possible solely through countermeasures in some situations, especially where these involve natural hazards. Risk reduction would be the mainstay of these countermeasures. Risk reduction measures against tropical cyclones, for example, are: • The introduction of tropical cyclone resistant dwellings; • Retrofitting of buildings and residences; 33

To build disaster resilient communities, governments need to incorporate disaster reduction perspectives into their development plans by identifying, analysing, and assessing risks, to develop a common understanding of the importance of disaster reduction as a cost effective investment in national development. Governments must identify high priority policy areas, develop effective policies, and incorporate these into national development plans.

Figure 2.24 Programme Activities for Disaster Information Sharing and Management

• •

Development of early warning systems; and Flood emergency drills conducted by relevant organisations and the general public. Risk reduction is illustrated as a composite vector in Figure 2.21 in order to show that it can be accomplished through a combination of prevention or mitigation and preparedness efforts. In some situations, the affected population can be assisted by non affected people with risk finance through risk transfer and risk retention. But the risk finance can neither reduce nor eliminate physical damage, thus highlighting the significance of bringing other risk treatments for consideration.

For efficient disaster risk management, a combination of risk treatments is necessary. Figure 2.22 shows the different risk treatment elements and their most favourable combinations. The type of disaster, economic strength, social conditions historical background and other factors determine the combined ratios of the entire risk treatment. Strategy for Disaster Risk Management

The TDRM approach is composed of the components shown in Figure 2.23 and explained in the paragraphs that follow. The legal framework for disaster reduction As already noted, the establishment of coordination mechanisms and a legal framework for disaster risk management is of paramount importance in TDRM. Above all, the national government needs to create a conducive environment for the disaster risk management system. This can be achieved by, for example, developing basic legislation for all types of disasters and establishing or enhancing the functions of a central disaster management committee (the National Civil Protection Committee in the case of Zimbabwe). Figure 2.25 The Critical Link between Stakeholders and the Affected Community

The availability of relevant information is extremely important to effective disaster reduction and response. Wise and timely use of the right disaster risk information could mitigate, if not prevent, disasters. The relevant information should be effectively linked to local early warning systems, local authorities and the media to ensure effective use for public awareness and education. Advance distribution of forecasts, warnings, and other information before tropical cyclones, floods, landslides, thunderstorms, epidemics and other disasters has been known to prevent considerable human and economic losses. In some cases, good communication and exchange of critical disaster risk information could enhance coordination and integration of stakeholders’ actions in disaster reduction and response, resulting in more effective use of limited resources. There is a large gap between experts and local communities in perception of risk. Large numbers of hazard maps related to floods, potential landslide areas, lightning, epidemics and 34

earthquakes have been created by experts and now lie in institution storerooms and libraries, instead of being utilised by potential beneficiaries at the community level. But, it is essential that early warning systems and hazard maps be used to develop a framework for distributing disaster related information so that communities have an accurate understanding of the risks and can take appropriate action. The availability and accessibility of accurate and reliable disaster risk information when required at various levels can only be achieved by ensuring an efficient system for disaster risk management information sharing. Figure 2.24 shows possible programme activities derived through the TDRM approach for the enhancement of disaster reduction information sharing and management. Promotion of education and public awareness Local communities are the ones that are the most threatened by hazards and also the first to respond when a disaster occurs. Therefore, they need to be the prime targets for accurate and relevant disaster reduction knowledge through outreach awareness raising campaigns. Such campaigns would reduce the local impact of disasters by improving the community’s knowledge and the capacity of members to help themselves and one another. Awareness raising campaigns are also a necessary part of changing attitudes. If the negative attitudes inherent in some communities are not changed, even in the most enabling environment for local institutions, DRM will not create the intended outcome. Therefore, it is vital that disaster reduction be integrated into the compulsory education curriculum, starting from pre school and continuing to tertiary level. Development of multi-stakeholder partnerships and citizen participation With the increasing extent, complexity and prevalence of disasters, no one stakeholder could effectively address the problem alone and DRM is a growing concern in several sectors, including government departments, educational institutions and non governmental organisations (NGOs). Enhanced awareness on the impact of disasters on sustainable development, and on the limitations of current local capabilities and capacities also creates recognition among all stakeholders of the need for strengthened cooperation and collaboration at all levels. The broadened participation of relevant sectors, such as environment, finance, industry, transport, construction, agriculture, education, health, and media, in disaster reduction activities allows for an enriched understanding of local vulnerability to risk. Disaster risk management activities require the coordinated efforts of people in various fields. Early warnings by the meteorological services contribute to reducing the impacts of natural disasters only when the information is transferred to local communities through the media and other channels. To create disaster resilient communities, it is vital to improve civil engineering facilities such as local roads/bridges, dams, and erosion control facilities through the cooperative efforts of people involved in various activities, including soil and farmland management, land use planning, and building design codes. 35

The development of a TDRM approach can be an important response to locally prioritised needs. Dovetailed into an existing organisation or institution at national or local level, it can yield an ‘all hazards’ approach to DRM.

The TDRM Approach, with special regard for the involvement of the affected community (Figure 2.26), is in line with both current UNDP strategies and the requirements of the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World: Strategy for Disaster Reduction for the Year 2000 and Beyond. The Strategy advocates: 1 Adoption of a policy of self reliance in each vulnerable country and community, comprising capacity building as well as allocation and efficient use of resources; and 2 Involvement and active participation of the people in disaster reduction, prevention and preparedness, leading to improved risk management (UN/ISDR, 2002).

Cooperation in disaster reduction activities among government departments at national and local levels, NGOs and communities is essential. In this regard, effective mechanisms to initiate and sustain multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary collaboration and cooperation are necessary. Networking has great potential because it sustains linkages and pulls together organisational strengths and capacities, including resources and expertise for disaster reduction activities, creating complementarities that cover existing organisational gaps. Integration of local community action in TDRM The effectiveness of disaster risk management interventions cannot be ensured without the direct involvement of the community and those people directly at risk in the DRM process through participatory approaches. In TDRM, the determination of risks and the intervention measures are not imposed on the community, but accomplished by the people concerned. Greater emphasis is placed on local knowledge and indigenous ways of knowing than on expert knowledge and technologies. There is also an inevitable shift of focus from hazards to more relevant socioeconomic vulnerability, including levels of poverty, human development, etc., of the communities at risk. On-site problem definition takes place and responsive measures are designed and implemented taking into consideration the existing local resources. Community based activities tend, by nature, to be multisectoral and, therefore, already 36

Figure 2.26 Integration of Community Level Stakeholders

cognisant of the interdependence of different actors. Community involvement at all stages increases the capacity and potential of people to reduce their own vulnerability to local disasters. The comprehensive approach to disaster management entails developing and implementing strategies for different yet complementary aspects of disaster management, i.e. prevention and mitigation, preparedness, and response and recovery, in the context of sustainable development. This approach is potentially useful in establishing standard protocols for addressing similar problems in a community, arising from different hazards and emergencies. We should bear in mind, however, that several hazards that cause disasters might require specific response and recovery measures as well as specific prevention programmes. The following chapters look into the nature of several hazards of specific concern to Zimbabwe, their causes, mitigation and the prevention measures peculiar to them. The TDRM approach is expected to be of assistance in applying these measures.

37

CHAPTER 3 Hydro-Meteorological Hazards Introduction Zimbabwe is subject to various types of hazards and, as Chapter 1 showed, this occurs in the context of a worldwide increase in disaster incidents in recent years. The geographical location and physical environment of Zimbabwe make the country vulnerable to numerous hydro-meteorological hazards. Every year, these hazards cause loss of life and property, seriously disrupt our agriculture based economy and disturb the lives of millions of families. According to the ISDR (2003) definition, hydro-meteorological hazards are natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature. In this chapter, we select only those hazards of hydro- meteorological origin that affect Zimbabwe significantly. The sections that follow concentrate on the most common forms of these hazards, i.e. floods, tropical cyclones, wind, severe storms, lightning, drought, desertification, bush fires, temperature extremes and frost. These disasters cannot always be prevented but we know that their disastrous effects can certainly be mitigated if appropriate measures are adopted (see Chapter 2). To achieve this we first need a proper understanding of the hazards and the threats that they pose as a basis from which to recommend mitigatory and preventive measures for each one.

The Drought Hazard What is Drought? There is no universally agreed definition of ‘drought’ but it may be generally defined as a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability to a point significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specified period. However, because droughts occur in nearly all regions of the world and have varying characteristics, working definitions must be regionally specific and focus on the impacts. The impact of drought results from the shortage of water, or the discrepancies between supply and demand for water.

Of all the natural disasters occurring regularly in Zimbabwe, droughts have the greatest potential impact and affect the greatest number of people. They invariably have a direct and significant impact on food production and the overall economy. Droughts, however, differ from other natural hazards in that they arrive slowly, at times taking several months to manifest. Because of their slow onset, their effects may accumulate over time and may linger for many years. Their impacts are less obvious than for events such as earthquakes or cyclones but may be spread over a larger geographic area. Because of the pervasive effects of droughts, assessing their impact and planning assistance is more difficult than with other natural hazards. Types of drought Droughts may be grouped by type in the following ways (NPDM GoZ report):

While droughts are most often associated with low rainfall and semi-arid climates, they also occur in areas with normally abundant rainfall. Furthermore, a rainfall level that meets the needs of a pastoralist may constitute a serious drought for a farmer growing maize. In order to define drought in a region, it is necessary to understand both the meteorological characteristics and the human perception of the conditions of drought.

METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT results from a shortfall in precipitation and is based on the degree of dryness relative to the normal or average level and the duration of the dry period. This comparison must be region specific and may be measured against daily, monthly seasonal, or annual timescales of rainfall amounts. Rainfall deficiency on its own, however, does not always create a drought hazard. In Zimbabwe, precipitation resulting in the rainfall level being far below the norm, i.e. below 75 percent of the long term seasonal rainfall average of 650mm during any one season, is termed a meteorological drought. 38

HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT involves the lowering of the water table, leading to a reduction of water resources such as streams, groundwater, lakes and reservoirs. One impact is competition between users for water in these storage systems. AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT represents the impact of meteorological and hydrological droughts on crop and livestock production. It occurs when soil moisture is insufficient to maintain average plant growth and yields. A plant’s demand for water, however, is dependent on the type of plant, its stage of growth and the properties of the soil. The impact of agricultural drought is difficult to measure, due to the complexity of plant growth and the possible presence of other factors that may reduce yields, such as pests, weeds or low soil fertility.

Figure 3.1 Progression in Drought Types as Drought Intensifies with Time

SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT is an extreme form of agricultural drought, in which food shortages are so severe that large numbers of people become unhealthy or die. This should not be confused with famine disasters. In famine disasters, a complex of other causes, including war and conflict, will be at play. In a socioeconomic drought, it is rainfall deficit that causes the scarcity of food that leads to famine. Under these conditions, death can also result from other complicating influences, such as disease or lack of access to water and other services. An illustration of how droughts progress into different forms with time as water deficit increases in severity appears in Figure 3.1. Note that the drought type intensifies from top to bottom as the period of water deficit increases. Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe Drought is the biggest single hazard affecting Zimbabwe and the country suffered greatly from the prolonged drought of the 1980s and early 1990s. There was reduction in cereal grain output of approximately 60 percent and a 50 percent loss in the livestock herd during this period. The reason is that Zimbabwe is in the semi-arid region of the world. Except for the highveld and Eastern Highlands, few regions of Zimbabwe have a high annual rainfall. The annual rainfall is characterised by very high variation from region to region, and from year to year, making droughts a ‘normal’ part of the climate system which we need be able to endure on a regular basis. On average, drought is Zimbabwe’s most costly natural hazard in economic terms, as well as in frequency of occurrence. Moreover, it has the unfortunate distinction of being the natural disaster that annually claims the most victims and its ability to cause widespread misery in the country is increasing. Drought is associated with suffering and loss of valued crops, livestock and wildlife. People often have to trek for long distances to the few sources of water that may still be available. Praying for rain both in traditional and Christian ceremonies is not uncommon in many parts of the country and the onset 39

(Adapted from National Drought Mitigation Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln)

Drought has long been recognised as one of the most insidious causes of human misery. While most generally associate drought with Zimbabwean provinces of low rainfall, it can also occur in areas that normally enjoy adequate rainfall and moisture levels, like Manicaland. Droughts lasting between one and five years may occur either in isolated areas or across a region. A poor year can result in large scale crop failure, food shortages and, in extreme cases, famine. Trees and grasses wilt and die and animals perish from hunger and thirst. Subsistence farming, which provides most people of the region with their food, depends on sufficient rainfall.

of the rains is often viewed as the single most important event of the year. A historical overview of Zimbabwe’s rainfall variation since 1900 is given in Figure 3.2, below.

Relationship of droughts to the El Niño Southern/Oscillation

The global weather phenomenon known as ENSO is a combination of the words El Niño and Southern Oscillation. ‘El Niño’ refers to the warming of the east equatorial waters across the Pacific and the ‘Southern Oscillation’ refers to the atmospheric response in pressure to the warm east and cool, western part of the equatorial Pacific. El Niño is measured by the deviation from normal of the sea surface temperature, whereas the Southern Oscillation is measured by difference in pressure between Tahiti in the eastern Pacific and Darwin in the western Pacific (Australia). During El Niño, the normal westerly surface winds are weakened or even reversed and this is not favourable for southern African rainfall. La Niña, the opposite extreme of the ENSO cycle, occurs when a cold phase known as La Niña or (anti El Niño) is experienced. The Figure 3.2 Zimbabwe Rainfall De- occurrence of La Niña results in unusually heavy rain in Southern Africa. At partures from the Mean in Specific this time, the Pacific is cooler than the Indian Ocean and wind moves from ENSO Phases the former towards the latter.

Although most past occurrences of drought have been linked to El Niño events, and rainfall surpluses to La Niña, the percentage of those not linked to these events is still significant, as shown in Figure 3.2. However the coincidence of El Niño and Zimbabwean droughts is worth noting. During the worst three drought episodes of the century, 1991/92, 1946/47 and 1972/73 (in order of severity), El Niño was involved. Natural preconditions for drought El Niño means ‘the boy child’ in Spanish, so named because it occurs around December, when Christians are celebrating the birth of Christ. La Niña means ‘the little girl’ (Preston and Whyte, 2000).

Drought differs from other natural disasters in its slowness of onset and its usually long duration. In the past, drought was an agricultural disaster but now, with cities having expanded faster than water supplies can be made available, 40

the spectre of drought faces both the farmer and the urban dweller. Shifts in atmospheric circulation, which cause drought, may extend for time scales of a month, a season or several years.

Persistent high-pressure systems in the levels of the atmosphere where rain bearing clouds are normally found (e.g. the Botswana Upper High) in the middle of the rain season. These cause subsidence, or sinking of air, which acts against precipitation.

The following are the main causes of Zimbabwean droughts: • Localised subsidence induced by mountain barriers or other physiographic features. Most such areas lie in the lee of mountains across the eastern highlands. The warming of the easterly airflow as it descends on the west of the summits after having lost the moisture on the windward side causes the dryness. This is usually the cause of dry weather in the Sabi Limpopo valley.

•

Absence of rainmaking disturbances causes dry weather even in areas of moist air. In general, rain is caused by the travel of organised disturbances, i.e., systems that involve actual uplift of humid air, across a region. The aridity of the Zimbabwean summer, though in part due to subsidence, arises mainly from the absence of active Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and cyclonic disturbances including, tropical cyclones.

Human causes of drought

Land use practices that give rise to desertification, such as deforestation, over cultivation, overgrazing, and mismanagement of irrigation, are thought to result in greater prevalence of drought. Traditional drought coping systems in Africa, such as pastoralists’ use of seasonal grazing lands and farmers’ use of fallow periods, have been reduced due to population pressures and economic policies. Droughts vary in terms of intensity, duration and coverage. They tend to be more severe in drier areas due to low mean annual rainfall and also the longer duration of dry periods. In dry areas, drought often builds up slowly over a number of poor rainfall years.

An elephant that died as a result of drought induced starvation in Zimbabwe. (Source: Newsweek Issue 26/11/05)

Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought

The particular characteristics of the droughts that occur in Zimbabwe are shaped by the following: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Droughts occur in all of Zimbabwe’s provinces but, in recent decades, the most severe and devastating to human populations

Air in the middle levels where rain forming clouds are normally found is subsiding and warming, hence will not be able to sustain any cloud formation process.

High pressure at the surface extending up to the middle levels

Figure 3.3 Negative Impact of High-Pressure Systems on Cloud Formation 41

Figure 3.4 Areas in Regions IV and V are Normally Termed Drought Prone

Note: Boundaries inside the map demarcate provinces of Zimbabwe. Vertical and horizontal axes are latitudes and longitudes respectively. Source: Adapted from Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe

have been in the provinces of Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South, perhaps giving the impression that droughts are principally a southern problem. These regions are situated in natural regions (NR) IV and V, and normally do not receive a lot of rainfall (Table 3.1). Therefore a small negative deviation of the rainfall from the norm may represent too little rainfall in a given season to sustain the normal functions of the community. This is why these regions are sometimes referred to as ‘drought prone’. In fact, devastating droughts have occurred in virtually all provinces of Zimbabwe including those that normally receive sufficient annual rainfall. Thus while rainfall patterns and the frequency and intensity of drought cycles negatively affect all the regions on a fairly regular basis, it is the drier eco-zones, especially regions IV and V that are particularly affected. FREQUENCY Trends in the occurrence of droughts indicate that they are becoming more frequent than ever before. Long term averages indicate that, in terms of rainfall, out of every ten years, we have about 3.7 good years, 4 average years, and 2.3 bad ones. Research also reveals that, since the 1970s, extreme drought has affected Zimbabwe in every decade. The highest frequency of drought was the 1990s, when half of the years were drought years. The scenario is similar to the 1910s and 1920s when 40 percent of each decade was made up of drought years (Figure 3.5).

NR

Area (km2)

I II III

7 000 58 600 72 900

% of total 2 15 18

IV V

147 800 104 400

38 27

TOTAL

388 700

100

Table 3.1 Rainfall Characteristics of Natural Regions of Zimbabwe

Figure 3.5 Drought Frequency in Zimbabwe from 1902-2000

Rainfall Characteristics More than 1 050 mm rainfall per year with some rain in all months. 700 - 1 050 mm rainfall per year, confined to summer. 500 - 700 mm rainfall per year. Infrequent heavy rainfall. Subject to seasonal droughts. 450 - 600 mm rainfall per year. Subject to frequent seasonal droughts. Normally less than 500 mm rainfall per year. Very erratic and unreliable. Northern lowveld may have more rain but topography and soils are poorer.

INTENSITY AND DURATION Seasonal drought intensity is a measure of rainfall

Key: Ext = extreme drought; mod = moderate drought; sly = slight drought

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Year

1911/12 1915/16 1921/22 1923/24 1946/47 1967/68 1972/73 1981/82 1982/83 1986/87 1991/92 1994/95

Extreme mm Total below mm ave.

229.16 268.0 277.3 263.3 297.1 257.5 291.2 222.6 259.2 239.9 327.1 243.5

443.2 394.3 285.0 399.0 365.2 404.8 371.1 439.7 403.1 422.4 335.2 418.8

Year

1902/03 1913/14 1926/27 1941/42 1948/49 1950/51 1959/60 1963/64 1964/65 1983/84 1990/91 2001/02

Severe mm below ave.

Total mm

Year

169.6 189.1 149.7 161.5 127.3 145.5 178.9 195.2 153.1 198.3 160.7 195.6

492.7 473.2 512.6 500.8 535.0 516.8 483.4 467.1 509.2 464.0 501.6 465.8

1912/13 1916/17 1927/18 1930/31 1933/34 1937/38 1949/50 1969/70 1978/79 1993/94 1997/98 2004/05

Moderate mm Total below mm ave.

112.6 95.6 108.7 94.6 97.0 109.4 143.4 123.6 93.0 143.0 26.1 133.0

Table 3.2 Drought Categories 1902/03 – 2004/05

549.7 566.7 553.6 567.7 565.3 552.9 518.9 538.7 569.3 519.3 536.2 529.3

Note: 1900-2000 average = 662.3mm Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

deficiency over the season. For a particular region, less than 5 percent, between 5 and 10 percent, 10 to 20 percent, and 20 to 30 percent of the lowest rainfall on record are rated as ‘extreme’, ‘severe’, ‘moderate’ and ‘slight’ respectively. Occasionally, droughts last for more than a season but, within that period, the severity may fluctuate, with spells of rainfall although the total is still well below average. Other droughts are shorter (one or two months) but some are more intense with very little rain recorded for more than one season (see Case Studies, below). EXTENT AND PREDICTABILITY It is unlikely that the entire country will suffer drought at the same time. Some droughts can occur in one area with other nearby areas receiving normal rainfall. Often localised droughts are not related to El Niño events, so they are even more difficult to predict. Historically, droughts have tended to occur at regular intervals. Many scientists have noted that, in areas where long term droughts have been prevalent, dry periods appear to occur at relatively predictable intervals. With this in mind, climatologists are seeking to compile historical records of drought so that drought forecasting can be made more accurate. Whether precisely predictable or not, the historical trends can give an indication as to when drought periods might be expected.

Very low maize yield after a drought year in Zimbabwe. (Source: top WFP Masvingo 2004; bottom undated, http://www.m21net.org/IMG/cache400x301/zimbabwe-400x301.jpg )

The impact of droughts on the built and natural environments The effects of droughts can be divided according to the primary or immediate effects, and the secondary or resulting effects. The primary effects are generally agricultural and environmental. They result from a lack of water and their very first impact is upon agriculture. As a dry period progresses and water supplies dwindle, existing water supplies are overtaxed and finally dry up. The primary losses can also lead to environmental damage through vegetation loss, loss of livestock and other animals, loss of water for hygienic use and drinking, and growth of toxic algal blooms on 43

A drop in water levels in dams and rivers also affects the quality of water. The cholera outbreak that affected almost every country in the region during 1992 and 1993, claiming hundreds of lives, (see Chapter 5) may have been compounded by the drought.

The migration patterns of wild animals, including birds and mammals, are determined by seasonal rainfall. In the event of a drought, migrations are disrupted and wildlife numbers decrease, particularly those of herbivores. Severe loss of wildlife leads to ecological imbalances and economic losses. Fish populations also tend to decline during drought periods because rivers and lakes shrink and food sources for fish decrease. This has the further result of low breeding rates and smaller catches for fishers.

The same philosophy is used for reconstruction in the aftermath of a drought. Reconstruction should be viewed as an opportunity to accelerate development work. It is an ideal time to introduce improved animal husbandry techniques, rangeland management, water resource development schemes and erosion control measures.

BOX 3.1 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE STUDY 1: THE EXTREME DROUGHT OF 1991/92

depleted dams, rivers and lakes. Secondary effects of droughts also include major ecological changes, such as increased scrub growth, increased flash flooding, wild fires and increased wind erosion of soils. Of these, desertification is of the greatest concern. The effect of drought on water supplies

Drought has its greatest impact on water supplies. Lack of water affects every aspect of environmental health and human activity, including agriculture, natural areas and development projects. The 1991/92 drought that ravaged most of Southern Africa, killed more than one million cattle in Zimbabwe. During a drought, overgrazing leads to degradation of pastures and arable areas in cattle farming regions. The deterioration of grazing capacity further reduces livestock numbers. In drier areas, scanty rainfall for a few years can kill vegetation permanently and poor land practices only make this worse. The secondary effects of drought follow the primary effects and their greatest impact is upon society as it faces severe water restrictions. Loss of water supply leads to crops and fodder being depleted; families begin to migrate in search of better grazing lands for their herds or move to the cities to seek jobs and alternative sources of income. If the dwindling supplies of food are not replaced, rising food prices follow and, in extreme cases, in some countries (although not in Zimbabwe so far), devastating famine can occur. For example, during the 1877/78 drought, 9.5 million people starved to death in China and 8 million in India (Neville, 2006). This situation further accelerates the migration out of the stricken areas to less affected zones. The migration may, in itself, contribute to spreading the scope of the disaster, espe-

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Figure 3.6 Domestic Maize Intake by the Grain Marketing Board, 1984-1993 Grain Marketing Board, Annual Reports, 1983 to 1993

BOX 3.2 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE STUDY 2: DROUGHTS OF MATABELELAND SOUTH

Figure 3.7 Droughts in Matabeleland South Province Compared to the National Average

cially if grazing animals are moved with the people. The impact of droughts on development

The impact on development can be immense, if drought and is allowed to take place without some sort of response. Food shortages may become chronic and rural-urban migration may be accelerated. To respond to this, the government must borrow heavily and/or must divert money from other development schemes in order to meet immediate drought relief needs. This diversion of funds and energy undermines the potential for longer term economic development. If drought response is treated as only a relief operation, it may wipe out years of development work, especially in rural areas. Agricultural projects, in par45

Drought related effects are bound to be most severe in areas with overall yearly food deficits and for largely subsistence level farming and pastoralist systems. In these areas, drought can more easily lead to famine and death because food shortages have the greatest impact where malnutrition already exists. Situations in relief camps, such as overcrowding and poor sanitation, may also cause death from disease.

Animal husbandry activities, including maintaining smaller herds, eliminating unproductive animals and upgrading the quality and productivity of stock through improved breeding practices, are also useful means of mitigating drought loss.

Among the usual activities are: · Agricultural improvements, including modifying cropping patterns and the introduction of drought resistant crop varieties; · Rangeland management, including improvement of grazing lands and grazing patterns, introduction of feedlots, and protection of shrubs and trees; and · Water resource development, including improved irrigation and water storage facilities, protection of surface water from evaporation, introduction of drip irrigation systems, and water containment methods such as retention dams and subsurface dams.

Controls could include: · Livestock numbers per unit area; · Maximum human population density; · Limits on amounts of water taken from public water supplies for agricultural or industrial use; and · Authority to declare a state of emergency, during which time animal herds must be reduced in size or transported to non emergency areas, more stringent water usage allowances are imposed, etc.

BOX 3.3 EXAMPLE OF DROUGHT EARLY WARNING FROM FEWSNET FEWSNET (2002)

ticular, are likely to be affected by droughts. For those in agricultural development, droughts or the threat of droughts should be considered a part of the overall development equation. A balanced agricultural programme that develops good water resources, addresses the problem of soil erosion, adopts realistic limits on the expansion of animal herds, or accompanies herd expansion with comprehensive range management will contribute to the mitigation of drought impact. Factors contributing to vulnerability

Drought is more likely in dry areas with limited rainfall. Physical factors such as the moisture retention of soil and timing of the rains influence the degree of crop loss during droughts. Dependency on rain fed agriculture increases vulnerability. Farmers unable to adapt to drought conditions with repeated plantings may experience crop failure. Livestock dependent populations without adequate grazing territory are also at risk. Those dependent on stored water resources or irrigation will be more vulnerable to water shortages and may face competition for water. Drought disaster mitigation strategies in rural and urban areas

To reduce the threat of droughts and to lessen their impact should they occur, a number of measures can be taken. The first step in disaster mitigation is to identify areas that are at risk of a drought. Small storm retention dams can be built across drainage depressions or dry riverbeds to trap water from occasional flash floods and some of the water can be diverted into nearby depressions to form temporary reservoirs. These provide water for drinking and irrigation, and seepage into the soil will replenish soil moisture and groundwater. Subsurface dams are used to trap water in the sandy bottoms of dry riverbeds. A trench is dug across the streambed down to a layer of impervious clay and the trench is then filled and packed with clay to form an underground dam. When flash floods occur, a portion of the water will be trapped in the sand behind the dam. Small wells can be dug by hand to reach the water.

Another approach to reduce the impact of droughts on human settlements is to employ land use planning techniques. Land use planning in drought prone areas builds upon the information collected in a risk assessment. Those lands identified as drought prone will benefit from controlled or restricted use. This requires the assessment of such land to describe the degree to which it is drought prone, the present land use, the cyclical patterns of use of this land, and land ownership. Land use controls, Zimbabwe hit by drought. Zimbabwe's southwestern province of Matabeleland is one of similar to zoning regulations, can be the hardest hit regions in a country suffering the worst effects of the regional drought. created and adopted by governing bodies. Matabeleland is ranked at five on the rainfall scale in the country - one being the wettest and five being the driest. 900,000 vulnerable people in the region are affected. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) Drought Monitoring Unit in Harare has warned that the 2002-2003 season could see below normal rainfall for southwestern Zimbabwe. This has fuelled fear of further food shortages next year. Aid agencies estimate that almost seven million people in Zimbabwe require food aid until the next harvest around March 2003.

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This set of land use planning recommendations needs to be linked to a programme of public information to make the users of the land aware of the issues. Planning

recommendations should also be linked to incentives that will encourage the land users to comply with the controls. Droughts do not occur without warning (Thompson, 1993). Indicators can be monitored and interpreted, giving adequate notice to begin responding and reduce the severity of the drought impact. The importance of water allocation and rationing becomes clear and from the very beginning of a drought, water supplies must be used wisely. Priorities should be established and measures to protect water supplies should be taken immediately. Water authorities plan for water shortages in towns and cities with reserve capacity in reservoirs. During prolonged drought, however, such stores may run low, creating a requirement for water restrictions. For individuals, the best place to prepare for droughts in urban centres is in the garden. Over half of city household water is used on gardens and lawns. Wise water use planning might include reducing areas of grass, mulching garden beds and choosing dry-climate plants. In the home, it is also important to conserve water, especially during droughts, by having shorter showers, turning off dripping taps, using water efficient appliances, reusing water and collecting rain water in tanks.

Figure 3.7 Stages in the Life Cycle of a Tropical Cyclone

Tropical Cyclones The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is producing increasing evidence that the climate is changing towards high frequency of weather extremes (IPCC, 2001). For the Southern Africa region, this might mean an increase in the magnitude and frequency of droughts and floods. Zimbabwe has already witnessed extreme weather events in the PAST decade. The worst floods and drought of the century occurred in the 1999/2000 and 1991/92 seasons respectively. It is quite possible that tropical cyclone activity will become both more frequent and more severe. Therefore, people need to be proactive and to prepare adequately for this eventuality. In this section we try to produce a tropical cyclone resistant community through tropical cyclone risk management literacy. Tropical cyclones are the most destructive of seasonally recurring, rapid onset natural hazards. They are formed within the warm waters of the tropics. Between 80 and 100 tropical cyclones occur around the world each year (Preston and Whyte, 2000). Devastation by violent winds, torrential rainfall and accompanying phenomena, including floods, can lead to massive community disruption. For example, in 2000, tropical cyclone Eline caused more than 120 deaths and destroyed infrastructure worth several billions of US dollars in Zimbabwe and caused several times more destruction and deaths in Mozambique. Several hundreds of thousands of people were displaced (CDP, 2000). What are tropical cyclones?

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) uses the generic term ‘tropical cyclone’ to cover weather systems in which winds exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knots or 63 km/h). Tropical cyclones are rotating, intense low pressure systems of tropical oceanic origin. They are called hurricanes in the Caribbean, the United States, Central America and parts of the Pacific; typhoons in the Northwest Pacific and East Asia; cyclonic storms in the Bay of Bengal and tropical cyclones in the South Indian, South Pacific and Australian waters. It is important to be aware of these regional names so that, for example, what is described as a hurricane in America will be understood 47

An abbreviated life cycle of tropical cyclone Paul, April 2000. 1. Formative stage: 11 April. 2. Immature stage: 14 April. 3. Mature stage (920 hPa): 15 April. 4. Decay stage: 20 April. (Source Bureau of Meteorology Australia 2007; www.bom.au)

Formation and initial development of a tropical cyclone

as essentially the same phenomenon as that which is called ‘tropical cyclone’ when it occurs in Zimbabwe or Mozambique.

Four atmospheric and oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm:

Tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean

A WARM SEA TEMPERATURE exceding 26° C, to a depth of 60 m, which provides abundant water vapour in the air by evaporation. ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY (an above average decrease of temperature with altitude) encourages considerable vertical cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air occurs, while high relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by water vapour) of the atmosphere to a height of about 7 000 m facilitates condensation of water vapour into water droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in pressure. A LOCATION OF NO MORE THAN 5° LATITUDE FROM THE EQUATOR allows the influence of the forces due to the earth’s rotation (coriolis force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circulations around low pressure centres. DIVERGENCE ALOFT which facilitates the carrying away of air dispelled from the top of the cyclonic air system.

Tropical cyclones have a distinct life cycle. For cyclones that reach at least tropical cyclone stage (category 3 or higher having wind gusts of at least 166 km/h) the life cycle may be divided into four stages. Not all formed cyclones reach tropical cyclone stage or above. This is because their development is constrained by one or more of a number of factors such as being located in an unfavourable atmospheric environment, movement over cooler water or making landfall. Meteorologists can monitor these processes with weather satellites, orbiting or in fixed position above the earth, and by radar scanning up to 400 km from the radar station. A tropical cyclone is usually first identified and then followed from satellite and/or radar images. The following are the four distinct stages in the formation of a tropical cyclone.

The tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean are naturally erratic, but initially they move generally westward towards Africa’s east coast, then progressively poleward into higher latitudes, where they lose their cyclonic structure (decay). Those that continue westwards make landfall (landfall is when a cyclone’s center crosses the coastline) and first affect Mozambique, before tracking further westwards into Zimbabwe (Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe, 1981). Significantly reduced evaporation over land and over colder waters polewards, reduces the source of convective energy needed for sustaining the deep convective clouds of the cyclone. Since tropical cyclones draw their energy from the warm surface water, cutting or reducing their energy source causes them to dissipate rapidly once they move over cold water or large landmasses. 1 THE FORMATIVE STAGE At this stage the satellite images appear as a disturbance of an area of unusually active convective (thunderstorms) formation, but poorly organised. It is difficult to identify the circulation centre as it will be ill-defined. However at times curved cumulus cloud bands spiralling towards an active area of thunderstorms indicate the location of the centre. As development occurs the convection persists throughout the day. The strongest surface winds may be well removed from the centre, tend to occur in disorganised squalls and are often confined to one quadrant, for example the north westerly winds to the north of the centre. When formative stage tropical cyclones move inland they produce little or no damage on landfall but are often associated with heavy rain and sometimes flooding over eastern and southern Africa, especially Mozambique. 2 THE IMMATURE STAGE This is the stage in which the area of persisting convection becomes more organised accompanied by the occurrence of simultaneous intensification. The minimum surface pressure rapidly drops below 1000 hPa and convection becomes organised into long bands spiralling inwards. Gale-force winds (wind speed of 63 to 87 km/h or 34 to 47 knots) develop with the strengthening pressure gradient, and the maximum winds (which now may be higher) are concentrated in a tight band close to the centre. With the circulation at the centre well defined, an eye may begin to form. In satellite images several well organised curved bands of active convection may be seen spiralling in towards a central dense mass of clouds covering the focal point of the banding, or surrounding the centre. The eye (if it exists) may be masked by a canopy of cirrus cloud, which itself may contain curved striations associated with the outflow at the top of the tropical cyclone. The immature tropical cyclone can cause devastating wind and storm surge effects upon landfall, although damage is usually confined to a relatively small area. 3 THE MATURE STAGE During this stage the tropical cyclone acquires a quasisteady state with random but minimum fluctuations in central pressure and maximum wind speed. The area affected, including the cyclonic circulation and extent of the gales, increase markedly. The wind field may 48

also become more asymmetric. In satellite images the cloud field becomes highly organised and more symmetrical. In more intense cyclones a round central dense overcast containing a well-centred, distinct round eye may be dominant (see Figure 3.7, image 3). The surrounding convective bands are tightly coiled and quasi-circular. Typically a cyclone spends just a day or so at maximum intensity until it begins to weaken, unless the cyclone remains in a highly favourable environment. 4 THE DECAY STAGE The previously established warm core is destroyed during this stage, the central pressure rises, and the belt of maximum wind expands away from the centre. Decay may occur very rapidly if the system moves into an unfavourable atmospheric or geographic environment, like when making landfall or moving polewards towards cooler waters. But sometimes only the tropical characteristics are modified while the cyclonic circulation moves on to higher latitudes. Structure and properties of a tropical cyclone A tropical cyclone consists of four structures, namely the eye, eye wall, cirrus canopy and spiral bands (see photograph below). The following are the definitions of these tropical cyclone components. • EYE The centre or eye of a tropical cyclone is located at the area of lowest pressure. This is an area of sinking air at the centre of circulation. Thus the area is often a cloudless sky and is characterised by little or no wind. When cyclones reach the tropical cyclone stage, the eye usually shows up as a circular hole in the central cloud mass. Although the eye may appear small in the picture, it is on average as big as 40 km in diameter, although it can vary between less than 10 km and more than 100 km in the extreme cases. • EYE WALL The area surrounding the eye is a wall of dense convective cloud rising about 15 km into the atmosphere. In this area, called the ‘eye wall’, the most violent winds and heaviest rainfall occur. • SPIRAL BANDS These are bands of heavy rain and wind squalls that spiral cyclonically toward the eye wall. These distinctive patterns of convective cloud bands spiralling into the eye wall are revealed using radar and satellite images. High wind gusts and heavy downpours often occur in individual rainbands, with relatively calm weather between bands. These bands often extend up to 1 000 km from the cyclone centre. • CIRRUS CANOPY Because of the extremely vigorous uplift of moist air within the convective clouds of the eye wall and inner spiral bands, a massive outflow of cirrus cloud is produced in the upper atmosphere. This cirrus outflow forms a huge canopy over the cyclone. At times, this cloud makes satellite location of the system’s centre difficult during the early development stages, before the eye eventually shows through the canopy.

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The decay stage is characterised by the weakening of organised convection near the centre and the disappearance of major curved convective bands in satellite images. The lowlevel circulation centre may still be very well defined by narrow bands of low clouds. Those cyclones that cross the Mozambique coast and weaken over land may continue to produce heavy rain at a considerable distance inland. This was the case with Tropical Cyclone Eline, which continued to give abundant rains in Botswana, several hundreds of kilometres inland.

Cyclone Eline at landfall in Mozambique near Beira, 22 February 2000.

(Source Met Office 2007)

Figure 3.8 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Speed Change across a Tropical Cyclone’s Diameter

Figure 3.9 Tropical Cyclone Eline (the most devastating) as it Entered Zimbabwe

Pressure and wind profile across a Tropical Cyclone

Figure 3.8 shows the atmospheric pressure and wind speed change across the diameter of a tropical cyclone using a rough profile of wind speed (blue) and surface pressure (red). Between 100 and 200 kilometres from the eye, the winds are fast enough to qualify as ‘tropical storm force’. The atmospheric pressure here will still be relatively high compared to the storm’s centre at about 990 to 1010 millibars. However, the pressure gradually falls and the wind speed rises upon getting closer to the eye wall. It is only over the last 50 to 100 kilometres that the large changes in pressure and wind speed occur. The pressure begins to fall more rapidly while the wind speed simultaneously increases as one moves towards the centre of the eye wall. Within the eye wall, the wind speed reaches its maximum but within the eye, the winds become very light, sometimes even calm. The surface pressure continues to drop through the eye wall and into the centre of the eye, where the lowest pressure is found. Upon exiting the eye, the wind speed and pressure both increase rapidly. The wind speed again reaches a maximum in the opposite eye wall, and then quickly begins to decrease. This means that the wind and pressure profiles inside a tropical cyclone are roughly symmetrical, so a quick rise in winds and pressure through the eye wall followed by a slower increase in pressure and likewise decrease in wind speed would be expected. Since it is within the eye wall that the heaviest falls are expected as well as maximum wind speed, destruction should be located within the path tracked by the eye wall. When an eye passes over a region, a period of maximum wind speed and rainfall is followed by a period of relatively calm weather that characterises the centre of the eye. This is then followed by a sudden outburst of the previously experienced severe weather as the other side of the eye wall affects the region but with the wind coming from the opposite direction. This is the most dangerous aspect of the passage of an eye over a region as the second part of the eye wall usually catches most of its victims off-guard as they tend to relax and move from shelters under the false temporary comfort of the calm eye centre.

BOX 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE SOUTH-WEST INDIAN OCEAN

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Tropical cyclones are easily spotted on a satellite/radar image because of the pronounced rotation around the centre. They were previously rated according to their wind speed on the SaffirSimpson scale. This scale ranges from categories 1 to 5, with 5 being the most devastating. However, the use of this scale has been discontinued and the Dvorak scale is now being used. The Dvorak Scale uses satellite imagery, wind speed and the central pressure. It rates the cyclone on Current Intensity (CI) from CI 1 to CI 8. The Tropical Cyclone Committee for the South West Indian Ocean

Name Abaimba Beni Cela Darius Elita Gafilo Helma Lenny Moingaza Itseng Jubela Katiba

Suggested by Tanzania Zimbabwe Swaziland Mauritius Malawi Madagascar Mozambique Zimbabwe Comores Botswana Swaziland Lesotho

Name by Naledi Olie Patou Quilmane Ralph Sefate Umuri Yvonne Zuri Valetta Wells Xavier

Suggested Botswana Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Kenya Lesotho Comores Seychelles Kenya Mauritius Malawi Tanzania

Countries of the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) that are threatened by tropical cyclones formed an association in 1974 called the Regional Association I, in order to jointly monitor the activities of tropical cyclones in the SWIO. Zimbabwe is a committee member of Table 3.3 Names of Tropical this association, which is also known as the Tropical Cyclone Committee for Cyclones in the 2003/04 Season the South West Indian Ocean. Other members are, Kenya, Botswana, Comoros, Note: The identification and naming process place during 2002 Zimbabwe MeteoroFrance (RSMC La Reunion Tropical Cyclone Centre), Lesotho, Madagascar, took logical Office Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland and Tanzania. Name Date of Entry Point of Entry to Zimbabwe The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) coordinates the activities of this committee. To facilitate identification and tracking, the storms are generally given alternating masculine and feminine names, which identify the year and annual sequence. Individual member countries suggest the names for tropical cyclones prior to the tropical cyclone season. Mauritius and La Reunion Meteorological Services, who have the joint responsibility of tracking the cyclones as they form in the SWIO and allocating the names, then keep the list of names. The names are allocated using the alphabetical order of the first letters of the suggested names (Table 3.3). The SWIO region has its own unique way of classifying tropical cyclones occurring in the region (shown in Box 3.4 on page 50).

Astrid Colleen Claude Eugene Danae Emilie Domoina Berobia Bonita Lissette Eline Japhet

29 January 1958 21 December 1959 17 January 1966 14 January 1972 30 January 1976 7 February 1977 2 February 1984 10 January 1986 20 January 1996 3 March 1997 23 February 2000 7 March 2003

Longitude 30.50o 33.60o 31.10 o 33.60 o 33.00 o 30.10 o 32.10 o 33.00 o 32.00 o 33.50 o 30.70 o 33.60 o

Mauritius Meteorological Service

History of tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe Quite a number of tropical cyclones form in the South West Indian Ocean but very few cross the Mozambique Channel to affect this country. Table 3.4 shows the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe since 1958. Most of the tropical cyclones follow a parabolic track to the east of Madagascar and then move towards the South Pole, where they dissipate. This means that those that affect Zimbabwe always affect Mozambique first. Figure 3.10 illustrates selected tracks of tropical cyclones that have reached Zimbabwe. Note that most of these tropical cyclone tracks end in the country showing that this is where their strength as tropical cyclones diminishes. However, the remnant low pressure systems may still cause heavy rainfall for a day or two. Obviously, the eastern half of Zimbabwe is the most vulnerable to tropical cyclones and only a few –Emilie and Eline –have traversed and affected the whole country. In the SWIO region, the cyclone season extends from November to April but tropical cyclones mostly affect Zimbabwe in the months December to March (Figure 3.11).

Table 3.4 Tropical Cyclones that have Affected Zimbabwe from 1958

Figure 3.10 Tracks of Selected Tropical Cyclones that have Entered Zimbabwe Machingauta (2005)

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Latitude -13.60 o -11.40 o -20.00 o -23.50 o -22.80 o -20.40 o -18.50 o -18.40 o -14.70 o -18.60 o -19.20 o -14.70 o

Figure 3.11 Monthly Frequency of Tropical Cyclones that Entered Zimbabwe, 1958 to 2003

The tropical cyclone disaster event When cyclone force winds move onto land the storm becomes a potential disaster. The lower the atmospheric pressure in the centre of the storm, the more violent the action of wind, storm surge, and waves is likely to be. Fortunately, Zimbabwe is spared most of the more serious devastating processes of cyclones (storm surge and waves) because of the absence of the sea. High winds are, of course, only one of the problems that are brought by the storm. Trees have been blown down, especially in the Eastern Highlands, during the passage of tropical cyclones in the area. The passage of tropical cyclone Astrid in January 1958 caused Beitbridge to achieve the dubious

Figure 3.12 Coincidence between Extremely Wet Conditions and Tropical Cyclones Note: SPI = Standardised Precipitation Index of the seasonal rainfall for Matabeleland South Beit Bridge Flood Project (2006 )

BOX 3.5 EXAMPLE WARNING

OF A

TROPICAL CYCLONE

BOX 3.6 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY 1: THE LIMPOPO TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING SYSTEM

Chikwarakwara/ Shashe Schools

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distinction of being one of the few places in Zimbabwe at which the maximum daily rainfall recorded exceeded the minimum annual total. Tropical cyclones Emilie and Japhet, which traversed Matabeleland in February 1977 and March 2003 respectively, produced daily rainfall exceeding 200mm (Mugumbate, 2003). Thus devastating floods from the extremely heavy rainfall often accompany tropical cyclones. Flash floods of great volume and short duration may result from the cyclone’s rain, especially in hilly or mountainous terrain. Runoff from the intense rainfall accumulates quickly in restricted valleys and flows rapidly downstream, often as a large ‘wave’. Flood flows frequently contain large concentrations of sediment and debris loads. The damage is increased where they cause mudslides that cover or undercut roads, erode agricultural soil and contribute to serious long term environmental degradation. In the forecasting and warning aspects of flood risk, there must be close coordination between the meteorological forecasters, and the hydrologists who will be working with the water authorities and local officials. The meteorologist, besides forecasting the intensity, movement and evolution of the tropical cyclone, will also prepare forecasts of rainfall, its time of onset, duration and the amounts expected. The impact of tropical cyclones

The most serious immediate consequence of cyclones is the loss of human lives. The death rate is significantly higher in remote areas of the country, where communications are poor and warning systems and evacuation plans Affected/ Hazard High winds

Flood losses

The effects that tropical cyclone induced floods are capable of producing. This was the result of tropical cyclone Eline in neighboring Mozambique. (Source: Mozambique Meteorological Services)

Table 3.5 Summary of Possible Damage or Destruction to Property

Structures

Agriculture

Trees

Damages rural huts, urban buildings, power lines, towers

Damage to standing crops such as grains

Widespread loss of timber

Extensive damage to roads, rail bridges, airports, structures etc.

Extensive damage to crops and irrigation systems, scours topsoil, contaminates wells, drowns animals

Minor loss of trees

are inadequate, especially in areas where people have been forced to inhabit more vulnerable spaces, such as low lying agricultural areas. The most significant impact of cyclones is the damage they cause to houses and other physical structures. They can also destroy or damage critical facilities, supply lines, crops, and/or food stocks. Economic activities are disrupted, thus creating financial stress. Key installations may also be destroyed or damaged, even those facilities that are critical for responding to disasters and also for maintaining a safe environment and public order. Among these are communications installations, electrical generating and transmission facilities, water storage, purification, and pumping facilities, sewage treatment facilities, hospitals, police stations, and various other public and private facilities. Damage to infrastructure can also be widespread. Towers and transmission lines may fall as a result of high winds, as shown in the right hand photograph, above. Large buildings may also be damaged by wind, flying debris or erosion that undermines their foundations, leading to weakening or even collapse of 53

Houses like these, commonly found in remote areas of Zimbabwe, are not strong enough to withstand tropical cyclone force. (Source: CPD)

the building. Transportation facilities, such as bridges, railways, roads and airports are also vulnerable to damage by both high winds and floodwaters. Cyclones disrupt agriculture and destroy crops. High winds destroy some standing crops, especially maize, and damage orchards and forests. Flooding from intense rains damages certain crops, especially tubers, and may cause excessive erosion by scouring and eroding the topsoil. Furthermore, access to critical facilities, like markets for buying and selling agricultural produce, schools, and points of supply of relief material, may be impeded by damage to roads, bridges, railways, etc. Cyclones disrupt economies. The consequences of the disaster may include: Top- House destroyed during tropical cyclone Eline in February 2000. Below - Typical houses build with the assistance of CPD with standard building codes to resist tropical cyclone damage. (Source: CPD)

• • •

The loss of investments and jobs; The destruction of or damage to factories; Production losses resulting from the destruction of harvests or crops and the death of livestock, etc.

Vulnerable communities

The vulnerability of a human settlement to a cyclone is determined by its site, the probability that a cyclone will occur, and the degree to which its structures could be damaged by it. Buildings are considered vulnerable if they cannot withstand the force of high winds. Generally, unprotected river floodplains are considered vulnerable to cyclones. Tropical cyclone disaster mitigation Much of the potential impact of cyclones can be reduced or eliminated if certain precautions or mitigation measures are taken. The following are specific actions that one can take:

• This house is a tropical cyclone resistant model house built with the assistance of the CPD. Here the engineers tried to incorporate building codes to establish minimum standards of design and construction using affordable local resources in order to avoid structural collapse in the advent of yet another cyclone.

REGULATORY CONTROLS In areas known to be vulnerable to floods, land has to be regulated so that villages are built on high ground, away from known flood areas. Land use control and regulation can be an effective tool for reducing vulnerability, although it is not a simple, universal cure. Controls must be relevant to local conditions, to the degree of physical hazard, to the existing local economy and to the probable future socioeconomic status of the area. Also involved are numerous human factors that have to do with the inhabitants’ perceptions of the hazard

BOX 3.7 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY 2: TROPICAL CYCLONE ELINE, FEBRUARY 2000

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they face and the available means of altering the incidence of damage. The established way of life and existing land use will determine, to a greater or lesser extent, what regulated uses are to be recommended. For example, in Muzarabani, these critical considerations were ignored and houses which were built on high ground away from the flood hazards were either sold or left uninhabited as the intended owners left to go back to live in their original homes (CPD, verbal communication).

•

BUILDING REGULATIONS Strict building regulations are unrealistic (and almost always unenforceable) for the majority of Zimbabwe’s villages since they typically receive no engineering input and are made from locally available, inexpensive materials. As a result, cases of collapsed huts during tropical cyclones as shown in the photograph on the left, below, are common in the rural areas. The CPD has devised a workable alternative to rigid building codes with more flexible building performance standards.

When a cyclone is on it’s way and a cyclone warning is issued, community members are advised to: · Listen to local radio or television for further warnings; ·Board or tape windows, and store loose articles inside; · Lock up pets, fill water containers, fuel car and place it under cover; · Check the emergency kit and put spare clothing and shoes in plastic bags; and · Keep children home from school. When the cyclone strikes, those in its path are advised to: · Stay inside and shelter in the strongest part of the house (e.g. the bathroom); and · Protect themselves with a mattress and or blankets and anchor themselves to a strong fixture (such as water pipes) or get under a strong table.

The primary objective of these standards adopted by CPD was to encourage the development of more disaster resistant houses (i.e., with a substantially increased level of safety), rather than to require that all houses be built to a very high, often expensive, engineering standard. This means that any type or size of house may be built, and any material may be used to build the house, depending on what is appropriate to the economic situation of the homeowner, as long as the final structure is cyclone resistant and as long as it does not endanger the lives or property of neighbors or passersby.

•

PUBLIC AWARENESS Systematic methods are necessary to inform people about the threat of tropical cyclones. Public awareness programmes must explain some very basic and frequently misunderstood issues on the nature of the associated disaster risks – the anticipated hazard, the type of disaster impact and the condition of vulnerability to which the local population is exposed. Basic disaster mitigation and preparedness measures can provide substantial and permanent benefits without necessarily causing the government or individuals additional expense.

Tropical cyclone disaster preparedness and response

Several important activities are necessary during the run up to a possible cyclone disaster: • Developing a disaster preparedness plan to sequence the activities and responsibilities of each participant; • Developing an effective forecasting system; • Developing warning and evacuation procedures for people threatened by floods; Impact Injuries/deaths Houses/huts destroyed Toilets destroyed Schools damaged Clinics damaged Dams damaged Bridges damaged Livestock lost

Midlands 3 28 4 268 1 438 43 4 12 13

Manicaland 45 8 1 146 1 238 46 3 2 15

Masvingo 65 46 29 944 9 141 390 30 32 179

Matabeleland South 23 357 23 829 3 186 59 17 42

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Total 136 439 59 184 14 999 538 54 88

Table 3.6 Impact of Tropical Cyclone Eline on the Worst Affected Provinces of Zimbabwe

BOX 3.8 ZIMBABWE’S TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING SYSTEM

Figure 3.13 Flood Prone Areas of Zimbabwe

• •

Training in first aid and trauma care, and maintaining stocks of necessary medical supplies; and Establishing an emergency communication system as well as public service messages regarding evacuation, health, safety, and security. Advise for inhabitants of tropical cyclone prone areas

Before the cyclone season begins, those who are likely to be affected by cyclones are advised to: • Know their community cyclone plan, if there is one, and how the cyclone warning system works; • Check that their house is in good condition, particularly the roof; • Cut overgrown tress and trim tree branches clear of the house; • Clear their property of loose items likely to cause damage in high winds; and • Create an emergency kit of tinned food, water containers, emergency lighting, first aid materials, medicines, and plastic bags. Flood Hazards and Disasters What are floods? Floods occur when water covers land that is normally dry. Many communities in Zimbabwe experience some kind of flooding, but people who live near rivers or in low lying areas live with the greatest threat of floods. Periods of heavy rain, not necessarily in their area, can lead to rises in the water level of streams and rivers to a point where the normal channels can no longer hold the volume of water. Siltation of rivers can also lead to loss of channel capacity. Below are flooded villages, during the greatest non cyclone induced floods of the century in 2007/08 season, which had been built in the low lying area of middle Save River.

Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of human hardship and economic loss. As much as 90 percent of the damage related to all natural disasters (excluding drought) is caused by floods and associated debris flows. Floods can also result in significant property damage and major social disruption. The damage caused by the floods caused by tropical cyclone Eline floods is still evident in many parts of the country. Floods can be defined as the temporary inundation of normally dry land areas from the overflow of natural or artificial confines of a river or other water bodies (Burton, 2003). 56

The causes of floods and flash floods

Several factors contribute to flooding. Two key elements are rainfall intensity and duration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall and duration is how long the rain lasts. Topography, soil conditions, and ground cover also play important roles. Other, less common, causes in Zimbabwe arise from the operation of dams – dam failure and dam backflow.

Flooding occurs in known floodplains like in the Muzarabani (as the name suggests), when prolonged rainfall over several days, intense rainfall over a short period of time, or debris jams cause a river or stream to overflow and flood the surrounding area. Floods can be slow or fast rising, but generally develop over a period of hours or days.

Most flash flooding is caused by slow moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms repeatedly moving over the same area, or heavy rains from tropical cyclones. Flash floods take from several minutes to several hours to develop but, by definition, they occur within six hours of a rain event, after a dam or levee failure, or following a sudden release of water held by a debris jam. Flash floods can occur without warning. Floods can roll boulders, tear out trees, destroy buildings and bridges, and scour out new channels. Floodwater can reach heights of 3 to 6 metres and often carries a deadly cargo of debris. Flood producing rains can also trigger catastrophic debris slides. Common types of flooding in Zimbabwe

The three most common flood types experienced in Zimbabwe are: • SLOW ONSET FLOODS Flooding of rivers in the vast flat areas of Muzarabani in the northwest, may last for one or more weeks, or even months. Floods in these areas can lead to major losses of livestock and damage to crops, as well as extensive damage to rural homes and road links.

•

RAPID ONSET FLOODS Flooding can occur more quickly in the mountain headwater areas of the larger rivers as well as in the rivers draining to the coast. The rivers are steeper and flow more quickly in these areas, with flooding sometimes only lasting for one or two days. These floods

Submerged Villages and fields in Middle Save River during the greatest non cyclone induced floods of the century (2007/08 season)

BOX 3.9 FLOODS MAROON VILLAGERS, LIVESTOCK IN CHIPINGE 57

Zhowe dam on Mzingwane river is also useful for flood mitigation.

can be potentially much more damaging and can pose a greater risk to life and property. This is because there is generally much less time to take preventive action, and a faster, more dangerous flow of water. This type of flooding could affect most of our major towns and cities.

(Source: E. Madamombwe, ZINWA, 2006)

•

FLASH FLOODS Flash flooding results from relatively short, intense bursts of rainfall, often from thunderstorms. It can occur in almost all parts of Zimbabwe and poses the greatest threat of loss of life. Storms of this type usually have a small area extent and only generate floods on small headway streams, tributaries or in poorly drained urban areas.

In rural areas these floods are most often experienced in arid and semi arid areas, usually in the Matabeleland and Masvingo regions. This is because these areas are characterised by steep slopes causing high velocity flow and sparse vegetation, which when combined with a high intensity, short duration rainstorm is a recipe for flash floods. As land is converted from permeable surfaces (fields or woodlands) to impervious surfaces (e.g. roads and parking lots), it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. By improving the drainage system, urbanisation contributes to an increase in the volume of quick flow and hence the velocity of the runoff. Runoff is increased to between two and six times what it would be on natural terrain. During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swiftly moving rivers, while basements and viaducts can turn into death traps as they fill with water. In cases where drainage systems are unable to cope, they become a serious problem instead and can also cause severe damage to infrastructure such as roads, bridges and buildings. Weak houses that succumbed after being subjected to excessive moisture during floods. Structures like the toilet in the background (top), which were build with cement and fired bricks and with impervious barrier near the ground withstood the tropical cyclone Eline (2000) induced heavy rains and floods. (Source: CPD)

People are often swept away after entering floodwaters on foot or in vehicles. During the urban flash floods of 1999, a man was swept away in the streets of Harare while trying to cross a flooded drain to take his child home after school. Flash floods can be predicted but the level of accuracy would depend on the efficiency and technological capacity of the meteorological services. Severe storms and cyclones, especially in southern Zimbabwe, can cause vast areas to be affected by flash floods. Damage may be limited to property and stock losses but, in some of the more severe cases, human lives have been lost or fatal injuries sustained by people caught in flash floods. One such case was the flash floods that occurred in the normally dry Tsholotsho district in December 2005 (CPD, 2006). Flood Mitigation There are both structural and non-structural flood mitigation measures in place in Zimbabwe: USE OF DAMS AND WEIRS Although these were put in place to improve water security, they also serve as flood mitigation structures. The flood control is, however, limited by the amount of storage available and the way these dams are operated prior to and during the rainy season. Zimbabwe being in a semiarid region, it is difficult for water managers to release water in anticipation of floods because of uncertainties in the occurrence and magnitude of runoff during the coming season. 58

FLOOD RESISTANT STRUCTURES If weak structures like houses are subjected to water for long periods of time, the water may move from the ground upwards following the walls. Rising damp commonly occurs in walls at or near the ground level and in solid ground floor slabs at the junction with walls. This may significantly weaken the structure, leading to it succumbing to the moisture and disintegrating, as shown in the photographs below. The rise of moisture can most effectively be stopped by the use of an impervious and continuous barrier using materials like built up felt or plastic. The use of fired bricks and cement also assist in making the structure strong. The non-structural flood mitigation measures range from flood forecasting to rescue operations, as well as defining areas to settle. Meteorological forecasts are issued throughout the year and, during the wet season, the amount of rainfall is also predicted. This information is used in forecasting the river flows so as to assess whether there will be floods. Based on this, the appropriate authorities take the necessary steps to ensure the information is disseminated and the potential victims evacuated before or during the flood events.

During and after the flood, if you remain in your home or when you return, take these precautions: · School children, motorists, bus drivers and members of the general public must not attempt to cross fast flowing streams, flooded rivers or stormwater drains; · Do not be afraid if a helicopter rescue is necessary but follow instructions from the helicopter crew; · Do not eat food that has been in contact with floodwater and boil all water until supplies have been declared safe; · Do not use gas or electrical appliances that have been affected by the flood until they have been safety checked; · Beware of snakes and spiders, which may move to drier areas in your house; · Avoid wading, even in shallow water and, if you must enter shallow floodwater, wear solid shoes; · Check with police for safe routes before driving anywhere and don’t enter water without checking the depth and current; · Keep listening to the local radio or TV station and heed all warnings and advice; and · Do not jump into a river to rescue someone if you are not trained as the rescue crew is trained to do this job.

Advice for inhabitants of flood prone areas

Know the local flood history and ask the local council or CPD about the following: • Local flood plans and, if it becomes necessary to evacuate, how to find the nearest safe location. Prepare an emergency kit that includes: • A portable radio and torch with fresh batteries, candles and waterproof matches; • Reasonable stocks of fresh water and tinned food, strong shoes and rubber gloves; • A first aid kit and basic first aid knowledge and good supplies of essential medication; and • A waterproof bag for clothing and valuables and your emergency contact numbers. A storm killed two people and damaged homes and schools during the last week of November 2004. The storm that lasted 30 minutes affected 200 households and killed a 70 year-old woman who was electrocuted by a fallen ZESA pole and a 74-year old man who was struck by lightning.

Save the Children (UK) which was part of the team that went to assess the area together with the Civil Protection Unit donated the kits that consist of pots, blankets, soap, cutlery, plastic cups, plates, buckets, water purification tablets and plastic sheets. Zimbabwe Red Cross supplied 25 family tents. The Civil Protection Unit has already assessed 75% of the damaged area. The storm damaged 6 primary schools and 2 secondary schools including teachers’ houses, classrooms and a laboratory. Other institutions that were damaged include Kemurara Clinic, Grain Marketing Board, District Development Fund, Vocational training centre in Murombedzi, Zimbabwe Republic Police offices and Zvimba Rural District Council. Marahwa and Changamuka villages were the hardest hit with 56 households affected. Mucheri and Kasange villages had 20 and 12 households affected respectively. Affected villagers have resorted to staying with neighbours while reconstructing their homes. Villagers were urged by the authorities to plant trees to act as wind breaks.

Extracts from UN Zimbabwe Humanitarian Situation Report (11/2004)

59

Some of the people injured by the storms

A destroyed house

BOX 3.9 THE ZVIMBA STORM

The causes of thunderstorms Thunderstorms develop when dense cold air overlies less dense, warm, moist air, resulting in strong upward currents and conversion of heat energy into wind and electrical potential. When the atmosphere is especially unstable and wind flow can provide the most efficient input of energy to the cloud, a severe thunderstorm develops, complementary up and down draughts, capable of producing the following: HEAVY RAIN Intense up draughts produce raindrops through condensation of moist air. As raindrops become too large to be supported, they fall, producing heavy rain, which can exceed intensities of 200 mm per hour, causing flash floods. HAIL Hailstones form in a thunderstorm when raindrops freeze at high levels and then are recycled through up and down draughts, growing all the time. Hailstones larger than cricket balls have been observed in Australia. Such large, usually jagged, ice hazards can inflict serious damage or even fatal injury. LIGHTNING This is a serious hazard in Zimbabwe and is discussed in more detail in the following section.

Act on flood warnings: • Listen to the local radio for information and check that your neighbors know of the warning; • Stack furniture and possessions above the likely flood level, (on beds etc. and in the roof) with electrical equipment on top, and secure heavy objects that could float and cause damage; • Move garbage, chemicals, poisons, fuel etc. to a high, secure place; • Protect or relocate stock and equipment in commercial or industrial premises; • Move to higher ground if living in low lying areas or near streams or rivers and, if on a farm, move livestock to high ground; • Check your car, fill it with fuel and check the emergency kit and fresh water stocks; • Remember that many children are carried away while trying to cross flooded rivers and do not send children to school if they have to do this; and • Do not attempt to go to work in a field that is across a river or in between rivers because of the danger of becoming trapped. Severe Thunderstorms By definition, ‘severe’ thunderstorms produce flash flooding, damaging hailstones (2 cm or more in diameter), destructive wind gusts (90 km/h and above), tornadoes, or any combination of any of these. Thunderstorms that do not produce any of these dangerous phenomena are not regarded as ‘severe’ but may still cause death, injury or property damage due to lightning strikes.

Figure 3.14 Reported Lightning Death Toll from 1990 to 2003 Source: CPD Newsletter (March 2003)

Figure 3.15 Site of Lightning Counters Installed by ZESA at Meteorological Stations Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

Lightning Hazard Lightning wreaks havoc in Zimbabwe every rain season, killing an average of 83 people a year (Figure 3.14) and injuring several hundreds more, mostly children, as well as countless livestock. This figure is, in fact, likely to be an underestimate as additional deaths go unreported in remote rural areas of the country. When compared to the average figure of 73 (http:// www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/wlightning.htm) for the whole of the United States, the significance of our average yearly fatalities becomes even more startling; the United States is about 25 times the area of Zimbabwe with more than 25 times the population. Our neighbour South Africa with storms of the same nature of those in Zimbabwe, but more than three times the area and four times the population, has only 40 deaths per year (UZ, 1991). These deaths and injuries usually occur when trees and huts in which people are sheltering or sleeping are struck by lightning or burnt by fire caused by lightning. It kills not only human beings, but also farm animals, at times in large numbers. Zimbabwe also holds the record on lightning fatalities in the Guinness Book of Records, with 23 deaths in one strike in Manicaland, and 100 cattle were killed by one strike in Gutu in 1991 (UZ, 1991). A lighting research done by the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) in 1991 showed that Gutu district leads the country, with ten fatalities per year. 60

In addition to the impact on homes and farms, enormous damage can be done by lightning to Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) substations and power lines, to TelOne rural lines, microwave link towers and relay links, to Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings (ZBH) relay transmitters and to National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) overhead lines. All of these facilities are vital to the national economy. The total runs into millions of US dollars every rainfall season. The hundreds of insurance claims sent to the Meteorological Services annually for lightning confirmation bears witness to the high losses incurred through damage of domestic electrical appliances. ZESA has installed lightning counters throughout the country to monitor lightning activity so as to find ways to protect their installations (Figure 3.15). For those who can afford it, insurance provides some recompense for equipment, property and livestock lost, but lives are irreplaceable. We have no alternative except to search for and find national countermeasures to remove Zimbabwe from its infamous position in the global lightning causality statistics. Many people are killed due to misinformation and inappropriate behaviour during electric storms. A few simple precautions can reduce the dangers posed by lighting. Therefore, in this section we seek to explain the perils associated with lighting and then recommend some countermeasures. The nature of lightning

Lightning, the ‘bolt’ from mythology has long been feared as an atmospheric flash of supernatural origin or the great weapon of the gods. In biblical times it figured as the manifestation and expression of the anger of Yaweh and feaCan reach 10 to 13km height tured during the presentation of the ten commandments to Moses and the Israelites. Thus it is not only in Zimbabwe that lightning is greatly feared. Statistically, lightning poses a greater threat to individuals than most other natural hazards. Today, scientific explanations have largely replaced mystical ones, and experimental procedures have replaced intuitive concepts. Yet we remain in awe of lighting and, therefore, it is not surprising that explaining lightning as a natural phenomenon which can be avoided and against which precautions must be taken is still challenging. Lightning is emitted from clouds of large vertical extent, as shown in the photograph above [Fiigure 3.16 (a)]. These clouds do not allow light to pass through them, hence the dark appearance they have from the ground. They are convective clouds that usually form after a hot and humid day. Scientists posit that during their formation, different cloud particles (i.e. particles and water droplets) are charged differently depending on their size. Small ice particles and droplets are positively charged and are swept to the top of the cloud by upward air currents (updrafts within the cloud) leaving behind negatively charged heavy large drops and ice particles at the base of the cloud [Figure 3.16 (b)]. Thus the positively charged particles concentrate at the top while negative ones remain at the bottom. Because the earth is generally positively charged an electrical potential gradient is formed between the earth and the base of the cloud. 61

Figure 3.16 (a) An electric storm cloud. Note the huge vertical extent. (Source: CPD)

Figure 3.16 (b) Electric Storm Cloud and Cloud to Ground Discharge through a Human Being

Stages in this Cloud to Ground Lighting Strike 1 This cloud to ground lightning occurs when positive charges are built up on the tree 2 A negative charge called the ‘faintly luminous streamer’ or ‘leader’ flows from the cloud base towards the tree. 3 A positively charged leader called the ‘return stroke’ leaves the tree and runs into the cloud 4 The lighting bolt that is seen is actually a series of downward striking leaders and upward striking return strokes, all taking place in a fraction of a second 5 The narrow channel that carries the discharge is heated more than the temperature of the sun giving very high luminosity (hence burning up the tree) 6 This burst of heat makes the air around the bolt expand explosively producing the sound heard as thunder 7 Since light travels a million times faster than sound, lighting bolts are seen before hearing the thunder

Figure 3.17 What should be known about Cloud to Ground Lightning

Figure 3.18 Causes of Lightning Hut Deaths and Injuries

As the charge separation continues within the cloud, the potential difference between the base of the cloud and the ground increases correspondingly, up to some critical limit. When the potential difference between the cloud base and the ground is large enough to overcome the insulating effect provided by the air, an electrical discharge takes place in the form of lightning, taking the least resistant path to the ground. (Figure 3.16) This type of lightning is called ‘cloud to ground discharge’. There are other types as well, such as intra-cloud discharge, which occurs either within the cloud itself or between two clouds in close proximity. The cloud to ground discharge is the type that poses danger to people on the ground. It is easier to understand this phenomenon if we compare to it to a motorcar battery with a positive and negative terminal as well an electrical potential gradient between them. If a material of low resistance is placed between the terminals, sparks occur as a result of electrical current being carried from one terminal to the other. When a strike occurs, the narrow channel that carries the discharge is heated to about 20 0000 C, giving very high luminosity (Figure 3.17). This extremely high temperature causes sudden explosive expansion and contraction of air, creating shock waves. These high temperatures are also responsible for the burning that is normally associated with lighting, while the waves are what we hear as thunder. How lightning kills

Some important facts about lightning Many Zimbabweans believe lightning can be directed to strike a predetermined target by witchcraft. The following are a few facts that help to dispel the myths about lightning: · Lightning can strike in the same place more than once; · People struck by lightning can survive if first aid is administered promptly and medical assistance sought thereafter; and · Lightning casualties do not carry an electric charge so it is quite safe to touch them.

The following are some of the ways in which lightning kills: • Direct strike to the head or side flash leads the current to be near the back and at the top of the neck (Figure 3.18), which may lead to respiratory failure, even though the heart may still be beating. • Current discharge through the heart disturbs the pumping and the circulation of the blood. • Death from burns sustained by fire, which may have been caused by the lightning. • People clearly missed by lihtning behave in a confused and haphazard manner causing injury or death to themselves. 62

Protective measures against lightning

There is virtually no place that is absolutely safe from the lightning threat. However, some places are safer than others. Large enclosed structures (substantially constructed buildings) tend to lower the risk more than smaller or open structures but the degree of risk of lightning injury also depends on whether the structure incorporates lighting protection devices, and the materials and construction techniques used. In general, vehicles that are fully enclosed, like cars, buses, vans etc., with their windows rolled up, provide good shelter from lightning. Care should be taken not to have contact with metal or conducting surfaces outside or inside the vehicle. Locations to avoid during an electric storm include high places and open fields, isolated trees, unprotected gazebos, rain or picnic shelters, communication towers, ZESA electricity pylons, flagpoles, light poles, metallic washing lines, metal fences golf carts and water (lakes, swimming pools, rivers, etc.).

Figure 3.19 Two Poles and Bare Wire Conductor

Figure 3.20 Conductor

Single

Metal

Advice for minimising the risk of lightening strike

If indoors: • Avoid going outdoors and keep clear of windows, pipes and metal that may be protruding to the outside; • Only use the telephone if it is absolutely necessary; • Unplug all electrical appliances; and • Do not wash dishes, or take a bath or a shower. If outdoors: • Shelter inside a big solid building or a car with the windows rolled up; • Avoid using an umbrella because of the metal and be aware that a raincoat does not offer insulation against strikes; • If far from a safe shelter, avoid being the tallest object, by crouching and put your feet together, keeping your head as low as possible and, if in a group, spreading out rather than all remaining together; • Never shelter under an isolated tree; • Immediately get down from any high place e.g. a tree or rooftop; • If you are in on a mountain, hide in a cave if possible; • Do not ride in an open vehicle, tractor, bicycle, donkey or scotch cart; • Do not repair a vehicle, tractor or plough;

Key h = height of the wooden protection pole. It should be at least twice the height of the structure to be protected. d = distance of the pole from the structure. It should be at least half the height of the pole.

Figure 3.21 Metal Conductor in a Tree

Key d = distance. It must be at least half the height of the tree. If the height of the tree is double the height to be protected, there is no need for a pole, as just a wire suffices

Figure 3.22 How Wind Blows Roofs Off Houses UNDP DHA, (2001) When lightning is seen or thunder is heard, consider going to a building or a vehicle. Lightning usually precedes rain, so do not wait for the rain to begin before suspending activities. Every individual is ultimately responsible for their own personal safety. Parents and teachers must take responsibility for the safety of children in their care. Avoid unnecessary exposure to the lightning during storm activity.

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BOX 3.10 LIGHTNING KILLS 10 ZIMBABWE WORSHIPPERS

Vapostori worship in the open wearing white robes (source news.bbc.co.uk/.../jpg/ _38509259_zimcult300.jpg)

Table 3.7 Wind Gusts with Potentially Damaging Effects, 1968 to 1978 Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

Date July 1968 April 1969 April 1969 March 1971 August 1971 January 1973 February 1973 December 1974 May 1975 September 1976 October 1978 June 1978 November 1978

Speed 50 knots 57 knots 57 knots 68 knots 76 knots 75 knots 61 knots 85 knots 63 knots 75 knots 64 knots 63 knots 75 knots

Place Nyanga Masvingo Grand Reef Wankie NP Lake Kariba Lake Kariba Lake Kariba Kariba Airport Masvingo Lake Kariba Grand Reef Lake Kariba Chiredzi

Civil Protection Department Officials inspect a house severely damaged in a heavy hailstorm that occurred in Kadoma on 26 December 2003. Four houses were destroyed during the storm but fortunately no deaths were recorded (Source: CPD)

• •

If inside a boat, swimming or fishing, try to leave the water as soon as possible; If in an open space e.g. football pitch, athletics ground, ploughing field, church gathering or any public gathering, leave immediately and seek shelter.

Some long term protection measures are: • Installing lightning protection devices at homes in the rural areas; • Avoiding the use of metal caps on top of thatching; and • Growing trees rather than cutting them down. Figures 3.19 to 3.21 show some examples of protection schemes ideal for people living in the rural areas. Extreme Wind Gusts In a mature electric storm, extreme wind gusts are caused by the mass of cold air dragged down by falling rain and hail or air cooled by rain falling through it and evaporating. The high density of this air compared with the air adjacent to the storm accelerates it towards the ground where it is deflected horizontally at great speed, producing a cool gusty wind that can be strong enough to cause significant damage. This squall may last for only a few minutes or, on occasion, an hour or more but the peak speed is only experienced within a few minutes of the onset. At their most violent, these dangerous, damaging gusts are known as ‘microbursts’ and ‘down-bursts’. Table 3.7 shows that wind speeds as high as 85 knots have been recorded at Kariba in 1974. Winds of this magnitude can snap large trees in two and demolish buildings by taking the roof off, capsize small aircraft, blow over people, and probably most dangerously, capsize waterborne vessels. This is a hazard of consequence at Lake Kariba and may originate many kilometres from the shore. While the weather overhead may appear to be clear and the winds light, the sudden arrival of a severe squall from some storm many kilometres away from the shore or escarpment can occur. Figure 3.22 shows how strong winds destroy houses. 64

Where and when severe storms occur

Severe storms can occur at any time of the year throughout Zimbabwe. Most strike from September to March when solar energy is the greatest, but severe winter storms are common on the Zambezi escarpment. The frequency of land gales is difficult to specify. Table 3.7 shows land gales that had the potential to damage property for the decade 1968 to 1978. The dates clearly show that these damaging winds have occurred during all the months of the year. Fog and Mist as Visibility and Barrier Hazards When water droplets of the order of one fiftieth of a millimetre in diameter (about 200 times smaller than rain drops) are held in suspension in the air, visibility is greatly reduced due to multiple reflections. If the concentration of the water droplets is great enough to reduce visibility to less than 2 km but not less than 1 km, it is referred to as ‘mist’. As the concentration becomes higher and the visibility falls below 1 km, or even as low as a few metres, the term ‘fog’ is used. Thus it is only the level of visibility that is used to distinguish between mist and fog; otherwise they are identical. Since fog comprises dense clouds of water droplets immediately above land or water sur-

Winding roads that pass through mountains are more dangerous than usual in the presence of fog. (Source: CPD)

Figure 3.23 Annual Mean Number of Days with Fog by Location Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

Radiation fog is most common just after the rain season when the skies are clear and the air still fairly moist. In winter and the hot season, the air is usually too dry for much fog to form. During the rain season, when the air is moist enough, radiation at night is often inhibited by middle level cloud layers, reducing the loss of heat at ground level, and the incidence of fog is sporadic and local, depending on the extent of cloud during the night.

faces, where land and water transport is dominant, it becomes a weather hazard because it impairs visibility and hence judgment by drivers and pilots. Where main roads pass through mountains, fog can be a danger and visual sensing and signals are essential to safe activity or operations. People’s lives may be at risk if they become lost in treacherous environments, especially in the mountains. Fog hazard in Zimbabwe is generally most prevalent from February to June, with a peak at the beginning of the winter season in May. ‘Radiation fog’ occurs as result of radiative cooling of moist air, usually on clear still nights. ‘Advection fog’ occurs where warm moist air moves over a Zone I II III IV V

Area Boundaries Central plateau of the eastern border mountains Sub plateau area above 600 m Between approximately 600 m and 400 m Limpopo and Zambezi valleys below 400 m Zambezi valley downstream of Chirundu

Effective Temperature Characteristics Optimum conditions, seldom uncomfortable Comfortable to warm Hot days and warm nights Hot days and nights Excessively hot

65

Table 3.8 Effective Temperature Scale Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

Effective Temp. Above 27.1o 24.2 o – 27.1 o 20.5 o – 24.3 o 16.7 o – 20.4 o 12.8 o – 16.6 o Below 12.8 o

Degree of Comfort Injurious to health Excessively warm Warm Optimum comfort Cool Very cold

Table 3.9 Five Main Zones Demarcated by Effective Temperature Mean Conditions Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

Figure 3.24 Effective Temperature Regions of Zimbabwe Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe (1981)

cold surface or cold air moves over a body of warm water. ‘Orograhic fog’ occurs when moist air moving upslope is cold and moisture condenses out of it. Radiation and orographic fog are the most common types experienced in Zimbabwe. Because cooling proceeds from ground level upwards, forming an inversion, the fog develops from ground level upwards and tends to be sharply limited on top by the inversion, which acts as a ceiling. Radiation fog forms or collects over low lying ground when cold air drifts down a slope. It may form before midnight but is more likely to do so in the three or four hours before dawn. Clearance takes place an hour or so after sunrise, when freshening winds start a turbulent mixing of air which draws in drier air from above the fog layer. The fog lifts to become low cloud briefly, before dispersing, usually within the hour. An examination of records with the Department of Meteorology shows that radiation fog rarely lasts more than two hours after sunrise.

People who sleep outdoors in winter (cold weather) are obviously at risk of hypothermia. They may be stranded out of doors overnight without protection from the cold.

Meteorologists have combined temperature and wind to come up with ‘effective temperature’, which relates to human comfort (Table 3.8). This is expressed in terms of temperature but cannot be read from a thermometer.

In contrast to radiation fog, orograhic fog may last many hours, a day or more in some localities, due to different methods of formation. Thus as long as the moist air ascends up a slope, conversion of water vapour into water droplets by the cooling of air will still take place. Thus orographic fog is confined to hilly areas. It may occur at any time of the day or night and lasts as long as the wind continues to blow up the hill slopes. This type of hazard is actually a cloud base at ground level. This hazard occurs mainly along the eastern border mountains, which have predominantly moist, southeasterly winds. Figure 3.23 illustrates the disproportionably high frequency of occurrence of fog at Chipinge, as compared to other stations. This fog in the eastern highlands, when at relatively lower altitudes like Chipinge, tends to lift during the day, whereas in places at higher altitudes such as Vumba, the fog is more persistent and longer lasting. Other hilly places where the ground rises steeply, such as Shurugwi, may also experience orographic fog in moist southeast winds. However the frequency of the occurrence drops rapidly towards the west of the country. Places in the extreme northeast of the country experience orographic fog, although infrequently, with northerly or north easterly winds, e.g. near the northern escarpment as at Karoi. Such fog usually forms at night and is short lived. Extreme Temperature Hazard Of all the weather elements which affect human comfort, temperature and humidity are paramount as these affect the body’s heat regulatory mechanisms, especially the capacity to perspire and lose heat by evaporation. In hot, humid climates, relief can be obtained by using air conditioners and fans to lower the room temperature or humidity, and setting up a breeze to increase evaporation respectively. At the other extreme, in cold climates, wind chill may make the difference between survival and death. The Zimbabwe Meteorological Services (1981) has the following effective temperatures to measure the degree of comfort: Our interest is usually in the upper end of the scale, as the lower, cooler end is not usually attained in Zimbabwe. Therefore when building, the choice of orientation, building material, size of windows, curtaining, exterior sunshields, overhangs and ventilation can make the indoor climate cooler, when it is hot 66

outside and vice versa, hence reducing the effective temperature appreciably. But lack of this knowledge, manifesting itself in poor planning in these respects, can worsen the situation by making the indoor climate worse than outside conditions, thereby seriously compromising the comfort of the people living or working indoors and threatening their health and productivity. Variation of effective temperature climate in Zimbabwe

The Meteorological Services of Zimbabwe calculates the effective temperature from standard meteorological data for each selected station for the hottest months of October though December. Table 3.9 shows the resulting zones and Figure 3.24 shows the actual mapping of the zones. Table 3.10 Causes and Symptoms of Hypothermia

Common Causes

Common Symptoms

Wet or inadequate clothing Exposure to cold, wet or windy conditions Fatigue and/or excessive perspiration Lack of readily digestible, high protein food Alcohol intake or shock (e.g. after an accident)

Loss of energy and/or stumbling or shivering Mental/physical lethargy, loss of judgement or determination Impaired senses, slurred speech or swollen lips or hands

Mean conditions were used to demarcate the zones. The south eastern limit area is about 300m lower than the northern western limit. This is because, although both sides of the main watershed can experience equally high temperatures, the southeast regularly experiences bouts of cold south easterlies, which lower the average temperature. The absence of these frequent cold spells is also a reason that Zone V is only found in the extreme northern parts of country.

If symptoms appear, the victim must be sheltered from the cold and gradually warmed in a sleeping bag, blankets or heavy clothing, before the body loses its ability to keep warm. Companions should: · Assist by staying very close to the victim to provide body warmth; · Give the victim small amounts of warm food and drink (but never alcohol); and · Not rub or massage the victim or expose them to excessive external heat (e.g. fire).

Measures against extreme temperatures

Some recommended measures to deal with temperature extremes are: · Build houses with high walls (also effective in winter); · Construct exterior shading, e.g. trees to the southwest of the building allowing maximum insulation in winter, at the same time intercepting the heat of the sun in summer; · Reduce window size to minimise excessive exterior heat entering the interior of the building and so reducing the need for air conditioning; · Increase ventilation, e.g. by installing ceiling fans, noting that ventilation requirements change in winter when sealing the building from chilling breezes becomes important; · In extreme cases, install air conditioning; and · Consider the orientation of the building (north facing buildings collect the warmth of the sun in winter but are sheltered in summer).

Figure 3.25 Frost Risk Map of Zimbabwe

Exposure and hypothermia

In Zimbabwe, conditions are not particularly severe, although cold snaps sometimes occur during winter in the higher areas of Gweru and Harare. For humans, the most common hazard related to cold conditions is hypothermia (from cold exposure and pronounced hi-po-ther-mee-ah), which can be fatal. This occurs when the body core temperature falls below normal (35°C) due to prolonged heat loss. The condition is often fatal. When a very cold night occurs, e.g. at Mbare Msika or Gweru Bus Terminus 67

Note: The dark blue areas are the most risky areas where severe often causes major damage to crops Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

where elderly and homeless people and alcoholics usually sleep without blankets, a continuous exposure to this temperature can cause hypothermia because their body temperatures drop so low that they develop hypothermia and eventually, they may freeze to death. Symptoms are difficult to recognise but, if not treated promptly, can cause death within an hour! The common causes and symptoms are shown in table 3.10.

Frost damage in winter wheat (above) and apples (below) (Source: CPD, 2006)

Frost Hazard Frost occasionally causes drastic reductions in winter horticulture and crop yields in localised parts of Zimbabwe, hence negatively affecting the national economy. Vegetables are the most vulnerable as they are usually grown in unprotected areas. Many farmers do not recognise frost damage until harvest time, and the yield loss is sometimes attributed to other factors. It is important to assess the degree of damage as soon as possible after the frost, to determine whether any action should be taken. Here we define the processes leading to frost damage as well as how to prevent and reduce frost effects on crops. The main frost season in Zimbabwe stretches from May to September and frost seldom occurs outside these months. Frost incidence rises sharply from May to reach its peak in the middle of June to the second half of July. The most severe outbreaks are associated with cold air from the southwest. Whether or not a particular place is prone to severe or recurrent frost depends on several factors. The most important is the ‘lie of the land’ and whether this favours the gathering or retention of cooled air at night. As the Map in Figure 3.25 shows, altitude is paramount in setting the general level of temperature. Thus frost is rarely experienced below an altitude of 500m above sea level. In addition to altitude, the west and the south of the country are at the highest risk since the most severe frosts occur with the incidence of bitterly cold south westerly winds. The north of the country is also affected but less often.

Heavily damaged crops will quickly show signs of frost injury, including discoloration, darkening, and a water soaked appearance of fleshy tissue and pods.

Nocturnal radiation produces widespread frosts in this cloudless air, affecting not only the low lying ground as usual, but also exposed vegetation to heights of several metres. The cold winds compound temperature loss, hence the wind in this case acts as an accessory rather than a deterrent to frost.

Common types of damage include death of dormant flower buds, broad leaved plants, frost damage to tender shoots, flowers, and fruits. An important first step is to select frost tolerant plants.

The lowest temperatures are mostly recorded in Matabeleland North where Kalahari sands and valley exposures predominate. This is because the sandy soils have low specific heat and low conductivity, and therefore cool more rapidly than clay and other soils. Very low ground minimum temperatures of -15.6o C were recorded in Matopos on 30 June 1980. Harare also has its fair share of cold temperatures, recording a ground minimum temperature of 11.7o C in 1968. Such low ground minimum temperatures are symptomatic of widespread severe frost, also known as ‘black frosts’. A defining characteristic of this is that plant stems and leaves are ruptured by the freezing of the sap or internal water and even large trees may be killed in this way. This type of frost seems to have become less common, with the worst widespread incidents on record having been in 1946, 1953, 1968 and 1972 (Met Services, 1981). How frost damages plants

Frost damage is affected by many factors, and the damage tends to be sporadic and not obvious in all plants. When plant tissue is frozen, ice crystals 68

rupture the cell walls and membranes. Alternatively, the cells freeze without structural damage, but they can then be killed by dehydration. When frozen tissues thaw out, they take on a dark, limp and water soaked appearance, similar to frozen lettuce. Several days after the frost, the tissue begins to dry out and turns straw brown prematurely. Frost is very hard to predict in terms of damage potential in a crop, as there are so many factors that affect the tolerance. In general -2o to -3o C frost over a period of at least an hour is expected to cause damage to crops, and -1o C for an extended period such as three to four hours can cause similar damage. It is difficult to instantly evaluate frost damage and this is why an assessment should be done 24 to 48 hours after the frost for initial symptoms and a week to ten days later to judge the full extent of the damage. A white appearance to the crop is a reliable early indicator of some frost damage. Frost prevention and control To adequately protect plants from frost damage it is necessary to: UNDERSTAND COLD WEATHER Despite the known thermodynamic law of fall in temperature at ground level with increasing altitude, this is not always the case since local topography becomes the dominant determinant in winter. Dry air, in combination with the long winter months, allows the earth to radiate heat into space, the ground cooling the air in contact with it for a longer period than in summer when the nights are shorter. The cooler air, being denser, tends to flow downhill and collect over low lying ground. The lowest night temperatures are thus found in river valleys and also on level plains from which it is difficult for cold air to drain away. Other factors of importance in the ground cooling process are the type of soil, cloud cover, moisture in the air and wind speed. Sandy soils lose more heat than clay soils. The coldest temperatures occur around daybreak. Clouds at night can absorb and reflect heat back to the earth. Calm, clear nights pose the greatest danger of frost since there is no wind to mix the ascending warm air with the descending cold air, and no clouds to radiate heat back to the soil. Humidity slows temperature change, which is why extremes between night and day temperatures occur so quickly in a dry desert climate. For Zimbabwe, the airflow that has a combination of most of these frost facilitating processes is the cold, dry southwesterly air that reaches the country through Botswana and the Transvaal. UNDERSTAND PLANT RESPONSE TO COLD The effects of temperature vary with plant species, stage of growth, age, general health and water content. Young, actively growing, flowering, and/or dehydrated plants tend to be most vulnerable. Cold temperatures and short day length slow plant growth and cause dormancy, making plants less susceptible to frost damage. Actively growing foliage is very susceptible to frost damage. If a freeze occurs when there has been no prior cold weather to ‘harden off’ a plant, the damage will be more extensive. Therefore, the heaviest damage from low temperatures generally occurs in the beginning of the frost season or any time cold temperatures occur after a warm winter period. The lower the temperature, the longer the exposure, and the faster the temperature drops, the greater the damage to the plant. 69

Preventing frost damage It is necessary to place frost sensitive plants in sheltered locations. Eastern and northern exposures tend to be warmest and full sun is warmer than shaded locations, although night temperatures, the cause of most frost damage, will be impacted upon by other factors. In terms of plant care: · Keep plants well watered because frost injury occurs when ice crystals form on the leaf surface drawing moisture from the leaf tissue and the damage from this dehydration will be less severe if the plant is not already drought stressed; · Note that firm, bare, moist soil absorbs more heat and loses it more rapidly than soil that is loose, dry, or covered with mulch or vegetation; · Manage irrigation carefully, keeping the moisture level as even as possible; and · Don’t over protect, as plants are more frost resistant if they are hardened to cold weather.

Some additional techniques are: ADDING HEAT A 100 watt electric light bulb in an approved outdoor fixture can provide supplemental heat to covered plants, if needed. Be sure to hang them below the foliage, allowing the heat they generate to rise (within the covered area) and warm the plant. Take care that the bulb is not so close to the trunk or a branch that it could burn. APPLYING RUNNING WATER Just a trickle to the ground at the base of the tree late at night and early in the morning for no more than three nights in a row (after which the detrimental effects of drowning the plant cancel out any frost protection benefits). When water is cooled, energy in the form of heat is released. MULCHING Mulches insulate against fluctuating surface soil temperatures. They can help guard against too much daytime warming that would activate plant growth and increase freeze risk. Do not prune frost damaged, woody growth until the plant begins growing in the spring. Pruning might stimulate new growth, which would be vulnerable to late frosts. The frost damaged leaves and stems will continue to help trap warm air within the canopy. In addition, the damage is often not nearly as bad as it initially looks and new growth may come out of tissue that appeared to be dead. Bad advice is sometimes given. Readers are accordingly advised that: · A large fire, rather than keeping plants warm and protecting them, creates an up draft, sending hot air above plants and sucking in cold air from surrounding areas. · Mulching prevents the warming of the soil. This is helpful if you are trying to keep a deciduous fruit tree from breaking dormancy too early, but it prevents the capture of heat that could be harnessed to protect a frost sensitive plant like citrus. · A variety of chemicals have been marketed with claims that they change the freezing point of the plant tissue, reducing the ice nucleating bacteria on the crop (thus inhibiting ice and frost formation), or affecting growth (extending dormancy). To date, these claims have not withstood scientific scrutiny with regard to any commercially available material.

CHAPTER 4 Geological Hazards

The solid earth is the basis of human settlement and material security through the way that it supports built structures. Thus any process that alters that stability or drastically changes surface conditions threatens the built areas.

Figure 4.1 How an Earthquake Takes Place

Adapted from BBC World News http:// news.bbc.co.uk/…./earthquake/img/ earthquake.gif)

The most surface damage is done at the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus, which is known as the ‘epicentre’. The intensity of the waves, and hence the severity of the accompanying damage, decrease as one moves from the epicentre. Apart from this type of earthquake, resulting from constant gradual movement of the tectonic plates that make up earth’s crust, there are other small earthquakes that sometimes result from human activity, like filling of large reservoirs (e.g. Lake Kariba). The extra weight added by the immense body of water created where it did not exist previously creates new stresses on the underlying rocks, which may move to adjust to the new equilibrium, thereby creating seismic waves at the earth’s surface.

This chapter looks at natural processes involving tectonic and geomorphological surface processes of endogenous, tectonic or exogenous origin. The main dangers emanating from these processes in Zimbabwe are those that suddenly alter and temporarily undermine or destroy the stability of the land surface, including the foundation and slope stability, such as landslides, earthquakes, mass movements and surface collapse. The location of geologic hazards may vary with the relief and ruggedness of the land, with tectonic activity or because of the composition, structure and weathering of the underlying rock and soil surfaces. As artificial extensions of the solid earth, i.e. buildings, are constructed out of need by human beings, they depend a great deal upon the stability of natural surfaces. Most fatalities occur when the buildings that house people collapse on them. Survivors are displaced by the destruction of their homes and places of work. Dangers emanating from meteorites, which frequently visit the earth’s atmosphere and have been encountered in Zimbabwe, are also included in this chapter.

Earthquake Hazards and Disasters Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust. They usually occur where the earth’s plates meet along plate boundaries and are caused by the release of huge stresses due to underground volcanic forces, by the breaking of rock beneath the surface, or by sudden movement along an existing fault line. For example, as two plates move towards each other (see Figure 4.1), one can be pushed down under the other into the mantle. Because the movement is not smooth, friction is created and the plate normally becomes stuck, causing massive pressure on the surrounding rocks. The rocks then break underground at the hypocentre, when this pressure is released. When this happens, the energy waves race rapidly from this point, which is called the ‘focus’, producing shock waves that are responsible for the earth’s shaking. These are called ‘seismic waves’ and the shaking is the ‘earthquake’ that we know. The effects, characteristics and measurement of earthquakes The effects of earthquakes vary. This is a result of factors such as the strength of the earthquake, the density of population in the affected area and the level of economic development of the area struck. Their characteristics are defined by: MEASURING INSTRUMENT The magnitude (size) of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer. This is a machine that measures movements within the earth’s surface. MAGNITUDE Earthquakes are measured at the epicentre, a point on the earth’s surface, directly above the point of rupture in the earth’s crust. Energy released by (or the magnitude of) an earthquake is expressed on a recording 70

device called a seismograph, using the ‘Richter scale’. This scale is open ended, as there is no upper limit to the amount of energy an earthquake might release. The most severe earthquakes so far, have not exceeded 9.5 on the Richter scale. It is not a simple arithmetical scale; for instance, a magnitude 7.0 creates 10 times the ground motion of a magnitude 6.0 earthquake and the total energy release is about 30 times greater. This in turn is 30 times greater than a 5.0 and so on.

VARIABILITY Earthquakes are unpredictable and strike without warning. They range in strength from slight tremors to great shocks, lasting from a few seconds to as long as five minutes. They can also come in a series over a period of several days.

Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake Earthquake damage is largely attributable to the amplitude and frequency of waves generated by the earthquake. Generally, large earthquakes inflict the greatest damage because they shake the ground more severely, for a longer period and over more extensive areas than smaller ones, though it has to be stressed that the magnitude of the earthquake event is quite often overridden by local conditions. Local geological conditions greatly influence the ground surface displacement, which may be horizontal, vertical or oblique, depending on the wave activity. Certain soil types, such as those with high clay content, allow earthquakes to have a crippling effect on buildings. When exposed to moisture, clay expands, creating huge upward forces strong enough to crack a conventional foundation in half. Even a small degree of soil expansiveness manifests itself in the form of cracked plaster, sticking doors and sinking floors. When clay dries, it shrinks again, creating cracks and valleys in the soil that wreak a new lot of havoc with conventional foundation systems. Over time, this periodic heaving of the ground takes its toll on structures, causing premature deterioration, structural weakness and other chronic problems. Structures built on soft soil

Thus the local site conditions have an important influence on ground motion. This is because wave amplifications are more significant in steep topography, especially on ridge crests, than in uniform topography. But in soil, especially in alluvial soils, ground motion is more enhanced both in amplitude and duration than in rock. Hence, more severe structural damage is mostly found in unconsolidated material. Most buildings can withstand some vertical motion, therefore, the greatest damage is created by waves, which shake the ground horizontally, although different individual buildings shaken by the same earthquake respond differently. The effects of earthquake ground shaking depend on the specific response characteristics of the type of structural system used. Not surprisingly, weaker structures collapse faster than strong structures.

Figure 4.2 How Ground Shaking in Earthquakes Damages a House Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Management Center, 1989

are more severely damaged in earthquakes than those built on firm soil or bedrock. Soft clay soil shakes more violently than firmer sandy soil, which in turn shakes much more than hard rock. Steep slopes may also readily cause landslides in an earthquake. A History of Zimbabwean earthquakes Zimbabwe lies over the southern tip of the east Africa rift system. The southeast (Save-Limpopo basin) and the northwest (the Deka fault zone, midZambezi basin) areas of the region are covered by Karroo sediments, which make up 15 percent of Zimbabwe’s surface. These sediments form a wedge towards the centre of the country. The rest of Zimbabwe is part of a continental shield with little seismic activity. Considerable activity occurs along Zimbabwe’s southeastern border with Mozambique and the Deka fault zone in the mid-Zambezi basin. Seismic activity in central western Mozambique is of pure tectonic origin, while that along the Zambezi basin 71

Engineers and seismologists are still uncertain of the exact reason for these effects but the 180 billion tonnes of water in the dam is bound to have some effect and a degree of impounding during dam filling is normally experienced.

Figure 4.3 The Epicentre of the Earthquake South of Beira on 23 February 2006 Epicentre

suffers reservoir induced seismicity (related to the Kariba dam). Since its construction and filling in the early 1960s, Kariba has caused an increase in the number of earthquakes in the area, twenty of which have been higher than magnitude 5 on the Richter scale. Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones The epicentre location map in Figure 4.4 (below) gives the seismicity of the area in this study for the 82 year period from 1910 to 1991. Two areas of high seismic activity are observed on the map: 1

The Herald, 24 February 2006 Although Zimbabwe is in a region of relatively low seismic activity, the three instrumentally recorded events which occurred in 1910, 1963 and 1940 measuring 6 for the first two events and 5.9 for the latter give a clear indication of the existence of a significant seismic hazard in this region. However, only events of moderate magnitude, i.e. magnitude of less than 5 have been recorded since 1940. Earthquakes are known to have return periods of varying lengths. The earthquakes recorded on 23 February and 15 March 2006, south of Beira in Mozambique, measured 7.5 and 5.3 respectively, demonstrating the high risk of earthquake hazard in the southeastern highlands of Zimbabwe.

Figure 4.4 Spatial Presentation of Seismicity of Zimbabwe, 1900– 1994

2

The area along the eastern borders of Zimbabwe with Mozambique, moving northeastwards into central Mozambique; and The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin to the northwest, tending in a northeast direction into the Luangwa rift in eastern Zambia.

The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin is further subdivided into two areas, the Deka fault zone and the mid-Zambezi basin. Most of the mid-Zambezi basin lies under the waters of Lake Kariba. Outside these two areas, epicentres are scattered and sparsely distributed although southern Zimbabwe also deserves mention. Located at 21_S, 30_E, this area is not as active as the Lake Kariba area in the mid-Zambezi basin. However, an earthquake of magnitude 6 occurred in southern Zimbabwe in 1940. This event occurred on the boundary of the Zimbabwe shield and the Save-Limpopo mobile belt. Since then, a few small magnitude events have occurred in the vicinity of its epicentre. Recently, rock bursts have been reported in the Penalonga area, indicative of mining induced events. The Nyamandlovu Aquifer area has also become active in seismic activity, recording four significant events from 1999 to 2004. The Nyamandlovu events signify stresses due to water abstraction. Rock bursts in the Redwing mine could be associated with stress build up due to successive underground blasting.

Causes of injury and damage

Key: Red solid circles = earthquakes of surface magnitude 6.0 or more; orange solid circles = magnitudes 5.0 to 5.9; green open circles = 4.0 to 4.9; blue open circles = < 3.9

Wherever one lives in Zimbabwe, there is a chance of experiencing an earthquake but areas in the Zambezi and Eastern Highlands (see Figure 4.4) are the most vulnerable. For those living in a risk area, it is necessary to know what to expect and what to do if an earthquake occurs.

Most earthquake casualties result from falling objects or debris because shocks frequently damage or demolish buildings and other structures. Electricity and telephone lines, or sewer and water mains can also be damaged. Landslides, ground displacement (faulting), subsidence and even tsunamis (huge seismic sea waves) may be caused, leaving many people dead, injured or homeless. Earthquake risk reduction strategies There are a number of ways in which damage from earthquakes can be minimised. These are discussed below: STRUCTURAL DESIGN The majority of deaths and injuries from earthquakes are caused by the damage or collapse of buildings and other structures. To design structures that can withstand earthquakes, engineers must understand the stresses caused by shaking. Gaining such knowledge requires a long term commitment because large devastating earthquakes occur at irregular and 72

often long intervals. Building codes provide the first line of defence against future earthquake damage and help to ensure public safety. Records of building response to earthquakes, especially those from structures that failed or were damaged during previous earthquakes, could lead to many revisions and improvements in the building codes of this country. Our current building bylaws and codes do not take into account possible seismic effects. Along with the need to adhere to correct building principles during the construction of public and private buildings, standard building materials and techniques should be used in the construction of any structures for habitation and these should be regularly maintained, including the treatment of termites. MONITORING INSTRUMENTS A network of instruments will provide even more extensive data on earthquakes that might be expected in future. Using this information, scientists and engineers will be able to suggest further improvements to our building codes. Such improvements will help protect the citizens of Zimbabwe from loss of life and property in future earthquakes. Table 4.1 shows the earthquake monitoring stations that have been built in Zimbabwe. However efforts still need to be made to ensure that they are all operational. Advice for any area where there is a risk of earthquakes It is important to know the local earthquake risk by being aware of earthquakes Earthquakes do not KILL that have occurred in the area in the past and what damage resulted. Weak structures & buildings DO During an Earthquake: • If indoors stay there, as there could be falling debris outside; • Take cover under an internal doorframe, sturdy table, bench or bed: • Keep away from windows, mirrors, chimneys, overhead fittings and tall furniture; • In high rise buildings, stay clear of windows and outer walls, get under a desk near a pillar or internal wall and do not use elevators; • In crowded areas, do not rush for doors and stay clear of roof and wall fittings; • If outside, keep well clear of buildings, walls, power lines, trees, etc; • In a city street, with tall buildings, shelter from falling debris under strong archways or doorways of buildings; and • If in a vehicle, stop in the open until shaking stops, and beware of ‘downed’ power lines and damage to roads, overpasses or bridges. After the Earthquake: • Turn off electricity and water; • Check for fuel leaks before lighting matches; • Check for water or sewage leaks, broken electrical wiring etc; • Check for cracks and damage to buildings, including roof, chimneys and foundation; • Evacuate if the building you are in is badly damaged, as there is always a chance of aftershocks; 73

Houses that collapsed during the 23March 2006 earthquake in Chipinge. CPD officials inspect one of the houses (left).

BY-LAW FORMULATION In many areas the chances of non compliance with the building codes and regulations are high, primarily due to lack of resources. Particularly in rural areas, there are few regular inspections or even the clearly defined structures to ensure that these take place. Structures in rural areas tend to be built in any manner, using any materials without supervision or conformity with the requirements of the building regulations and by-laws that do exist in the country.

• • •

Avoid driving unless in an emergency (keep streets clear for emergency vehicles); Do not go sightseeing or enter damaged buildings otherwise loose material hanging from damaged buildings may fall on you; and Stay calm and help others who may need first aid before the arrival of doctors, if you are able to.

Landslide Hazards and Disasters Landslides usually occur as secondary effects of heavy storms or earthquakes. They are a major threat each year to human settlements and infrastructure, Table 4.1 Seismic Stations Built in Zimbabwe

S ECURING L OOSE MATERIAL Non-structural items such as suspended ceilings must also be adequately secured to the structural frame. Seismic forces are triggered by the inertia mass of all objects and elements within the building. LOCATION AND BUILDING PLANNING Location planning is carried out to reduce urban densities in areas known to amplify ground vibrations. Avoid irregularities in plan and section. Plan irregularities can result in twisting of the structure and other stress amplifications. AWARENESS CAMPAIGN An extensive and vigorous awareness campaign is needed to inform the public of measures to take in case of earthquakes. This should be especially targeted at the very vulnerable communities even in the most remote locations. UPGRADING UNSAFE BUILDINGS Incentives should be offered for the demolition of unsafe buildings or for upgrading their level of safety.

Although no scientific early warning has been devised yet for earthquakes, two phenomena might warn of a coming earthquake: 1

2

ERRATIC ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Watch out for frightened or confused pets running around, or a birdcall not usually heard at night; and G R O U N D W A T E R L E V E L S Watch for sudden changes of water level in wells or artesian bores.

After the Earthquake, the first thing to do is to check for injuries among those around you and tend to these. Do not move a seriously injured person unless they are in danger.

An earthquake is short lived and hence offers little time to react. Most people are killed or injured as they attempt to move prematurely during the earthquake and are struck by falling or flying objects. Chances of avoiding serious injury are high if one remains calm and takes cover as recommended above.

Station Name

Latitude

Longitude

Elevation(m)

Bulawayo

-20.1433

28.6133

1341

Chiredzi

-21.0133

31.5800

430

Hwange

-18.3302

26.5034

615

Kariba

-16.5267

28.7950

805

Karoi

-16.8293

29.6147

1343

Karoi

-16.8517

29.6183

1380

Matopo

-20.4258

28.4994

1215

Mount Darwin

-16.7800

31.5833

967

Mutare

-18.9950

32.6267

1119

imbabwe Meteorological Office

especially during or immediately after the rainfall season. ‘Landslide’ is a general term covering a wide variety of landforms and processes involving the movement of earth, rock or debris down slope under the influence of gravity. Although they may take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes, they are much more widespread than those hazards and, over time, cause more property loss than any other geological event. Causes Several factors may cause the resistance in a slope to weaken including the following. INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT caused by heavy rainfall or rising ground water; INCREASE IN SLOPE ANGLE for new construction or by stream erosion; and BREAKDOWN OR ALTERATION OF SLOPE MATERIALS from weathering and other natural processes, placement of underground piping for utilities or use of landfill. Different forms of landslides The materials that compose landslides are divided into two classes, bedrock or soil (earth and organic matter debris). A landslide may be classified by its type of movement (Figure 4.5): 74

BOX 4.1 ZIMBABWE: EARTHQUAKE OCHA03: 03-MAR-06 The down slope stress may be caused by: · V IBRATIONS from earthquakes (which have triggered some of the most disastrous landslides), blasting, machinery, traffic and thunder; · REMOVAL OF LATERAL SUPPORT by previous slope failure, construction, and excavation; · REMOVAL OF VEGETATION as a result of fires, logging, overgrazing, and deforestation which causes loosening of soil particles and erosion; and · LOADING WITH WEIGHT caused by rain, hail, accumulation of loose rock or volcanic material, weight of buildings, or seepage from irrigation and sewage systems.

Figure 4.5 Landslide Classification by Type of Movement

FALLS A mass of rock or other material that moves downward by falling or bouncing through the air. These are most common along steep road or railway embankments, steep escarpments or undercut cliffs. If individual boulders are large enough they can cause significant damage, especially to settlements at the foot of hills and mountains. SLIDES Failure (slippage) along one or several surfaces, may result in the slide material breaking up and moving down slope. TOPPLES Overturning forces can cause a rotation of the rock out of its original position, resulting in it settling at a dangerous angle, from which it tilts or rotates forward. Toppling may not necessarily trigger a rock fall or rockslide. LATERAL SPREADS Large blocks of soil spread out horizontally by fracturing off the original base. They do not need a steep slope to occur. Lateral spreads usually break up internally and form numerous fissures and scarps. The process can be caused by liquefaction, whereby saturated, loose sands or silts assume a liquefied state. It is usually triggered by ground shaking (as during an earthquake). FLOWS Movement in flows is more rapid, similar to a viscous fluid, and can cover long distances. Although, generally, water is not essential for flows to occur, most flows form after periods of heavy rainfall. There are three types of flows common in Zimbabwe – mudflow, debris flow and the creep. A mudflow contains at least 50 percent sand, silt and clay particles, while a debris flow is a slurry of soils, rocks and organic matter combined with air and water. Debris flows usually occur on steep gullies. Flow of soil and bedrock is called ‘creep’. This is normally very slow, almost imperceptible, and may cause telephone poles or other objects to tilt downhill over long periods of time. Risk reduction strategies Landslide risk can be minimised by: 75

A sudden or gradual alteration in the composition, structure, hydrology or vegetation on a slope may trigger a landslide. This disturbance of the equilibrium of the materials in the slope may be either natural or human induced. A landslide is triggered when the strength of the material comprising the slope is overpowered by the down slope stress.

Effects of landslides Two measures determine the effect that a landslide will have RATE OF LAND MOVEMENT This varies from exceptionally slow, only centimetres per year (which can damage roads, buildings, pipelines, etc.) to a sudden total collapse or avalanche of perhaps millions of tonnes of debris, with the potential to crush vehicles, buildings and people, or to sweep away roads, and power and telephone lines. DEGREE OF LAND MOVEMENT The distance travelled by landslide debris can also vary greatly, from a few centimetres in ‘ground slumps’, to many kilometres when large mudflows follow river valleys.

The primary mitigation strategy for landslides is location planning to avoid the use of hazardous areas as settlements or as sites for important structures. Hazardous steep areas can be identified by telltale signs of ground movement, such as trees tilting (down slope), water seepage and breaks in the ground.

BOX 4.2 NYANGA EXPERIENCES LANDSLIDES

• • • • • •

The largest meteorite currently known on earth (above), Hoba at Grootfontein, Namibia, weighing 60 tonnes (photo: Uwe Reimold) Meteorite similar to that which hit Zimbabwe (below). Small Meteorites commonly hit the earth. Note features of burning on the outside.

Creating shallower slope angles in hillsides through excavation of top layers of earth; Increasing deep drainage and surface runoff drainage capacity; Constructing engineering works, such as pilings, ground anchors and retaining walls; Terracing slopes and reforestation to prevent loss of surface material; Directing debris flow into specially constructed channels and rock fall protection barriers such as trenches; or Constructing silt dams and vegetation barriers to protect settlements.

Immediate protection measures for those vulnerable to landslides The following measures should be taken to afford those in a situation of landslide risk the greatest possible protection: • If indoors when a landslide begins, shelter at the least affected end of the building under a strong table or bench (if possible use a mattress for extra protection). Hold on firmly and stay put until all land movement has ceased. • Out of doors, always take heed of warning signs, and avoid the tops and bases of cliffs or embankments, especially where there are signs of loose rocks or debris. Never stand or sit on rock overhangs unless you are sure they can bear your weight. • If a landslide threatens, move quickly from its likely path and keep clear of banks, trees, power lines and poles. • Evacuation plans for high risk areas should be established and practiced regularly. Asteroids and Comets (Extra-Terrestrial) Thousands of tiny asteroids enter the earth’s atmosphere daily, burning up in bright streaks as meteors (shooting stars). A very few larger ones reach the surface as fragments of burnt rock or iron known as ‘meteorites’. About every 700 years on average, a 100 metre diameter (or larger) asteroid strikes the earth at up to a quarter of a million kilometres per hour. This translates to the explosive energy equal to a 100 megaton atomic bomb! Its impact with the earth disintegrates everything in the vicinity and throws up millions of tonnes of dust into the atmosphere from the large crater that is created. In Southern 76

BOX 4.3 ZIMBABWE METEORITE

The major meteorite craters in Southern Africa are:1 VREDEFORT in South Africa’s Free State Province; ROTER KAMM in Namibia, measuring 2.5km in diameter; HIGHBURY S TRUCTURE in Zimbabwe, measuring 20km in diameter; M OROKWENG in the North West Province of South Africa; KALKKOP CRATER in South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province, measuring 640 metres in diameter; TSWAING C RATER/PRETORIA SALTPAN in Gauteng Province, South Africa, measuring 1 100 metres in diameter; SINAMWENDA CRATER in Zimbabwe, which is 220 metres in diameter; and K G A G O D I in Botswana with a diameter of 3.5km; The largest known meteorite impact craters on earth are:

Africa alone, eight impact craters have been found, the best known large one being at Wolf Creek in the Transvaal. If such an impact occurred in the ocean, it would trigger an enormous tsunami with unthinkable consequences. Even more frightening is the remote prospect of a much larger asteroid or even a comet colliding with us in a cataclysmic event that could plunge the world into years of darkness and a new ice age that would threaten human existence. Such an event may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.

77

VREDEFORT in South Africa, with a diameter of 250 to 300km and thought to have been formed by an impact about 2 020 million years ago; SUDBURY STRUCTURE in Canada, measuring 200km in diameter and thought to have been formed about 1 850 million years ago; and CHICXULUB in the Gulf of Mexico, which is 180 km in diameter and thought to be about 65 million years old.

CHAPTER 5 Biological Hazards Introduction Many endemic diseases can cause epidemics if environmental conditions, host susceptibility, or host carriers change in a way that favors transmission and infection. Possible examples include: · Exposure of non-immune persons or those that have immune systems weakened by other diseases such as AIDS, coming from a non-endemic area (such as refugees, economic migrants, or tourists); · Ecological changes that favour the breeding of an insect vector, such as the mosquito in the rainfall season; · Increase in human movements which increases the frequency of contacts (such as camps of refugees or internally displaced people, markets, pilgrimages, relatively easy national and international travel over long distances); · Rapid urban development, which may promote poor sanitary conditions, poverty and overcrowding, leading to contamination of food or water supply; · Increasing vulnerability caused by a decline in nutritional status; and · Changes in the patterns of disease, which may, for example, render a parasite responsible for a particular disease resistant to traditional treatment.

Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances, are all termed as ‘biological hazards’. This definition encompasses outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion and extensive infestations. In this chapter, we concentrate specifically on common epidemics of human, zoonotic and animal nature that cause concern in Zimbabwe. The havoc that extensive pest infestation causes for local farmers makes it necessary to cover this topic in detail. An epidemic is an unusually large or unexpected increase in the number of cases of a disease for a given time, place or period. The key points are that the disease is communicable, the levels of disease are significantly above normal in a given place at that time, and the outbreak is initially out of control (UNDP DHA, 2001). An epidemic can evolve rapidly into a disaster if there is no prompt response. Epidemics are commonly caused by a disease known or suspected to be of infectious or parasitic origin, however they can be associated with other hazards. For example, chemical accidents, food shortages, and civil conflict can cause epidemics of poisoning, malnutrition and microdeficiencies. The main examples of such epidemics include cholera outbreaks, malaria (seasonal in low lying areas), measles (sporadic outbreaks), dysentery (sporadic outbreaks), HIV, meningitis etc. General control measures for outbreaks Outbreak control is the emergency response to: · Reduce the suffering and risk of death for the infected individuals; and, · Limit the spread of the disease.

Health promotion is essential, not only to avoid disease but also to promote a positive lifestyle. Preventive measures may range from simple washing to complex matters such as preventing sexually transmitted diseases. Long term health education can be incorporated into school curricula and clinic settings to help change attitudes and practices. Methods for targeting adults range from house visits by rural health workers to publicity through newspapers, posters, radio and television.

The spread of the disease can be limited or eliminated by reducing the source of infection, by interrupting transmission, or by protecting the persons at risk. Common sources of infection, such as mosquitoes, rodents, ticks, or contaminated food, water or soil, can be tackled through environmental measures. Strategies include spraying of breeding sites, use of protective nets, sanitising food preparation areas, improving disposal of solid wastes, and disinfecting and protecting water sources. Person to person transmission can be reduced through the use of protective measures addressing the patients, their contacts and the community. The most cost effective measures are epidemiological surveillance and community participation for case finding, contact tracing, and prevention of transmission. Public information should promote specific behaviors to avoid infection or transmission. 78

Community health education helps stem epidemics by alerting individuals to the signs and symptoms of disease and stressing the need for reporting cases to local health authorities. With the advance of global epidemics such as HIV and AIDS, community participation is particularly vital. The death or immobilisation by illness of productive individuals not only inflicts personal and economic hardships on families, but also on the society as a whole. Common Epidemics in Zimbabwe A number of the most common epidemic conditions are discussed below: CHOLERA Cholera is perhaps the most contagious of the entire range of common epidemics experienced in Zimbabwe. Death is swift after the onset of symptoms. The first outbreak was reported in 1972 in parts of Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central provinces. It is believed that the disease was imported from neighboring countries. Since then, there have been several outbreaks of cholera reported in virtually every part of the country, claiming Table 5.1 Annual Cholera Data for Zimbabwe, 1975–2002

Year

Suspected Confirmed Cases Cases

Deaths Fatality Rate %

Areas Affected

1975

546

0

27

4.9

Chipinge, Mutoko

1976

236

0

15

6.3

Chipinge, Mutoko

1983

293

256

16

5.5

Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1984

820

610

39

4.8

Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1985

123

78

2

1.6

Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1992

1 135

0

32

2.8

Rushinga, Manicaland

1993

330

0

25

7.5

Rushinga, Manicaland

1998

883

157

46

5.2

Manicaland, Mash West, Mash East, Mat North, Harare, Chitungwiza.

1999

4 081

0

240

5.9

Manicaland, Masvingo, Mash East, Mash West, Mat North, Masvingo, Harare, Chitungwiza

2000

2 402

71

151

6.2

Manicaland province, Mash Central, Mash West, Midlands, Harare, Chitungwiza

2001

649

0

13

2.0

Mat South, Masvingo Chiredzi, Mat North Hwange, Lupane.

2002

3 684

0

354

9.8

Binga and Kariba Districts

large numbers of lives. Table 5.1 shows that the deaths resulting from cholera have increased drastically, reaching unprecedented levels in recent years. Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by Vibrio Cholerae. Adults and children older than five years can get infected and children below five years may also be infected in extreme cases. According to WHO statistics, among those infected, about 20 percent develop acute watery diarrhoea and, of these 10 to 20 percent develop rice-watery diarrhoea (without blood) that may be ac79

Factors contributing to an outbreak of cholera are: • • • • •

Poor clean water supply systems; Poor sanitation; Heavy rains that tend to cause the contamination of clean water; The poor hygiene practices that tend to characterise vending in Zimbabwe; and Cross border trading, which brings affected people and contaminated food from across our borders.

companied by vomiting and leads to severe loss of fluid. The mainstay of treatment is rehydration and up to 80 percent of cholera cases can be treated successfully using only oral rehydration salts (ORS). A person affected by cholera may die within a few hours following the onset of symptoms, if they do not receive medical attention quickly. Transmission The disease quickly spreads to other people through the consumption of food and water that has been contaminated with the cholera germs. The germs are found in the stools and vomitus of a person who is suffering from cholera. Therefore, it spreads very easily in places where people do not have toilets and safe drinking water sources. Figure 5.1 illustrates the most common mode of cholera spread in Zimbabwe.

Poor hygiene & sanitation that characterise of most areas in Zimbabwe’s high density suburbs are conducive for cholera outbreaks.

Prevention and control The current response to cholera outbreaks tends to be reactive, i.e. an emergency response. While this approach prevents many deaths, it fails to prevent cases of cholera occurring in the first place. The importance of medium and long term prevention activities in cholera control needs to be emphasised. The capacity for disease prevention, epidemic preparedness, and emergency response varies greatly among countries. Since cholera is easily spread across borders, regional strategies are needed to ensure that all countries have the capacity to deal with these issues. Among the priorities are:

Figure 5.1 The Usual Mode of Transmission of Cholera in Zimbabwe

The common signs snd symptoms of cholera are: • Sudden onset of severe rice-watery diarrhoea; • Severe body weakness; • Severe loss of water (dehydratio) due to vomiting and diarrhoea; • Feeling of wanting to vomit; • Vomiting at times; • Stomach cramps; and • Sunken eyes, dry skin, loss of skin elasticity and thirst due to loss of body fluids (dehydration). If these are not treated, death occurs within a few hours

• • • •

Obtaining better data and ensuring greater information sharing; The adoption of a coordinated, multisectoral approach; Improvements to sanitation and sewage disposal; and Ensuring political commitment and community involvement.

Case management The following measures should be observed immediately if there is a suspected cholera case: • Do not move the patient(s) to a health facility as this may result in spread of the disease; 80

• Inform local health workers immediately; • Start oral rehydration, using a salt and sugar solution prepared by mixing 750ml of boiled water with six teaspoons of sugar and a level teaspoon of salt, for as long as the patient can drink it; • Begin antibiotic treatment if available, with medical advice; • Practice strict personal hygiene, washing hands thoroughly with soap and water after handling the faeces or vomitus of a person suffering from cholera; • Dispose of faecal matter and vomitus in a toilet or bury it in a pit to prevent contact with flies; • Boil all clothes and articles soiled by faeces and vomitus or place in a container of water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach); and • Discourage movements of people in and out of the infected areas.

Prompt and appropriate medical management of cases can significantly decrease mortality. With proper management, the case fatality rate should be below 1 percent. In untreated cases, the case fatality rate may reach 30 to 50 percent. These levels are often observed in crisis situations with overcrowding, limited access to healthcare, and precarious environmental management.

Surveillance systems and multisectoral approaches Sensitive surveillance and prompt reporting contribute to the rapid containment of cholera epidemics. In Zimbabwe, cholera is a seasonal disease, occurring nearly every year usually during the rainfall season. Surveillance systems can provide an early alert to outbreaks, which should assist in the preparation of preparedness plans and facilitate a coordinated response if an outbreak still occurs. A multisectoral and coordinated approach is paramount in order to efficiently control a cholera outbreak. Key sectors to be involved are health, water and sanitation, fisheries and agriculture, and education.

A cholera coordination committee should be in place in place where cholera outbreaks are recurrent.

Water supply and sanitation Cholera is usually transmitted through faecally contaminated water or food. Outbreaks can occur sporadically in any part of the country where water supply, sanitation, food safety, and hygiene are inadequate. The WHO recommends improvements in water supply and sanitation as the most sustainable approach for protecting against cholera and other waterborne epidemic diarrhoeal diseases. However, such an approach is unrealistic for the many impoverished populations most affected by cholera. The following measures are recommended:

• • •

• • •

Any person with watery diarrhea and sunken eyes should be considered as a suspected case and should be given ORS; All contacts and household members should be observed for development of diarrhea; Burial of anyone who has died from cholera should be left to specially trained staff, without delay after disinfection of the body, beddings and all personal belonging of the deceased, and burial ritual and ceremonies should be kept to a minimum; Food should be eaten warm and as soon as possible after cooking; Raw food, like fruit and vegetables should be thoroughly washed using clean, safe water before eating (see photograph, below); Pre-cooked food items exposed for a long time should be avoided or, at the very least, should be covered to protect them from flies or reheated thoroughly; 81

Advice for residents of cholera prone areas Outbreaks can be mitigated and case fatality rates reduced through several health promotion measures, many of which are suitable for community participation. Human behavior related to personal hygiene and food preparation contributes greatly to the occurrence and severity of outbreaks.

• •

Hands should be washed frequently with soap and water, especially before eating or handling food and drinks, after defecation and after handling sick persons, their belongings (clothes, beddings) or their defecations. The ‘run to waste’ hand washing practice should be used in preference to communal hand washing and use of communal hand towels should be avoided.

During a cholera outbreak:

• • Raw food, like fruit and vegetables should be thoroughly washed (above) using clean, safe water (below) before eating.

• • • • • • • • • • •

It is very important to try to identify the possible source of the cholera outbreak, which may be the source of water, food hygiene practices or the type of sanitation in the area.

Raise awareness that an apparently healthy person can harbour cholera germs and transmit them to other people or contaminate food and water when hygiene conditions are defective

All possible media should be used, e.g. radio, TV, churches, rallies, public gatherings, posters, booklets, etc;

Health education of the community aimed at behaviour change on hand and food hygiene, safe water and safe disposal of human waste constitutes the most important component of prevention and control.

One should drink only water treated by ebullition, chlorination, boiling or filtration; Public water sources should be well supervised to make sure they supply treated drinking water and that, after treatment, drinking water is stored in appropriate containers and protected from further contamination; Continue run to waste hand washing methods; Food should not be prepared at funerals, and large gatherings like parties and weddings should be avoided; All burials should be supervised by health workers as touching or washing of the body of a person who has died of cholera should be avoided; The body of anyone suspected to have died of cholera should be buried on the same day; Discourage the shaking of hands (kubatana maoko pakukwazisana) in times of an outbreak; Dispose of human waste properly, using toilets or defecating in small pits that should be covered immediately; Instruct the community to use appropriate latrines, which should be regularly inspected; Treat and dispose of solid and liquid waste properly, by incineration or burial; Keep homes and public areas, including school dining halls, thoroughly clean; Apply pest control measures against flies, cockroaches and rodents; and Keep a cholera patient or suspect where they are to avoid further spread, keep the number of people visiting and looking after the patient to a minimum and use gloves or plastic protection during care.

In terms of public awareness:

•

All community members, including students, mothers, workers and patients with other diseases, should be informed of the outbreak and about the seriousness of cholera; • The community should be informed that cholera is a highly communicable disease, caused by a micro-organism and spread from one person to another through food, water, and soiled hands and other items; • Inform the public that the germ is easily killed by heat (boiling water, cooking food) or by disinfectants such as chlorine, and that washing with soap and water helps get rid of germs on hands. DYSENTERY (DIARRHOEA WITH BLOOD) Dysentery is a disease in which the lining of the large intestine becomes inflamed, causing stomach pains and diarrhoea. Some cases involve vomiting and fever. Bloody diarrhoea (dysentery) is most commonly caused by the bacteria shigella dysenteriae (Sd1). A dysentery case can be described as a patient presenting with diarrhoea with visible blood in their stool. The diarrhoea causes people suffering from dysentery to lose important salts and fluids from the body. This can be fatal if the 82

body dehydrates, especially in children. Overcrowded areas with unsafe water and poor sanitation (e.g. refugee camps and famine populations) are risk factors. Mode of transmission

The bacterium enters the body through the mouth in food or water, and also by contact with the feaces of infected people. Dysentery is transmitted from person to person through faecal oral spread, i.e. through consumption of food and water that has been contaminated with the germs that cause dysentery. The dysentery germs are present in the faeces of an infected person.

It is estimated that in some parts of the tropics 80 percent of the children acquire bacillary dysentery before the age of five; the mortality rate is high among infants and the aged if the infection is not treated, preferably with a broad spectrum antibiotic. In adults, bacillary dysentery usually subsides spontaneously, but treatment is desirable to prevent recurrence. It is primarily a disease of the tropics, but may occur in any climate.

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms start one to four days after infection. In young children, the illness starts suddenly with fever, irritability or drowsiness, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, bloating and pain during defecation. Within three days, pus, blood and mucus appear in the stool, and the number of bowel movements increases rapidly, sometimes to more than twenty a day. At this point, weight loss and dehydration become severe. Adults, however, may not develop a fever and often the stool doesn’t contain blood or mucus initially. The disease may begin with just episodes of abdominal pain. Later the diarrheoa becomes severe and soft or liquid stool is experienced with mucus, pus and often blood. Vomiting is common and rapidly results in severe dehydration.

Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry Specific recommended measures are: · Use a toilet when defecating or practice a high level of sanitation; · Cover all food to protect it from flies (see picture below); · Collect water for domestic use from safe protected sources (see picture below); · Use the run to waste method in preference to communal hand washing; · Thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables that are to be eaten raw; and · Maintain strict hygiene in homes and at schools.

The illness also includes abdominal cramps, fever and rectal pain. Less common complications include sepsis, seizures and kidney failure. Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry

As with cholera, health promotion efforts should promote improved personal, domestic, and environmental hygiene. This includes hand washing with soap after defecation and before handling food, use of clean drinking water, safe practices for preparing and storing food, and safe disposal of faeces. See column 1 for specific advice.

Collect water for domestic use from safe protected sources (above) and cover all food to protect it from flies (below).

If a suspected dysentery case has been reported, the following should be done:

• • • • •

Start oral rehydration, by giving the patient a salt and sugar solution; Refer or take patient to the nearest health facility for further management; Dispose of all faeces safely in a toilet or in a small pit that should immediately be covered; and Soak all clothes and blankets that have been soiled in boiling water or in water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach). Always collect water for domestic use from safe protected sources and cover all food to protect it from flies.

CHICKEN POX (VARICELLA) This is a contagious viral infection but not very fatal. It starts with an itchy rash which progresses to clusters of small raised or flat spots, then develops into fluid-filled blisters which finally become scabs 83

Early detection and notification of epidemic dysentery, especially among adults, allows for timely mobilisation of the resources needed for appropriate case management and control. National and laboratories in local areas should be strengthened so that they can reliably confirm Sd1 as the cause of an outbreak.

Isolation of the infected person helps to prevent the spread of infection to people who have not had chicken pox. The person should then be referred to the nearest health facility. HIV AND AIDS HIV is one of the most serious diseases considering the huge risk it presents for Zimbabweans. We, therefore, dedicate space here to ex-

BOX 5.1 AIDS GENERAL FACTS AIDS is an infection of the human lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) and other organs. It is caused by a retrovirus, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is associated with late stage HIV infection and immunosuppession, with reduced numbers and function of white blood cells. When HIV infection progresses to illness, the symptoms are usually due to the failure of the immune system to resist other infectious diseases known as ‘opportunistic infections’. These include tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia or sepsis, oro-pharyngeal candidiasis, chronic diarrhoea, chronic skin infections and recurrent herpes zoster. The incubation period is approximately one to three months from the time of infection to the time that antibodies can be detected in a laboratory process. The time from HIV infection to the onset of AIDS is generally seven to nine years although the ability to maintain a high quality of life and health over increasing periods of time has been enhanced y the many developments in treatment. At this stage, there is still no cure for HIV or AIDS.

Transmission HIV can be transmitted from human to human through sexual intercourse, injection with a shared needle, infected blood transfusions, transplacental or transvaginal routes (i.e. from mother to child during pregnancy or the birth process), breast milk or other direct contact with infected human body fluids. One group at high risk of acquiring HIV is commercial sex workers, with or without other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), noting that some STI’s may increase HIV transmission. Others at risk include intravenous drug users (IDUs), recipients of unscreened blood products and babies born to HIV infected mothers.

To date, there is no cure for HIV or AIDS and there are no vaccines to prevent HIV infection. Anyone can be susceptible to HIV, regardless of their sexual orientation. Everyone is at risk of getting HIV from blood-to-blood contact, sharing needles or unsafe sex. Worldwide, HIV is spread most often through heterosexual contact. HIV cannot be transmitted through: o Toilet seats or door handles. o Touching, hugging, holding hands, or cheek kissing with an HIV-infected person. o Sharing eating utensils with an HIV-infected person. o Mosquito bites. HIV is transmitted through contact with an HIV positive person's infected body fluids, such as semen, pre-ejaculate fluid, vaginal fluids, blood or breast milk. HIV can also be transmitted through needles contaminated with HIV-infected blood, including needles used for injecting drugs, tattooing or body piercing. Contact with sweat or tears has never been shown to result in transmission of HIV. Casual contact through closed-mouth or ‘social’ kissing is not a risk for transmission of HIV. Because of the theoretical potential for contact with blood during ‘French’, or open-mouthed kissing, the CDC recommends not engaging in this activity with an infected person. However, no cases of AIDS have been attributed to any kind of kissing. A person can be infected with more than one STD. A person with an untreated STD may also be six to ten times more likely to pass on or acquire HIV during sex. Risk for infection increases 10 to 300-fold in the presence of a genital ulcer, such as occurs in syphilis or genital herpes. Safer sex is sexual activity without penetration, or sex with a latex condom or a latex barrier (in the case of oral sex). Although safer sex can substantially reduce the sexual transmission of an STD like HIV, sexual abstinence is the surest way to prevent the sexual transmission of an STD, including HIV. A person with HIV may not show any symptoms for up to 10 years. Since HIV affects each person differently, many people with HIV can look and feel healthy for years. The only sure way to know is to get tested. Knowing if you are HIV positive will allow you to seek early treatment that can help you stay healthy longer and enable you not to pass on the virus to someone else. Regardless of your HIV status, you can learn how to prevent future infection from HIV or other STDs through counselling offered at many HIV testing centers. Antiretroviral drugs don't keep someone from passing the virus to others. Therapy can keep the viral load down to undetectable levels, but HIV is still present in the body and can still be transmitted.

Large variations exist between the patterns of the AIDS epidemic in different countries in Africa. In some places, the HIV prevalence is still growing; in others the HIV prevalence appears to have stabilised and in a few African nations, such as Kenya and Zimbabwe, a decline in new cases appears to be taking place, probably in part due to effective prevention campaigns.

84

plaining the pandemic and how some of the preventive measures work. HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of HIV and AIDS cases of any region of the world. The World Health Organisation estimates that 22.5 million people were living with HIV at the end of 2007 and approximately 1.7 million additional people were infected with HIV during that year. Both HIV prevalence rates and the numbers of people dying from AIDS vary greatly between African countries but the situation is worst in Southern Africa. For example in Somalia and Senegal the HIV prevalence is under 1 percent of the adult population, whereas in South Africa and Zambia around 15 to 20 percent of adults are infected with HIV. The countries with the highest prevalence are Botswana (24.1 percent), Lesotho (23.2 percent), Swaziland (33.4 percent) and Zimbabwe (20.1 percent). Zimbabwe has the fifth highest HIV prevalence in the world, alongside having the fourth lowest life expectancy (36.6 years).

The seriousness and extent of the AIDS crisis is only now becoming visible in many African countries, as more and more people with HIV are succumbing to the disease. If the region does not adopt massively expanded prevention, treatment and care programmes, the AIDS death toll in Southern Africa is set to increase drastically. This means that the impact of the AIDS epidemic on these societies will be felt most strongly in the course of the next ten years and beyond. Its social and economic consequences are already widely felt, not only in the health sector but also in education, industry, agriculture, transport, human resources and the economy in general.

The impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe

HIV and AIDS are having a widespread impact on many facets the Zimbabwean society. Some of the major effects of the AIDS epidemic are listed below: •

•

•

•

•

AIDS is erasing decades of progress made in extending life expectancy. Millions of adults are dying from AIDS while they are still young, or in early middle age. Average life expectancy is now 36 years, three decades less than when it could have been without AIDS. The effect of the AIDS epidemic on households can be very severe. Most people who are incapacitated or die of AIDS are the breadwinners. On the other hand, income earners are forced to stay at home so that they can take care of relatives who are suffering from AIDS related illnesses. Many of those who die of AIDS have surviving partners who are themselves infected and in need of care. A significant number of families are now child headed. The HIV and AIDS epidemic is putting enormous strain on the health sector. This is because, as the epidemic progresses, the demand for care for those living with HIV rises. This translates into increased work for health workers. Schools are badly affected by HIV and AIDS. This is where this Resource Book becomes an important tool as schools can play a vital role in reducing the impact of the epidemic, through education and support. Through their impacts on the labour force, households and enterprises, HIV and AIDS can act as a significant barrier to economic growth and

85

Since HIV related illness dramatically affects labour, it retards economic activity and social progress. Most of those living with HIV or AIDS are between the ages of fifteen and 49 – the prime economically active age groups. Thus employers, schools, factories and hospitals have to continually train new staff to replace those at the workplace who become too ill to work.

BOX 5.2 HIV/AIDS FACTS – ZIMBABWE

Thee following general behaviours are important to avoid contracting HIV or in dealing with the disease in someone already infected: · Seeking early treatment for STI’s, especially syphilis, chancroid diseases and other ulcers; · Avoiding the use of unsafe needles and sharp objects; · Protecting yourself from contact with blood and other body fluids, especially if you have cuts or wounds yourself; and · Undergoig voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) and, whatever the result, living positively thereafter.

Remember to always store condoms away from sunlight, in a cool, dry place. Also, check the expiry date on the condom package and never use a condom that has expired. If the expiry date (usually marked as ‘Exp’) is not visible, then check for the date of manufacture (usually marked as ‘MFG’). Do not use any condoms five years or more after the date of manufacture. If the condoms contain spermicide, then throw them out two years after the date of manufacture.

development. The disease is already having visible impacts on Zimbabwe’s economic development which, in turn, severely reduces the country’s ability to cope with the epidemic. Advice to those at risk from or living with HIV

In principle, the epidemic appears eminently stoppable. The means to do so are well known and are largely a matter of knowing some obvious and readily communicable facts like: • Casual sex should never be unprotected sex; • Abstaining from sex is the best way of removing risk; and • Delaying the onset of sexual activity and then sticking to one faithful partner is a successful risk reduction strategy (assuming the partner really is faithful). HIV Prevention

This section deals with the means for avoiding the main ways in which HIV is spread in Zimbabwe. CONDOM USE AND HIV Relative to the enormity of the HIV andAIDS epidemic in Africa, providing condoms is cheap and cost effective. Condoms play a key role in preventing HIV infection around the world. Even when condoms are available, though, there are still a number of social, cultural and practical factors that may prevent people from using them. In the context of stable partnerships where pregnancy is desired, or where it may be difficult for one partner to suddenly suggest condom use, this option may not be practical.

BOX 5.3 MALE CIRCUMCISION IN HIV PREVENTION

The WHO, the UNAIDS Secretariat and their partners are working to develop specific policy recommendations for expanding and promoting male circumcision as a method of HIV prevention. The UN agencies have noted with considerable interest the announcement made by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) in December 2006 on the results of two trials which showed an approximate halving of risk of HIV infections among men who were circumcised. The trials carried out in Kenya and Uganda, support results from the earlier South Africa Orange Farm Intervention Trial in 2005, which demonstrated at least a 60 percent On their way to a male circumci- reduction in HIV infection among circumcised men. The UN agencies emphasise that male circumcision does not provide complete protection sion ceremony against HIV infection. It should never replace other known effective prevention methods and should always be considered as part of a comprehensive prevention package, which includes correct and consistent use of male or female condoms, reduction in the number of sexual partners, delaying the onset of sexual relations, and HIV testing and counselling. The WHO and the UNAIDS Secretariat have convened technical consultations on trial findings and developed policy recommendations for countries. The groups will be working cooperatively to identify the best means of increasing the delivery of safe circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up male circumcision as a means of HIV ti 86

MALE CIRCUMCISION

PROVISION OF VOLUNTARY HIV COUNSELLING AND TESTING The provision of voluntary HIV counselling and testing (VCT) is an important part of any national prevention programme. It is widely recognised that individuals living with HIV who are aware of their status are less likely to transmit HIV infection to others, and that through testing they can be directed to care and support that can help them to stay healthy. VCT also provides benefits for those who test negative, in that their behaviour may change as a result of the test out of a desire to maintain their negative status. PREVENTION OF MOTHER-TO-CHILD TRANSMISSION OF HIV Most of the children living with HIV have become infected with during pregnancy or through breastfeeding when they are babies, as a result of their mother being HIV positive. Mother to child transmission (MTCT) of HIV is not inevitable. Without intervention, there is a 20 to 45 percent chance that an HIV positive mother will pass the infection on to her child. If a woman is supplied with antiretroviral drugs, though, this risk can be reduced significantly. Before this measures can be taken, however, the mother must be aware of her HIV positive status, so testing also plays a vital role in the prevention of MTCT. A lesson should be learned from many developed countries, where these steps have helped to virtually eliminate MTCT. HIV and AIDS related treatment and care

Although there is no cure for HIV or AIDS, there are many forms of treatment and a number of ways of caring for and easing the lives of those infected. Here are some of the ways:

The provision of VCT has become easier, cheaper and more effective as a result of the introduction of rapid HIV testing, which allows individuals to be tested and find out the results on the same day. VCT could – and indeed needs to be – made more widely available in most sub-Saharan African countries.

However, there are challenges in ensuring that drugs are not only supplied to all areas, but that sufficient quantities of drugs are also supplied to those areas. This is critical because once an individual starts to take ARVs they have to take them for the rest of their life (see box 5.3). If, for instance, the local hospital runs out of ARVs, the interruption that this causes in their treatment could result in them becoming resistant to the drugs. In improving treatment programmes, Zimbabwe, like any other African country, faces the double challenge of getting new people to start treatment and maintaining the supply of treatment to those who are already receiving ARVs.

ANTIRETROVIRAL DRUGS Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), which significantly delay the progression of HIV to AIDS and allow people infected with HIV to live relatively normal, healthy lives, have been available in the more wealthy parts of the world since around 1996. In Zimbabwe people obtain ARVs in a variety of ways – from government or mission hospitals and Opportunistic Infections (OI) clinics; from private doctors or clinics, often through medical aid; through NGOs and community based organisations; from their workplaces (including the armed forces and police); or through research programmes. OTHER FORMS OF TREATMENT AND CARE Treatment and care for HIV consists of a number of different elements apart from ARVs. These include voluntary counselling and testing (which is also seen as a preventive mechanism, see above), food and management of nutritional effects, follow-up counselling, protection from stigma and discrimination, treatment of other sexually transmitted infections, and the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections. All of these can, and indeed should, be provided before ARVs are available. When ARVs do become available the provision of antiretroviral therapy should be easier and quicker to implement because many of the things apart from drugs that are needed for successful treatment are already in place. HIV-related stigma and discrimination remains an enormous barrier to the fight against AIDS. Fear of discrimination often prevents people from getting tested, seeking treatment and admitting their HIV status publicly. Since laws 87

For those who can afford it, ARVs are available through private doctors and clinics. They pay the normal fees for consultations and a medical aid schemes then offers assistance with the cost of the drugs.

The following points are very important to remember: · You MUST get your ARV prescription and tests through a registered doctor and should also ask the doctor about getting ‘adherence counselling’; and · Although ARV medicines vary a lot in price, you must ONLY take the ones your doctor prescribes.

BOX 5.4 WHAT ARE ARVS? ( contributed by Southern Africa HIV/AIDS Information Dissemination Service (SAfAIDS))

A partial list of the world’s most common HIVrelated opportunistic infections and diseases includes: • Bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia and septicaemia (blood poisoning); • Protozoal diseases, such as toxoplasmosis, microsporidiosis, cryptosporidiosis, isopsoriasis and leishmaniasis; • Fungal diseases, such as candidiasis, cryptococcosis and penicilliosis; • Viral diseases, such as those caused by cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex and herpes zoster virus; and • HIV associated malignancies, such as Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphoma and squamous cell carcinoma.

BOX 5.5 FAKE ARVS FLOOD ZIMBABWE MARKET By Caroline Murapa, 30 July 2007 http://www.zimdaily.com/news/117/ARTICLE/ 1925/2007-07-30.html

Providing prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections not only helps HIV positive people to live longer, healthier lives, but can also help prevent TB and other transmissible opportunistic infections from spreading to others.

and policies alone cannot reverse the stigma that surrounds HIV infection, more and better AIDS education is needed in Zimbabwe to combat the ignorance that causes people to discriminate. The fear and prejudice that lies at the core of this discrimination needs to be tackled, starting with the school and community, and finally dealing with the national level.

‘Opportunistic infections’ are infections caused by pathogens that usu88

ally do not cause disease in a healthy immune system. A compromised immune system, however, presents an ‘opportunity’ for the pathogen to infect. Thus people with advanced HIV infection are vulnerable to these opportunistic infections and malignancies because they take advantage of the opportunity offered by a weakened immune system. Different conditions typically occur at different stages of HIV infection. In early HIV disease people can develop tuberculosis, malaria, bacterial pneumonia, herpes zoster, staphylococcal skin infections and septicaemia. These are diseases that people with a normal immune systems can also get, but with HIV they occur at a much higher rate. It also takes longer for a person with HIV to recover than it takes for someone with a healthy immune system.

The signs and symptoms of meningitis are: • Fever, headaches, stiff neck, sore throat and vomiting, often followed by respiratory illness; • In adults, becoming desperately ill within 24 hours and, in children, within a shorter time span; and • Confusion and drowsiness.

MENINGITIS Meningitis is an acute infection of the central nervous system which causes the inflammation of the meninges (the covering of the brain) from which it derives its name. It is caused by several factors, of which the most common ones are bacteria, viruses and fungi. A more acute and severe form of the disease is usually caused by neisseria meningitides, microbocterium tuberculosis, haemophilus influenzae and streptococcus pneumoniae. About 15 percent of people who contract meningitis die even with treatment, especially as a result of the bacteria type (Jamu, 2006). There are several ways in which these organisms reach the brain to cause meningitis, as a direct extension of an infected ear, nose, sinus, head injury or complication by birth defects. The incubation period is between two and ten days. In meningitis outbreak areas, large outbreaks due to Neisseria meningitis may occur from November through to May. Outside known meningitis areas, smaller outbreaks may occur. If two suspected meningitis cases are reported within a week in a population of less than 30 000, this is considered an indication of a meningitis outbreak. Transmission

Meningitis is transmitted from human to human through airborne droplet spread. It can also spread via blood and body fluids. Attacks are highest among children aged under fifteen years. Viral or tuberculous meningitis and HIV related opportunistic infections may mimic this disease. Response

Any suspected meningitis case must be reported to the nearest health facility. Meningitis outbreaks are usually managed by means of mass vaccination campaigns, while treatment of cases involves using the recommended antibiotics. VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER (VHF) This is a hemorrhagic disease syndrome caused by the following viruses: • Ebola and Marburg (filoviruses); • Lassa fever; • Rift Valley fever (RVF); • Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF); and • Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF). Zimbabwe has experienced outbreaks of Ebola, Marburg and Crimean-Congo fevers. The case fatality rate of Ebola ranges from 50 percent to 90 percent and there are no preventive treatments or vaccines available. 89

Viral Haemorrhagic Fever is manifested as an illness with onset of fever, no response to treatment for the usual causes of fever in the area, and at least one of the following signs: • Bloody diarrhoea; • Bleeding from gums; • Bleeding into skin; or • Bleeding into eyes and urine.

The infection and control principle should be applied when managing patients and cases should be quarantined. Port health officers should be trained to handle such cases. International health regulations must also be applied.

No cure for VHF is available. Many deaths during an Ebola epidemic are due to severe dehydration so careful maintenance of hydration should be ensured. Unnecessary contact with affected persons should be avoided.

The disease begins with these signs and symptoms and, by the second week of the illness, the patient will either markedly improve and convalesce or will have multi-organ failure and will die of shock. The incubation period of Ebola and Marburg fevers is two to 21 days but usually between five and twelve days, while that of CCHF is two to twelve days.

The signs and symptoms are: • A cough persisting for more than three weeks with blood at times; • Continuous chest pains with night sweats; and • Loss of weight and appetite

Advice for the prevention of SARS The known methods for preventing infection are: · ·

· · ·

Washing hands with soap after contact with a person suspected to have SARS; Careful personal and environmental hygiene (avoiding unnecessary touching of face, mouth or nose) among those living with a person suspected of having SARS; Avoiding sharing eating utensils, towels and bedding with a person who may be infected; Monitoring of anyone who has been to a region reporting SARS infection for at least fourteen days; and Avoiding travelling to SARS affected areas or countries, if possible.

Transmission

The disease is transmitted from person to person (Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, CCHF), by mosquitoes (RVF, dengue) or by ticks (CCHF). Ebola and Marburg can also be transmitted through sexual contact. Outbreaks may be amplified when standard barrier precautions are not taken or in ceremonies involving touching ill or deceased infected persons or their secretions. Sporadic cases may arise from sexual contact or through exposure to trees, possibly following their direct contact with infected animals. Advice in likely cases of or exposure to VHF

In terms of the Public Health Act Chapter 15:09, VHF is a notifiable disease and should, therefore, be reported immediately. Report the suspected case to the nearest health facility. The patient should not be moved in order to avoid the risk of infecting others. TUBERCULOSIS (TB) This is an infection of the lungs and other organs. It is usually caused by mycocterium tuberculosis transmitted from person to person by droplet infection through coughing, sneezing or spitting. Pulmonary (of the lungs) TB is the most common. Tuberculosis is a leading cause of infectious illness and death worldwide, with over eight million new cases and three million deaths per year. Abdominal or other extra-pulmonary sites of infection may occur after ingestion of unpasteurised cows’ milk. The groups most vulnerable to TB infection and least able to fight it include HIV positive people, those suffering from malnutrition and other immune compromising conditions, the very young and the very old. Advice for the prevention and control of tuberculosis

Early detection of persons with infectious lung disease is of utmost importance to reducing the transmission of TB. It is, therefore, important to seek early treatment if the abovementioned signs and symptoms are experienced. Tuberculosis is treated using multi drug therapy i.e. at least three types of drugs are taken at the same time. Treatment should be taken consistently until finished and lasts for at least six months. SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME (SARS) This is a respiratory illness caused by a virus. It has affected countries such as Hong Kong, mainland China, Singapore, Taiwan, Vietnam and Canada. On 7 April 2003, South Africa reported the first probable case of SARS in Pretoria. By the end of April 2003 at least 3 000 people throughout the world had suffered from SARS and close to 200 people had died.

Other precautionary measures are to: •

Ensure adequate ventilation both at home, and in schools and other public places; Cover the mouth when coughing and only spit into a toilet; and • Soak all material contaminated with sputum from an infected person in water with bleach. •

The signs, symptoms and indicators of SARS are: • A high body temperature; • Cough, shortness of breath and/or difficulty in breathing; • Chills, headache, general body weakness and muscle pain; and • Travel within the past ten days to a country that has reported SARS. Transmission The disease is spread by direct or indirect contact with secretions from the eyes, nose or mouth of a person suffering from it. 90

Disease Vectors Malaria epidemics

Malaria and malaria epidemics are a major public health problem experienced in Zimbabwe as well as in the rest of Southern Africa. Despite being preventable and curable, malaria is among the major killer diseases. Half of all Zimbabweans live in malarial areas and malaria is the second highest killer of children. Depending upon the local social and environmental conditions, malaria can be endemic (all year round), seasonal (increased cases occur as a result of the seasonal rains) or a combination of the two (year round malaria risk with seasonal increases). While endemic malaria consistently drains health resources through regular treatment of cases, it is the seasonal malaria with localised epidemics, which for short periods creates the crisis imposing the most stress on the health system’s ability to cope. The MoHCW (2004) reports that more than 5 962 000 people in Zimbabwe are potentially exposed to malaria each year. This implies that the health of half of the country’s population is under threat from malaria. UNICEF (The Herald, 2006) reports that, in the past five years in Zimbabwe, increased resistance of malaria parasites to drugs has been coupled with the significant movement of people, due to resettlement or economic emigration. This has resulted in people relocating from non-endemic to malaria endemic areas. Because these people have no inbuilt immunity to malaria, epidemics are occurring with increasing frequency, and fatalities, especially among children and pregnant women, are on the increase (MOHCW, 2006). In addition, new cases are reported from places that did not previously have an endemic problem. In 2002, 740 000 clinical malaria cases and 2 200 malaria deaths were reported by the Health Management Information System (HMIS). In the same period, 12 percent of outpatient attendances and 15 percent of patient admissions to public health facilities were due to malaria. In the ‘endemic districts’, the burden of malaria is greatest among under-fives, pregnant women and people living with HIV or AIDS, due to the development of a degree of acquired immunity among adolescent and adult (HIV negative) populations. Malaria zones and transmission

Malaria transmission in Zimbabwe is largely unstable in nature (epidemic prone) and is highly seasonal. The intensity of malaria transmission varies considerably, both temporally and spatially. Approximately 5.5 million people out of a total population of 12.7 million live in malaria prone areas. Of the 56 districts in the country, malaria transmission occurs in 42. In 2002, a stratification based on a national parasite prevalence survey, HMIS data, entomological data and expert opinion was prepared. This draft stratification is shown in Figure 5.3, below, which maps malaria transmission by districts using five classes – malaria free, sporadic, low, moderate and high. It should be noted that malaria transmission varies within many of the districts and in some cases, e.g. Bindura and Muzarabani districts, from ‘sporadic’ to ‘malaria endemic’. From the map it can be seen that there is a marked zone of moderate to high malaria transmission. The area follows the eastern border until the Zambezi 91

Malaria remains a major public health problem in Zimbabwe as transmission is primarily unstable, protective immunity does not readily develop and, as a result, all age groups are at risk.

River where it turns west and runs along the northern border with Botswana and Namibia. There are also areas, such as in the highveld of Zimbabwe and a few isolated upland areas (higher than 2 000m), which are malaria free. The chief determinant is the climate, which affects both the life of the anopheles mosquito and the development of malaria parasites. The development of the malaria parasite is greatly retarded below 20o C and it ceases to develop

Figure 5.2 Monthly Distribution of Malaria Cases as a Percentage of the Population

In spite of taking trusted preventive measures, visitors to malarial areas, especially to the low lying areas (altitude 600 to 900m above seas level) of the country are contracting the disease at the same time that the available treatments are gradually becoming ineffectual.

Figure 5.2 shows the seasonal profiles of malaria in Zimbabwe, based on data from the MOHCW and complied by the National Malaria Research Programme. This information is usually supplied as a guideline for travellers as to when the risk periods are. The figures clearly show that malaria in Zimbabwe is highly seasonal and that the winter months constitute a low risk period, while the highest risk is experienced towards the end of and immediately after the rainfall season. This is the period when sufficient water has accumulated on the ground to provide conducive breeding sites for mosquitoes.

below 16 o C. Relative humidity of over 80 percent lengthens the life of the mosquito, enabling it to transmit the infection over a longer time. The anopheles mosquito is a genus of widely distributed mosquitoes comprising around 350 species. The malaria parasite is transmitted to humans through the bite of the female anopheles mosquito. The most important anopheles species in Southern Africa are An. gambiae complex (includes An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis) and An. funestus complex. Plasmodium falciparum is the main parasite that causes malaria in Zimbabwe and these are the most serious malarial infections, which may result in severe anaemia and celebral involvement. The malaria vector in Zimbabwe is anopheles arabiensis. As with other mosquitoes, only the females bite and they use the proteins from a blood meal to produce a batch of eggs. Both An. arabiensis and An. gambiae breed mostly in relatively clean water with partial or full sunlight

Figure 5.3 Malaria Epidemic Risk Districts

Preliminary new malaria stratification, MOHCW (2002)

92

e.g. in marshes, puddles, irrigation water etc. Thus the species avoids polluted water. Vegetation can be absent or present. Larvae occur between floating and/or emerging vegetation. Unlike other mosquito larvae, those of the anopheles mosquito float parallel to the water’s surface. The whole process from egg to emergence of the adult from the pupa takes little more than a week at tropical temperatures. The malaria parasites are plasmodium, a genus of protozoan parasites that live within the red blood cells of humans. The parasite undergoes its asexual development in humans and completes the sexual phase of its development in the stomach and digestive glands of an Anopheles mosquito. There are four species of plasmodium that cause human malaria – P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae and P. falciparum. In the absence of other complicating factors, acute severity and mortality occur almost exclusively in P. falciparum infections. However, in Southern Africa P. falciparum is the predominant species. The development of P. falciparum in the female adult anopheles mosquito requires a minimum temperature of 19° C. Above this temperature, the development of the parasite in the vector quickens.

The three species bite indoors or outdoors, wherever hosts are available. An. gambiae and An. funestus are relatively more anthropophilic (preferring biting humans to animals) and endophilic (resting mostly indoors) than An. arabiensis. An. funestus rarely rests outdoors. The fact that An. gambiae and An. funestus are endophilic means that properly applied residual house spraying can significantly reduce malaria transmission in areas where they are major vectors. In fact, An. funestus is no longer an important vector after its suppression by residual house spraying in areas of the subregion where the method is a major component of malaria control programmes.

The duration of sporogony at optimum temperatures for P. falciparum is eight to ten days. These protozoan parasites enter the host’s bloodstream when they are bitten by an infected mosquito and then migrate to the liver, where they multiply before returning to the bloodstream to invade the red blood cells. The parasites continue to multiply inside the red cells until they burst releasing large numbers of free parasites into the blood plasma and causing the characteristic fever associated with the disease. This phase of the disease occurs in cycles of approximately 48 hours. The free parasites are able to infect any other mosquito that feeds on the host’s blood during this phase. The cycle then continues as the parasites multiply inside the mosquito and eventually invade its salivary glands (see Figure 5.4). The contribution of malaria to mortality varies considerably between districts because of differences in malaria endemicity, prevention and treatment, as well as differences in the incidence of other infectious diseases (e.g. HIV), health service provision and general socioeconomic conditions. Even in countries where malaria is confined to limited areas, malaria mortality can be high among vulnerable groups, particularly in epidemic years. For example, in 1996, the malaria epidemic in Zimbabwe made malaria the leading cause of maternal mortality, being responsible for 40 percent of maternal deaths in low lying areas. Figure 5.5 shows the general high prevalence of malaria cases in Zimbabwe. More specifically, these national annual figures show a sustained period of high malaria incidence from 1996 to 2000 and a resurgence in 2003. The incidence was relatively low before 1996. While the overall malaria mortality may appear low in Zimbabwe, it should be emphasised that this can rise markedly if an epidemic occurs, as happened in 1996 and 1997. The relatively modest malaria mortality rate (see Figure 5.6) is partly due to sustained and successful control efforts dating back to the mid 1940s. 93

An irrigation scheme that turned into a health hazard. CPD officials inspect irrigation canals that have become breeding grounds for malaria carrying mosquitos in Chibuwe (Source: CPD)

Malaria case definition

Malaria is a vector-borne disease caused by a protozoa parasite of the genus plasmodium and naturally transmitted to man by the female anopheles mosquito. It usually presents clinically with recurrent attacks of fever, rigors, Figure 5.4 The Life Cycle of Plasmodium

anaemia, haemolytic jaundice and splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). It is usually easy to treat when patients present early and are properly managed, but can become complicated with a high fatality rate if treatment is sought late or the patient is not properly managed. Advice for the prevention and control of malaria Three key ways of preventing malaria are outlined below:

There are also a number of human factors that affect malaria transmission.: · Vector control efforts, particularly insecticide house spraying programmes and source reduction in urban areas, have made previously malaria prone districts malaria-free. Equally, the breakdown of vector control has resulted in formerly malaria free areas becoming malaria prone again, e.g. the Zambian Copperbelt. · Forced and voluntary population movements can also increase malaria transmission. Human-made changes to the environment also alter malaria transmission levels. For example, planned urbanisation leads to source reduction, while dam building, particularly in semi-arid areas, can create focal sites of malaria transmission. · Global warming has also raised temperatures in areas where the parasite previously could not live.

AVOIDANCE OF BITES Mosquitoes cause much inconvenience because of local reactions to the bites themselves and from the infections they transmit. Mosquito bites spread other diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and Japanese B encephalitis. Mosquitoes bite at any time of the day but the anopheles bites in the night with most activity at dawn and dusk. If you are out at night wear long sleeved clothing and long trousers. Mosquitoes may bite through thin clothing, so spray an insecticide or repellent on them. Insect repellents should also be used on exposed skin. Spraying insecticides in the room, burning pyrethroid coils and heating insecticide impregnated tablets all help to control mosquitoes. When sleeping in an unscreened room a mosquito net (which should be impregnated with insecticide) is a sensible precaution because mosquitoes are attracted to them by the carbon dioxide and body odor emitted by the sleeper. Thus the net acts like a baited trap. If sleeping out of doors in mosquito infested areas it is essential to sleep under an insecticide treated mosquito net. VECTOR CONTROL Anopheles breeding is relatively limited in extent and definable. Therefore, larval control makes a significant contribution to malaria 94

Figure 5.5 National Annual Trends in Malaria Cases, 1988-2003 Source: National Malaria Research Programme

control. However, the effect of localised larval control can easily be swamped by immigration from outside the control area. Thus a high percentage of all productive breeding sites within flight range of the community which it is intended to protect must be found and effectively dealt with. The following are possible ways of dealing with them: • •

Swamps can be drained or filled so as to permanently remove them as breeding sites; Covering all water ponds and removing broken bottles, tins or other containers that hold water; Figure 5.6 Inpatient Malaria Deaths, 1995-2002

• • • • • •

Clearing roof gutters of leaves before the rains, as this will reduce mosquito breeding sites; Cutting long grass around homes and schools to reduce hiding places for mosquitoes; Spraying dwellings with an effective and persistent insecticide before the peak period of malaria transmission to reduce the population of malaria carrying mosquitoes; Using knock down insecticides to kill mosquitoes indoors; Spraying homes with a residual insecticide, which helps kill mosquitoes that rest on the sprayed walls; and Screening water tanks to prevent breeding taking place in them,

Under some conditions, irrigation can be carried out according to a carefully regulated, intermittent schedule so that fields are dried once a week and thus larval lifecycles cannot be completed. Breeding sites may also be stocked with larvivorous fish. These are, to some extent, self propagating, but sites need to be checked at intervals and those where the fish have died out need to be restocked from a fish rearing facility. The idea of creating genes for harmless anopheles mosquitoes in a laboratory has been mooted and may be effective. USE OF PROPHYLAXIS It should be noted that no prophylactic regimen is 100 95

The clinical symptoms of malaria are mimicked by many other diseases. A patient with a clinical syndrome of malaria is a patient presenting with an acute onset of fever and any of the following symptoms or signs: · · · · · · · · · ·

Intermittent fever; Shivering; Headache; General weakness of the body; A temperature above 40° C; Chills and feeling cold; Sweating; Muscle and/or joint pain; Vomiting; and Splenomegaly.

percent effective and advice on malaria prophylaxis changes frequently. There are currently five prophylactic regimens used, in response to the differing resistance that exists among the malaria parasites to the various drugs used. Certain actions should be taken to promote the health of individuals and the community vis-à-vis the malaria threat. These are: · When sleeping in an unscreened room, use a mosquito net (above), which should be impregnated with insecticide (below) if possible

·

·

(Source: PSI)

· ·

·

If many people are suffering from malaria, notify the local health authorities immediately; Inform the school Principal or a community health worker who will either give medication or refer a malaria patient to the nearest health facility for treatment; If given malaria treatment, take all the tablets as instructed even if the illness seems to have abated; Return to the health facility if the signs and symptoms of malaria continue; If you develop a fever between one week after first exposure and up to two years after your return from a malaria prone area, seek medical attention and inform the doctor of the area(s) that you have been in; and See that anyone with suspected malaria is treated under medical supervision as soon as possible, as treatment should not normally be administered by unqualified persons.

The drug treatment of malaria depends on the type and severity of the attack. Typically, Quinine Sulphate tablets are used and the normal adult dosage is 600mg every twelve hours. This can also be given by intravenous infusion if the illness is severe.

Above: Spray dwellings with an effective and persistent insecticide before the peak period of malaria transmission. Below: Swamps should be filled so as to permanently remove them as breeding sites. (Source: MOHCW)

Malaria treatment is available in the following places: · In the village from village health workers; · At school through the school Principal; · In shops, on request for a full course of malaria treatment; and · At the nearest health facility. Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through faecal waste. Pathogens, which include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms, are disease producing agents found in the faeces of infected persons. These diseases are more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary conditions. The pathogens travel through water sources and interfuse directly through persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly infectious, extreme care and hygiene should be maintained by those looking after an infected patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the most common water-borne diseases affecting large populations in tropical regions. Food poisoning Food poisoning is a serious health problem that results from consumption of food contaminated by germs or chemicals, or consumption of poisonous food like inedible mushrooms. Depending on the types of germs, early signs and symptoms show within six hours after ingestion. The common signs and symptoms of food poisoning are: 96

· · ·

Stomach pains and cramps; Diarrhoea, which may be bloody; and Vomiting and general body weakness.

Food poisoning is most common where food is prepared in large quantities and is left cold and served without adequate warming. However, poisoning can also be due to drug overdose, either by mistake or intentionally (para suicide), or ingestion of other toxic substances, such as insecticides, which may also be either accidental or intentional. There are different types of food poisoning but the most common at schools and other institutions is that caused by salmonella. Salmonella germs are generally found in the environment, including the skin surfaces of food handlers (cooks and waiters), eggs and chickens, and human and animal waste. If food is prepared in an unclean environment or if eggs and meat and other food items are obtained from unlicensed suppliers, the risk of food poisoning is very high. Chemical food poisoning occurs if there is accidental or intentional contamination of food by chemicals used for control of household or agricultural pests

Malaria control in Zimbabwe dates back to the 1940s. Strategies used to control malaria have evolved based on the evaluation of past malaria control activities, changes in the malaria distribution and interaction with partners based on the following: · The African Region Malaria Control Strategy, 1991; · The Global Malaria Control Strategy, 1992; · The Harare Declaration on Malaria Prevention and Control, 1997; · The African Initiative for Malaria Control in the 21st Century, 1998; · The Global Roll Back Malaria campaign,1998; · The Abuja Declaration on Roll Back Malaria in Africa, 2000; and · The Global Fund Against Malaria, TB and HIV/AIDS, 2002.

Means of prevention of food poisoning include: • Preparing food in a clean environment where there is clean, hot or cold water; • Preparing food where there is adequate space for its storage and adequate refrigeration or cooling for food that decays quickly; • Keeping foodstuffs separate from cleaning and other chemicals; • Restricting the premises used to prepare food from entry by members of the public and also providing fly screens; • Proper use of safe chemicals to control rats and cockroaches that may contaminate food;

Cause Bacterial infections

Water-Borne Diseases

Table 5:3 Water-Borne Diseases and their Causes

Typhoid Cholera Paratyphoid fever

Bacillary dysentery Viral infections

Protozoal infections

• •

Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice) Poliomyelitis Amoebic dysentery

Always serving food quickly, while it is still hot; and Thoroughly heating leftover food before it is served again.

Where food poisoning has occurred:

• •

In an institutional setting, it should be reported to the head of the institution, e.g. school Principal immediately and also to the Environmental Health Officer. Patients should be reassured; 97

Water-borne diseases Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases spread primarily through contaminated water. Although these diseases are spread either directly or through flies or filth, water is the chief medium for spread of these diseases and hence they are termed as ‘waterborne’ diseases. The most common waterborne diseases and their causes are shown in table 5.3.

• • •

Anyone present should be observed so that severe cases can be identified for urgent management; Large quantities of drinking water should be given to anyone infected while they await transfer to the nearest health centre; and The parents or guardian of child patients should be informed.

Where poisoning is a result of a drug overdose or ingestion of a toxic substance (either by mistake or intentionally), treat as above and transfer the patient to the nearest health centre with the remainder of the substance that has been ingested or the empty container. Zoonotic Diseases Anthrax

In countries in which the disease is not well controlled, regular outbreaks of anthrax can become serious epidemics affecting both animals and humans. For example, when civil war interrupted normal vaccination and regulatory controls in this country in the late 1970s, the world’s largest outbreak of human anthrax occurred in rural Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) from 1978 to 80, in which 10 738 cases were recorded and 182 people died. However, some attribute this outbreak to covert action by Rhodesian security forces because of a number of unusual features of the epizootic during that period. The disease spread over time from area to area, until six of the eight provinces were affected. Yet anthrax usually appears as a point source outbreak, without significant geographic spread. Only the African owned cattle BOX 5.6 MINISTRY OF HEALTH REINTRODUCES DDT FOR INDOOR RESIDUAL SPRAYING

Districts Using DDT for Indoor Spraying (Green) To facilitate adherence to international standards and guidelines, it is only the Ministry of Health officials who will handle and use the chemical. To date, the MOHCW has already trained teams who will be spraying the selected areas. In addition to indoor residual spraying, the MOHCW together with other partners such as UNICEF, WHO are also promoting other malaria mitigation and prevention measures such as information dissemination through the radio and television on malaria prevention, distribution of insecticide treated mosquito nets and effective case management.

in the tribal trust lands were affected; cattle belonging to whites were not involved. Anthrax is not common in Zimbabwe and clinical cases of the disease are seen only sporadically. Most cases occur in cattle, with some in goats and a few in pigs. Donkeys and horses are rarely affected. The areas where cases occur tend to be those where there have been previous outbreaks, areas with calcium rich soils, drought prone areas, overstocked areas, mainly over populated communal farming areas, flood plains and low lying areas along major rivers. On average each year, in the whole of Zimbabwe, 50 cases occur, with usually only a small number of cases in each affected area or farm (one to three cattle). 98

Case definition

Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic lower vertebrates (cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and other herbivores) but it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals or tissue from infected animals.

According to the Public Health Act, all those who handle food, i.e. cooks and waiters, should be medically examined every six to twelve months to ensure that they do not carry food poisoning germs that may be spread to prepared food. Food handlers who have wounds should be excused from handling food and ideally should be assigned other duties.

The clinical forms of anthrax in animals are described as: • • •

‘Peracute’ (very acute), in which death occurs within a few hours at most of the onset of clinical signs; ‘Acute’, in which death occurs from 24 hours to a few days after onset; and ‘Subacute’ or localised, which lasts for several days and may end in recovery.

The types of human anthrax found in Zimbabwe are: · Cutaneous (skin), the most common type found in Zimbabwe and the least harmful if treated appropriately; · Gastrointestinal anthrax, contracted from eating the meat of an infected animal; and · Inhalation/pulmonary anthrax, which is the least common but causes the most concern since it is the highly lethal, laboratory modified type that is used in bio-terrorism, and has a case fatality rate of about 90 percent if untreated.

Because of their lack of experience, school children face particular risks. They should be taught not to keep cooked food, especially meat, for a long time before eating it especially when they travel on trips or have arrived back at school after the holidays. They should also be encouraged to empty tinned foods completely once opened.

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in humans vary depending on how the disease was contracted and usually occur within seven days. They are as follows: FOR CUTANEOUS ANTHRAX About 95 percent of infections occur when the bacterium enters a cut or abrasion on the skin, such as when handling contaminated meat, hides or leather of infected animals. Skin infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within one or two days develops into a vesicle (blister) and then a painless ulcer, usually 1 to 3cm in diameter, with a characteristic black necrotic (dying) area in the center. Lymph glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20 percent of untreated cases of cutaneous anthrax will result in death but deaths are rare with the use of appropriate chemotherapeutic agents that either kill the bacteria or otherwise interfere with their normal biological functions. FOR GASTROINTESTINAL ANTHRAX The intestinal disease form of anthrax may follow the consumption of contaminated meat and is characterised by an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract. Initial signs of nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting and fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting of blood, and severe diarrhoea. Intestinal anthrax results in death in between 25 percent and 60 percent of cases. FOR PULMONARY ANTHRAX Initial symptoms may resemble a common cold. After several days, the symptoms may progress to severe breathing problems and shock. This form of anthrax is usually fatal. 99

In this country, anthrax was first reported in Matabeleland in 1898. Since then, in addition to the controversial major outbreak during the war of liberation mentioned above, sporadic outbreaks have occurred in various parts of the country.

Figure 5.8 Average Distribution of Anthrax Cases in Zimbabwe, 2001-2005 Zimbabwe Veterinary Services Anthrax has been gradually on the rise in Zimbabwe (see Figure 5.9) but the country has the potential to easily keep this disease under control.

Anthrax Cases Per District 78

Figure 5.9 Anthrax Cases in Zimbabwe, 2001-2005

Figure 5.9 shows that the biggest outbreak was reported in 2005 and suggests that the rising number of cases necessitates more stringent measures of control and prevention of the disease.

Mode of transmission B. anthracis spores can live in the soil for many years, and humans can become infected with anthrax by handling products from infected animals or by inhaling anthrax spores from contaminated animal products. Anthrax can also be spread by eating undercooked meat from infected animals.

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in humans vary depending on how the disease was contracted and usually occur within seven days.

Anthrax is quite unusual in that it is not contagious (i.e. it is not spread from animal to animal or from one person to another person.). Instead, it is spread by the release of bacterial spores from the carcass of an animal that has died of the disease and the subsequent ingestion of these spores by other animals. The period during which infection is likely is short and the risk of spread of infection by preclinical infected animals is limited. 100

The following are some of the ways in which the disease is transmitted: · Most commonly to herbivores, by eating pasture on or around a former death site or sniffing and licking around a recently dead anthrax carcass; · Eating contaminated, improperly treated meat meal, as products from animals that have died of anthrax can transmit infection if there has been inadequate heat treatment to destroy spores or vegetative organisms; · Contact with dead animals or the contamination left at their death site or burial site; · Skins and hides spreading infection to new areas if treatment and scouring effluent is allowed to drain onto pasture; · The transport of incubating infected animals transferring infection across paddocks, properties and districts; and · Deep ploughing of pastures previously contaminated with anthrax carrying effluent, or the unearthing of old graves, as the carcass of an animal that has been infected and dies remains a possible source of infection for many years. Advice on the prevention and control of anthrax

Meat obtained from animals that are normal and healthy at antemortem and postmortem inspection poses no risk of anthrax infection. The skin and hides from such animals are also free of infection. However, schools are at risk of anthrax if the meat is obtained from suppliers not known to the school who may have slaughtered an animal suffering from anthrax. Therefore meat supplies to schools and other educational institutions should be obtained from registered abattoirs.

If a postmortem examination is conducted and anthrax confirmed, the carcass and all disposable equipment should be destroyed as quickly as possible and the immediate area disinfected. Staff handling such cases should seek medical advice. Mass killing of animals is not required for anthrax control. Antibiotic treatment of valuable infected animals (with temperatures higher than 40° C) may allow complete recovery if given early in the course of the disease. If there are reports of an outbreak of anthrax among animals in an area, avoid killing sick animals for meat. Animals that look sick should be reported to the nearest veterinary officer. Avoid any close contact with animals suspected of suffering from anthrax. The treatment of animal products such as skins, hides and meat possibly infected with anthrax should not be attempted. The following measures are necessary: DISPOSAL Dead animals should be disposed of under the control of government officers using methods designed to eliminate contamination. All materials that are likely to have been infected, including the animal itself, should be disposed of by burning or deep burial at the site in which it has died. DECONTAMINATION At contaminated sites, infected materials, personnel, clothing and equipment should be decontaminated according to Veterinary Services guidelines. VACCINATION This should be done under the guidance of Veterinary Services. Animals vaccinated twice, at a six to twelve month intervals are normally immune for life. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN INFECTION As anthrax is a significant zoonotic disease, all people handling dead animals or other infected material, including live vaccines, should wear protective glasses, gloves and clothing and protect skin breaks from infection. People exposed to infection, either through wounds or through a needle prick while vaccinating animals with live vaccine, should seek medical advice. 101

Usually, the first indication that grazing animals may have anthrax is when they are found dead in the kraal or veld. Bloodstained discharges at external orifices are the usual characteristics of the disease but not all anthrax cases show these signs. However in almost all cases, the blood fails to clot. This manifests when samples are collected from carcasses for diagnostic examination, or if the carcass has been attacked by predators. Dairy cattle may show a change in temperament and a drop in milk production. If a carcass of an animal that has died is opened, dark unclotted blood and an enlarged, haemorrhagic spleen are immediate indicators of anthrax (de Vos, 1994). However, an enlarged spleen, cited as a characteristic feature of anthrax and regularly seen in cattle, is uncommon in other animals. In any case, not all the signs are uniformly present in all cases of anthrax.

Anthrax does not form a carrier state in susceptible animals and live animals can only spread the infection by being moved when they are in the incubation phase of the disease, dying and releasing bacteria at the new site.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) Foot and mouth disease is endemic throughout the Middle East, Africa, South America, Asia and parts of Europe. In Zimbabwe, there are minor annual outbreaks of possible FMD, which are easily contained. The biggest outbreak was in 2003 when there were 350 suspected cases. Such a major outbreak of FMD has the potential to cause major national socioeconomic consequences through very serious international trade losses, national market disruptions and severe production losses in the livestock industries that are involved.

Pasteurisation of milk and milk products destroys vegetative bacteria. Thus, anthrax vegetative bacilli cannot survive in milk and neither can vegetative bacteria sporulate in unpasteurised milk.

Although the prevalence of FMD in Zimbabwe is relatively low, vigilance needs to be high because the disease can easily reach epidemic levels when control and prevention measures are relaxed, as was the case in 2003 when more than ten times the usual number of cases was reported. In this instance control and preventive measures applied were so effective that in the following year reported cases were less than the average reported annual cases and the subsequent year had the lowest number of reported cases for the period (see Figure 5.11). The nature of the disease

Foot and mouth disease is a rapidly developing, very highly communicable disease that occurs almost exclusively in cloven-footed animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The disease is characterised by the formation of vesicles and erosions in the mouth and nostrils, on the teats, and on the skin between and above the hoofs, hence the name ‘food and mouth’.

Public awareness is necessary. The community should be made aware of the dangers of anthrax through public media or outreach programmes. However, Zimbabwe is a major beef exporter to European countries and anthrax is a sensitive issue, both in respect of public health perceptions and in relation to trade, particularly with some trading partners. When anthrax is suspected, the local veterinary officer must be advised. If confirmed, the Veterinary Services should be notified. They will then develop a public communications strategy, including appointment of spokespersons. Incidents and outbreaks of anthrax are unlikely to seriously affect Zimbabwe’s export of livestock and animal products. Outbreaks are normally contained within a few months, thus limiting the period from the start to the lifting of trade restrictions and making the likelihood of long term economic effects low. However, the losses emanating from the inability to trade while quarantine restrictions remain in place, the losses from mortalities, which can be high, and the cost of increased vaccination may be economically significant. Animal health authorities should advise the public health authorities when anthrax is diagnosed and ensure that appropriate referral procedures are established so that anyone handling carcasses, tissues or body fluids of animals known to be, or suspected of being, infected with anthrax is able to seek medical advice and preventive treatment as necessary.

The most susceptible species are ungulates (hoofed mammals). Zimbabwe has large populations of domestic and wild animals that are susceptible to infection by the FMD virus, ranging from intensively managed animals in dairies and piggeries, through more extensive cattle and goat enterprises, to wild pig, cattle and buffalo herds. The FMD virus may also be transmitted to mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens and various wild species. However these are not generally implicated in the spread of FMD. Horses and donkeys are resistant to FMD. However in cloven-hoofed animals, FMD should be considered whenever vesicles are seen and a provisional diagnosis of FMD should be made where a combination of the following signs is present: • • • • •

Acute lameness in a number of animals due to sore feet, manifested in animals preferring to lie down; Back off from feed and excessive salivation; Suddenly appearing vesicles or blisters on the mouth, nose, feet and teats which quickly rupture to leave erosions or ulcers; Fever; and In dairy cattle, a considerable drop in milk yield.

Modes of transmission FMD is one of the most contagious animal diseases. Very large amounts of virus are present in all tissues, secretions and excretions before and during the development of clinical signs. Animals are infected via inhalation, inges102

BOX 5.7 THREE PEOPLE DIE OF ANTHRAX

tion and by artificial or natural breeding. The primary method of transmission is by direct contact, via the breath. Transmission occurs most readily when animals are in close proximity, such as at watering and feeding points, stockyards and milking sheds. Spread of infection between properties and areas is frequently due to the movement of infected animals or contaminated vehicles, equipment, people and products. Some of the features of transmission in particular species are: PIGS These are the major amplifying host for the disease. Although pigs are primarily infected while ingesting infected feedstuff, they are the most efficient producers of the virus in respiratory aerosols (breath). Thus, spread of FMD from an infected piggery could be rapid and widespread, allowing the Figure 5.10 Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks by District, January-December 2004

Therefore, FMD represents the greatest threat to Zimbabwe’s livestock industries and export markets. It has the potential for rapid and extensive spread and could jeopardise the export of all beef and beef products, at least in the short term. In the case of an outbreak, it is necessary to eradicate FMD in the shortest possible time, while also striving to limit the economic impact.

103

Figure 5.11 Foot and Mouth Disease Occurrence, 2001-2005

disease to gain a substantial foothold before the first clinical cases come to the attention of regulatory authorities. CATTLE Cows are highly susceptible to aerosol infection as they have a higher respiratory tidal volume than other species. Cattle are considered the best indicator species for the presence of FMD virus in an area. SHEEP AND GOATS These may be important reservoirs of infection because they are usually only mildly affected clinically by FMD and infection may not be noticed. The marketing and production systems in Zimbabwe sometimes result in the rapid dispersion of animals over wide geographic areas. The ability to trace livestock movements and product is of critical importance to the early control of an outbreak of FMD. The movement patterns of goats may be particularly important because of the possibility that they are infected without showing clinical signs. From experience of FMD, the spread of the disease in cattle ranges is more likely in the dry season, when animals congregate at watering points. Feedlots represent a special hazard as cattle at these points have an increased chance of becoming infected from aerosols. Humans can become infected through skin wounds or the mouth lining by handling diseased stock or the virus in the laboratory, or by drinking infected milk, but not by eating meat from affected animals. In humans, infection is temporary and mild, only very occasionally resulting in clinical disease (fever, vesicles on the hands, feet or in the mouth). Thus, FMD is not normally considered a public health problem.

Where these classical signs and symptoms of FMD occur, the Veterinary Services should be consulted immediately.

Advice for the prevention and control of FMD

Control of FMD relies on three basic principles: 1 Preventing contact between susceptible animals and the FMD virus; 2 Stopping the production of the virus by infected animals; and 3 Increasing the resistance of susceptible animals. These principles can be applied by: · Stopping the spread of infection through quarantine and movement controls; · Eliminating sources of infection by slaughtering infected and exposed animals; · Eliminating the virus by decontamination of premises, vehicles, equipment and materials, or disposal of contaminated materials; and · Establishing immunity by vaccination. Urgent and meticulous trace-back and trace-forward of all contacts with infected animals and premises are vital if the disease is to be effectively contained. 104

Surveillance efforts in the event of an outbreak are aimed at: · Defining the extent of the disease; · Detecting new outbreaks; and · Establishing disease free zones.

An extremely cautious approach to the salvage of animal products and by-products is required. Milk heated to 75o C for 15 seconds or 135o C for one second may be used for any purpose except for feeding (as whole milk, other products, by-products or waste) to susceptible livestock.

There is, as yet, no specific cure for FMD. Palliative treatment only alleviates the signs and does not prevent the spread of infection. Animals that are considered to be most infected or at risk should be destroyed first. The recommended method of disposal of carcasses, milk and feedstuff is by burial rather than cremation. Burial is generally easier, quicker, uses fewer resources, is less polluting, and removes the risk of creating infective plumes, which could spread the disease. However, several factors, such as topography, soil type, and water table depth, must be considered in selecting a burial site. Burial must be performed in a manner that prevents wild pigs gaining access to carcasses. In the event of an outbreak the following actions are important: • Cooperate with animal health inspectors, veterinarians or extension officers, because FMD is a disease of national importance; • If signs similar to FMD are found in cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, contact the local animal health inspector, veterinarian or extension officer immediately; • Restrict the movement of animals and animal products, especially into, out of or within the affected zone; • The ‘stamping out’ method in animals in the restricted zone, which involves quarantine, slaughter of all infected and exposed susceptible animals and sanitary disposal of destroyed animals and contaminated animal products, to remove the source of infection; • Preemptive depopulation of susceptible animals to minimise spread; • Quarantine and movement controls on animals, animal products and items coming into contact with either in declared areas to prevent the spread of infection; • Decontamination of facilities, products and items coming into contact with either to eliminate the virus on infected premises and to prevent spread in declared areas; • Tracing and surveillance to determine the source and extent of infection and to provide proof of freedom from the disease; • Zoning to define infected and disease-free areas; • A public awareness campaign to facilitate industry and community cooperation; • Only allowing movement of animals or animal products in the area surrounding the restricted zone (the surveillance zone) with a legal movement permit; and • Vaccination of animals and not moving vaccinated animals and their products without the necessary permits. In addition to the disruption and distress caused by the control and eradication measures in the infected areas, the widespread financial losses arising from the trade costs of an outbreak of FMD would result in significant social costs to individuals and communities throughout rural Zimbabwe. As noted, employment would be affected over a whole range of industries, from the 105

The movement patterns of animals in Zimbabwe are a critical factor in the dissemination of FMD. Transmission of virus from carrier African buffalo to in-contact cattle is possible.

Native breeds of cattle and pigs are reported to be less susceptible to infection and disease than European breeds.

In terms of public awareness, the community should be made aware of the FMD and its far reaching consequences. Every effort should be made to make meat producers aware of FMD. An FMD outbreak would result in the immediate closure of many of Zimbabwe’s major export markets for livestock and livestock products, causing a contraction in economic activity, particularly in the pastoral, livestock and meat processing industries, with a knock-on reduction in employment.

Zimbabwe has large and widespread populations of wild animals that are susceptible to FMD, such as warthogs, water buffalo and deer. These animals are frequently in close contact with domestic stock, sharing pastures and watering points. If wild animals are considered to be a risk factor in the dissemination or persistence of infection, then programmes aimed at reducing contact between infected stock, wild animals and uninfected susceptible stock should be considered as soon as possible. A media campaign for when an outbreak is underway must emphasise the importance of farmers inspecting susceptible animals regularly and of reporting suspicious lesions and unusual deaths promptly. The public should not be pushed to panic and avoid meat products. The importance of movement controls and what this means to individuals needs to be strongly emphasised.

farming and subsidiary industries to rural growth points and government departments. Rabies Rabies is one of humanity’s oldest and most feared diseases. First described in a Mesopotamian tract dating from 1800 BC, the illness was known to the ancient Greeks as ‘lyssa’, meaning ‘frenzy’. But the Romans, adapting the Latin word meaning ‘to rage’, gave us the name by which the disease is known today. Rabies is almost invariably fatal, viral encephalitis affecting any warm blooded animal. It is a preventable viral disease, which is characterised by a unique mode of transmission, through the bite of a rabid animal. Domestic animals account for less than 10 percent of the reported rabies cases, with cats, cattle, and dogs most often reported rabid. Thus naturally, rabies is commonly found in wild animals (90%). In Zimbabwe, human fatalities associated with rabies occur in people who fail to seek medical assistance, usually because they are unaware of their exposure. Case definition

Rabies is caused by a virus belonging to the Lyssavirus genus of the family Rhabdoviridae. The Lyssavirus genus also contains a number of related viruses that have the potential to cause rabies like disease in man and animals.

Vaccination should be carried out as per recommendation of the local Veterinary Services.

Rabies virus causes acute encephalitis in all warm blooded hosts, including humans. Although all species of mammals are susceptible to rabies virus infection, only a few species are important as reservoirs for the disease. Birds do not play any part in the maintenance or spread of rabies infections. The most common animal families in maintaining rabies cycles in Zimbabwe are Canidae, which in this country are represented by domestic and wild dogs, and hyenas. The warm blooded animals affected can be regarded as accidental or ‘dead end’ hosts, and hence have no epidemiological significance in sustaining rabies epidemics. Therefore, this section concentrates on the most active transmitting host, the dog. Modes of transmission

Urban rabies can be spread to new areas most rapidly by dogs with furious rabies that have running fits (where they may travel for 30 km or more) or by pets moved to new areas by their owners. Transmission of rabies virus usually begins when the infected saliva of a host is passed to an uninfected animal through contamination of a fresh wound with the infected saliva. This is usually from the bite of a rabid animal, but can also result from licking abraded skin or mucous membranes. The virus cannot penetrate intact skin. Various less common routes of transmission have been documented and include contamination of mucous membranes (eyes, nose or mouth) and aerosol transmission, but these occur so infrequently that they are not considered in framing control strategies. However, rabies has occurred in both humans and animals after immunisation with vaccine that accidentally contained tissue 106

adapted rabies virus because of incomplete inactivation. Insect vector transmission does not occur. After uptake into peripheral nerves, the rabies virus is transported to the central nervous system (CNS) via retrograde axoplasmic flow. Typically this occurs via sensory and motor nerves at the initial site of infection. The incubation period is the time from exposure to the onset of clinical signs of disease. It may vary from a few days to several years, but is typically one to three months. Dissemination of the virus within the CNS is rapid, and includes early involvement of limbic system neurons. Active cerebral infection is followed by passive centrifugal spread of the virus to peripheral nerves. The amplification of infection within the CNS occurs through cycles of viral replication and cell-to-cell transfer of progeny virus. Centrifugal spread of the virus may lead to the invasion of highly innervated sites of various tissues, including the salivary glands. During this period of cerebral infection, the classic behavioral changes associated with rabies develop.

At the individual and family level, the social impacts could even affect the long term cohesion of the community. The ethics of slaughtering large numbers of healthy livestock and wildlife is always an emotive issue, while the burial or burning of carcasses and products also raises environmental concerns.

Signs and Symptoms

In dogs there is a prodromal stage, which lasts two to three days but is often missed by the dog’s owner. In this stage there may be a sudden change in temperament. Dogs that are normally friendly towards people might suddenly become snappy and uncertain, and shy dogs may become affectionate. This stage is followed by one of two syndromes – ‘furious’ or ‘dumb’ rabies. The dumb form is more common, but some dogs alternate between dumb and furious rabies. The clinical course is often shorter in dumb rabies but in both forms death occurs three to seven days after the end of the prodromal stage.

Rabies is spread throughout the country but the main concentration is in Harare where there is the highest concentration of dogs and the greatest number of dog bites are reported in hospitals.

Figure 5.12 Confirmed Rabies Cases in Zimbabwe since 2001

In the furious form the dog becomes unusually restless, seldom lying or sitting in one spot for more than a short time and, if confined, moves around ceaselessly in the confined space. The pupils are dilated, and there is loss of the corneal reflex, and sometimes a squint. The animal assumes a watchful, puzzled or apprehensive look (an important sign) and may snap at imaginary objects. There is a change in phonation (voice), often with a characteristic low pitched, hoarse howling. At certain periods the dog seems possessed of abnormal strength and insensitivity to pain. Bars of cages, furniture and other objects are frequently attacked to the point that the animal’s teeth are reduced to stumps and the mouth lacerated. If the dog is not under restraint, this excitable energy is manifested in furious, aimless running (sometimes for long 107

distances) and snapping at animate or inanimate objects in its path. There is depraved appetite, with animals eating such items as stones, sticks or earth. The furious signs abate after one to four days and are replaced by rapidly progressing ataxia, convulsions and ascending paralysis. The manifestation of rabies in humans can be divided into six stages, as presented in Figure 5.14. Advice on the prevention and control of rabies

Decontamination is possible because the infectivity of the rabies virus is deseaned and sprayed with one of the disinfectants listed above. 4. The virus incubates in the body for approximately 3-12 weeks. The dog has no signs of illness during this time.

3. Rabies virus

Figure 5:13 The Infectious Path of the Rabies Virus in Dogs

5. When it reaches the

spreads through

brain, the virus multiplies

the nerves to the

rapidly, passes to the

spinal cord and

salivary glands and the dog

brain.

begins to show signs of disease.

2. Rabies virus

6. The infected animal dies

enters the dog

1. Dog is bitten by

through infected

a rabid animal.

within 7 days of becoming sick.

Saliva.

There is no treatment for rabies after symptoms of the disease appear. Disease prevention is entirely prophylactic and includes both passive ant phylaxis) or for protection before an exposure occurs (pre exposure prophylaxis).

Following primary infection (see Figure 5.13 and 5.14), the virus enters an eclipse phase in which it cannot be easily detected within the host. This phase may last for several days or months. Investigations have shown both direct entry of the virus into peripheral nerves at the site of infection and indirect entry after viral replication in non-nerve tissue (i.e. muscle cells). During the eclipse phase, the host’s immune defenses may confer cellmediated immunity against viral infection because the rabies virus is a good antigen. The uptake of virus into peripheral nerves is necessary for progressive infection to occur.

Individuals can help to prevent the spread of rabies by: · Caring responsibly for any pets; · Keeping vaccinations up to date for all dogs and cats so as to provide a barrier of protection to owners if an animal is bitten by a rabid wild animal; · Direct supervision of pets to avoid their contact with wild animals; · Seeking veterinary assistance for the animal immediately in the event that a pet is bitten by a wild animal; · Calling local animal police to remove any strange stray animals sighted, as these may be unvaccinated and could be infected with rabies; · Spaying or neutering pets to help reduce the number of unwanted pets that may not be properly cared for or regularly vaccinated; · Avoiding direct contact with unfamiliar animals; and · Being aware of how to handle exposure, should it arise. 108

Wild animals are for the wild. Neither take them into your home nor try to nurse sick animals back to health. This is a job for trained specialists. Keep a safe distance from wild animals when visiting them, and do not handle, feed, or unintentionally attract wild animals by holding food. It is important to teach children of the dangers of rabies, including telling tell them never to handle unfamiliar animals, wild or domestic, even if they appear friendly. Public awareness on rabies is very important and deserving of full attention as irresponsible overseas reports of an uncontrolled outbreak of rabies in Zimbabwe could have a negative impact on tourism. The requirements for ensuring public awareness are: • Close cooperation of the public to enable people to take the necessary precautions both for themselves and for the sake of their animals, and to assist the authorities in the management of the eradication campaign;

In the dumb form, the dog remains quiet, is not irritable, and only bites when provoked. It is lethargic and may hide behind any cover. The watchful, apprehensive look in the eyes, noted in the furious form is also present. There is paralysis of the hindquarters and muscle tremors. A characteristic late sign is paralysis of the jaw (‘dropped jaw’). The tongue is also paralysed and hangs flaccidly from the mouth, and there is drooling of saliva. The dog is unable to eat. It is also unable to lap water, although it may try hard to do so.

Posters at schools, veterinary and medical clinics and other places with special information and guidelines on measures to be adopted by the public and where to obtain treatment when the need arises.

Figure 5.14 Stages of Infestations in a Human

If exposed to a potentially rabid animal, wash the wound thoroughly with soap and water, and seek medical attention immediately. A healthcare provider will care for the wound and will assess the risk for rabies exposure. The following information will help the healthcare provider assess your risk: · Where the incident occurred; · The type of animal involved; · How the exposure occurred (provoked or unprovoked); · The vaccination status of the animal; and · Whether or not the animal can be safely captured and tested for rabies. Steps taken by the healthcare practitioner will depend on the circumstances of the bite. The important factor is that care is sought promptly after being bitten by any animal.

• Keeping the public informed on the public health aspects of rabies and the requirements related to the control and eradication campaign; • Campaigns to educate the public on the nature of the disease, especially the clinical signs in animals and the mode of transmission of the disease to humans and the need for compulsory vaccination at schools, community centres, health centres, factories and other places of mass gatherings; • A strong emphasis on the usually fatal course of the disease and the danger of handling rabid animals; • Encouragement and facilitation of reporting by members of the public of any animal bite incidents with details of the offending animal, the presence of stray dogs and of any deaths of dogs, cats and wildlife.

Newcastle disease Newcastle disease is a contagious viral infection causing a respiratory nervous disorder in several species of fowl including chickens. It is also com109

Potentially rabid animals should be approached with extreme caution. Consider destroying the animal if human safety is at stake although every effort should be made to capture and safely confine them if this is possible without risk to humans.

municable to humans. Newcastle disease is probably the most feared disease of poultry throughout the world, and it has spread to all continents in recent decades. It is a focus for concern in domestic poultry throughout much of the world’s agricultural community because of the severe economic losses that have occurred from illness, death, and reduced egg production following infection with pathogenic or disease causing strains. Repeated large scale losses of rural chickens from Newcastle disease in Zimbabwe have created a need for enhanced awareness of Newcastle as a disease of concern. Prior to an outbreak in 1967, Zimbabwe was reported to be a Newcastle disease free country (Hutchzermeyer, 1973). According to extracts from Chitate and Gutai (Zimbabwe Country Report, undated) Zimbabwe has had only limited outbreaks of Newcastle disease, apart from the major outbreaks of 1994. Three limited outbreaks occurred, first in 1957 along the border with Zambia, and in 1975 and 1986 along the border with Mozambique. On each occasion, strict quarantine, movement control and vaccinations quickly controlled the disease. The Veterinary Services Department (DVS) mounted vaccination campaigns; ten million birds were vaccinated in 1994 and six million in 1995, all in the communal sector. Newcastle disease has largely been a disease of rural, backyard flocks. Few outbreaks have been experienced in the commercial sector due to the strict biosecurity and routine vaccinations. In 1995, of a total of 172 outbreaks, only 14 (8 percent) were reported from commercial flocks and none of these was large commercial producers who had good biosecurity and sanitary controls. During 1996, no commercial flocks recorded outbreaks of Newcastle disease and the 21 outbreaks reported were all in backyard rural poultry. Table 5.4 shows the annual occurrence of Newcastle disease & vaccinations by the DVS in communal areas. Features of the disease

Different types or strains of the virus (varying in their ability to cause nervous disorder, visceral lesions and death) have been recognised. The most lethal infection of chickens of all ages, which affects the respiratory and neurologic tissues, is referred to as ‘neurotropic velogenic’ Newcastle disease or NVND. Although mortality rates from this strain peak at 50 percent in adult chickens and 90 percent in young chickens, morbidity or illness from NVND may reach as high as 100 percent of a flock. The NVND form of Newcastle disease is not found in Zimbabwe but it is possible that it could be introduced from other countries via pet birds or by other means. Mode of Transmission

Newcastle disease is highly contagious. Dissemination of virulent Newcastle virus between flocks has generally been attributed to the following (in descending order of importance): • Movement of infected birds (including vaccinated birds); • Movement of feedstuffs, personnel and equipment into and out of premises; • Movement of infected poultry products and byproducts; and • Faecal virus contamination of clothing or footwear, equipment, litter, manure and feed. 110

Illness in humans can result from close contact with infectious birds. Generally, headaches and flu-like symptoms develop and last for four to seven days. A mild, superficial inflammation of the eyes with reddening (conjunctivitis) is common. Serious illness or permanent vision impairment is rare. Advice on Newcastle disease prevention and management

Newcastle disease is a notifiable disease, which means that any person is required by law to report incidence of the disease, whether confirmed or suspected, to the Veterinary Services. Disease surveillance is implemented through a network of eight provincial offices, 58 district veterinary offices and 320 animal health and management centres (AHMCs). The AHMCs are confined to the communal, resettlement and small scale farming areas. Staff is required to report suspected Newcastle disease within 24 hours to the Epidemiology Unit of the Field Branch. Based on postmortem findings and epidemiology, a provisional diagnosis is made and control measures are initiated. The measures to prevent initial outbreak or later spread of Newcastle disease are: VACCINATION This is practiced widely and is the recommended method for prevention. The vaccines may be introduced by drops into the nostril or eye, addition to the drinking water or applied in spray form. QUARANTINE AND MOVEMENT CONTROLS Experience has shown that Newcastle disease can spread very rapidly and can be carried over long distances by transport of contaminated materials (such as bird cages, pallets, egg filler flats, manure, feed and other equipment), as well as by contaminated personnel. Strict control over the movement of anything that could have become contaminated with the virus, by the immediate imposition of tightly controlled quarantine on all places suspected of being infected, is essential. ZONING Understandable pressure to impose inter-district (and possibly even intra-district) movement controls on poultry products may be expected. SURVEILLANCE Active surveillance should be initiated as soon as Newcastle disease is confirmed. In the initial stages, at least, samples should be taken of all species of birds that die in the affected area and they should be checked for Newcastle disease lesions. Specimens should be submitted to approved laboratories for virus isolation. DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS Efficient, humane procedures must be used to kill birds before disposal, without moving them from the site. DISPOSAL Infected material must be transported elsewhere for disposal either through burial or burning, with particular attention being paid to eliminating factors that will contribute to the spread of the virus. For example, truck body trays must be waterproof and all loads carefully covered with plastic to ensure that material cannot be blown about. DECONTAMINATION This entails cleaning and disinfection of the infected site to remove all infective material. The Newcastle disease virus is susceptible 111

Chicken suffering from Newcastle disease (Source: http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/ diseases/images/v2/nd1.jpg)

The worst epidemic of Newcastle disease in Zimbabwe started in December 1993 in Sengwe communal area of Chiredzi district, on the border with South Africa. By June 1994, the disease had affected most of the communal areas of Masvingo province. Because of the complexity of rural movements, control of poultry movement ceased to be effective as a means of controlling the disease. Three months later, the disease had spread to most provinces, making vaccination the only logical control strategy.

Table 5.4 Annual Newcastle Disease Occurrence and DVS Vaccination of Rural Poultry Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

No. of ND Outbreaks 281 172 21 64 80 8

No. of Birds Vaccinated 10 000 000 6 000 000 215 800 371 600 3 837 400 417 000

A milder form of the disease is caused by ‘mesogenic’ or moderately virulent strains. These are a less pathogenic form of Newcastle disease which causes neurologic signs but, except for very young susceptible chicks, mortality is low.

The least lethal Newcastle disease strains are classified as ‘lentogenic’ or low virulence. They cause mild or hardly noticeable respiratory infections in chickens. They do not usually cause disease in adult chickens, but the respiratory disease can become serious in young birds. Some strains of lentogenic Newcastle disease cause asymptomatic-enteric infections without visible disease.

The signs and symptoms of Newcastle disease are not greatly different from those of other respiratory diseases. The signs most frequently observed are: · · · ·

·

Loss of appetite, fever and weakness; Swelling and cyanosis of the comb and wattles; Watery, bile stained, distinctively bright green or bloody diarrhoea; Respiratory signs, which may include increased respiratory rate, respiratory distress, coughing and a high-pitched sneeze (‘snick’); and Nervous signs, which can include loss of balance, circling, backward progression and convulsive somersaulting, rhythmic spasms, stiffness and twisting of the neck, head tremors, and wing and leg paralysis.

to a wide range of disinfectants, including detergents. Initial cleaning of organic matter from sheds, equipment, vehicles and so on by brushing and washing with a detergent is the most important step before disinfection. Pest Infestation Food losses to pests in Zimbabwe are considerable. It is estimated that up to 35 percent of the crop production is lost in spite of pesticide and other control programmes. The primary pests are insects, diseases and weeds, although mammals and birds can inflict serious crop damage. Armyworms, quelea birds and locusts are the most common pests. This section looks at the ecological factors influencing the outbreak of pest infestations, the ways they inflict damage, controlling pests through integrated pest management, and the specific pests of most concern in Zimbabwe. Definitions and characteristics

A pest may be defined as any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people, their animals, crops or possessions. The pests of most importance here are those that lead to a loss in crop yield or quality, resulting in loss of profits to the farmer and reduced stocks for subsistence or export. Insect outbreaks are usually the result of a combination of the following ecological factors: TEMPERATURE Often the most important factor governing insect development is temperature, particularly during the development phase of pests such as locusts. Twisting of the neck is the main symptom. (Source: http://www.affa.gov.au/—/ newcastle_disease1.jpg)

MOISTURE Most insects that attack crops rely on adequate rainfall to promote egg hatching and host plant growth. For example, locust outbreaks and plagues seem to be correlated to the end of an extended drought. MONOCULTURAL CROPPING The larger the area planted with a single crop, the greater the potential for pest problems. Also, the longer a monoculture is maintained in the same area, the greater the number and severity of pests. INTRODUCTION OF PLANTS OR PEST SPECIES TO NEW LOCATIONS Some pest problems occur when crops or new pest species are introduced into new biological communities. OVERCOMING GENETIC RESISTANCE Insect pests have been shown to have the genetic capacity to evolve and overcome resistance in their host. HOST PLANT ASSOCIATION AND CROPPING PATTERNS When a crop is harvested, pests move on to the next crop.

Treatment of birds infected with Newcastle disease is ineffective and not appropriate. The disease does not always respect even the best management programmes, but good biosecurity practices will help to reduce the possibility of exposure to the Newcastle disease virus.

RESISTANCE OF PESTS TO PESTICIDES AND OTHER EFFECTS Although pesticides work quickly to control pests, the effects of pesticides are short lived and pests usually reoccur in larger numbers. Pests may also develop resistance to pesticides, while the pesticides themselves may kill the natural predators of pests, allowing the pests to flourish. WEATHER PATTERNS For flying insects, such as locusts, prevailing winds are important in determining where they will fly and whether they will survive. 112

The movement to a different area may coincide with more favorable conditions, allowing some pest species to escape control and increase in number. Pest injury to crop yield can occur when the harvested part of the plant is directly damaged by the pest. Or injury can occur indirectly when the harvested part of the plant is diminished or lost because other parts have been damaged or lost. Insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts damage plants by: • Causing loss of plant vigour by removing excessive quantities of sap and chlorophyll, such as the whitefly and aphids; • Damaging floral organs and reducing seed production, as with chapped bugs, wheat shield bugs and chinch bugs; • Causing premature leaf falls, as do diaspidid scales; • Injecting toxins into the plant; • Providing entry points for pathogenic fungi and bacteria; • Reducing the photosynthetic area on the leaf surface; and • Transfering plant pathogens. Vulnerability Factors

Vulnerability to pest infestation depends partly on the presence of the environmental factors that cause pest numbers to rise and pest damage to seriously affect food supply. These variables result from human manipulation of agricultural cropping systems and climatic conditions. In developing countries, however, the ability to predict infestations and treat the pests is limited by resource constraints, such as lack of trained personnel. Furthermore, in some cases crop yields are normally insufficient to feed the local population, many of whom may be subsistence farmers. Therefore, pest infestation poses a serious social and economic threat and renders these populations vulnerable to disaster. Advice on prevention and control of pest infestation

The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) was originally developed for the control of insects but its principles are now in use for control of disease and weeds as well. The driving forces behind the concept were the susceptibility of humans and animals to the effects of toxic pesticides and the fairly rapid development of pest resistance to pesticides. The common goals of most IPM programmes are to use multiple strategies to maintain pest damage below the economic injury level, while providing protection against hazards to humans, animals, plants and the environment. The development of an IPM programme involves the following steps: 1 Identifying the pests in the system 2 Developing suitable monitoring or forecasting techniques. This involves the measurement of pest populations (numbers of eggs, larvae, insects, spores, etc.) or amount of damage or loss. 3 Establishing economic thresholds, i.e. the pest population or disease incidence causing losses in crop value exceeding the cost of pest management. 4 Developing a pest management strategy. It is necessary to identify the least hazardous chemical and the lowest possible dose that can be used, and the appropriate cultural and biological techniques to be integrated into a pest management strategy. 113

Biting insects may damage the plant by: · Reducing the amount of leaf and photosynthetic area, hindering plant growth, usually by leaf eaters, such as locusts and armyworms; · Tunnelling into the stem and interrupting the flow of sap, as with stem borers and shoot flies; · Destroying buds or growing points and causing subsequent distortion or proliferation, as with fruit bud weevils; · Causing premature fruit fall, as with cherry fruit fly, codling moth and apple sawfly; · Attacking flowers and reducing seed production, as with blossom beetles and Japanese beetle; · Injuring or destroying seeds completely, or reducing germination due to loss of food reserves, e.g. by maize weevil, pea pod borer and bean pod borer; · Attacking roots and causing loss of water and nutrient absorbing tissue, as with wireworms and various beetle larvae; or · Removing stored food in a tuber, e.g. by cutworms and wireworms in potatoes.

Certain pests serve as vectors of human and animal disease. These include the tsetse fly, Glossina species, which is a vector for African trypanosomiasis, the Simulium blackfly which is a vector for onchocerciasis, the Anopheles mosquito which is a vector for malaria, and the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus), a vectors for epidemic typhus. A pathogen or parasite is passed from pest to host, where development takes place. In Africa, the tsetse fly passes parasites that cause trypanosomiasis, a disease that induces anemia and often leads to death in humans and livestock. Animal dependent societies have experienced significant livestock losses to the tsetse fly.

BOX 5.8 EARLY WARNING PROCEDURES AREX

Integrated pest management usually targets containment rather than eradication. The key IPM tactical approaches are: CULTURAL CONTROL Some cultural practices are well established and others are experimental. All involve decisions made by the farmer. They include; • Varying the depth of tillage according to pest species, • Planting resistant crop varieties, • Using crop rotation and fallow periods, • Diversifying cropping systems, • Timing sowing and harvesting to avoid pest attacks, and

BY

Early warning systems Prediction allows better control and use of pesticides. To determine when pesticides should be used, an assessment should be made where applicable of the ‘economic injury levels’ of the pest population. For all outbreak pests, labour intensive surveys, including collection and analysis of samples, produce a total picture which must then be communicated to the vulnerable farmers. Environmental factors such as wind, temperature and rainfall have been employed in predicting pest attacks.

•

Planting ‘trap’ crops that lure insects away from primary crops.

PHYSICAL METHODS These include handpicking pests from plants, driving insects into a trench, placing bags around fruit, netting, greenhouses, use of lethal temperatures (both high and low), and use of electromagnetic energy such as ultraviolet light. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL This involves control by living organisms. Predators include birds, frogs, spiders, insects, nematodes and pathogens. CHEMICAL METHODS This method of control is very quick in action and comes in different forms – repellants, antifeedants (which block feeding response), fumigants, smokes, stomach poisons, contact poisons and systemic poisons. Pesticides have some negative side effects. These are that; • •

Identifying pests in the system, includes • major pests that usually cause damage above economic injury levels, • minor or secondary pests that cause damage above the economic injury level only occasionally, • potential pests that normally do not cause economic losses, and • migratory pests that can cause serious damage on a periodic basis.

• •

Insect populations may rapidly surge back after treatment wears off, The pesticide may also destroy the target insects’ natural enemies and the numbers resurge, A secondary pest may take hold, and The toxic chemicals in pesticides are absorbed into the environment.

INSECT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Chemicals containing pheromones (hormones produced by insects and released as behavior cues to other insects) and other agents can be used to disrupt mating, attract pests to traps or repel them from crops. REGULATORY ACTIVITIES Most such activities are directed at preventing the 114

introduction of pests into new areas, mainly through quarantine measures. The FAO has established a system of international plant protection whereby an International Phytosanitary Certificate is essential for importation of plant material into almost every country of the world. Eradication reduces the pest population to the point where the economic damage is not significant. In cases of disease vectors for humans, such as the mosquito, complete eradication may be the goal. The cost in both economic and environmental terms may preclude eradication programmes in developing countries unless the programme uses non-chemical methods. The small scale farmer, who bears the major responsibility for food production, is also likely to face the greatest crop losses to pests. It is vital that information regarding pest infestation and control is shared between government ministries, extension agents and farmers. The farmers are able to describe the type of pest problems prevalent in their areas and cultural methods used to control them. They can assist extension agents to determine when a pest population is reaching a threatening level and at what point pesticides will have to be used. Government representatives may provide technical expertise, informing farmers about new discoveries and influencing their decisions regarding use of cultural or biological control of pests. Farmers can use cost free methods of pest control and save national expense. The extension services may demonstrate methods of pesticide application and provide a means for farmers to obtain equipment and pesticides or arrange for the farms to be treated. If the scale of pest infestation is too large to be handled locally or by the nations it affects, international organisations may be called in to provide the equipment and pesticides necessary. If food losses are great and can be expected to affect the health of the population, food will have to be moved to the affected area from surplus areas. If no surplus exists, food will have to be imported or secured from donors.

Major and common pests in Zimbabwe Three of the most damaging pests occurring in Zimbabwe are discussed below: AFRICAN ARMYWORM (NHUNDURURU OR IMHOGOYI) The African armyworm is the larval stage of the night flying moth scientifically known as Spodoptera exempata. It is a serious economic pest in pastures and cereal crops. Armyworms usually advance in a mass across fields (hence the name ‘armyworm’), devouring all green plants in their path like maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and rice. The larvae or caterpillar, when occurring in large numbers, can consume these green plants faster than 400 head of cattle per hectare. Thus they can quickly devastate cereal crops by defoliaton, causing 100 percent yield loss if they attack young plants, and can make pastures unfavourable for livestock. They do this in broad daylight. Zimbabwe, along with other countries in Southern Africa, can suffer serious agricultural losses due to the armyworm. The life stages of the African armyworm are shown in the photographs below and its biology and epidemiology are outlined in Figure 5.15. 115

Life stages of the African armyworm: Adult Moth, Pupae and Larvae

After molting through six stages or instars over fourteen to 22 days, the larvae pupate in the soil to emerge as moths, which re-infest either at the same place or up to several hundred kilometres downwind.

(Source: K. Mushore AREX)

The seasonal cycle of the armyworm begins with the low density breeding of dry season populations in the cool, coastal highlands of Kenya and Tanzania. These small populations of the solitary phase, which do little crop damage, occur in scattered grassy areas where it is not economical to spray or control them. As the Intertropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward, causing the annual onset of the summer rains in December, the strong winds accompanying the thunderstorms carry some moths to the interior of the continent where primary outbreaks occur. It is these climatic changes at the onset of the rainfall season, particularly when following a drought season, that result in production of abundant forage which may trigger a response in the females laying the eggs. Because each female can lay 800 to 1 000 eggs (on grasses and cereal crops), as few as 30 moths could cause a serious outbreak of 15 million armyworms within two generations or two months. Adult Moth

Pupae

Within a few days, the larvae hatch, and subsequently grow to around 30mm, dark striped and voracious, with up to 1000 caterpillars occupying each square metre. The young larvae, at first, eat the upper and lower surface tissue of the leaves. As the larvae become older and increase in size, they are able to bite through the entire leaf, starting from the edges and usually eating all but the midrib. Hence large numbers are able to devastate an area of grassland or crop in a few hours, before characteristically ‘marching’ to the next source of food. Heavy infestation results in total loss of leaves, often leading to severe crop loss or necessitating replanting. When caterpillars change to moths, they become airborne and are able to be carried downwind for great distances. Thus mass migration of these moths occurs covering many thousands of square kilometres, easily traversing international boundaries. As the number of caterpillars and moths increases, so the plague spreads, aided by intertropical convergence winds, which carry the moths south to Malawi, Zambia Mozambique and Zimbabwe. They breed very fast making them difficult to control. Outbreak characterisitcs

Frequent outbreaks of the worm occur, and larval densities are often in excess of 1 000 per square metre and may cover tens or even hundreds of square kilometres. Outbreaks usually follow the onset of wet seasons when dry grasslands produce new growth and cereal crops are planted. Major outbreaks of armyworm are commonly preceded by extended drought. Prevention and control

Larvae

In order to prevent or, at least control, outbreaks of armyworm: • The caterpillars need to be killed when they are very young; • Information about rainstorms is needed to provide a warning to farmers to check their maize and other cereals for young caterpillars, which can be expected to appear one week after rain; • It is necessary to control the first outbreak so as to prevent second generation outbreaks; 116

Facts about Armyworms: MOTH (5-16days)

EGGS 2-4 days

PUPAE (7-15days)

Figure 5.15 Biology and Epidemiology of the Army Worm

• Female capable of producing 200-1 000 eggs in a lifetime • Therefore, fifteen male moths and fifteen female moths can produce 15 000 caterpillars in one month

LARVAE • This translates to 15 000 000 caterpillars in (14-22 days) two generations!!! • • • •

Chemical control1 is used as the only effective means and is readily available at AREX for farmers; It is effective to dig a ditch in front of the worms, as they then find the extensive section of loose soil too difficult to scale; Mobilise resources and have them ready in all provinces in anticipation of an outbreak; and Conduct public awareness campaigns on radio and TV, in newspapers, magazines and posters and at field days.

Surveillance and monitoring are important. Army worm forecasts are based on information from a number of sources, the most important being networks of light and pheromone traps distributed throughout Zimbabwe and operated nightly under the supervision of trap operators. The incidence and extent of recent outbreaks of larvae and the current weather conditions are monitored. Daily weather forecasts need to be followed, particularly the winds, which influence the direction of moth migration. QUELEA BIRDS Humans have always coexisted with birds. Some are beneficial and others are in conflict with human needs in a number of ways and become pests. The red billed quelea bird (Quelea quelea lathamii) is the most important granivorous (seed eating) bird pest in Africa, capable of consuming 4 grams of grain per day. The birds are known to be the most numerous and destructive birds in the world, with an estimated population of roughly 1.8 billion. In Zimbabwe, the birds occur in colonies of millions. Normally the birds feed on grass seeds but, in the absence of these, they attack crops, mainly at the dough stage, sucking out the soft grain. Damage caused in individual fields can be as high as 100 percent if no control measures are taken. Since Quelea birds move in large numbers, they cause extensive damage to cereal grains, like wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millets at the ‘milk’ (dough) and ripening stages. They are also a particular problem for winter wheat because there is no readily available alternative source of food in winter when the other grass is dry. The effect is mainly due to loss of grain as well as flattening of growing plants. It is estimated that the loss of cereal due to red billed quelea is at least US$ 1 billion annually (AREX, 2004). Clearly, these birds are a threat to food security especially in the Matabeleland provinces. Small grains, which are naturally drought tolerant, are mostly grown in this semi arid region and hence form part of the community’s staple food but 117

As an international and migratory pest, armyworm control is a responsibility of the government in Zimbabwe through its Agricultural Research and Extension division (AREX). In the past, chemical sprays have been used, sometimes partially funded by donors, but, in recent years, donor funding for chemical pesticides has been withdrawn and, with the government unable to fund adequate provision, farmers have been left to either pay for pesticide application, or face the threat of total crop loss. In Zimbabwe, serious outbreaks of armyworm occur regularly, causing up to 90 percent losses of crops and pasture in some districts in bad years.

If the moths are present in a locality, outbreaks of the caterpillars can occur following a rainstorm. The rainstorm acts to concentrate and deposit the airborne moths. The moths subsequently lay eggs, which hatch into caterpillars. Outbreaks of the caterpillars are seen about two weeks after the rainstorm.

Migrant pests are a regional problem. Regional cooperation is, therefore, a necessity. Zimbabwe is a member of the International Red Locust Control Organisation of Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA) and the Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests (ICOSAMP), which monitors the pest situation in the region as well as giving forecasts.

farmers are being forced to shift from growing the usual drought tolerant small grain cereals to growing maize, which the birds do not eat. As a result, the crop failure rate has increased because the climate of these areas is too dry for normal maize growth. Quelea bird control

Several methods, including lethal and non-lethal ones have been used to control the birds but with only limited success. The non-lethal methods include scarecrows, noise making devices, slings to flame throwers, burning of roosts and colonies, and cutting trees harboring roosts and colonies. Lethal methods include chemicals and explosives. The non-lethal methods are limited in their application, given the shortage of labour in most agricultural settings, while explosives can only be applied in small areas. This leaves chemical control as the major intervention in highly infested areas, apart from growing crops that are not prone to quelea birds, such as cowpeas and maize. Recently the use of chemical poisoning, using fenthion (Queletox) in backpacks, vehicle mounted sprayer or by aerial spraying, has been on the increase. But this method has been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly. Another complaint is that some local communities eat the bird, so poisoning the birds may affect the people as well, thereby compounding the problem. There is, therefore, a need to strengthen capacity to enable forecasting and timely control to ensure the impact of quelea birds is minimised. The locusts fly with the wind at a speed of about 16 to 19 km/h depending on the wind, during daylight hours when air temperatures are above 26° C. Locusts can stay in the air for long periods of time. For example, the country recorded only a hazard in 1994 and in 1998, when swarms literally flew right over Zimbabwe and hence did not cause any significant damage. Locust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres. There can be between 40 million and 80 million locust adults in each square kilometre of swarm.

RED LOCUSTS Locusts are part of a large group of insects commonly called grasshoppers, which have large, strong hind legs for jumping. Locusts differ from other grasshoppers in that they have the ability to change their behaviour and habits, forming swarms of adults or bands of hoppers (wingless nymphs). The swarms that form can be dense and highly mobile and can migrate over large distances. The red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata) shares the subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae with other locusts, e.g. the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), the tree locust (Anacridium melanorhodon) and the bird locust (Ornithacris cavroisi) and it is sometimes mistaken for these other locusts.

Red billed quelea, the world’s most numerous bird. (Source: Kruger National Park, South Africa)

The quelea birds are confined to about 25 countries south of the Sahara, on the sahel and savannah regions. Queleas are found throughout Zimbabwe (Mundy and Herremmans, 1997). For example, between June and July 2005 they were found in Mazowe and Bindura districts, Mashonaland Central Province, Mashonaland West and Manicaland. Ten farms (390ha) were affected and crop damage ranged from 10 percent to 40 percent at the time of assessment of these regions (AREX, 2005) Breeding occurs entirely outside the country’s highveld region (Jarvis, 1989) and in natural reserves, starting in January after sufficient rains.

118

The red locust is a major pest in Central and Southern Africa. It breeds in wet grasslands all over sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, significant red locust outbreaks are known to occur on average, once in ten years (AREX, 2003). The main outbreak areas have been identified in Zambia, Tanzania and Malawi. Almost all of southern Africa was invaded during the last great widespread plague (1930 to 1944). Crops cultivated in breeding biotopes, like maize, rice, sugarcane, fruits, wild herbaceous species and trees such as acacias, eucalyptus and pines, were often attacked. These outbreak areas are reactivated, especially during dry years, in response to the reduced colonisable surface area available to this hygromesophilic locust, thus increasing population densities to above the critical phase transformation threshold. In invasion years, swarms can be distributed over a few hectares and up to hundreds of square kilometres. When populations reach high densities and become more crowded, swarms are formed. They change their behavior from that of acting as an individual (solitarious) insect to that of acting as part of a group (gregarious) and invade surrounding areas. The appearance of the locust also changes – solitary hoppers can become green or brown and gregarious hoppers are bright yellow and red-brown with black markings. Damage can be very severe, as this locust has a habit of razing crops to the ground. An adult locust can consume roughly its own weight in fresh food (i.e. about 2 grams) each day. A very small part of an average swarm (or about one tonne of locusts) eats the same amount of food in one day as about ten elephants or 2 500 people (Wikipedia, undated). Countless locusts make up a swarm. The damage that they are capable of inflicting is shown in the photographs below.

The red locust is easily identified by its typical body colour. The overall colour is a mixture of light beige and brown. It is never green. There are seven clear transversal brown bands on the elytra (thus explaining its species name ‘septemfasciata’) and its hindwings are red at their base. There are two typical wide lateral brown bands on the pronotum. (Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

A swarm of locusts

Moisture is a crucial factor for the red locusts. They actively seek moist environments in seasonal flood plains with large grassy lowlands and some tree cover. They are generally graminivorous. In farming zones, they often colonise grain crops, especially when the fields are hedged in with bush and when waste, and fallow lands are interspersed between the fields. Red locusts become sedentary when shelter, perches and food are available Control

At present, the primary method of controlling red locust swarms and hopper bands is by aerial spraying of a variety of chemicals, though organphosphate chemicals are commonly used. These chemicals are applied in small, concentrated doses, referred to as ultra low volume (ULV) formulation. Vehicle mounted sprayers and, to a lesser extent, knapsack and hand held sprayers are also used. These current control measures, which rely mainly on the use of broad spectrum chemical insecticides are largely successful, provided the locust populations are targeted in time. However, the breeding sites that are targeted are wetland areas, which represent rich sources of biodiversity and are of international conservation value. Thus, an alternative to conventional chemical control is urgently needed. Responsibility for red locust control rests with AREX at the local level but overall sub regional control and monitoring is done by the International Red Locust Control Organisation for Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA), which is based in Zambia 119

(Source: IITA)

Locust damage to sorghum crops (Source: Australian Plague Locust Commission)

CHAPTER 6 Technological Hazards Introduction Technological hazards are also referred to as human-made hazards. These are associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. They are also sometimes referred to as ‘anthropogenic’ hazards. As in most countries, development and population growth in Zimbabwe have contributed to an increase in technological hazards and accidents, which sometimes become disasters. They include hazardous materials accidents (e.g. oil or chemical spills), dam failure, industrial toxic waste spillage, industrial and domestic fires, occupational injuries, and road transportation accidents. This category also includes landmines planted by the Rhodesian security forces during the war of liberation, as the death toll from explosions of these mines has reached significant levels.

Transportation systems are designed to move people, goods and services efficiently, economically and safely from one point to another. Despite this broad goal, transportation systems also create hazards. Accelerated movement comes with risks, and the corresponding accidents that occur disrupt lives and transportation systems daily. Vehicles collide, trains derail, boats capsize, and aeroplanes crash. The transportation of hazardous materials brings about substantial involuntary risks to people along the route and to the environment. This sub-section looks at the road, rail, air and water transport accidents that occur in Zimbabwe. Road Traffic Accidents Road accidents are a serious problem throughout the world, in social, health and economic terms. But considering the huge numbers of passengers, the frequency of travel, and the vast distances covered, modern transport methods are relatively safe. Accidents, and occasionally disasters, happen if components or systems fail, or safety procedures are ignored. It is said that road accidents are the second largest cause of deaths among economically active people (fifteen to 44 years) in many countries, and the WHO considers the number of deaths to be of epidemic proportions. Indeed, between 50 and 200 people are killed each year for each million inhabitants in most developed as well as developing countries. While most countries on other continents have succeeded in checking and even reversing the number of road fatalities, current trends in Africa indicate that the carnage will increase with increasing motorisation, unless there is effective remedial action (Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas, 2000). Table 6.1 shows that, while about 10 percent of the road deaths in 1999 occured in Sub120

A coordinated approach to a transport accident. Different CPD organs recovering a bus that had plunged from a bridge near Mabvuku.

Saharan Africa, only 4 percent of the global vehicles are registered in this region. On the other hand, only 14 percent of road deaths occurred in the entire developed world (North America, Western Europe, Australasia and Japan) yet this region has 60 percent of all globally registered vehicles. In Zimbabwe, road traffic accidents are by far the most frequent type of disaster, at 71 percent of all disasters. These accidents constitute a major burden on the health delivery system, with 60 percent of national healthcare being consumed by the injuries and/or disabilities of victims of road accidents. Figures from the CSO in Table 6.2 show that there is at least one major national disaster a year involving the road and traffic. The 2002 statistics show that an average of 115 accidents is recorded a day and five to six people are killed. About 150 people are killed every month as a result of road traffic accidents. Table 6.1 Distribution of Estimated Road Deaths, Motor Vehicles and Population Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas (2000)

Region Sub Saharan Africa Developed World Asia/Pacific Central and Eastern Europe Latin America/Caribbean Middle East/North Africa

Fatalities 10% 14% 44% 12% 13% 07%

Motor Vehicles 04% 60% 16% 06% 14% 02%

Population 10% 15% 54% 07% 08% 05%

Zimbabwe has a very high rate of people killed on the road (11.1 per 100 000 inhabitants) compared to other states in the region, like Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya, as well as developed countries like Norway and Sweden. This may be attributed to the fact that the number of vehicles per 100 inhabitants in Zimbabwe is only surpassed by that in the developed countries.

Table 6.2 Zimbabwe Road Traffic Disaster Statistics, 1990-1998

Figures provided by the Central Statistical Office (CSO) indicate that, from 1980 to 2002, there has been an overall increase in road traffic accidents as well as in the number of people injured. Using the 1980 figure as the base figure, the number of road traffic accidents reached its peak of 270 percent in 1998 before dropping to 240 percent in 2002. The number of those injured increased to 160 percent by 2002. However, the number of road traffic deaths remained below the 1980 level for much of the period; it peaked at 80

CPD

Date

Type of Disaster

1/4/1990 1991 1/1/1993 1995 12/8/1995 12/4/1996 11/10/1997 5/1/1998 18/10/1998

Umzingwane Bus Disaster Matabeleland South 18 Nyanga Bus Disaster Manicaland 89 Popoteke Bus Disaster Masvingo 12 Runde River Bus Disaster Masvingo 17 Mbizi I Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 15 4 Musani Bridge Lorry Accident Manicaland 29 Mbizi Bus Accident Mashonaland East 38 Nyanga Bus Accident Manicaland 44 Suffocation Incident (Zimbabweans in an unventilated truck on their way to South Africa via Botswana). Botswana 18 Mvuma Bus Disaster Midlands 26 35 Chawasarira Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 36 -

24/11/1998 25/2/2000

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Province/Place

Deaths

Injuries

Figure 6.1 Road Fatalities Rates for Zimbabwe, Aftican Countries and Selected Developed Countries Assum et al (2000)

percent in 1998 before dropping to 50 percent or below for the rest of the period to 2002. In line with this, the number of those who die in relation to the injured has dropped slightly from 8.9 percent to 7.4 percent. The sharp drop following an all time peak in accidents in 1998 is most probably due to traffic police interventions which saw increased road traffic law

Fatalities per 10 000 vehicles per 100 000 inhabitants Vehicles per 100 inhabitants

Kenya 2 617 60 10 1.7

Mozambique 960 137 6 0.44

Tanzania 1663 66.1 5.6 0.8

Zimbabwe 1274 27 11.1 4.1

Table 6.3 Road Fatalities, Total and by Vehicles and Inhabitants, 1994-1999

Norway 303 1.2 6.8 58

enforcement and deterrent fines in the ensuing period. However, due to non revision of the fines in line with the current hyperinflationary environment, the value of the fine has been eroded to such an extend that in 2007 a motorist offender pays a road traffic fine that cannot buy a box of matches in a shop. Thus if it were not for the national fuel shortages, which limit the number of kilometres travelled per vehicle, the rise in accidents would have been higher than the figures displayed from the year 2001. Vulnerable road users – passengers, pedestrians and drivers – are the worst affected. Passengers account for the highest proportion of casualties followed by pedestrians (Figure 6.4). However, due to their high vulnerability, pedestrians account for the highest proportion of road fatalities, and the involvement of pedestrians is much greater in the urban environment than in rural areas. Passengers rank second and drivers account for a small share of road deaths.

Sweden 580 1.2 6.6 56

Figures for Kenya (1995), Tanzania (1995) and Zimbabwe (1994) from Assum (1998); Figures for Mozambique and Norway (1997) from Assum et al (1999); Figures for Sweden from National Road Administration (1999 and 2000)

Some of the most important factors known to increase the risk and/or severity of accidents are: Figure 6.2 Road Traffic Accident Statistics, 1980-2002 Zimbabwe Central Computing Services

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Figure 6.3 Public Transportation Disasters as a Percentage of 1980 Baseline

ROAD USER FACTORS These include poor driving standards, young and negligent drivers, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, ignorance of traffic rules and regulations leading to speeding, perilous overtaking, distraction of drivers by passengers, speaking on cell phones while driving, and reluctance to use safety devices such as safety belts and helmets.

Figure 6.4 Road Traffic Accident Casualties by Category, 1997-2002

VEHICLE FACTORS Including inadequate maintenance of vehicles (worn tyres leading to tyre bursts, poor brakes, non-functioning lights), overloading of public service vehicles and trucks, use of unsuitable vehicles for transport of passengers, and poor crashworthiness design.

It is generally acknowledged that human error and is an underlying cause of almost all accidents – in terms of observation, decision making and response to the situation at hand – including breaking highway regulations, speeding, overloading etc. Research in several countries concludes that human error is involved in over 90 percent of all road accidents and that only a small proportion of accidents can be directly attributed to vehicle defects, or faults in road design or maintenance. However, careful analyses of accidents have made it clear that accidents are often the result of a critical combination of several factors and that it is not always correct to pick out a single main cause. It may be more appropriate to use the concept of ‘accident contributing factors’ or ‘risk increasing factors’ to explain why an accident took place.

ROAD FACTORS Such as high or no speed limits and poor visual guidance, failure of traffic control signals, poorly controlled intersections and uncontrolled access, narrow roads, hilly terrain, poor alignment standards and poor maintenance of pavement and shoulders, and steep ditches and hard objects near the road. TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS These may include a mix of motorised and non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians, negligence of pedestrians, stray animals, poor traffic management and enforcement of the traffic code, darkness and inclement weather conditions, and inadequate emergency medical services. Economic pressure factors have also become more important following the liberalisation of road transport services, as intense competition for passengers has resulted in more speeding and reckless driving by drivers of public service vehicles. 123

Although the factors cited above are the most commonly reported in routine police statistics, there are broader, underlying and related factors contributing to the rising magnitude and burden of road traffic injuries. These include: · The rapid growth in motorisation and human population; · Increased spatial interaction of road traffic in terms of the volume and direction of movement; · Deficiencies and problems in road user behaviour; · Conditions and environment of work in the public transport sector, with special reference to buses and kombis; · The social and economic conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe; · Serious deficiencies in the development and maintenance of the road network; and · Deficiencies in road safety planning, management, enforcement and interventions. Road users are clearly the critical element in the system. Their behavior has to be addressed if significant gains in safety are to be achieved. Key factors are a basic understanding of the traffic system, and an ability to recognise and avoid danger, and to exercise safe behavior. Knowledge of the traffic system and how to behave in traffic can be improved through better education and publicity campaigns, and through better screening, training and testing of drivers. Screening, training and testing of drivers should ensure that those licensed to operate motorised vehicles fulfill certain minimum requirements with respect to physical and mental capabilities and practical skills, in particular for operators of public transport. In this context, it is important that the regulatory framework governing the transport industry take account of the potentially negative impact of competition on traffic safety by instituting appropriate countermeasures. Furthermore, there is a need for adequate regulations and testing of vehicles to ensure that they are properly designed, equipped, and maintained. Roads should also be designed and maintained in line with their function and the economic, safety and environmental criteria that have been adopted. Key aspects to be considered are the type of service to be facilitated (local access, collector/distributor, arterial) and type of road users to be accommodated.

Though all these factors contribute to higher accident risks and give a lead on where corrective actions may be taken, it is clear that any countermeasures need to be undertaken as a part of a comprehensive safety programme to be effective.

The first requirement for a safe traffic system is a framework of appropriate traffic laws and regulations and guidelines for proper behavior, and adequate education and publicity campaigns targeted at all road users of all ages and modes of participation. It has to be stressed that a driving license is not a birthright but a qualification.

Table 6.4 shows countermeasures adopted in Zimbabwe, relative to selected neighboring and developed countries. The data in the table indicate that Zimbabwe could benefit from lower speed limits in residential areas, as well as introducing mandatory seatbelt installation, especially now that the number of private cars is increasing rapidly. Some general preventive measures are applicable to different road users, as discussed below: DRIVERS have considerable responsibility for making sure that the vehicle they drive is fit to be taken on the road. This applies as much to other people’s vehicles that they drive, including hire cars, courtesy cars and those belonging to employers and friends, as it does to their own vehicle. They should check that the tax is up to date, that head and tail lights are working, that the tyres are properly inflated and have enough tread on them, and that the number plates match, front and back. Drivers are discouraged from speeding, as 124

It is important to take account of past experience of users’ perceptual and behavioral performance, to facilitate easy acquisition of information and decision making, and eliminate elements of surprise. Establishing suitable emergency medical care services is a very important safety measure.

Speed Limit Urban Rural BAC limit Mandatory seatbelts

Kenya Mozambique Tanzania

Zimbabwe

Norway Sweden

50 100 No No

60 100 0.08-0.15 Frontseats

30-50 90 0.05 Yes

50 No Drunk No

Table 6.4 Countermeasures in Zimbabwe Compared to Selected Countries, 1990s

A driver going for a drink or party should plan ahead and arrange alternative transport rather than driving drunk. Possible plans include sharing a taxi with friends, catching public transport or staying overnight at a friend’s place. Riding with a driver who hasn’t been drinking or arranging for a friend or relative to provide a lift are also good alternatives for someone who has been drinking alcohol.

Most accidents occur in urban areas speeds below 60km/h. Riders making selves visible by what they wear and positions they take up on the road is to safer motorcycling.

and at themby the critical

50 100 0.08 Frontseats

30-50 110 0.02 Yes

animals and humans can cross the road at any time. Avoid driving at night if possible and stay alert at all times, as roads are often poorly maintained with frequent potholes, especially during the rainfall season.

The driver should always wear a seatbelt and, if they have children with them, use approved child restraints, which provide excellent protection for children should there be an accident. Children should not be carried in the arms of another passenger because, in the event of a crash, the child will be thrown around the vehicle interior or thrown out of the vehicle. A few minutes of undisturbed sleep will work against fatigue. CYCLISTS are a very vulnerable category of road user, notwithstanding the provision of cycle tracks and cycle lanes in some places, and advanced stop lines at junctions. The visibility of cyclists by drivers remains a great problem. They should wear reflective or light coloured clothing at night. A common type of accident involving cyclists occurs when a motorist turns across the path of the cyclist or pulls into their path or when the cyclist hit from the rear. As a person falls from their cycle, the head is the part of the body likely to come into contact with the ground or a hard surface first. MOTORCYCLISTS are particularly vulnerable to not being seen because they are a relatively small object but moving at speed. Sometimes they may not be seen because of the weather conditions or time of day; sometimes it may be because riders wear dark clothing; and sometimes it may be because a driver’s visibility is obscured, say by a windscreen pillar. Although motorcyclists make up only a very small percentage of all motor traffic they account for considerable number of deaths and serious injuries. By law both riders and pillion passengers must wear a protective helmet. PEDESTRIANS due to their large numbers, are by far the most significant road users. They are the most vulnerable, in the case of accidents involving other faster, larger and more solid road users. These can inflict disastrous consequences on pedestrians, either maiming or killing them. Pedestrians can, however, minimise accidents by observing the following: • Report (habitual) speeding drivers to the police, • Use pedestrian zebra crossing points, • Use the right side of the road, so as to face on-coming traffic, • Avoid crossing the road at curves and blind rises, • Cross traffic light controlled intersections only when the light is green for pedestrians, • Look out for traffic turning right or left when crossing both controlled and uncontrolled intersections, • Discourage drivers from drinking or taking dangerous drugs when driving, • Do not board vehicles being driven by someone who is suspected to be drunk, • Avoid cutting and repairing fences along highways, and 125

•

Do not gather close to an accident site (the vehicles might be carrying hazardous substances could explode).

There are specific laws and penalties in Zimbabwe for driving under the influence of either alcohol or drugs. The Zimbabwe Police have the power to: • Stop drivers at random to test for the presence of alcohol in their system; • Arrest drivers who test over the legal limit; • Require a driver to undergo a sobriety test in certain circumstances; and • Arrest drivers they believe are affected by drugs for the purpose of blood testing. Rail accidents Zimbabwe has experienced a significant number of train disasters over the years. Recent accidents of note occurred involving the Bulawayo-Victoria Falls train in October 2000 and the Dete train disaster of February 2003. In both of these accidents, several hundreds of people were either maimed or killed. Other accidents involving the daily commuter trains in both Harare and Bulawayo also occur regularly. Although the annual deaths in train collisions and other rail accidents are much smaller than the number of deaths on the roads, these rail accidents have traumatised the whole nation when they occurred. Although the volumes of rail traffic are also much lower than road traffic, in terms of deaths per passenger kilometre travelled, railway transport is still several times safer than transport by car or bus. The risk of a train collision is greatly amplified as soon as more than one train shares a track. The rails are made of iron, as are the train’s wheels. This significantly reduces friction, meaning that when travelling at speed, trains take a long time to stop. By the time a driver has seen a hazard ahead it is often too late to apply the brakes in time. For this reason, the railways have developed signaling systems to warn the driver, and back up systems to stop the train if the warnings or signals are ignored. These provide opportunities for preventing accidents but, if they are absent or ignored, collisions may still occur. Train to train collisions are not the only type of train crashes. Trains can collide with other objects on the line (animals, people, cars, parts of structures) or can derail because of track, train or operator failure. All have been significant factors in major train crashes in Zimbabwe in the past decade. Possible measures to reduce rail accidents include: • •

•

Discouraging vandalism of rail equipment, including signals and railway lines. If these are vandalised, they should be replaced as soon as possible. Embracing a spectrum of measures to prevent trains coming into conflict. This includes managing unreliability, as lack of punctuality is a major cause of trains coming into conflict. Making trains more punctual would significantly reduce conflicts as well as improving service quality. Improving signals and other means of helping the driver manage the train more safely. This may involve sourcing improved and state of the art warnings systems that will enable drivers to do better in avoiding detected hazards ahead. 126

Wreckage of NRZ coaches following the Dete train disaster, which resulted in the loss of at least 38 people (Source:CPD)

Figure 6.5 Events that Lead to Train Accidents Adapted from ERTMS (2003)

• •

Providing enhanced back up systems in case the driver lapses or makes an error. Improving people’s chances of surviving a collision through measures to reduce casualties if mistakes are made and collisions occur. Newer trains with better brakes and crashworthiness represent the railways’ main opportunity in this area for reducing risk.

Water transport accidents There are also other factors that could exacerbate train collision risk. Increasing traffic and congestion leads to more chances of trains competing for line space. Unreliability is a major cause of potential conflicts; as soon as one train makes an unscheduled stop, many others behind will have to do likewise. Therefore, measures to improve punctuality, reduce congestion, and improve network management when the timetable is disrupted, all have an important part to play in reducing collision risk.

Boat accidents include submersion and drowning due to boats overturning or becoming submerged, and people falling or jumping from damaged watercraft. Although these types of accidents occur in Zimbabwe, they have not reached alarming levels due to the limited number of people who use boats. Of particular note is the Chivero boat disaster in 1995 when 22 students from Moleli Secondary School perished in a boat accident that was attributable to overloading of the boat. Since most boat accidents can be at least partially attributed to the actions of the Captain, prevention measures are mostly the Captain’s responsibility, although it is acknowledged that passengers at times contribute to accidents. The Captain should: • Never overload the boat; • Have a good lighting system at night and make sure lights are working before leaving port; • Avoid sailing when there are high waves (there may be a lake Captain who can be contacted to check weather it is safe to commence a journey); • Avoid areas infested with water animals e.g. hippos; • Avoid sailing near the banks, and follow designated routes as obstructions like tree stumps may not be visible; • Wear a life jackets and provide life jackets for all passengers; and • Have basic swimming and life saving skills.

Air transport accidents Zimbabwe has not had any significant air transport disasters. Incidents have been limited to a few forced landings, and delayed takeoffs due to technical faults. Air transport faces the greatest hazard from wind. A violent down draft from a thunderstorm (microburst) on takeoff or landing is one example, but 127

any exceptionally large local wind gradient (wind shear) can affect lift adversely at low altitudes. In many air disasters, wind is considered the primary contributing factor. Small aircraft are much more vulnerable to storms and are often warned to completely avoid them. An airport wind-warning system generally consists of a set of anemometers, the output of which is analysed by computer. A warning is issued when levels differ by some predetermined threshold. Prevention of air traffic accidents would be assisted through improved weather forecasting, which is generally viewed as the principal means for reducing hazards, and regular maintenance and repair of aircraft. DRIVER FATIGUE Fatigue can severely impair judgment and it can affect anyone. It is particularly dangerous because one of the symptoms is decreased ability to judge one’s own level of tiredness. Other symptoms vary between individuals but may include boredom manifested in yawning often, feeling irritable, restlessness, drowsiness, tired or sore eyes and slow reactions. Fatigue can include poor concentration with some micro sleeps, leading in the case of road traffic to missing road signs, making fewer and larger steering corrections and having difficulty in staying in the correct lane. It is important to note that driver fatigue is not simply a function of time spent in control of the vehicle but relates to many factors, including hours since last sleep (hours of wakefulness) and time of day or night. Fatal crashes in which fatigue is identified as a factor are more likely to occur late at night and in the early hours of the morning. Most of all, fatal fatigue accidents occur during public holidays when people tend to stay out late and during school holidays when drivers are overworked to cater for the increased number of passengers. USE OF MOBILE PHONES It is not safe to be in control of a vehicle while using a hand held mobile phone, either when talking, sending or receiving text messages, playing games or taking photos. It is also not safe to perform these activities when the vehicle is stopped but not parked, for example, while waiting at traffic lights. A hands-free device can reduce the physical effort to make and receive calls but it doesn’t necessarily make it safe to use a phone while driving because it is still easy to lose proper control of the vehicle.

Prevention of air traffic accidents would be assisted through improved weather forecasting, which is generally viewed as the principal means for reducing hazards, and regular maintenance and repair of aircraft.

Most fatal fatigue accidents occur during public holidays when people tend to stay out late and during school holidays when drivers are overworked to cater for the increased number of passengers.

SPEEDING Speeding increases both the risk of an accident and the severity of the accident. The risk of a crash in an urban 60km/h speed zone causing death or injury increases rapidly even with relatively small increases of speed. The key issue in speeding related crashes is the fact that most motorists underestimate the distance needed to stop. A car travelling at 60 km/h in dry conditions takes about 38 metres to stop. A car travelling at 72 km/h needs an extra 12 metres. Zimbabwean acts and laws for teachers to familiarise themselves with There are various Acts and regulations, including Statutory Instruments, that govern the use and movement of vehicles, and the control of roads and road traffic. Some of these are: • The Road Traffic Act, Chapter 13:11; • The Road Traffic (Licensing of Drivers) Regulations RGN 240/77; • The Road and Road Traffic (Construction Equipment and Use) Regulations RGN 412/72; 128

For those intending to use a phone in their vehicle, it is possible to minimise the risk by; • Making sure the hands-free phone is set up and working before taking off, • Keeping conversations short and not engaging in complex or emotional conversations, • Telling the person on the other end that one is driving and may have to end the call; • Never sending text messages (SMS) while driving, and • Ending the call if it is distracting from driving.

• •

The Road Traffic (Rules of the Road) Regulations RGN 308/74; and The Road Motor Transportation Act 1/97.

Traffic Related Hazards Rain, fog, dust, smoke, sunlight and darkness are transportation hazards that compromise the vision of system users. Smoke from wildfires routinely disrupts roadways in the dry season, especially when the wind blows the smoke across the road. Darkness also has a significant effect on road safety, especially when combined with fog, smoke or dust. Fog has been known to cause spectacular road accidents involving several vehicles on a roadway. Rain is a common hazard that compromises visibility and the quality of a road, rail or BOX 6.1 ZIMBABWE BUS CRASH KILLS 11

A truck that skidded off the road after heavy rains. Such occurrences are common during the first rains of the season as the roads are particularly slippery due to accumulated oil spillage on busy roads during the dry season. (Source: CPD)

airport surface, particularly during the wet months of the year. The braking distance of vehicles is drastically increased in wet weather due to the slipperiness of roads and oil spills that accumulate on the road surface during the dry season increase slipperiness. In a road network context, skidding is the most common explanation for accidents that occur from these hazards. The photograph below shows a truck that skidded off and dangerously blocked the road. It is fortunate that there were no other road users nearby, otherwise a more serious accident could have occurred. Heavy rain may also cause occasional malfunctioning of traffic lights due to power cuts caused by lightning strikes on power stations. Flooded rivers as a result of rain may also sweep away buses and cars, and railway lines might be weakened due to erosion of underlying structures by rain.

Landslides and rock falls Weather induced geomorphic hazards that commonly affect transportation corridors include landslides and rockfalls. These are mostly found along long stretches of winding road or railway that travel through areas with rock faces and steep slopes in mountainous terrain. Some examples of such portions of roads are found along the Shurugwi-Shabani road (Boterekwa), the HarareMutare Road (Christmas Pass) and the Harare-Chirundu road. These hazards can damage or reduce the serviceability of infrastructure, crush or bury vehicles, and result in death. In some cases they occur with little or no warning, but they are typically preceded by intense rain. In the year 2000, rocks and soil on hilltops shifted positions during the torrential rains of tropical cyclone 129

Eline and moved onto the road in the Boterekwa area, rendering it impassable for several hours.

Wind

Landslides can also be earthquake induced.

Wind is a significant hazard to road, water, and air transport. Gusts, eddies, lulls, and changes in wind direction are often greatest near the ground in extreme wind episodes (Perry and Symons, 1994). In these episodes, the majority of fatalities are generally transport related. Wind hazard can be divided into three categories – direct interference with a vehicle, obstructions, and indirect effects. Direct interference includes its effects on vehicle steering, which may push one vehicle into another or run a vehicle off the road. Extreme winds can overturn high sided trucks when the wind vector is orthogonal to the direction of travel because the force of the wind is proportional to the vehicle area presented (Baker, 1988). Wind can impede transport by blowing dust or smoke across a road, thus reducing visibility. It can also blow trees and other debris onto a road or railway and create temporary obstacles. Overall, wind can impede transport operation or damage vehicles and infrastructure, all of which can result in economic impacts, as well as injuries and fatalities.

Road hazards that are particularly unpredictable in behavior:

School children, wildlife and domestic animals School children, wildlife and domestic animals are familiar hazards to most drivers because of many warning signs along roadways. The playfulness and lack of experience of school children makes them unpredictable and hence a particular hazard in urban areas. The animal hazard especially, has been significantly amplified by the cutting of fences along highways that prohibited animals from straying into the road. Common examples of animal hazards include donkeys in both the Matabeleland provinces. These have become a menace to motorists, especially those who use the Masvingo-Beitbridge highway. Animal accidents typically result in vehicle damage, but they can also result in injury or death.

a) Wild animals

A combination of most of the factors mentioned above has resulted in several areas being demarkated as black sports due to the high frequency of occurrences of road accidents. Of particular note is a stretch along Simon Mazorodze road on which about half of the road traffic accidents in the Harare municipal area occurs. The other notorious site is the stretch between the 183 and 210 km pegs along the Harare-Gweru road. Preventive measures in response to the traffic related hazards discussed include: • Being wary of slippery roads; • During a storm, stopping and parking, and proceeding with caution only when the storm is over; • Driving with extreme caution in mountainous regions and looking out for rockfalls and landslides; • Watching for fallen trees or power lines on the road; • Keeping windscreen wipers in perfect condition to facilitate road vision; • Not crossing flooded rivers, as water can easily sweep away a car or even a loaded bus; 130

b) School children

c) Domestic animals

About 50 percent of the accidents in Harare municipality area occur along this stretch shown left (below) and right (bottom), of Simon Mazorodze Road.

• • •

Listening to weather forecast to gain an idea of where heavy rains are expected; Paying head to the crosswalk system that forces animals to cross at specific areas which are clearly marked for motorists; and Not being swept away in the excitement of the Christmas and New Year holidays, which happen to be during the peak of the rainfall season.

Hazardous Substances From industrial chemicals and toxic waste, through fuels, to household detergents and air fresheners, hazardous substances are part of our everyday lives. Urban, suburban, and rural communities located near the country’s major transportation corridors, especially those to the border posts, are subject to higher probability of a significant hazardous substances release. This is because hazardous material is continuously being transported from one point to the other and most commonly across borders. Hazards also exist during the production, storage, use and disposal of these substances, as well as their transportation over bodies of water, wetlands and environmentally sensitive areas, and through densely populated centres. Hazardous substance incidents can range from a chemical spill on a highway to the contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring methane gas. Natural disasters, like floods and earthquakes, might also cause spills. The combination of possible sources of exposure to our sizable population and workforce presents complex problems. It is difficult to find a home, school, hospital or place of business in this modern society that is not vulnerable to the possibility of a hazardous substance release. In fact, there is greater potential for disaster arising from the use or movement of hazardous substances, than from most other technological hazards. For example a whole community is more likely to be affected by a toxic gas leak than by deaths and injuries caused in a major transport accident.

Contamination of the environment can be by, for example, • Cynide, a chemical used in gold processing which can leak and contaminate water sources, • Lead, found in batteries and, to lesser extent in fuel, which can also contaminate the environment, • Dioxins, which are chemicals found in the oil of transformers and from burning plastics at temperatures below 1 000o C and tend to remain in the environment and pollute the atmosphere, or • Radioactive substances, which can cause instant death or long term health effects. • Poisoning, through ingestion or inhalation, which can be accidental or deliberate in suicide cases, of poisons or toxic agents, including drugs, industrial chemicals, pesticides, medical chemicals used in health and veterinary services, vector control chemicals, and general chemicals. Poisoning can also occur through consumption of damaged or expired tinned foods. Deliberate poisoning, using rat poison, elephant flower or an overdose of norolone malaria tablets is fairly common.

Hazardous substances are those that, because of their chemical nature, pose a potential risk to life, health or property if they are released. They present a direct or indirect threat to human health or the environment through any of the following means: •

•

Risks associated with highly explosive and inflammable substances, such as acetylene used in welding, petrol and liquid petroleum gas, methane gas from coal and garbage dump sites, mercury compounds, nitrates, and peroxides, and chemicals that evolve/absorb oxygen during storage. Formation of a toxic cloud that is not always visible, and may or may not smell, e.g. ammonia, which has a strong smell and forms a cloud, and corrosive chemicals – strong acids and alkalis, peroxides like nitric acid, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids that also produce toxic fumes.

Chemical plants are one source of hazardous substances, but there are many others. National Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NICOZ) fuel pipelines run through some rural areas and towns from Mutare to Harare and an incident occurred in Epworth, Harare in which pit sand poachers discovered three burst NOCZIM fuel pipes in Msasa. They started taking the fuel to their homes in large containers where they either sold it to commuter omnibus operators or stored it in their homes (The Herald, 21 June 2006). Residents of the area were fortunate that this highly inflammable liquid did not catch fire, burning the whole of Epworth suburb with it. 131

Hazardous substance spills

Spills usually happen in the course of routine daily business wherever hazardous substances are handled or transported. There are many facilities with hazardous substances located in the country’s cities and towns. Business types that commonly use hazardous substances include hospitals, schools, metal plating and finishing companies, public utilities, cold storage companies, the fuel industries, the communications industry, chemical distributors, research institutes, and high technology firms. The majority of releases that occur during regular business happen at fixed facilities. Many towns have very large fuel storage areas accommodating above ground storage and pipelines for fuel transfers from tankers. Local service stations store petrol and diesel fuel, while hospitals store a range of radioactive and flammable substances. Incidents would produce severe fire hazards and enormous environmental damage. While the majority of incidents involve petroleum products, a significant number also involve other extremely hazardous substances. Extremely hazardous substances are those substances that may do irreversible damage or cause death to people, or harm the environment when released or used outside their intended use. Examples are ammonia, chlorine and sulfuric acid. The photographs below show an example of a hazardous material accident during transportation. Many of these events are not reported or go undetected. Hazardous substances may also be released as a secondary result of natural disasters like earthquakes and floods. In either case, buildings or vehicles can release the hazardous substances they contain when they are structurally compromised. Pipelines can be exposed or ruptured from collapsed embankments, road washouts, bridge collapses, and fractures in roadways. Classification of hazardous substances

Under the Hazardous Substances Act (HSA), chemicals are classified into three groups: 1 Banned or severely restricted chemicals. There are twelve chemicals in this group. 2 Mainly toxic chemicals requiring registration before marketing and use. They are widely used in industry and agriculture. When using Group II chemicals, one must be over 16 years, not pregnant, wearing protective clothing, and appraised of the safety procedures associated with use of the particular chemical. Group II chemicals shall not be stored together with food or feeds. They have green, amber, red or purple labels and the order of toxicity increases from green, through amber and red, to purple in that order, i.e. green labels are used for the least toxic chemicals, while purple labels are used for the highly toxic chemicals (Figure 6.7). 3 General domestic, laboratory and industrial chemicals and detergents, veterinary remedies, alcohols (green triangle) pesticides and organic acids. These do not require special arrangements prior to marketing or use although they are all potentially toxic. Impacts

Hazardous substances spills might cause the short term or long term evacuation of an affected area. Depending on the nature of the spill and local weather 132

Figure 6.6 Examples of Signs Indicating Hazardous Substances

Warning signs for poisons, particularly pesticides, are as follows:

Figure 6.7 HSA Colour Classification of Group II and III Chemicals

CPD officials neutralising the spill of a whole tanker of sulphuric acid along Chinhoyi road.

conditions, residences, businesses, hospitals, schools, nursing homes, and roadways may be evacuated or closed to traffic until cleanup can be affected. Prevention and management of hazardous substance accidents At the national level, the Hazardous Substances and Articles Office and the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) jointly monitor the importation of all national chemicals. Internationally, the UN Globally Harmonised System (GHS) provides standards for labelling of chemicals that are in transit under SI 262 of 1984 (Transportation of Hazardous Substances by Road Tankers). Under the GHS each chemical has a substance identity number, an emergency action code and a hazard warning. The driver of such a tanker has to carry an emergency procedure card, use direct routes and avoid heavily populated areas. The tanker must not be used as a transit storage facility.

•

(Source: CPD, 2006)

• • •

•

•

• • • The colors are user friendly and well appreciated by the common person. Group II chemicals should be kept in their original containers and repackaging is strictly discouraged. Disposal of containers should be carried out as per label instruction. Group II premises should be regularly inspected

• •

For individuals, during a hazardous substances incident: • If you witness (or smell) a hazardous substances release, call police or your local emergency number, or the fire department as soon as safely possible. • Stay away from the incident site to minimise the risk of contamination. • If you are caught outside during an incident, try to stay upstream, uphill, and upwind. Remember that gases and mists are generally heavier than air and hazardous substances can quickly be transported by water and wind. In general, try to go at least a kilometre from the danger area. If you are in a motor vehicle, stop and find shelter in a permanent building if possible. If you must remain in your car, keep the car windows and vents closed and shut off the air conditioner and heater. If asked to evacuate your home, do so immediately. If you are told to stay indoors (shelter-in-place) rather than evacuate, follow all instructions given by emergency authorities. In addition; Get household members and pets inside as quickly as possible and close and lock all exterior doors and windows before closing vents, fireplace dampers, and as many interior doors as possible, Turn off air conditioners and ventilation systems and, if possible in a large building, have the building superintendent set all ventilation systems to 100 percent recirculation so that no outside air is drawn into the building, If authorities warn of the possibility of an outdoor explosion, close all drapes, curtains, and shades in the room, and stay away from windows to prevent injury from breaking glass, Avoid contact with spilled liquids, airborne mists and powders, and condensed solid chemical deposits, Keep your body fully covered to provide some protection with gloves, socks, shoes, pants and a long sleeved shirt, Prevent your animals from coming into contact with any spilled substances, as most animals will groom themselves by licking and may ingest toxins this way, Do not eat food or drink water that may have been contaminated, and Be prepared to turn off the main water intake valve in case authorities advise you to do so. 133

After a hazardous substances incident be aware that a person or item that has been exposed to a hazardous chemical may be contaminated and could contaminate other people or items. If you or your animals have come in contact with or have been exposed to hazardous chemicals, you should seek and follow decontamination instructions from local authorities. Depending on the chemical, you may be advised to take a thorough shower, or you may be advised to stay away from water and follow another procedure. Landmine Hazards In many parts of the world where wars have been fought, landmines that were laid by warring parties continue to claim lives many years afterwards. Because landmines are inexpensive, they have been distributed in huge numbers and randomly. Worse still, most of the individuals who lay them do not keep records. In Zimbabwe during the liberation struggle, the Rhodesian Army, short of soldiers, felt that a mined border would address both the personnel shortage as well as the intensifying military threat from freedom fighters. Hence they laid millions of anti-personnel mines along the borders of Mozambique and Zambia between 1976 and 1979. This sub-section offers teachers an opportunity to learn about landmines – the facts, the issues, the dangers and the preventive measures against them. While the local landmine community acknowledges a reduction in the number of landmines and related casualties, it remains ever mindful that landmines

Get medical treatment for unusual symptoms as soon as possible or, if medical help is not immediately available and you think you might be contaminated: · Remove all of your clothing and shower thoroughly (unless local authorities advise you to do otherwise); · Change into fresh, loose clothing and get medical help as soon as possible; · Place exposed clothing and shoes in tightly sealed containers, for example plastic bags without allowing it to come into contact with other substances and call local authorities to find out about proper disposal; · Advise everyone who comes into contact with you that you may have been exposed to a toxic substance; · Find out from local authorities how to clean up your land and property; and · Report any lingering vapours or other hazards to your local emergency services office.

BOX 6.2 30 000L TANKER ACCIDENT

134

SULPHURIC ACID SPILT IN

Of all the remnants of the war of liberation, anti-personnel land mines are the most widespread and pernicious. Minefields constitute a unique but significant threat to a whole society. Their wartime mandate, to kill and injure, to arrest the mobility of opponents and to sow seeds of uncertainty and chaos during a time of war have not yet been given up. They were placed in locations that guarantee detonation by the civilian population and they continue to fulfill their destructive mission of crippling the society’s infrastructure, even two and half decades after independence.

are still killing and injuring thousands of unsuspecting people, and that a great deal of effort lies ahead if this terrible humanitarian tragedy is to be overcome. With continued efforts towards mine free status and sustained commitment and cooperation from the landmine community, the landmine risk is within local capacity to reduce. Therefore, teachers in mine infested areas are asked to redouble their determination to meet the challenge. Political will by the government to eradicate landmines has been shown by the signing the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997 and its ratification on 18 June 1998. The border minefields still contain several thousands of mines and continue to kill or maim not only livestock and game, but women, men and children going about their daily lives. Communities in the affected areas are faced with the choice of attempting to earn their livelihood in the face of this danger or resettle elsewhere and the latter has not proven a realistic solution. Thus the presence of unexploded land mines constitutes one of the most significant barriers to sustainable development in the country today. They affect agriculture in particular. On the Zambia-Zimbabwe border, for example, in the face of starvation and malnutrition, one million acres of land has been almost totally deserted because it was so heavily mined during the war. Land mines are commonly hidden in farmer’s fields, and on roads and paths. Because the minefields are mostly in remote parts of the country, medical facilities and rehabilitation services are in poor condition meaning that landmine casualties have had little chance for survival while survivors have no hope for rehabilitation and reintegration into the society. The nature of landmines Anti-personnel land mines are small, inexpensive munitions designed to detonate either by being stepped on directly or by the pulling of a trip-wire con-

BOX 6.3 ZIMBABWE MINE CLEARING SUCCESS STORY

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Figure 6.8 Distribution of Landmines in Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA)

nected to them. Therefore, they are designed to kill or injure anyone who comes into contact with them. Mines are commonly manufactured from plastic and are difficult to detect with standard metal sensing mine detection equipment. In addition to being dangerous, mine clearing is a very long and expensive process. Therefore, areas may remain mined for many years. Landmines can be distinguished from other explosive ordinance as outlined below: BOMB Explosive weapon detonated by impact or a timing mechanism. LANDMINE An explosive device often buried or submerged and designed to be detonated by contact or time fuse OR Ammunition placed under, or near the ground or other surface area and designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or vehicle. PROJECTILE Fired, thrown or otherwise propelled object such as a bullet OR A self propelled missile such as a rocket. In addition to mines, areas that were active in the war are contaminated with unexploded ordnance (UXO) – grenades, mortar and artillery shells, bombs, rockets, and cluster bombs. These may have been hidden or failed to detonate, leaving a deadly legacy of unstable explosives waiting to be triggered in the same way as a landmine. Landmine casualty trends

The statistics in Figure 6.9, below show that the number of those either killed or injured is falling, as more and more people become aware of the dangers of the minefields. However, efforts should be stepped up to clear the entire mine infested areas so that the country is spared this hazard. 136

The total stretch of minefields in Zimbabwe is approximately 700 kilometres and there are about 210 square kilometres of mined land. Figure 6.8 shows the following stretches of land to be, or to have been, landmine infested: 1 2 3 4 5 6

Victoria Falls to Mlibizi, 220 km (now totally cleared), Musengezi to Rwenya River, 335 km (only 130 km cleared) Sheba Forest to Beacon Hill, 50 km; Burma Valley, 3 km; Rusitu to Muzite Mission, 75 km; and Sango Border Post to Limpopo River, 50 km (being cleared as of 2007).

R2M2, An anti-personnel mine which is very common in Africa

Preventive measures in known minefields

Do not ignore the warning shown in Figure 6.10. It shows the presence of mines in the vicinity. Avoid travelling in areas of known landmine risk and, if you must do so, ask local people, especially farmers and animal herders, about areas you are unsure of. However, do not trust local people blindly. It is possible they know less than they claim or they may simply have become used to the presence of mines. The precautionary measures to take while driving are: • Follow previous tyre tracks and never drive on an unknown road or where no one seems to have driven before; • If following another vehicle, leave plenty of space between them and you; • Avoid detours, e.g. do not leave the road or turn around if a vehicle or obstacle bars the way but reverse to a known safe area; and • Stay close to vehicles when stationary and do not wander off the track or road. If you encounter a mine while walking: • STOP all movement immediately and warn those who are with you to do the same; • Keep as calm as possible and prevent others from panicking; • Examine the immediate area where you are standing for any visual signs of mines or trip wires; and • Visually identify a route to safe ground, retracing your steps precisely if the ground is soft enough to have retained your footprints.

POMZ-2M, An anti-personnel fragmentation stake mine

TMM 1, Anti-tank mine (left). Death lurks beneath the ground: Even the step of a small child will unconditionally trigger this anti-personnel mine (right). (Source: Mines Eyes-Improvement of Mine Detection)

Warning: •

•

Knowing what a landmine looks like does not necessarily mean you will be able to locate mines in the field. Landmines are often buried, disguised or simply difficult to see.

Landmines are indiscriminate. Everyone is vulnerable

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If you do discover a landmine or ordinance: • In landmine infested areas, do not touch or experiment with any suspicious objects; • Do not be tempted to collect souvenirs; • NEVER attempt to dismantle a mine or ordinance; • Never touch an ordinance or mine found lying around or try to move it; • Do not try to detonate it by any means; • Vacate any building or area suspected to have been planted with any explosive device; and • Report to the police or to army personnel if a suspicious object is found. Table 6.5 Landmines and Unexploded Ordinance Incidents, 1980-2004

Incident

Total Number

People killed by mines and UXOs People maimed by mines and UXOs Animals killed by mines UXOs attended to

810 1 560 tens of thousands 3 692

Electricity Hazards The unsafe use of electricity can give rise to electrical accidents. To those who are unskilled and inexperienced in electrical work, electricity is a source of potential danger. Electrical hazards, unlike many mechanical hazards, are not usually obvious. A live conductor does not differ in appearance from a dead conductor, and the lack of earthing of metal enclosure or casing may pass unnoticed until it is too late, when it is touched and found to be dangerously alive. An electric shock can cause death within a few seconds. Figure 6.11 illustrates the frequency of electrical accidents in Zimbabwe. Main causes of electrical accidents Well designed and installed electrical accessories and appliances are perfectly safe and, if properly maintained, will remain so. However, a number of people are electrocuted each year, including fatally, in domestic and other premises, mainly due to carelessness, disregard for basic safety rules, or lack of proper maintenance. Many of the deaths could be avoided if due care were exercised in both the use and maintenance of electrical accessories, plant and appliances. It should be noted that it is extremely dangerous to: · Use an appliance if it is not certain that the outside metal casing or portions are properly earthed. If in any doubt, consult a qualified electrician 138

Figure 6.9 Annual Deaths and Injuries from Landmines, 19802004 Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA)

Figure 6.10 A Common Mine Warning Sign in Southern Africa

·

·

or contact the nearest ZESA Offices. The use of all-insulated and double insulated appliances is strongly recommended because of their inbuilt safety. Pull out a plug by the flex (cord). Always switch off the appliance first then switch off the socket outlet and finally take hold of the plug itself and withdraw it from the outlet. Touch a light switch, socket outlet, electrical appliance or the flex with wet hands. The skin’s resistance is lower when wet and any leaking current will take the least line of resistance to earth. This could be fatal.

BOX 6.3 FACTS ABOUT LANDMINES

· ·

· ·

Have long flexes. They can become unsafe, especially if they are frayed or chaffed. Roll flex up so tightly that it becomes twisted. The wires may become broken; if it is the earth that breaks then the appliance connected becomes highly dangerous if an earth fault should develop. Should the broken wires develop a resistive fault between them and the fuse or the main switch fail to switch off, then over heating will occur at the fault and a fire may result. Lay flexes under carpets or through floors, walls, windows and doors. They may overheat and cause a fire or become damaged and lethal. Use multi-way adaptors to supply several appliances from a single socket

Figure 6.11 Reported Fatal and Non Fatal Accidents Involving Electricity, 2000-2005

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outlet. Overloading of the circuit is invariable and if, for some reason, the fuse or main switch does not operate, then a fire could result. The answer is to have more socket outlets. Remove switch covers and not replacing them immediately afterwards, or to leave a broken cover on a switch. Fit a new cover as soon as possible. Always switch off at the distribution board before working on any circuit.

Accidents with high voltage equipment Many accidents occur on the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority’s plant and equipment involving members of the public. It is highly recommended that people avoid interfering with ZESA’s power lines and other equipment, as this is a hazard which may result in severe injury or death. Parents and schools are requested to educate children and pupils respectively, not to climb poles, fences or any structure belonging to ZESA since such structures are usually associated with high voltages and contact with or even being near to live parts could result in severe injury or death. The following should be guarded against: · Climbing of poles carrying powerlines or trees that are close to powerlines. Many accidents occur in rural areas where powerlines are being installed and the locals, not familiar with the electrical hazard, climb the structures. In towns, where fruit trees sometimes grow under powerlines, people can be electrocuted while harvesting the fruit. · Scaling of substation fences or entering substations. Some people damage padlocks and gain access into the substation to seek accommodation. These premises are a hazard to enter. · Interfering with high voltage equipment. If a powerline has been damaged during a storm, members of the public should not interfere with the damaged line and structures and these should be regarded as live. · Vandalising electrical infrastructure. Theft of conductors is on the increase and, in some cases, the wooden poles are cut, exposing members of the public to danger. Acts of vandalism are frequent, including draining of transformer oil and removal of earthing copper conductors. Theft of cross members from powerline towers for the purpose of making scotch carts also takes place and this could result in the structures failing and falling. Black outs would then be experienced and the restoration of power could take some time. Where the earthing system has been removed, consumer equipment can also be damaged. · Carrying metallic irrigation pipes or other long objects vertically under power lines. Industrial Hazards Industrial hazards must have started when humans began making and using hand tools. They occur wherever there is industrial activity. The hazards have intensified as humans progressed from the stone age, through the iron age and the industrial revolution, up to the current time of modern computerised industrial production. Obviously the iron age had its own problems, associated with ore mining, smelting, casting and the fabrication of tools and utensils. When we look at the Great Zimbabwe we see a magnificent monument but we do not know the cost in terms of human life and limb during the construction phase. In the 1950s, more than a hundred lives were lost during 140

It is also very dangerous to: · Plug an appliance into a lamp holder unless it is small and double insulated, such as a cell phone charger. Earth continuity is immediately lost and the appliance, should an earth fault develop, becomes potentially lethal. · Clean around switches or socket outlets with a wet cloth. Use a dry duster and do not assume that, because they were fault free yesterday, the same conditions exist today. · Leave an electric heater switched on close to furniture. Do not lose your belongings, home or possibly a human life for the sake of two or three minutes of discomfort while the room warms up. · Take portable electrical appliances into your bathroom. Favourites are small radios and electric fires on an extension lead. People who do this are courting disaster. Because water is a conductor of electricity, you may be electrocuted if the appliance accidentally drops into your bathing water. Also the appliance can be destroyed if water splashes onto it. · Purchase equipment not made to a suitable standard. Bare electrical conductors, whether in electric heaters, stoves or within appliances, should never be touched for cleaning or maintenance unless it has been established that the supply to the conductors has been switched off.

Electric shock first aid rules Contact with live conductors causes shocks and burns, and even death, through electrocution. Shocks of great severity usually affect the nerve centre controlling the breathing organs. The heart and lungs cease to function and the person affected begins to suffocate. Unless prompt action is taken to restart breathing by artificial means (i.e. artificial respiration), there is only a small chance of survival. The following simple rules are designed to enable correct and prompt aid to be rendered to anyone who has had an electric shock, while at the same time safeguarding people who render assistance. Firstly, switch off the current, if possible, and remove the person from danger. If no switch is readily accessible, do not touch the victim with bare hands but protect yourself by using a suitable length of dry cloth, rubber, wood or rope to pull the victim from the live contact (see Figure 6.12).

the construction of Kariba dam. Then, 424 men were lost at HwangeKamandama in June 1976 when methane gas exploded in the mineshaft. Accidents at work in Zimbabwe today claim a huge toll in human and other economic resources. Figure 6.13 illustrates the main industrial hazards that workers in Zimbabwe are vulnerable to. Hazardous processes Processes that lead to injury, bad health or death during work are quite varied. They include spray painting, abrasive blasting, welding, working with molten metal, lead work and electrical work. Machines and moving machine parts, as well as transport and lifting equipment, also pose a significant hazard to workers. Working stands and raised platforms ladders and other access ways create a risk of falling to death. Pressure vessels are also dangerous since they may explode unexpectedly. The outcomes of hazardous processes and environments range from simple wounds, cuts, bruises, sprains and fractures, to mental disorder and even death. Table 6.8 outlines various types of hazards as well as the effects related to each. Advice on measures to reduce vulnerability to workplace hazards

Figure 6.12 How to Help a Person In Contact with a Live Wire M. K. Poltev

Treat all electrical systems as live whenever there is a power outage due to load shedding or there is a fault. All fallen power lines should also be treated as live at all times, even when they appear harmless.

Education and training is one of the best methods to reduce vulnerability. However, research and the setting of safety standards, use of good safety management systems and use of engineering and administrative methods also have a very big impact in industrial accident reduction. Regular maintenance of equipment and tools, along with constant use of protective clothing and equipment, directly prevents accidents. Abiding by the law and laid down safety procedures and constant safety audits (internal and external) also keep accidents in check. 141

Some of the recommended steps in prevention are given in Table 6.9, below. Issues that have an impact on the health and safety of workers and need to be considered in workplace design and operation are the size of the work space, lighting, noise levels, heat and cold, the atmosphere, safety of high places, electricity provision and safety, fire or explosion risks, and the presence of asbestos. When dealing with hazardous substances at work, ensure that: · Material safety data sheets have been obtained; · Safety data is readily accessible to anyone who needs it; · All substances are appropriately labelled; · Prohibited substances are not used; and · Employee health surveillance and records are kept. Rating

Industrial Sector

Fatalities Reported

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Agriculture Transport and storage Mining and quarrying Food, drink and tobacco processing Commerce and distribution Personal services Electricity production Metal fabrication Forestry/building and construction

77 67 66 20 20 19 14 7 6

Rating

Occupation

Total Injuries

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Production workers Agriculture and forestry Service workers Technical workers Transport and mobile equipment operators Mine and quarry workers Sales workers Clerical workers Administration and managerial workers

4 515 1 251 1 242 1 158 964 773 176 116 108

Table 6.6 Fatal Accidents Reported, by Industry, 2000-2003

Table 6.7 2004 Reported Injuries, by Occupation

Figure 6.13 Major Common Industrial Hazards in Zimbabwe

Industries that disregard safe means of production are a potential disaster to the economy, humankind and the environment. It makes more economic sense to use safe means of production both in the short and long term. Expenditure on safe, healthy workplaces is less than the total cost of accidents. 142

Table 6.8 Different Workplace Hazards and their Effects

Physical Hazards Sources Noise and vibration Radiation, heat and cold Poor lighting, electricity Pressure, radiation Dust, fibres

Effects Hearing loss; Vibration disease Eye and skin injury; Genetic disorder Cramps, dehydration and frostbite Fatigue and accidents Cancer, poisoning and death

Chemical Hazards Sources Chemicals Toxic materials and waste disorders Fires and explosions Sensitising agents Workplace accidents have associated costs as well. These include production downtime, clean up and investigation, worker’s compensation insurance and payments, prosecutions and fines, poor worker morale, industrial unrest, and bad publicity.

Table 6.9 Steps for the Prevention of Workplace Accidents

Effects Irritation and inflammation Allergies; Burns; Acute and chronic Burns, shocks and death Genetic disorders

Biological Hazards Sources Bacteria, viruses, fungi, plant and animal products Healthcare, research Agriculture, food processing

Effects Occupational diseases Allergies Death

Physiological Hazards Sources Heavy workloads Monotonous, repetitive work Unsuitable tools and controls Wrong working methods

Effects Fatigue Strain injuries Back problems Permanent disability

Psychosocial Hazards Sources Quality of work (interest, concentration, company) Human relations Payment systems

Effects Discomfort; Irritation Psychosomatic diseases Mental diseases

Risk Management

• Identification of all hazards • Assessment of hazard risk level • Determination of reasonable methods to eliminate or control risks • OHS training and information • Emergency provision – first aid, protective gear

Workplace Consultation

• Employers required to consult on issues of workplace health, safety and welfare • Sharing of relevant information • Opportunity for employee views • Acknowledgement of employee views

Workplace Consultation required during

• Risk assessment processes • Risk management decision processes • Changes to premises, work methods/systems • Changes to work plant, equipment, materials • Decisions on consultative arrangements

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BOX 6.5 MAN BEHEADED AT WORK From Chakanetsa Chidyamatiyo in BINDURA (Herald, 25 July 2006)

The following must be reported by anyone who notices them: · Death, or injury, illness or violence causing prolonged absence from work; · Unsafe plant, equipment, building or structures; · Uncontrolled risk of explosion, fire, gas, steam or dangerous materials; · The presence of carcinogens; and · Blood lead levels, blood borne disease or bodily fluid exposure.

Urban Structure Fire Hazards The most unwanted human-induced hazard (often a disaster) is fire in large, occupied buildings like schools, hotels or hospitals. Causes can be accidental or deliberate but, unless structures have been built to the requirements of the Model Building By-Laws 1977 and correct emergency procedures are used, heavy loss of life and property can result. Disastrous fires have affected several institutions and other properties countywide. Incidents have included a deliberately lit fire that destroyed property worth more than 1 billion Zimbabwe dollars at Bindura University on 10 May 2006 and the accidental electrical fault that caused a fire that gutted the Gokomere Mission school dormitories eleven days later. The photograph below shows the fire incident that occurred at Elephant Hills Hotel during a WHO sponsored Southern Africa Malaria Conference (SAMC) on Malaria on 24 July 2001. The fire was started by a spark from a welding machine in the laundry, where maintenance work was being carried out. The river facing wing, with 135 rooms, and the central block housing the conference room were extensively damaged Some of the most common fire hazards are: In particular, fuel shortages lead people to store drums of petrol at their homes. This causes a lot of fire accidents as some fires have unintentionally ignited these drums of fuel. BACKYARD SHACKS AND BACKYARD INDUSTRIES Shacks are often constructed of inflammable material like wood and cardboard boxes. Fire can move at a very high speed through such structures, which are usually attached to each other and cover large areas, at times up to 50 square kilometres of space. Since these structures are not planned, they are difficult to penetrate once a fire starts. Some structures are built on top of fire hydrants which creates problems of accessing water for extinguishing the fire. 144

Safety pays, it doesn’t cost!!

Backyard shacks and industries built of flammable materials (wood, plastics etc.) such as these are a fire hazard. Wood and plastic are highly flammable and fire spreads quickly once it starts. (Source: CPD)

ELECTRICAL HEATERS AND WOOD HEATERS (MBAURA) When left unattended in the house to provide additional heat, especially in winter, while the occupants sleep, these can cause fires if flammable material falls on top of the heater. PLAYING WITH FIRE This is a particular problem with children who have a habit of experimenting with fire by playing with matches. These seemingly small fires may eventually engulf a whole building or structure. ELECTRICAL FAULTS These sometimes cause sparks in houses or vehicles, which can ignite and cause serious fires. ARSON Sometimes fires are deliberately started, for instance to settle a score with someone. Advice on prevention and control of fire hazards Injuries and casualties to the occupants of a structure are a primary concern in all structural fires. These events can also cause the release of hazardous materials and disconnect utility lines. By knowing the proper way to handle fire, major loss of life and the actual number of fires in hazard areas can be greatly reduced. Public education programmes on fire safety, fire alarms and fire response are important. People should also be encouraged to purchase fire insurance and understand building codes. The procedures for extinguishing small fires are: · Remove the heat, e.g. cool it with water if it is not an electrical fire; · Remove the air, e.g. smother the fire or cover it completely with a wet blanket; or · Remove the fuel, e.g. by shutting off the natural gas. The procedures for extinguishing natural gas and electrical fires are: GAS FIRES First, shut off the gas if it is safe to do so, then put the fire out by using an extinguisher, dry earth or water; ELECTRICAL FIRES First, shut off the electricity, then put out the fire by using an extinguisher, dry earth or water. OIL FIRES Use baking soda, a lid, a bread board or a fire extinguisher to smother

Elephant Hills Hotel on fire on the 24th of July 2001 (Source: SAMC Information for Action Leaflet)

The most common fires in Zimbabwe are motor vehicle fires, industrial fires and domestic fires, of which the later tops the list in terms of frequency (Figure 6.14). Fire victims are disproportionately young children or older adults, due to their inability to react in a timely manner and seek safety independently. A significant number of people who are accidentally involved in fire incidents are young children who have not yet appreciated the magnitude of the hazard involved in playing with fire.

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Figure 6.14 Fire Incidents by Type, 1999-2003

How fire kills In death by fire, more people die of asphyxiation than from burns. Fire consumes the oxygen in the air, while increasing the concentration of deadly carbon monoxide and other toxic gases in the surroundings. When these gases are inhaled, loss of consciousness or death may result within minutes. The heat from a major fire exceeds anything to which a person is normally exposed. A fully developed room fire has temperatures of over 593o C.

the flames. • • • • •

Identify two escape routes from every room of your home/school and practice using them. In case of fire getting out of control, call for help. Install smoke detectors on every level of your home/school, outside sleeping areas, and inside bedrooms. Install a fire sprinkler system in your home/school. Keep at least one working fire extinguisher in every room/class.

CAUTION: If the electricity cannot be shut off, DO NOT use water on an electrical fire and NEVER use water on a grease/oil fire.

BOX 6.6 CORE FIRE PREVENTION ACTIONS Before begining to fight a fire with a fire extinguisher, be sure that: · You are calm and not panicking; · Everyone has left or is leaving the building; · The fire department has been called; · The fire is small and not spreading; · Your back is to an exit that you can use quickly if necessary; and · There is not much smoke in the room.

The following are the ways to use a fire extinguisher effectively, or to be ‘fire extinguisher literate’: · Consider having one or more working fire extinguishers in your home, if possible one in each room. An extinguisher rated “A-B-C” is recommended for home use. · Make sure you know how to use the fire extinguisher. If you do not, get training from the fire department or a fire extinguisher manufacturer. Otherwise, you may not be able to use it effectively, or it could place you in greater danger, as there is no time to read directions during an emergency. It is recommended that only adults handle and use extinguishers. · Install extinguishers high on the wall, near an exit, and away from heat sources. Extinguishers should be easily accessible to adults trained to use them but kept away from children’s curious hands. Heat may make the contents less effective or cause the extinguisher to lose its charge more quickly. · The best method is to point the extinguisher at the base of the fire, rather than at the top of the flames. · Squeeze or press the handle, and slowly sweep the fire from side to side until it goes out. A fire tragedy occurred at Manhinga village in Manicaland Province, situated 42km from Rusape in the southwestern part of Nyanga. The village is an orphanage that was established by the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe.

The orphanage looks after 92 children of between three and eighteen years of age who were registered through the Department of Social Welfare. A mishap occurred on 26 August 2001 when the village was gutted by fire following a veld fire. A total of nine huts was destroyed, along with property worth about half a million dollars.

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The remains of Glenview Area 8 back yard industries (top) and Masimbaevanhu car park (above). BOX 6.7 FIRE TRAGEDY, 26 AUGUST 2001

BOX 6.8 FIRE OUTBREAK IN THE HIGH DENSITY SUBURB BACK YARD INDUSTRY It is vitally important that, if you try to use a fire extinguisher on a fire and the fire does not immediately die down, you drop the extinguisher and get out; Evacuate your family immediately. Even if the fire appears to be small and manageable, make sure that you keep the escape route open. Most portable extinguishers empty in eight to ten seconds. After some residential fires, people have been found dead with fire extinguishers near them or in their arms. Do not try to salvage anything, no matter how valuable. A few seconds wasted can lose you your life. Once outside, remain there. Intense heat and toxic fumes can kill you in seconds.

The following are further precautionary measures: F IRE PROTECTION Prevent a fire from starting. Identifying and eliminating all fire hazards in and around your residence/school is the first line of defence. SMOKE DETECTORS In the event of a fire, a smoke detector can save your life and the lives of your loved ones by providing an early warning signal. Most fire victims die from inhalation of smoke and toxic gases, not as a result of burns. Most deaths and injuries caused by fire occur in fires that happen at night while the victims are asleep. RESIDENTIAL SPRINKLERS Sprinklers are installed by experts from water sources approved by installers. Individual sprinkler heads are only activated when fire occurs. Fire sprinklers have been used to protect commercial buildings and there are also sprinkler systems developed for residences that offer a high level of fire safety for both lives and property. Sprinklers can be connected directly to standard home/school plumbing systems. FIRE ALARMS A fire alarm system may also provide monitoring services by dialing your telephone to report a fire or intrusion to a security office, where it will be reported to your local police or fire department.

Drowning Hazards Drowning incidents have been on the increase and statistics indicate that children constitute about 30 percent of the drowning reports attended by the SubAqua Unit. The true percentage could be slightly higher because some children who drown in bath tubs or shallow water bodies are retrieved by locals without requesting the services of the Sub-Aqua Unit. The onset of the land resettlement programme in 2000 led to in an increase in the number of drowning cases attended to by the Sub-Aqua unit, although the number of such cases dropped remarkably in 2004. However, the statistics show that drowning reports went up again in 2005. This is probably due to the heavy rains received in that year, coupled with the harsh economic environment, which compels inexperienced people to fish for both their own use and business purposes. The successful agrarian reform has exposed many children who now have access to water bodies with very little, if any, supervision. The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that a lack of water safety techniques among members of the public in both rural and urban areas, contributes significantly to the number of drowning cases. This section considers some of the reasons that most of Zimbabwe’s dams and rivers swallow lives instead of sustaining them. Water safety tips are also given to minimise lose of life. Definitions and types of drowning

Drowning is defined as “The process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/ immersion in liquid.” (International Life Saving Federation) Basically there are two types of drowning: DRY DROWNING Before someone drowns, they will try by all means to keep their head above the surface of the water. During the process of struggle, the victim uses a lot of energy, coupled with rapid breathing because the body is in a state in which it requires more oxygen than usual. As the victim becomes tired, their head will occasionally go underwater. Involuntary gulps of water are taken by mouth and/or nose as the victim tries to breath while submerged. 147

This water is destined for the lungs but, before the water enters the passage to the lungs, there is a valve at the back of the mouth known as the ‘larynx’. When the larynx comes into contact with the water, there is a muscular spasm known as the ‘laryngeal reflex’ that completely seals off the passage to the lungs. This reflex action is so strong that no water enters the lung passage. The water from the mouth or nose is, therefore, diverted to the stomach. Meanwhile, the body continues using the oxygen in the lungs until it is exhausted. The victim will then lose consciousness. The lungs remain dry, hence the name ‘dry drowning’. In most cases, the victim does not sink to the bottom due to the air in the lungs, which act as a buoyancy (floating) aid. The top of the head usually remains above the water’s surface. Since the larynx uses oxygen to maintain its grip, it will eventually release the grip and allow entry of water into the lungs. The body will then sink to the bottom. WET DROWNING Unlike in dry drowning, the grip of the larynx is not strong enough to seal the passage to the lungs or the reflex action does not occur at all. When the water enters, it displaces all the air in the lungs. Once the water reaches the lungs, some of it is absorbed into the bloodstream, thereby diluting the blood. This process is known as ‘heamo-dillution’. In approximately two minutes, water equal to half the volume of blood will have been absorbed. For example, if an adult person has approx eight pints or five litres of blood, in two minutes time four pints or two and half litres of water will have been absorbed into the bloodstream. This massive heamo-dillution impedes the transportation of oxygen and the heart will reject this thin blood and cease to function (i.e. cardiac failure).

After rescuing or resuscitating someone who had drowned, it is imperative that they be taken to a hospital so that a physician can check on heamo-dillution. At the hospital, blood samples of the victim are taken and thorough checks are made for the presence of water in the blood. If any water is detected, corrective measures are taken. In some cases, death has been recorded after as long as 24 hours where victims of drowning are resuscitated and appear to be well only to collapse and die suddenly.

Causes of drowning

There are many day-to-day activities conducted by individuals that expose them to the risk of drowning, as well as some involuntary situations that contribute to drowning cases. The Sub-Aqua Unit has identified the following situations and activities as the major contributors to the number of drownings: FLOODS A flood is a sudden or gradual immersion of an area under varying levels of water. Floods are usually caused by heavy or excessive downpours in low lying areas, bursting of dam walls and backflows of small tributaries of larger rivers. A flood usually has an impact on human livelihoods. The most affected by floods are school children, the general public and motorists. Fig 6.15 Annual Drowning Incidents Attended by the Sub-Aqua Unit, 1999-2005

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Death in fresh water will occur after approximately two minutes, caused by an acute shortage of oxygen to the brain cells and other vital organs of the body. Fresh water is the water found in rivers and dams that does not contain any salt. In seawater, the process is slightly different in that, instead of water in the lungs being absorbed into the bloodstream, it is the blood that loses its fluid content to the water in the lungs. The blood thereby becomes very think and difficult for the heart to process. Cardiac failure occurs within approximately eight minutes.

In response to these features; • School children should be escorted during floods, • Flooded rivers should never be crossed as it is safer to wait until the water level subsides, • Bridges should be used where they are available, • Members of the public should not pressurise drivers to cross flooded rivers, • Farming on islands should be avoided, • Although it is not encouraged, if one has to swim across a flooded river, it is best to swim diagonally following the current, with the head out of the water, • Avoid gold panning during the rainfall season, and • Under normal circumstances, only cross a river in which the water is below knee level. FISHING Due to economic hardships and exposure to former commercial farm dams where many species of fish are in abundance, children are sent by their parents to capture fish in drag nets or by fishing with a rod. When the catch for the day is big, some of the fish is sold. However, people end up drowning while undertaking this activity, particularly during the rainfall season. Drowning while fishing can be avoided by not fishing alone and choosing a fishing site that is free of weak crumbling banks, sloping and slippery rocks, and that does not necessitate standing in the water to fish. Avoid swimming for a hook if it becomes entangled in weeds or tree stumps and discourage children from using drag or gill nets. SWIMMING While swimming is a refreshing and enjoyable activity, especially during the hot season, it is one of the activities that claims a high number of children. In swimming pools, the death toll is minimal because lifesavers are usually readily available. Children from rural areas and farms are more vulnerable because they often lack adequate supervision when swimming.

Despite the times given before someone dies, there are many factors that can prolong this time. If the drowning involves an infant, death is prolonged considerably because infants require very little oxygen to sustain life. The time can also be extended if the drowning occurs in very cold water because the metabolism rate is reduced when subjected to cold temperatures.

Children should swim under the supervision of a good swimmer or trained lifesaver and observe the following; • Never swim alone, • Do not stay for long periods of time in cold water, • Do not swim wearing heavy clothing, • Do not show off, or succumb to peer pressure to go into situations beyond your swimming ability, • Learn how to swim in shallow water under the guidance of a capable swimmer, • Do not overestimate your swimming capability, and • Do not dive into water of unknown depth, and beware of submerged objects. CROCODILE ATTACKS Unlike other super predators that spend a lot of time and energy hunting for their pray, a crocodile usually lies in wait for its pray because no living creature can survive without drinking water. A crocodile may appear to be a simple and harmless reptile but is very swift and vicious when attacking. Like all other predators, the crocodile will usually attack an isolated victim. 149

If attacked by a crocodile avoid panicking and attempt to take one or more of the following actions; • Use your thumbs to press the eyes of the reptile or to twist its small forelegs, • If there is a stick within reach, poke it into the mouth of the crocodile, • If you have a knife strike the fragile area between the crocodile’s eyes, • Cling to a tree or anything solid that can be reached, and • Shout for help.

Home pools should be fenced and it is important to ensure that the pool gate is closed and latched at all times. If one accidentally falls into any water body, be it a dam or river, one should not panic but remove shoes and heavy clothing. People tend to close their eyes when hitting the water but keeping them open might reveal something to cling onto. Wave one hand to attract attention and shout for help.

HIPPOPOTAMUS ATTACK Hippos are usually harmless but can be extremely dangerous when provoked, if they are protecting young ones or when encountered at night. Because of its front teeth, which are approximately 30 cm long, very few people survive hippo attacks. Therefore, do not provoke hippos, for example, by throwing objects at them. When canoeing, avoid going near hippos, especially those with young ones, or crossing between an adult hippo and its young. BOAT CAPSIZE The following are guidelines for staying safe while using a boat; • Take a lockmaster’s course before operating a boat, • Ensure that you carry safety material like life jackets, fire extinguisher, bailers, oars etc. (it is an offence not to, for the first two items), • Never overload the boat and make sure that people and equipment are evenly distributed throughout the boat to maintain its stability and balance, • Keep a watch on weather conditions that may cause large waves, and • Avoid hippos especially those with young ones. ACCIDENTS NEAR WATER Accidents that occur near water claim valuable lives. Where accidents occur at bridges or where vehicles plunge into water bodies, they take a high toll because some people die from injuries while the majority die due to drowning. The photographs below shows an incident that occurred at Palmgroove farm on 22 January 2005, when a lorry carrying farm workers plunged from the dam wall into a dam, drowning 22 people, mainly children who could not swim to safety. Important measures to prevent such accidents near water include not driving while under the influence of alcohol, not overloading buses or other vehicles and always approaching bridges with caution. In addition, all wells or other pits and shafts must be covered. BATHING For reasons of modesty, people usually take a bath alone in secluded areas. Anyone intending to bath in a dam or river is encouraged to choose shallow places because, if a bath is taken in a deep spot, there is a danger of slipping into the water and drowning. People are also encouraged to bath with someone else so that, in the event of a mishap, help will be readily available. MURDER The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that they attend many reports of murder. Criminals forcibly drown their victims, in an attempt to simulate an accidental drowning, or discard the body of someone they have murdered into a water body. When swimming, people are also discouraged from pushing nonswimmers into the water because they may end up being charged with murder. 150

Members of the Sub-Aqua Unit searching for bodies of people who drowned when their lorry skidded into a dam in Shamva (above). Retrieved bodies of those drowned (below). (Source: CPD)

It is not recommended practice to fish alone in crocodile infested dams or rivers. A person who does is an easy target for crocodiles. When fishing in crocodile infested rivers or dams, fish from a distance from the edge of the water body. Never enter water that is known to be crocodile infested and keep hands away from the water surface when boating.

One painful incident occurred in Rusape in February 2003 when a mother of two threw her children into a dam, claiming that she had no food for the children and, therefore, had decided to drown them. She has since been convicted of murder. People are encouraged to seek counselling, especially from churches and voluntary organisations, rather than resort to such measures, when faced with problems. SUICIDE There are some people who, when faced with problems, commit suicide by jumping into rivers and dams. Once again, counselling is the better solution. Rescue methods

Note: An angry bull hippo is characterised by stubbornness and will allow short distances with an approaching boat before it submerges.

Before undertaking the rescue of a drowning person, consider your safety. Many people loose their lives while attempting to rescue someone else. Remember that speed is vital. Life can be lost through indecision. In addition to the rescue methods illustrated in the Figure 6.16, the ‘swim and tow’ is an effective method but it must only be attempted by a trained or strong swimmer. Before undertaking this type of rescue, always remember that a drowning victim can be dangerous because once they hold on, they will not let go. Therefore: • Approach the victim from behind to limit the chances of them holding you; • Allow the victim to loose energy before getting closer; • Hold the victim from behind and reassure them immediately so that they relax; and then • Tow the victim to safety.

Some children are also drowned when they accidentally fall into uncovered wells and mine shafts.

First aid Teachers and students are encouraged to pursue short First Aid courses because many people undeservedly loose their lives because of lack of resuscitation skills by rescuers. First Aid is a broad subject but this section covers just some simple and straightforward hints on how to resuscitate a victim of drowning. Firstly, determine whether the patient is responsive. If they are unresponsive and not breathing, resuscitation must begin as soon as the rescuer reaches the victim, even while in the water. The first aider should use the ABCs of first aid:

Buckets and tubs should be emptied when not in use to avoid curious children putting themselves at risk by playing with the water inside.

A

Ensure an open Airway (by tilting the head backwards or the chin lift). Assess breathing by looking, listening and feeling for ten seconds.

B

If there is no Breathing, administer two effective breaths. Assess signs of life by checking for movement or breathing.

C

If there are no signs of life, carry out Chest Compressions at the rate of 100 compressions per minute. In adults, use fifteen compressions followed by two effective breaths through the nose or mouth and, in children, five compressions followed by one effective breath through the nose and mouth. 151

When ensuring an open airway, check for foreign objects in the patient’s airway. Assess breathing and if it is present, place the patient in the recovery position and check for continued breathing while you wait for qualified personnel to arrive, or refer the patient to hospital as soon as possible. Reach With a long stick, a scarf, clothes or anything else. Crouch or lie down to avoid being pulled in.

Wade Test the depth with a long stick before wading in and then use the stick to reach out. Hold on to someone else or the bank.

Figure 6.16 Common and Recommended Rescue Methods Adapted from RoPSA http://www.rospa.com/ safetyeducation/index.htm

Do not attempt to relieve water from the patient’s stomach. Doing so could drive materials (usually food) from the stomach into the patient’s airway and cause obstruction.

Throw A rope is best – you can then pull in the person. Otherwise throw something that will float – a ball, a plastic bottle, a lifebuoy...this will keep the person afloat until help comes.

General advice In order to ensure that the general public is safe from drowning hazards, children should be encouraged to learn how to swim when they are very young. It is hoped that people will take heed of all the information given and to help spread it so that lives are preserved, rather than being lost to this essentially life giving liquid.

Row Use a boat if there is one nearby and if you can use it safely. Do not try to pull the person on board in case they panic and capsize the boat. •

In 2002, at Zindimo Island in Masvingo, people were marooned on an island along the Mutirikwi River and were rescued by the Air Force of Zimbabwe in conjunction with the Sub-Aqua Unit.

•

In February 2000, 36 people perished when the Chawasarira bus driver attempted to cross the Mudzi River in flood. The bus was swept by the current and innocent lives, including those of several children were lost. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and retrieved bodies of victims at the scene and along the river.

•

In Mana Pools, tourists were canoeing down the Zambezi river when three large crocodiles approached from behind. The tour guide warned his clients to keep their hands off the edges of the canoe since the crocodiles were waiting for an opportunity to strike. On realising that the occupants were not careless, one crocodile knocked the canoe from the bottom. As the canoe was dangling, a 17 year old girl who was in the canoe with her father held onto the edges of the canoe, presenting the anticipated opportunity for the giant reptiles. She was dragged from the canoe and had disappeared within a few minutes. Sub-Aqua Unit divers were summoned and, with the help of the tour guide, two crocodiles were shot, dragged out of the water and had their stomachs ripped open. Remains of the girl were recovered from the stomachs of the reptiles.

•

Another case occurred in Gache-Gache fishing camp, where six people in a canoe were attacked by a vicious bull hippo. Their small fiberglass boat was shattered before the occupants were bitten by the hippo. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and recovered the badly injured bodies of the fishermen. The hippo was shot prior to diving in the dam.

•

In 1995, 22 children from Moleli High School drowned when the boat they were onboard sank in Lake Chivero. Had the captain observed the requirements when operating a boat with this many passengers, the lives of the children could have been saved. If every child had been wearing a life jacket, no one would have died. SubAqua Unit divers retrieved the bodies.

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BOX 6.9 SOME DROWNING INCIDENTS

CHAPTER 7 Environmental Degradation Introduction The benefits to human beings of living in a healthy environment cannot be underestimated though it is not difficult to pinpoint humankind as the chief single player in the disruption and destruction of the environment. A lot of human activities – the basic quest for shelter, clothing and food, as well as more advanced activities related to industrialisation and economic growth – damage the environment. These processes, inherent to human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards), that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems, constitute ‘environmental degradation’. Environmental degradation is described by the Zimbabwe Environmental Management Act (EMA) CAP 20:27 as “the depletion or destruction of potentially renewable resources such as soil, grasslands, forests or wildlife, by using them at a faster rate they are naturally replenished”. It is important to note that, as defined in the EMA CAP 20:27 and used in this chapter ‘environment’ is a broad term which encompasses biotic and abiotic variables occurring in the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and so on. The interactions work in combination to determine the potential effects on the environment. These potential effects are varied and may themselves contribute to an increase in vulnerability, and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Zimbabwe is faced with a number of challenges pertaining to environmental protection and sustainable utilisation of natural resources. Some of the main processes involved in the land degradation in the country are outlined in Figure 7.1.

A holistic approach to understanding the environment assists in identifying the wide range of issues responsible for the destruction of the environment in Zimbabwe. The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) (2006) lists these, according to the order of threat, as: · Deforestation (destruction of trees through cutting, fires, gold panning, mining activities etc); · Pollution through effluent discharge, gold panning, mining activities, etc; · Biodiversity loss through fires, poaching, cutting down of trees and overgrazing; · Drought, climate change and ozone depletion; · Land degradation through soil erosion, gullies, gold panning, over grazing and lack of conservation measures in agriculture; · Poverty; · HIV and AIDS; · Threat from noxious weeds such as, water hyacinth and Kariba weed in some of the country’s water bodies and lantana camara which invades the fields.

Generally, recurrent droughts, poverty, HIV and AIDS, and the unstable macroeconomic environment have resulted in more people resorting to activities that have severely negative effects on the environment. This chapter is devoted to heightening awareness of the environmental activities of particular concern in Zimbabwe and looks at some of the major environmental risks and hazards in the country. It also discusses institutional measures that have been put in place to promote disaster mitigation and impact abatement in the environment sector, recognising that the effects of natural disasters, such as droughts and floods, are exacerbated by negative anthropogenic intervention and pressures on natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, land resources and forests. Principles of Environmental Management (according to EMA CAP 20:27)

Authorities, and all other stakeholders, including individuals, should apply the following principles where their actions affect the environment significantly: IMPLEMENT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT which must be socially, environmentally and economically sustainable; 153

Figure 7.1 Interaction of the Processes Responsible for Land Degradation in Zimbabwe Gandiwa and Mutanga (2005)

PROMOTE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION and environmental awareness, and the sharing of knowledge and experience must be promoted in order to increase the capacity of communities to address environmental issues and engender values, attitudes, skills and behavior that are consistent with and support sustainable environmental management; and THE POLLUTER PAYS for damage to the environment. B O X 7.1 S T U D E N T S ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS

The Act specifies that every person has a right to:

• • • •

SHOULD KNOW THEIR

A clean environment that is not harmful to health; Access to environmental information; Protect the environment for the benefit of present and future generations; and Participate in the making and implementation of reasonable legislative policy that prevents pollution, and secure environmentally sustainable economic and social development. Extracted from EMA CAP 20:27

Soil Erosion and Gullies cline, especially under extensive farming practices. Hence soil erosion has become an issue of major concern in Zimbabwe. The country ranks among the top twenty worst affected countries of the 62 surveyed by the World Bank. Studies done on soil loss show that, yearly, the country losses an average of 76 tonnes, or 640 wheelbarrows, of soil per hectare. The most seriously affected area is the middle veld of the Save Runde catchment area, where about 96 million tonnes are lost in a single year (DNR, 2005). Population pressure, overstocking and poor farming practices like inappropriate tillage, 154

Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the country and is accelerated in certain parts. Areas of high erosion are those with soils that are easily damaged by wind and water, while moderate rate areas are those with soils that are not so badly affected. The soils in these areas suffer less erosion and often have more plant cover. The two most important factors contributing to the statistical variation in erosion are soil type and population density.

are the major culprits. It is estimated that it takes twenty years of careful conservation measures for the soil to be restored to an acceptable level of fertility. Since the people farming in these areas cannot move, are poor and depend exclusively on farming, this is almost impossible. Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the country and is accelerated in certain parts. Areas of high erosion are those with soils that are easily damaged by wind and water, while moderate rate areas are those with soils that are not so badly affected. The soils in these areas suffer less erosion and often have more plant cover. The two most important factors contributing to the statistical variation in erosion are soil type and population density. Studies show that there is a direct positive correlation between increases in the extent of eroded terrain, soil type and increases in population density. This relationship is especially valid for the communal lands, which are mostly located in agroecological regions III, IV and V. These are areas that receive little rainfall, naturally have less vegetation and where soils are of poor quality. When the rains fall in such areas, the soil is easily washed away. But of paramount importance in soil erosion and its distribution in Zimbabwe is human activity and the way that it interfaces with natural vulnerability. The relative ranking (high, medium, low) of districts in Zimbabwe affected by soil erosion and gullies is shown in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.2 Districts in Zimbabwe Affected by Soil Erosion and Gullies Approximated from DNR data

The soil erosion process

Soil erosion involves the detachment of soil particles from larger aggregates and the removal of the particles by flowing water and wind, but is an extremely complex phenomenon dependent on several forces, which vary both spatially and temporally. The process of detaching and transporting soil particles is determined by how much energy is applied, while resistive forces, which are mainly related to soil properties, help overcome the applied energy forces. This is why soils that have a high organic matter content and stable aggregates are able to withstand the effects of raindrop impact more readily than soils with low organic matter content and unstable aggregates. A good vegetation 155

Figure 7.3 How Vegetation Protects Soil from Heavy Rainfall Source D Macdonald and M Archer: Rural Land Degradation

cover constitutes a protective force as it neutralises energy forces by intercepting raindrops and dissipating their energy before they reach the ground. Protective forces may also include a variety of human factors, such as soil conservation practices, that either increase or reduce erosion, depending on their presence or absence (see Figure 7.3). Vegetation normally protects soil from being washed away by rain and also from ‘splash erosion’ caused by the impact of raindrops. The raindrops move the soil particles and pack them together on the surface, sealing the pores and thereby decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff. ‘Sheet erosion’ is a more serious form of erosion in which fine layers of topsoil carrying soil nutrients wash away. Unless the nutrients are replenished artificially, crop yields will decline. Zimbabwe is affected mostly by the following types of erosion: SPLASH EROSION when the topsoil is removed from the surface due the force of rain drops. The soil particles scattered by the raindrops block soil pore spaces. This hinders percolation and results in sheet erosion. SHEET EROSION is often associated with large areas of gently sloping land which is flooded evenly after a heavy downpour. The fertile surface soil over the whole piece of land is washed away if there is no vegetation to prevent this (see Figure 7.3). In the climatic conditions that prevail throughout most of Zimbabwe, sheet erosion is dominant as an effect of rain splash and runoff, both surface and sub-surface. Cutting down trees, burning of grass and the impact of dense population in some areas have created ideal conditions for sheet erosion. During the windy, dry season, especially in August, September and early October, wind can also aid sheet erosion. 156

Rates of soil formation in Zimbabwe are very slow (400 kgs/ha/year), whereas rates of soil erosion are very much greater; estimates for average soil losses on croplands and grazing areas on commercial farms are 5 tonnes/ha/ year and 3 tonnes/ha/year respectively. The equivalent averages for communal lands are 50 and 75 tonnes/ha/year (DNR, 2006).

RILL EROSION occurs when raindrops on the soil’s surface cause particles to be gradually washed away along narrow and fairly steep channels, either already existing or caused by the rain water itself. STREAM BANK EROSION is a combination if rill and gully erosion. The main factor causing it is streams or rivers with steep banks. Because the gradient is steep, rills, and later gullies, are easily created by water rushing down the slope after heavy rains. This type is most common in densely populated communal lands, and urban areas where stream bank farming is practiced. If the natural dense vegetation cover along the streams is removed, the soil becomes exposed and easily washes away down the slopes into the stream. Communal areas along all major rivers experience this type of erosion. GULLY EROSION takes place when rain does not sink into the soil after a heavy or continuous downpour. A gully begins as sheet erosion, where fast flowing water rushes over the soft soils or rock loosening the soil and washing it away. Usually this fast flowing water is trapped in and confined to a small surface, which it cuts into, creating deep grooves and ditches that gradually lengthen, widen and deepen. The trenches so formed are known as ‘gullies’ and if not controlled can become large. This type of erosion can badly damage land and make it difficult to reclaim. Gully erosion is widespread and causes the greatest threat to the environment, especially in communal areas. Unless gullies are repaired through conservation measures, they render the land completely unusable.

Cultivating right in front of a prohibiting sign for the City of Harare (Source: CPD 2006)

The result of overgrazing in Beitbridge. (Source: CPD 2006)

Causes of soil erosion and gullies The way people use the land has an effect on soil erosion. Certain activities, especially poor farming methods such as monoculture and its implications on soil resources, can loosen the soil and reduce its ability to absorb water. Human activities that accelerate soil erosion and ultimately cause gullies are: • OVERGRAZING If too many cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys are reared in small areas without proper planning, overgrazing results. These animals, through heavy grazing, quickly remove plant cover, such as grass and trees. Animals like goats and donkeys uproot the grass when grazing. This exposes the soil, preparing it for easy erosion by water or wind. If there are too many cattle in an area, their hooves can loosen the soil, especially along tracks converging on watering points or dip tanks. • GRASS BURNING This destroys the plant cover, thereby exposing the soil to wind and rain. The fire may also kill some trees. Humus in the soil is also burnt up, creating poor soil structure that will not absorb much water. • POOR FARMING METHODS In many steep areas contour ridging has not been established or is poorly constructed. The steep slopes make it easy for the rain to wash loosened soils down the slope and into valleys and streams. When farmers plough up and down slopes, instead of across, the furrows they establish accelerate soil erosion. Over cultivation and cultivation of land that is unsuitable for crops can also increase soil erosion. • STEAM BANK CULTIVATION This is a common feature of many densely populated communal lands. Farmers are attracted by the fertile soils found along the river valleys as well as the proximity of the water source 157

and some plant vegetable gardens near to rivers. This practice has accelerated soil erosion and contributed to severe siltation of rivers. •

USE OF SLEIGHS Using sleighs, which loosen the soil, dragging of logs over bare land and careless handling of ploughs when transporting them to and from the fields all damage the soil and contribute to erosion.

OPEN PIT MINING Open pit mining and gold panning loosen the soil and expose it to erosion. POOR SITING Construction of roads in unsuitable places as well as poor siting of dam spillways are contributory factors in erosion. Figure 7.4 shows how soil erosion leads to increased flood hazards.

Stream bank cultivation is common in peri-urban Zimbabwe

Effects of soil erosion and gullies

Allowing soil erosion to take place and gullies to form can affect people in the following ways: • •

• • • • • •

Very high rates of siltation of rivers and reservoirs, especially of the flooding low lying areas as rivers may be diverted from their normal channels by heavy silt. The soil losses its natural fertility, leading to a general declines in crop yields. It has been estimated by the DNR that, in some areas, the cultivation of maize may only be possible for another fifteen years before soils become too shallow for crop growth, and that sorghum cultivation may be impossible within thirty years. Expensive chemical fertilisers are washed away by flooding before being absorbed into the soil. Land for crops is quickly lost, leading to a lack of suitable land for cultivation and grazing and, consequently, poor harvests and livestock. A lot of soil washed into rivers means a reduction in the water carrying capacity of rivers as well as a lowering of the quality of the water. Too much silt in rivers, streams and dams may cause the death of fish. People’s homes, clinics and schools can be destroyed by gullies. Features of the natural environment, including animals, trees and other plants are destroyed and wetlands are lost.

Stream bank cultivation along the heavily silted Msengezi Reiver. (Source CPD 2006)

Figure 7.4 Erosion

Flooding Due to

Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Management Center (1989)

158

Preventive measures Preventing gullies is always cheaper than trying to control them when they have already formed. To prevent gullies, it is important to first manage the natural resources in the area, i.e. trees, vegetation, and soil, primarily by conserving the soil on which the other resources depend.

A huge gully that formed right across the main road in Gokwe, leading to temporary closure of the road. (Source: CPD, 2006)

Adding humus, manure and chemical fertiliser to the soil improves its water holding capacity by creating a crump structure. This crumpy porous structure encourages water to sink quickly to minimise erosion.

Soil conservation involves using soil wisely. The most important and first step in conserving soil is to hold it in place and there are various methods for this. Erosion caused by falling rain can be prevented by keeping the land under crop or plant cover for most of the year. Cover plants like vertiver grass and creeping plants and trees should be grown to protect the soil by absorbing the force of raindrops and enabling the water to trickle into the ground slowly. Afforestation goes further in that it helps to replace soil cover. Where there are steeps slopes on hillsides, terraces should be built. Each terrace is like a level step on the hillside. Grass or stone banks hold the soil in place and prevent water from flowing downhill. Each terrace slopes backward into the hillside, so that water is held until it drains into the soil. Terracing has been successfully used for centuries by farmers all over the world and Nyanga has many examples of ancient terracing. Also traditional terracing has been practiced in the eastern highlands where pineapples are grown in strips across the hillsides. The rows of the pineapples catch the soil and so form terraces. Farming practices also have a marked impact. For example: • Mixed farming or intercropping practices stabilise soil particles; • Erosion caused by overstocking is prevented by reducing the number of cattle per person (destocking) or by resettling the excess population in sparsely populated areas, as the Government of Zimbabwe has done in communal areas throughout the country; • Strong, well planned grazing paddocks (rotational grazing) as established in Matanga in Mberengwa make it possible for grass and trees to recover after heavy grazing by cattle; and • Dip tank sites can be carefully chosen to minimise gully erosion along cattle tracks, using fairly level and wooded sites instead of steep slopes like river valley sides, and drawing the water for the tank from boreholes instead of streams.

People need to be taught modern ways of farming, such as not to plough down slopes and that, wherever possible, steep slopes should not be cultivated at all. Farmers should be taught to build contour ridges as in Charumbira District in Masvingo, where ridges have been made and are being maintained. Stream bank cultivation must be stopped completely. In Zimbabwe, by law, people are not allowed to cultivate within 30m of a river or stream.

Public awareness programmes should be stepped up so that people are aware of the dangers associated with soil erosion, and this education should be backed by legislation.

Controlling a gully

Gullies can be controlled by filling and shaping them with a variety of materials, like brushwood barriers, log or stone check dams, stone pitching, gabions and trees, grasses and other vegetation. By doing so, further soil erosion will be avoided because the speed and amount of run-off via the gully will be reduced. Where gullies start to form: • First find out what caused the gully and trace the root of the problem; • Prevent the primary cause and any other problems that may cause the gully to get worse; • Divert water run-off from the gully; • Keep cattle out of the gully area; • Slope the walls of the gully and plant trees, shrubs, and grasses along the slopes and bed so that water runs gently into and along the gully; and • Lay pruned or dead tree branches across the head of the gully to slow water run-off, trap soil and debris and allow grass to grow. 159

Blocks or barriers can be built at intervals so as to reduce the speed of running water. These can be made of tree poles fastened together across the gully or stones heaped across. After some time, sediment fills up the gully behind the barrier. To make these barriers more permanent, shrubs grass and trees should be grown around and on the sediment once it has been built up. Efforts to control a gully in Matabeleland South are shown in the photograph below. Some of the soil conservation and gully control methods used in Matabeleland South. (Source: CPD)

BOX 7.1 THE ZIMBABWE CONSERVATION MOVEMENT

Recently, the Rural District Councils Act as amended by the Environmental Management Act has provided for the establishment of Environment Committees and sub-committees by all Rural District Councils.

160

Gold Panning as a Hazard Environmental inspections by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) have revealed that gold panning is one of the major causes of environmental degradation in Zimbabwe. The past few years have seen a multitude of people resorting to gold panning as a coping strategy in the face of the increased frequency and periodicity of droughts and the prevailing harsh macroeconomic environment, which is characterised by hyperinflation and high unemployment rates. According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), by 1997 at least 60 percent of sub-Saharan Africa was vulnerable to drought and probably 30 percent was highly vulnerable. It is estimated that over 600 000 people are directly involved in gold panning activities along 5 000km of Zimbabwe’s major rivers, including Mazowe, Angwa, Insiza, Runde and Bubi rivers (Maponga and Ngorima, 2002). Nationally, the worst affected areas are Mazowe District, Kadoma District (wards 12, 14, 15 and 16), Makonde District (Dova Farm, Urume Farm, Chikuti area, Nyati Farm), Umguza District (wards 1 and 2), Shurugwi District, Kwekwe District, and Gutu District (see Figure 7.5). These districts are along the Great Dyke as this region is richly endowed with gold and other minerals. A further 2 million people in Zimbabwe are thought to be earning their livelihood indirectly from gold panning (DNR, 2005). Gold panning induced siltation has further reduced the water carrying capacity of rivers, thereby threatening the very existence of several millions of people who rely on water from rivers for irrigation, and domestic and industrial uses. Habitat destruction and fragmentation associated with gold panning affects biodiversity and riverine ecosystems as well as other sensitive ecological systems, such as wetlands. Rivers may also be forced to change course, thus threatening settlements during the rainy season. CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION At Ran Mine, panners dug tunnels into abandoned slimes dams. The tunnels are now collapsing and posing a threat of water contamination by cyanide should there be a heavy downpour (DNR, 2003). Cyanide is an extremely toxic chemical, the effect of which on biodiversity and human health can be very dangerous. Figure 7.5 Districts Worst Affected by Illegal Gold Panning DNR (2005)

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The presence of chemicals like mercury, which is used extensively in gold panning activities, has severe and far reaching consequences for riverine ecosystems. It is estimated that annually, gold panners use six metric tonnes of mercury (Gandiwa, 2006). When mixed with water, as is the case in gold panning, mercury is lethal to plants and human beings. Mercury has a long life span in water, remaining active for up to thirty years, thus compounding the problem of water pollution and increasing risk to human health and aquatic life. A study carried out in Insiza revealed that panners are now showing symptoms of occupational mercury poisoning, such as general body weakness, nausea, and gum inflammation and ulceration (Ngorima and Maponga, 2003). INFRASTRUCTURAL DAMAGE Irrigation schemes and other related infrastructure, such as roads and schools, have not been spared the effects of gold panning. According to CPD reports, in 2004, a football pitch at Globe and Phoenix Primary School in Kwekwe was completely destroyed by panners. After digging up the pitch, the panners moved into the school grounds where they dug deep pits in front of classrooms and the school Principal’s office. A deep tunnel was dug close to the main school block, threatening the stability of the structure and putting the lives of innocent school children and teachers at risk. In the same area, the panners went to the extent of digging under the railway line resulting in the Harare-Bulawayo train service being temporarily suspended. Gold panners excavated the sides of the road linking Zvishavane and Gweru, at Boterakwa in Shurugwi, leading to severe structural damage. Furthermore, they tampered with the water reticulation system as they vandalised the water pipes in search of water for cleaning their gold. In Bindura town, underground water pipes were vandalised and damaged by panners resulting in severe water leakage. The socioeconomic hazards of illegal gold panning Illegal gold panning has a negative impact on society and on the country’s economy. The inevitable mushrooming of unplanned gold panning camps results in poor sanitation and waste disposal, leading to outbreaks of disease such as cholera and dysentery, not only among the panners, but also spreading to other community members residing in areas surrounding the gold panning sites. Illegal gold panning camps usually attract young male adults who, in turn, attract commercial sex workers, thus contributing to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV and AIDS. The pits built during gold panning often collapse, leading to occasional loss of human life. It has been observed that poaching is rampant in areas where illegal gold panners stay and massive destruction of woodlands for fuel is also evident. These practices deprive local inhabitants of income and destroy their local environment, as the camps are usually inhabited by non residents. Gold panning induced siltation has reduced the water carrying capacity of rivers and mercury water pollution threatens the very existence of several millions of people, both nearby and far off, who rely on water from rivers for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses. Gold panning has both increased as a result of and had some negative effects on the land reform as many of the former farm workers have turned to panning which they are finding far more profitable than working on either the old or the new farms. Gold panning prevention and control methods 162

Table 7.1 Land Rendered Unsuitable for Agriculture by Panning Activities in Mashonaland District Bindura Shamva Mazowe Total

Number of Extent of Panners Damage(m²) 3485 1 240 000 860 202 000 10 000 58 000 14 345 1 500 000

Central

Box 7.2 Quote from a DNR Official “Gold panning is an alarming development whose ramifications on riverine ecosystems are equally frightening and so is the occasional loss of human life”

Gold panners left (above) power cables exposed and (below) animal drinking water contaminated by mercury, in addition to degrading the environment.

BOX 7.3 MESSAGE NATURAL RESOURCES

FROM THE

DEPARTMENT

Resources OF

Illegal gold panning has now reached unprecedented levels hence this environmental problem that currently needs urgent attention to avoid disaster to both the biophysical and human environments. All stakeholders are thus called upon to practice, promote and adhere to principles of sound environmental management. We have a heritage to protect for future generations. Indeed, we should be prepared to endure pain as we undergo a phase of self-correction and the restoration of discipline in the environmental management sector. Gandiwa (2006)

Some approaches that need to be undertaken to either prevent or, at least, control gold panning are: RECLAMATION Local authorities and schools should be actively involved in the reclamation of areas degraded by gold panning, by backfilling of the mined areas in the public streams. GOLD PANNING PERMITS Issuing permits, would help to ensure that regulatory requirements are adhered to by panners in line with the terms of such permits. LAW ENFORCEMENT Statutory Instrument 275 of the Mining (Alluvial Gold) (Public Streams) Regulations of 1991 and the Environmental Management Act (Cap 20:27), which set out regulations and punitive measures for those who engage in activities or operations that have adverse effects on the environment, should be enforced. Any person or agency wishing to extract minerals must carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to determine the implications of their activities and must develop a management plan to mitigate any negative effects on the environment. Law enforcing agents are seen inspecting the damage left by gold panners in the photograph above.

DNR personnel conducting joint inspections with the Zimbabwe Republic Police.

CAPACITY BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING This should be conducted for local authorities, whose officers should be trained to produce local environmental action plans in compliance with the EMA. Participatory methodologies to promote integrated sustainable development planning by communities are recommended. The local communities should be made aware of methods to manage their environment and natural resources sustainably.

(Source: DNR, 2005)

AWARENESS RAISING CAMPAIGNS Environmental education awareness campaigns should be carried out with a view to raising public awareness and sharing of knowledge to cultivate values, skills and behaviour among the population, that are consistent with sustainable environmental management. Deforestation Forestry resources are essential to the energy and economic requirements of the majority of Zimbabweans. Wood fuel accounts for over 90 percent of the total energy provision of rural communities and almost 15 percent of this amount is taken from forests. The depletion this causes is accelerated by the demand for indigenous building materials, natural forest fires and the land 163

resettlement exercise. The single largest cause of woodland depletion, however, is from land clearance for agriculture. Deforestation is the removal or damage of vegetation in a region that is predominantly tree covered. It is a slow onset hazard that may contribute to disasters caused by flooding, landslides, drought and desertification. It is one of the major causes of land degradation in Zimbabwe. This process has reached critical levels, as large areas of vegetation have been removed or damaged, harming the land’s protective and regenerative properties by exposing the land to the agents and processes of accelerated soil erosion. For example, from 1990 to 2000, the country lost, on average, seven times more of its forest cover than the world average rate (see Figure 7.7). The rapid rate of deforestation in some parts of the country is believed to be a driving force in the yearly increase of food shortages in these areas.

Earth Trends (2003)

Of the total land area of 30.226 billion hectares, the combination of cropland and natural vegetation constitute the largest portion, at 54 percent, followed by grassland savannah at 43 percent. Forests take up a mere 2 percent, with 1 percent being wetland and water bodies (Figure 7.6). Zimbabwe’s woodland cover is being denuded at a rate of 1.5 percent per annum. The highest rates are in the communal areas, where a 50 percent decline in vegetation cover was experienced between 1963 and 1978. The need to clear land for agriculture caused the loss of about 60 000 hectares of land annually over this period (DNR, 2006). The use of biomass fuels further compounds the gravity of deforestation as about 80 percent of household energy demands in both rural and urban areas come from these. Thus firewood collection can contribute to the depletion of tree cover, particularly in lightly wooded areas. The outright destruction of trees for fuel occurs most commonly around cities and towns, where commercial markets for firewood and charcoal exist. Well organised groups and individuals bring fuel wood by vehicle, and animal carts into cities, hastening local deforestation. The satellite image gives evidence of the massive deforestation in the communal lands as compared to the adjacent commercial farms, as shown by contrasting light and dark tones on the satellite mosaic (Figure 7.8). The small administrative units are communal lands where the land cover is severely

Table 7.2 Ecosystem Areas of Zimbabwe by Type Total forest area, 2000 (000 ha) Natural forest area, 2000 (000 ha) Plantations area, 2000 (000 ha) Total dryland area, 1950-1981 (000ha

Figure 7.6 Ecosystem Areas by Type 1992-1993 Earth Trends Country Profiles (2003)

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19 040 18 899 141 26 317

degraded (light colors). The difference in land cover between former commercial and communal lands, as shown by the satellite images, is dramatic. The former boundaries of the two land systems could be drawn on the image in many places without the need for a map of administrative boundaries, simply by outlining the degraded regions. The high vegetation cover in the former commercial areas reflects the very low population and good land conservation methods, which should be preserved by the new farmers. The importance of trees

Trees play a vital role in regulating our atmosphere, ecosystems and weather systems. They recycle carbon dioxide, a gas now increasing in the atmosphere and thought to contribute to global warming. They release moisture to the air, thus contributing to rainfall and moderating local and global climates. Their roots trap nutrients, improve soil fertility, and also trap pollutants, keeping them from the water supply. They provide habitats for many species Fig 7.7 Percentage Change in Forest Area by Type, 1990-2000

Analysis of multi-temporal satellite images between 1998 and 2002 for selected districts has revealed an average loss of 1.4 percent per annum for both forests and wooded areas. Certain districts have even registered wood losses of more than 10 percent during this period (Gandiwa, 2006). For the period 1990 to 2000, the total area of natural forest shrunk by about 15 percent, whereas forest plantations grew by a mere 2 percent (Figure 7.7). Uncontrolled veld fires have also led to the loss of vegetation in many districts in Zimbabwe, destroying thousands of hectares of natural ecosystems.

thus engendering diversity. They nurture traditional cultures by giving shelter, wood, food and medicinal products. These benefits are lost as trees are destroyed. The root systems of vegetation help retain water in the soil, anchor the soil particles and provide aeration to keep soil from compacting. When Figure 7.8 Landsat Mosaic of Commercial Farms and Parks, and Communal Lands

US Landsat Series, Earth Satellite Corporation, Land Cover and Land Use Change Program (LCLUC)(2000)

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vegetation dies, the nutrients go back to the soil but when root systems are removed, the soil is destabilised. Water tends to flow off the top of the soil instead of percolating in, and carries valuable topsoil along with it. This silt eventually forms sediment in the drainage basins. Deforestation poses the most immediate danger by its contribution to other disasters. Prevention and control of deforestation

If the vicious circle of land degradation cannot be stopped, the source of existence of large parts of the country’s population will be severely damaged. The following are some of the measures to reduce the problems caused by deforestation: FOREST MANAGEMENT New farmers have deforested new areas to create agricultural land. Forest management must be considered in the broadest sense of land use planning to include solutions for these people as well as for the trees. REFORESTATION Social or community forestry, in which trees are planted outside of regular forested areas, is one viable long term strategy to meet forestation targets. True community forestry involves participation by a large number of people, ensuring that trees are protected, and improving the livelihoods of the local people by increasing the productivity of the land. FARM FORESTRY This is a type of social forestry where woodlots are established by farmers on their own land for personal use and for profit. MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL WOODLANDS Recent data suggest that potential yields from natural woodlands have been underestimated and it should be possible to increase yields at a much lower cost than establishing new plantations. An advantage of natural woodlands is the natural production of a wide variety of harvestable products compared to single crop plantations. Community participation in reforestation

If local people have no say in the planning of their forests or do not understand the importance of them, it is likely that they will not maintain them. New saplings, if unprotected, can be quickly consumed by domestic animals. Furthermore, the labour input of the people is usually vital to the project. Specific steps that can be taken at the community level include: • Establishing community based education programmes as part of school curricula and at village councils and the use of media such as radio, television and newspapers; • Encouraging non governmental organisations to foster grassroots programmes involving small farmers and landless people who depend on forests and trees for their survival; • Encouraging programmes at the village or farm level for reforestation, and mitigation procedures for already deforested land using terraces and catch dams; • Introducing alternative cooking stoves that reduce fuel needs, and alternative sources of fuel; and • Promoting means to increase agricultural production, such as the use of fertiliser and improved seed varieties. 166

Impacts of deforestation Some of the negative impacts of deforestation are that: · Destabilised soils are more susceptible to landslides and may increase the landslide risk in areas vulnerable to earthquakes, like Matabeleland North and Manicaland; · Loss of moisture from deforestation may contribute to drought conditions, which, in turn, may trigger famines; · Soil nutrients may also be lost through erosion of topsoil, resulting in decreased food production and possible chronic food shortages; · Erosion and dry conditions combined with loss of vegetation and soil compaction result in desertification and unproductive lands (see figure 7.8); · It causes destruction of biodiversity and traditional cultures, loss of ‘free’ goods, such as fuels, food and medicines; · Dryness may accelerate the spread of fires; · Research has conclusively proven that deforestation of watersheds, especially around smaller rivers and streams, can increase the severity of flooding, reduce stream flows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase the amount of sediment entering waterways; · Additional strain is placed on women it terms of time and energy, which have serious implications on their other work in agriculture, housekeeping, productive employment and childbearing; · Trees contribute to the hydrological cycle as well as the regulation of the climate by acting as carbon dioxide sinks (carbon dioxide, greenhouse gas is removed by photosynthesis); and · Deforestation tends to exacerbate other disasters.

Figure 7.9 Comparison of Effects of Vegetated and Non-Vegetated Regions Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Management Center (1989)

Veld Fires and Bushfires

These are fires that get out of control and, in the process, destroy extensive tracts of forests and grasslands, as well as animals and other natural resources, and people and their property. Veld fires tent to be seasonal and are most common during the dry season. The speeds of onset vary with atmospheric temperature and wind speed. In Zimbabwe, the collective term ‘veld fires’ is used to cover all outdoor fires but, in other countries, ‘veld fires’ is used to describe fires on veld areas with few trees and ‘bushfires’ to describe those that ravage forests. Veld fires as hazards

The Zimbabwean climate produces a long period of winter and spring drought, which translates as low plant moisture and, as a result, high flammability. Land use patterns have changed. From early times, fire was used to eliminate shrub land. This management practice was used because it was thought to increase water yields, resulting in increased grassland production. It is during the driest period of the year, from July to the beginning of the rainfall season in October, that Zimbabwe has a large number of veld fires. Humans are usually the culprits in starting these fires. Incidences of lightning causing large veld fires are very isolated, except in some plantations where the exotic trees are flammable even when they are wet. Figure 7.10 illustrates the high frequency of veld fires in Zimbabwe, as compared to other forms of fire. The positive aspect also being shown also is that the veld fire incidences show a downward trend during the period reviewed (1999 to 2003).

The chance of a veld fire in any given locality on a particular day depends on the fuel conditions, topography, time of year, wind direction and speed, the past and present weather conditions, and the ongoing activities (debris burning, land clearing, bee smoking, etc.). Because the fire cycle is an important aspect of management for many ecosystems, controlled burns are routinely conducted. These are not considered hazards unless they get out of control. However fires can end up as disasters, if not quickly detected and extinguished. Even a small fire can get out of control and possibly cause a disaster in the wild. In the thickly forested areas of the country, veld fires usually spread as a thin front of flame, with flames usually about as thick as they are high. These fires, especially in the plantations, can travel at 1 to 3 km/h, have flames 5 to 10 metres high and thick, and will pass a spot in 30 to 60 seconds. This is because, in the drier seasons, dry grass and shrubs burn easily and, all too quickly, veld fires can become huge, spreading to destroy everything in their path, including human life, homes and other buildings, crops, livestock, forests and veld life. Thus a veld fire can be considered one of the most destructive forces of nature. Fire fighters, both professional and volunteer, risk their lives each year to control and eventually extinguish them. Most of Zimbabwe’s most devastating veld fires have happened where they have raged through the 167

Figure 7.10 Common Types of Fire Experienced in Zimbabwe

dense plantations of the eastern Highlands and the dense forests of game reserves, where even some human life has been lost as well.

Causes of veld fires Collecting honey from the forest is very popular in Zimbabwe but the main method uses fire to inactivate the bees. The fires, which are at times left burning at the site, can grow to engulf the whole forest. Other causes are: · ·

Weather and veld fires

Low relative humidity, high winds and lack of rain all contribute to increased fire danger. Sunshine and high temperatures rapidly dry timber and grass (fuel), which burn very quickly. Hot air can lower the moisture content of forests and grasslands, greatly increasing the speed of the fire. These determinants are discussed below:

· ·

· ·

WIND Air movement provides the oxygen the fire needs to keep burning. Higher winds mean more oxygen and more intense flames. Doubling the wind speed will quadruple the rate of spread of the fire. Winds also carry burning embers downwind, which can start new fires. This is known as ‘spotting’. RAINFALL Dry grass, parched native shrubs and dead leaves and twigs are a fire’s basic fuel. During droughts and in very hot, windy weather, even heavy fuels like large logs and the green leaves and smaller branches of large trees can become dry and flammable. HUMIDITY Relative humidity is the most commonly used measure of atmospheric moisture and is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually measured to that which the air could hold at saturation point. Very low relative humidity of, say, less than 20 percent, causes fuels to dry out and become more flammable. HIGH RISK WEATHER PATTERNS By world standards, Zimbabwe has a fairly low and very unreliable rainfall, and droughts are a significant feature of the Zimbabwean climate. Dry spells create a high fire risk, particularly if the dry spell follows a period of good rain that has encouraged lush growth. Weather systems, like the highs, lows and cold fronts that appear on weather maps, control the temperature, humidity and wind. Each part of Zimbabwe has its own special combination of weather systems that produces severe bushfire conditions but, in all cases, these conditions result from hot, dry winds blowing from Africa’s arid central region. 168

Sparks from moving steam engines; Careless throwing away of lit cigarette stubs by the public; Use of fires to clear vegetation and open up new arable lands, as is a long standing practice in Zimbabwe; Use of fires to expose game, especially recently among poachers on newly resettled farms where the land is still virgin; Deliberate sabotage, for example, to settle scores over land control, and Lightning, which has been known to start fires especially in plantations with exotic trees.

The fire danger index

Temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, drought and the amount of fuel can be combined into a ‘fire danger index’, to which colour codes are then allocated to represent the various defined ranges. The ranges are as follows: GREEN Burning may be carried out, but with caution; ORANGE If possible, postpone burning to another day when the fire danger estimate is in a lower range; RED Do not do any burning at all, as it could easily get out of control. Effects of veld fires

Forest fire danger rating index indicator. Such indicators are common in the Eastern Highlands where there are plantations, to show the public the rating of the fire hazard on a daily basis. (Source: CPD)

The effects of veld fires vary with intensity, area and time of year. Under adverse weather conditions, veld fires in Zimbabwe’s eucalyptus plantations cannot be stopped. Effects can be highly destructive, extending to complete destruction of valuable resources, such as buildings, livestock, crops, vegetation, timber, veld life and habitat, recreation areas, and watersheds. Losses of life and personal property occur as well. Severe fires producing high soil temperatures, create a water repellent layer below the soil surface. The soil above this layer remains bare and denuded, resulting in increased water runoff, and becomes highly prone to erosion, often resulting in mudslides. Thus veld fires also lead to land degradation and formation of gullies, as well as reducing soil fertility. A further result of this is decreased infiltration, which may leave farmers without enough water to recharge boreholes, springs and rivers, as well as less water for livestock, irrigation, wildlife and people. The high fire frequency is also a threat to historic shrub lands, which risk being converted to annual grasslands if they are burnt. Prevention and control of veld fires

It is necessary to be alert to fire alarms during the fire season and, in case of a fire outbreak, one should: · When the fire is still small, beat the fire using a beater, tree branches or wet sacks or blankets; · Douse the flame with water; · Clear (with a hoe or other implement) a strip in the direction of the fire; · Use counter burning; and · Inform the fire brigade or the nearest police station.

Bushfires are usually fought by a large number of trained volunteers alongside a core of professional firefighters with vehicle mounted equipment (in accessible terrain). In large bushfires, bulldozers and graders are used to create emergency firebreaks ahead of fire fronts. Back burning from firebreaks is frequently effective in slowing or stopping the spread of fire. It is a legal requirement that farmers intending to burn vegetation on their properties notify the occupiers of adjoining land. The following are the requirements: • Issue a preliminary notice stating the date of proposed burning; • Burning must take place not less than two weeks or more than eight weeks after the date of giving notice;

Figure 7.11 Fire Danger Maps of Zimbabwe, Rainfall and Dry Seasons Figure 7.1l shows the fire hazard mapping using the fire danger index for different forecasting periods.

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• Issue a final notice to all occupiers of adjoining land and the ZRP, stating the time of the proposed burning, not less than six or more than 24 hours before burning; • If, for any reason, the burning does not take place a fresh notice shall be given; • Members of the public shall not burn growing or standing vegetation on any land except in accordance with the law. Construct fireguards to control fires. These are belts of not less than 9m in width that should be cleared of all flammable materials. Fireguards should be maintained regularly to keep them clear of vegetation and fuel reduction (controlled) burning is to be carried out during the cooler seasons (May and June). The risk of a veld fire occurring can be reduced if people take a reasonable amount of care and use common sense when dealing with fire or materials that ignite easily. A carelessly thrown cigarette butt, exposing game through fire, or a campfire not properly extinguished, are common causes of fires that could easily be avoided.

Mutare Timber Plantation destroyed by fire (above) after a small fire was set (below ) to clear the land for farming. Source: CPD 2003)

Always follow the weather forecast on radio, television or in the daily newspaper for advice on when to schedule burning on your property or else use the fire danger placard if there is one erected near your home. If caught in a veld fire while driving, stay in the vehicle and do not drive through flames or smoke. You should: • · • • •

Stop at a clearing or by the roadside in a low vegetation area; Switch off the ignition and turn on the hazard lights and headlights; Stay inside the car unless near safe shelter; Keep vents, windows and doors closed; and Lie down, below window level, preferably under a woollen blanket until the fire front passes.

Research shows that in a bushfire, a car petrol tank is unlikely to explode in the period needed to stay inside the vehicle, using it as a shield against the deadly radiant heat of the fire front. If caught in a veld fire when on foot, don’t panic. Cover all exposed skin, then move across slope, away from the fire front, then down slope towards the rear of the main fire. Try to use open or already burnt ground. Do not try to out run the fire, run uphill or go through even low flames, unless you can clearly see a safe area close by. If it is not possible to avoid the fire, protect yourself from heat radiation by lying face down under an embankment, rock, loose earth or in a hollow, or if possible, get into a pond, dam or stream – but not into a water tank. The water tank may be heated easily by fire resulting in the water boiling. An Overview of Pollution Pollution is defined as the introduction by humans into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, or damage to structure. Forms of pollution include: • Chemicals which destroy flora and fauna or increase their growth to unacceptable levels; 170

Vital points to remember If you are in a house or car you will be safer than in the open while the fire front passes. If caught in the open you must protect yourself from the radiant heat of the flames by every possible means. A heavy, pure wool blanket (to wrap around you) and a flask of water (to drink and to moisten a corner of the blanket as a smoke mask) are basic requirements for bushfire survival and will give protection against radiant heat, dehydration and asphyxiation even in intense fires.

• Physical parameters like radiation noise and temperature variations; and • Biological means, through the introduction of micro-organisms, which result in diseases like coliforms. Three types of pollution that can be tackled at national level – water pollution, air pollution and littering – are discussed below. This is followed by a discussion of major global level pollution issues. Water Pollution Water is not an infinite resource and Zimbabwe may soon head towards a water crisis if the resource is not managed well. This crisis is already evident in many parts of the country, varying in scale and intensity depending on the year, time of the year and location. The main sources of freshwater pollution are the discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluent, and runoff from agricultural fields. Industrial growth, urbanisation and the increasing use of synthetic organic substances have already had serious and adverse impacts on freshwater bodies. For instance, the discharge of raw sewerage into aquatic systems by Harare City Council has polluted Lake Chivero, which is the major source of water for Harare Metropolitan Province (Gandiwa, 2006). Zimphos, a fertiliser company discharges nutrient rich effluent directly into the city watercourses (Mugadza, 1997). The polluted water in turn provides a conducive environment for the proliferation of invasive alien species, such as the water hyacinth, which has now colonised large parts of Lake Chivero (DNR, 2006). This floating aquatic weed has affected tourism as well as economic activities such as fishing. Recent large scale fish deaths and the rate of spread of the water hyacinth suggest that the ecosystem is being stressed by high levels of pollution in the lake’s catchment area. Ecological degradation also adds to the problem. Recently deforestation on an unprecedented scale has lead to soil erosion, causing accelerated run-off and deposit of sediments in riverbeds. The sediment level in rivers has increased more than a hundred-fold in deforested areas during the rainfall seasons, leading to serious siltation. Siltation on a massive scale is now evident in almost all major rivers in the country (Nhapi, 2000). Therefore, this section concentrates on the fundamental information we need to resolve our persistent water pollution problems, including understanding the basic concepts, causes, and prevention and control measures. Table 7.3 shows the major dams providing water for various uses in Zimbabwe. The need to preserve these waters must not be underestimated. Water resources are critical to Zimbabwe’s agriculture, as well as its rural and urban populations. The same is true for agro-industries, the manufacturing sector and mining, all of which depend heavily on water for their production processes. The country has no natural lakes and there are only a few perennial rivers. Water storage development is dependent on run-off accumulated during the rainfall season. In Zimbabwe, there are presently over 8 000 dams, of which only 135 have dam walls higher than 15 metres. Thus most dams have little storage capacity. The total storage capacity is approximately 4 900 million cubic metres, of which 80 percent is stored in 100 dams of more than two million cubic metres (ZINWA, 2006). 171

Types of water pollutants and their effects Some of the sources of pollution of the country’s water bodies are discussed below: SUSPENDED PARTICLES Suspended solids include silt and clay particles from soil run-off, industrial waste, and sewage. A high concentration of suspended solids reduces water clarity, contributes to a decrease in photosynthesis (which converts carbon dioxide to oxygen), can bind with toxic compounds and heavy metals, and can lead to an increase in water temperature through greater absorption of sunlight by surface waters. Warm water holds less oxygen than cold water, and so this can be detrimental to some aquatic life. Sediment that is carried by run-off from eroded soil is deposited in drainage basins, reducing the river’s water carrying capacity and thus exacerbating flooding.

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture or industry. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it becomes a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution and yet, it is undeniable that fresh water is our most valued and sought after renewable resource.

NUTRIENTS Nitrates found in sewage and fertilisers, and phosphates found in detergents and fertilisers are the source of nutrients for aquatic plants and algae. Agricultural run-off, urban run-off, leaking septic systems, sewage discharges, and eroded stream banks can enhance the flow of these substances into lakes. When in excess, they over stimulate growth of these organisms and can clog navigable waters, use up dissolved oxygen as they respire and decompose and block light to deeper waters, in a natural process called entrophication. Human activities tend to accelerate this process by increasing the rate at which nutrients and organic substances enter lakes from the surrounding watersheds. This deprives fish and other aquatic invertebrates of life sustaining oxygen as they compete for the scarce commodity, leading to a decrease in animal and plant diversity. It also affects the general use of water for fishing swimming and boating. PATHOGENS These are certain waterborne bacteria, viruses and protozoans that can cause human illness, ranging from typhoid and dysentery to minor respiratory diseases. The organisms can enter waterways through a number of routes, including inadequately treated sewage, storm water drains and septic systems, run-off from livestock pens and boats that dump sewage. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS Deterioration of water quality may be due to its enrichment (entrophication) with degradable organic materials including sewage, or effluents from food or other industries, farms or fish farms. In addition, leaching of minerals from agricultural land or from other sources of enrichment can lead to the development of algal blooms which, when they die, cause increased biochemical oxygen demand. The higher biological oxy-

Water hyacinth in Seke River. Note that, in this section, the water is not navigable. (Source: CPD 2006)

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Table 7.3 Major Dams of Zimbabwe

Dam Kariba Mutirikwi Manyame Orsbone Mazvikadeyi Manyuchi Manjirenji Sebakwe Chivero Insiza Bhiri Manyame

Catchment Zambezi Runde Manyame Save Manyame Mzingwane Runde Sanyati Manyame Mzingwane Manyame

Capacity 160 368 000 1 378 000 480 000 401 000 343 000 309 000 274 179 265 733 247 181 173 491 172 463

Purpose HY IR WS IR WS IR IR IR IR IR WS IR WS IR WS IR

Other Uses FT FT FT FT F T MI FT FT F F F F

Key: IR = Irrigation; WS = Water Supply; MI = Mining; HY = Hydroelectric; F = Fishing; T = Tourism ZINWA (2006)

What is water pollution? When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers and other water bodies, some are dissolved, lie suspended in the water or are deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water, whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits. When these pollutants are carried into a stream by surface run-off it leads to the serious deterioration of water quality and renders the water unfit to drink without treatment.

gen demand (BOD) resulting from these sources of pollution can increase loss of dissolved oxygen and can lead to the death of aerobes, including fish. Other problems arise due to release of effluents from manufacturing industries. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES When organic matter, such as manure or sewage, increases in a pond, the number of decomposers will also increase. These decomposers grow rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth. This leads to a depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs (eutrophication). Lack of oxygen can kill aquatic organisms. As these organisms die, decomposers break them down, leading to further depletion of the oxygen levels. FAECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA These are derived from the faeces of humans and other animals. These bacteria can contaminate rivers, lakes and oceans by direct discharge, from agricultural and storm run-off, and from sewage discharge into the water. In a combined sewer system, after heavy rains, untreated or inadequately treated waste may be diverted into a body of water. Faecal coliform bacteria by themselves are not pathogenic, that is, they do not cause illness or disease, but they are associated with viruses and parasites that do so. Since pathogens are usually scarce in water, they are difficult to measure; instead coliform levels are monitored, because of their greater abundance, and their association with pathogenic organisms (Nhapi, 2000).

Raw sewage from a burst sewer (above) usually flows to contaminate nearby streams (below) that flow into dams providing drinking

RECREATIONAL USE OF WATER Untreated sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural waste are often discharged into the water bodies such as lakes and rivers endangering their use for recreational purposes, such as swimming and canoeing. Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, respiratory problems, and other diseases, depending on the pollutant that is in the water body. Stagnant water and other untreated water provide a habitat for the mosquito and a host of other parasites and insects that cause a large number of diseases. Among these, malaria is undoubtedly the most widely distributed in the country and poses the greatest threat to human health. Prevention and control

It is necessary that: • water. (Source: CPD)

People stop the dumping and discharge of untreated effluent into water bodies. 173

•

Attempts be made to improve soils, which decreases the possibility of water contamination by toxic chemicals and decreases run-off, thereby lessening silting and sedimentation of waterways. Establishing terraces and contour bands, building check dams and planting trees and shrubs can help to stabilise soil. Watershed mapping, management and protection including avoiding unplanned stream bank cultivation and wetland cultivation, be conducted to ensure a safe and plentiful drinking water supply. Proper systems to dispose of human waste are promoted. Regulations must be established and enforced by government agencies to protect citizens against the toxic effects of pesticides and other chemicals. Improvement of soils will also help to absorb and degrade toxins. Further studies be made of the effects of pesticide residues. Farmers may use crop types resistant to pests or use an integrated approach to pest management, requiring less pesticide. Pit latrines and soakaways (for most soils) are at least 30 metres from any groundwater source and the bottom of any latrine is at least 1.5 metres above the water table. Drainage or spillage from defecation systems must not run towards any surface water source or shallow groundwater source (SPHERE Project, 2004).

• •

• •

TOXIC SUBSTANCES A toxic substance is a chemical pollutant that is not a naturally occurring substance in aquatic ecosystems. The greatest contributors to toxic pollution are mercury from gold panning, herbicides, pesticides and industrial compounds.

Case study: water pollution in lakes Chivero and Manyame Lakes Chivero and Manyame, which supply water to Harare and Chitungwiza, are the most seriously polluted water supply lakes in the country. Several factors have converged to compound the problem. The main one is that Lake Chivero is fed by the Marimba, Manyame, Nyatsime (not shown in figure 7.12 but upstream) and Mukuvisi rivers. These rivers make up the drainage system of the two cities. For example, the Mukuvisi River cuts almost right across Harare. It is the most polluted river as it receives both industrial and domestic effluent from the high concentration of industries and a highly populated city. On the other hand, Nyatsime, which starts off in Chihota communal lands, has some problems of occasionally receiving raw sewage from the city of Chitungwiza which contributes markedly to the pollution of Lake Chivero. Sewage samples from Harare City Council’s treatment works at Firle, Crowborough, Mabvuku, Tafara, Marlborough and Hatcliffe ponds are collected and analysed each year.

Table 7.4 Natural and Introduced Chemicals with Serious Health Effects

Source and Use

Effects on Health

Natural. Essential for protection against dental cavities and weakening of bones. Found in higher concentrations in some parts of the country like Binga

Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth, and damage to the spinal cord and other crippling diseases

Arsenic

Natural. Increased by overpowering aquifers and by phosphorus from fertilisers

High concentrations can cause poisoning, liver and nervous system damage, vascular diseases and also skin cancer

Lead

Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some household plumbing systems

Accumulates in the body and affects the central nervous

Chemical Fluoride

Petrochemicals Pesticides Salts

Other heavy metals

Contaminate the groundwater from underground petroleum storage tanks.

Petrol, diesel and other petrochemicals can cause cancer, even at low exposure levels system. Children and pregnant women are most at risk

Agriculture

Affect and damage the nervous system and can cause cancer

Naturally occurring

Makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and irrigation purposes

Mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps

Cause damage to the nervous system and kidney, and metabolic disruptions

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Figure 7.12 Location of Lake Manyame and Lake Chivero Relative to Harare

The other major potential sources of pollution along Mukuvisi River are industrial effluent in the Msasa industrial area, seepage from the landfill area between Old Chiremba Rd and Cripps Rd, run-off in the city centre area, and industrial discharges from Graniteside and Southerton industrial areas. Most companies do not pre-treat their waste before disposal and, where this is done, it is usually inadequate, as the technology has generally not been upgraded to match current high production levels. Storm water run-off from the built up areas usually carries a lot of chemicals, such as lead, phosphate and fertilisers, thereby accelerating the rate of entrophication in the rivers and, eventually, in Lake Chivero. A significant portion of Harare and Chitungwiza is composed of vleis. Vleis provide significant ecological diversity to the areas in which they are found as well as being an important element of the hydrological cycle. But these vleis are now the hub of intensive agriculture for city dwellers. Inevitably, fertilisers and pesticides used in this cultivation eventually leach into watercourses. As a result the quality of water in rivers and the lakes has continued to deteriorate and there have been instances in which fish were reported to have died in large numbers. The water hyacinth weed has colonised the nutrient rich waters and has become too stubborn to tackle, while, treating the polluted water to internationally accepted standards has become too expensive. Lake Chivero catchment

Water-borne epidemics and health hazards in the aquatic environment are mainly due to improper management of water resources. Proper management of water resources has become the need of the hour as this will ultimately lead to a cleaner and healthier environment. In order to prevent the spread of water-borne, infectious diseases, people should take adequate precautions. The city water supply should be properly checked and necessary steps taken to disinfect it. Water pipes should be regularly checked for leaks and cracks. At home, the water should be boiled, filtered or treated by other methods and necessary steps taken to ensure that it is free of infection.

The catchment of Lake Chivero comprises 2 136km 2 consisting of approximately 10 percent urban development and 90 percent rural area. The latter includes communal and commercial farming lands in nearly equal proportions. The population is heavily tilted towards urban, to the extent that the current astronomical urban population growth will soon not be matched by the water intake and waste water output for the urban areas. Case study: water hyacinth weed menace in Zimbabwe1 Water hyacinth in Lake Chiveo has received so much public attention due to its proximity to Harare that Zimbabwe had to institute drastic control programmes to tackle the negative effects of aquatic weed infestations in its rivers, wetlands and water bodies. Three free floating aquatic weeds – water 175

Urban Area

1969

1982

1992

2002

Harare

386 000

658 000

1 189 103

1 435 784

Chitungwiza Norton Ruwa Total Population % of National Population

15 000 3 400 * 389 408 7.6

172 000 12 400 * 42 400 11.2

274 912 20 405 1 447 1 485 867 14.29

323 260 44 397 22 155 1 825 596 15.7

Table 7.5 Population in Lake Chivero Catchment, 1969-1992

* no data available National Census Reports, CSO data

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and the water carpet, azolla (Azolla azolla) are common in the country’s water bodies. However, water hyacinth has had by far the greatest negative social and economic effects and widespread infestations and is the most in need of lasting control strategies. The extent of water hyacinth infestation in Zimbabwe Water hyacinth is a native of Amazonia and Brazil in South America, which has, over the past 100 years, spread to many tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Hartley, 1988). In Zimbabwe this weed has infested many rivers and water bodies in different parts of the country since its first reported introduction in 1937 (see Figure 7.13). The first serious infestations of the weed were reported in the early seventies in Lake Kariba where it was contained for a while by aerial sprays of herbicides. In recent times, there have been reports of increased re-infestations by the weed. It is estimated that, in 1997, the infestations on Lake Kariba covered about 2 500 hectares. The hyacinth has also seriously infested the Manyame and Mukuvisi river systems, the Seke dams, Lake Chivero and the Chinamora wetlands. Estimates

Firle Sewage Works discharges into Mukuvisi River and was designed to treat only 70 000m3 but is now treating 100 000m 3 per day (Zaranyika, 1997). It is not suprising that studies done by Zaranyika (1997) show that virtually all the indicators of water quality rose after the Firle Sewage Works discharge point. It was then concluded the Firle treated sewage effluent was a significant contributor to the pollution of the Mukuvisi River, especially in terms of nitrates, phosphates and heavy metals. With more than 36 000m3 of treated sewage effluent discharged daily into the Mukuvisi river, the pollutants make the water conducive for the growth of hycinth (Eichhornia crassipes) (Nhapi, 2000). Another study done by Moyo and Worster (1997) using data from four sampling sites along the Mukuvisi river, shows that Lake Chivero receives water that is physiologically ideal for the growth of the blue green algae Micrcystis aeruginosa. Generally the phytoplankton species diversity increased after the discharge of treated sewage effluent. Eichhornia crassipes formed extensive mats at Firle Works and patches also occurred elsewhere downstream (Nhapi, 2000).

Figure 7.13 Water Hyacinth Infestation in Zimbabwe Gurure, 1999

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Methods of water hyacinth control There are four main methods for the control of water hyacinth: NUTRIENT ELIMINATION Constant large inflows of improperly treated domestic and industrial sewage provide eutrophicating nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorous) from industrial and domestic effluent that support rapid proliferation of weeds. Eliminating the nutrient source can retard proliferation of the weed. M ANUAL CONTROL This method entails the removal of weeds from the shoreline by hand or with rakes and other implements. It is appropriate during the onset when infestation is low and scattered. However, this method may create other risks, such as drowning, attack by crocodiles or leeches, and the contraction of water-borne diseases. MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF WEEDS This method is associated with high costs of procuring or hiring machinery as it typically includes the use of bulldozers and aqua-dozers to mechanically pull out weeds from rivers and lakes. Since this method has been used successfully elsewhere, it could be tried in Zimbabwe. CHEMICAL CONTROL Herbicides can achieve rapid and significant reductions in weed infestations but this methods has a high negative environmental impact from the after effects of the chemicals.

of infestations range between 289 and 921 hectares, equivalent to 14.9 to 34.9 percent of Lake Chivero between 1991 and 1996. Other severe infestations have since been reported in the Mana Pools area, Lake Mutirikwi and the Mushagashe river, and in many other small rivers and dams in Bindura, Mazowe, Mutoko, Mudzi, Triangle and Chiredzi, among others places.

Biological characteristics of water hyacinth Biologically, water hyacinth is characterised by: MASSIVE VOLUME AND WEIGHT Water hyacinth has large, broad leaves, tubular stems and large air tubes, which are either free floating or rooted in the ground in shallow waters. It extends a large number of fibrous roots adapted to absorb nutrients from the water. The plant forms dense growths in eutrophic waters, forming mats, which may weigh as much as 25 kg/m2 or 2 500 t/ha. Its proliferation is associated with the levels of nutrients in the aquatic system. For example, Lake Chivero is expected to have much higher rates of weed growth than Lake Mutirikwi because of the high nutrient inputs available there. RAPID GROWTH AND PROPAGATION The plant has very rapid rates of growth, which may be as high as 5 percent per day, depending on the nutrient levels. Its biomass, which consists of over 90 percent water, doubles in fifteen to eighteen days. Propagation methods are through vegetative means and through seeds. The seeds can remain viable for periods of up to fifteen years (Scott and Ashton, 1979). Thus, even if the weed were totally removed, the possibility for regeneration would be high, necessitating continuous monitoring programmes after initial eradication. Problems associated with aquatic weed infestations

The specific problems arising from infestation by aquatic weeds are: EXCESSIVE EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION Large surface area carpets of foliage, allow evapo- transpiration which can be as much as six times that of water surfaces not covered by weeds (Friedel, 1979). Large quantities of water are also lost into the plants, which contain up to 95 percent water. This represents a major water waste concern where conservation of water is a national priority. DISRUPTION OF FISHING AND TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES Boats and fishing nets get tangled in carpets of weed resulting in occasional breakdowns. The plant competes for oxygen and ultimately deprives other aquatic ecosystems of it. The presence of large carpets of weeds is not favourable in fish breeding areas because of its negative effect on fish populations. OBSTRUCTION OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES The large carpets severely affect accessibility to the water for recreational purposes. Dead and decaying weeds also affect the aesthetic appeal of tourist facilities when water and air quality deteriorate because of debris and unpleasant odours. The impact of weeds on the tourism industry in Zimbabwe needs to be investigated. OBSTRUCTION OF WATER UPTAKE AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION Weeds clog water uptake pipes, sometimes resulting in large costs for the 177

BOX 7.8 ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER DETERIORATING

repair of damaged pumps and other machinery. Over the years, City of Harare has had to deal with the increasing costs of repairing and maintaining water uptake equipment from damages associated with weeds. At Kariba, the functioning of the hydroelectric plant has major implications for the economies of not only Zimbabwe, but also other countries in the region – Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. Therefore, the hydroelectric power generation equipment has to be protected from clogging and damage by weeds.

INCIDENCE OF DISEASE Water hyacinth provides favourable habitats for breeding mosquitoes and snails, agents related to the spread of malaria and bilharzia respectively.

Air Pollution as a Hazard Air pollution is largely the result of transportation and industrial processes, many of which release dangerous gases into the atmosphere. Thus it is basically concentrated in urban areas, meaning that much of our urban population breathes polluted air most of the time. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a major pollutant, is a corrosive gas harmful to humans and the environment. Electricity generation using fossil fuels is the key source of this compound in some cities. Excessive release of carbon dioxide is largely blamed for the rising global temperatures. Burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, contribute also, emitting other air pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead, mainly from vehicle exhaust. In Bulawayo and Harare, air pollution problems have manifested themselves as smog, which is directly related to these emissions, especially in winter when they are trapped at the surface by temperature inversion. It has to be noted that, while it is necessary to control the levels of air pollution in Zimbabwe, the problem is not as serious as in other countries where gas masks are recommended at certain times of the season for those outdoors in the city streets. However, Zimbabwe has experienced a rapid expanBOX 7.9 DO YOU KNOW THAT… DNR (2006)

178

Figure 7.14 National Vehicle Fleet, June 1994-July 1999 IPINA Country Report (2003)

sion in the national vehicle fleet; the number of vehicles almost doubled between 1994 and 1999 (see Figure 7.14). Zimbabwe’s petrol contains about 0.6 to 0.8 mg Pb/l making it justifiable to monitor Pb levels in the country’s urban air, especially in the major cities. However, technological developments now make it possible to treat or collect pollution at its source and the present tight legislation (EMA) is now forcing companies in this direction. Wood is the single largest source of energy for Zimbabweans, supplying about 48 percent of total energy consumed by the total population of approximately 12 million. More than 6 million tonnes of wood are consumed annually, supplying mainly rural and urban low-income households (DNR). These developments have resulted in high emissions of air pollutants. According to city health data, in 1994 the total annual sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission from thermal power stations was 141 350 tonnes. Emissions from the industrial sector in the same year were methane (CH4) 19.08 Gg; nitrogen oxide (NOx) 0.21Gg and carbon monoxide (CO) 1.38Gg.

Figure 7.15 Annual Mean Levels of So2 in Harare, 1995-2001 (μg/ m 3) APINA Country Fact Sheet (2003)

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The City of Harare’s air quality monitoring data show that the SO 2 concentration consistently exceeded the WHO guideline of 50 μg/m3 by a factor of 2.25 (range: 1.73 to 3.96) times between 1995 and 2001, with the year 2000 recording the highest SO2 concentration over the seven year period (see Figure 7.15). Examples of areas seriously affected by air pollution

A visit to Torwood Township near ZISCO in Redcliff bears witness to the effects of air pollution on the environment as well as on health. The area has literally assumed the colour of exhausts emitted from the blast furnaces at the mine. The minister responsible for the environment in 1988, had to halt further expansions of the township because of compelling medical evidence of serious health hazards posed by gas and dust emissions from the Zisco Steel Works. For the same reason, cement and major chemical plants are normally sited west of towns e.g. Sable Chemical near Kwe Kwe and Cement Siding in Bulawayo, so that the pollutants do not blow into inhabited areas from the prevailing winds which have a predominantly easterly component. Control of air pollution

Pollution can be controlled by laws to establish appropriate standards, and by technology to achieve these standards. Control measures must mainly be carried out at the source since, unlike water, air is difficult to clean once polluted. The strategies are contained in the specified duties of the Air Pollution Control Unit of Zimbabwe mentioned in Box 7.10.

The Air Pollution Control Unit is headed by an Air Pollution Control Officer who works with Air Pollution Control Inspectors to execute the following duties: • • • • • • •

Effects of air pollution The pollution of the troposphere (lower atmosphere) is damaging to agricultural crops, forests, aquatic systems, buildings and human health. Primary pollutants often react to form secondary pollutants (acidic compounds), a frequent cause of environmental damage. The following effects are possible: · Wood smoke has been identified as a significant risk factor for acute respiratory infections, yet in Zimbabwe about 70 percent of the poor in rural and peri-urban homes are daily exposed to high indoor air pollution concentrations; · Crop and vegetation damage by injury to plant tissue resulting in reduced growth or death of vegetation, reduced crop production in agriculture and increasing susceptibility to disease and drought; · Decline in forests due to leaf damage by acidic compounds, acidification of soils, nutrient overload and the stresses of multiple pollutants; · Damage to aquatic ecosystems so that they no longer support life due to water (salination and acidification); · Reduced atmospheric visibility and climate change; · Corrosion of building materials, such as metals, stone and brick; · Damage to the respiratory tracts of humans with a negative impact on overall human health; and · A greater burden of the effects on those who are already the most poor and vulnerable.

BOX 7.10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL UNIT

Examining plans and proposals for new specified processes and for extensions to existing, works like changing from fossil fuels to renewable energy, encouraging effective use of energy; Advising industry on abatement technologies for air pollution from all specified processes; Carrying out routine systematic visits to industries for the inspection of abatement equipment on its operation and maintenance; Creating an awareness of air pollution problems in industry by regular consultation with the public; Advising and assisting local authorities in the implementation of smoke control regulations within their areas of jurisdiction; Engaging in isokinetic stack emission sampling of emissions from specified processes throughout the country; and Enforcing the provisions of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act.

Any establishment that emits substances that pollute the air will have to apply for a license from the Environment Management Board and will have to operate according to the conditions stipulated in that license, otherwise it may to be cancelled.

‘The penalty for emissions that contravene the prescribed standards is five years imprisonment or a fine not exceeding 15 million dollars, or both such fine and such imprisonment. The offender is also liable to pay the costs for removing the pollutants and for restoration of the environmental damage’.

Air Quality Standards, EMA

There are a number of specific activities undertaken in Zimbabwe to monitor 180 air pollution. These are summarised in Table 7.6.

BOX 7.11 DID YOU KNOW THAT…

Table 7.6 Summary of Zimbabwe Air Pollution Information

Main sources of air pollution

Vehicular Industrial processes Mining and mineral processing Energy production. Agricultural and waste management.

Status of monitoring

No systematic national monitoring exists but random monitoring is carried out, including specific donor funded projects Data from City of Harare Monitoring Unit, research projects and industry available The Air Pollution Control Unit (APCU) of the City of Harare Health Department, -carries out routine air pollution monitoring at 8 sites (data available for 1995-2001) -investigates complaints from residents on air pollution -controls open burning -is expected to inform the public of air pollution in the City of HarareThe unit focuses on three pollutants – SO2, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and black smoke/soot

Pollutants monitored

SO2, CH4, NOx, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia (NH3)

Number of monitoring stations

Three sites used in 1990-91 study by the University of Zimbabwe and 8 routinely by the Harare City Health Department

Capacity to study air pollution

Exists at the University of Zimbabwe, other research institutions and in industry

Air quality standards

Drafted and to be implemented

Extracted from Country Fact Sheet, APINA (2003)

Littering is the ratepayer’s burden The accumulation of litter will need urban authorities to clean up, purify the dirty water and repair burst sewers clogged by litter, thus adding to their routine work and expenses. They will not have any other alternative except to pass on these expenses to ratepayers, resulting in high rates payable to the council. The vulnerability of the area to diseases means that medical bills will be higher and even death may result when there are disease outbreaks, such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Urban flash floods may also be caused by the blockage of storm drains causing traffic jams and road accidents to occur.

According to EMA (CAP 20:27) litter is anything thrown away as unwanted material that accumulates in a disorderly manner. It is a state of untidiness and dirt. People create litter in homes, workplaces, prison camps, schools, college campuses, streets and roads (through vehicle windows as they travel). Litter can be leftover food, empty food containers, plastic, wastepaper, broken bottles and rubble from construction, old scrap metal from vehicles and engines, etc.

Littering The disposal of solid wastes is a major problem for many towns. Seemingly endless streams of lorries are used to haul wastes long distances to disposal sites from carefully designated collection points, keeping our towns clean. But, with the growing population in towns and consequent increase in production of solid wastes, there is a growing trend towards on-site disposal, which only used to be practiced in the rural areas. The management of urban waste and surplus materials is very important for the proper environmental management of a town and all stakeholders should play their part, especially as individuals, in avoiding littering our towns. Litter as a hazard If organic solid waste is not disposed of and has an odour, major risks are incurred of fly and rat breeding and surface water pollution. Uncollected and accumulating solid waste may also create a depressing and ugly environment, discouraging efforts to improve other aspects of environmental health. Health hazards may result, leading to the outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid. Solid waste often blocks drainage channels and leads to further environmental health problems associated with stagnant and polluted surface water, such as bilhazia and malaria outbreaks. However, the most conspicuous and easily identifiable aspect is the loss of the aesthetic value and beauty of an area. Prevention and control of litter

Table 7.7 gives some of the actions that should and should not be taken to avoid littering and the consequent damage to the environment. 181

Recommended treatment of refuse

In your own home, it is recommended that you: • Separate refuse by type, ensuring that material meant for the compost does not go into the litterbin. Compost materials include vegetable and fruit waste, garden waste, newspapers and cardboard boxes, i.e. material that is biodegradable. Biodegradable materials are materials that are capable of being broken down by living organisms into organic matter. • Newspapers, empty bottles, empty plastic containers can be collected and sold to companies that recycle e.g. National Waste Collections Company recycles newspaper. • Take a shopping bag or basket when going shopping to avoid carrying too many plastic bags from the shops, as these may create more litter at home. At school or on a collage campus, you are advised to: • Develop a college or school environment policy and implement it; • Collect all wastepaper from offices, classrooms and lecture rooms for recycling; • Set up an Environment Club, which will help in identifying and solving environmental issues at the school or college; and • Label containers to assist in separating litter e.g. bottles, plastic containers, biodegradable waste and wastepaper (see Figure 7.16).

Figure 7.16 Grading of Litter Using Labelled Litter Containers

There is growing trend towards onsite litter disposal in most suburbs in Zimbabwe (below) (http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Zimbabwe).

Cooperate bodies and businesses should be responsible and practice recycling or collecting potential litter arising from company products. They can also design environmentally friendly and more biodegradable packaging for a cleaner environment. Offering deposits on packaging returns, such as bottles, tins and plastic containers for reuse is the best practice Municipalities, Rural District Councils and persons responsible for the maintenance at any site are required to: • Ensure that refuse is collected regularly and on time; • Provide containers that are suitable and large enough to contain the litter; • Put in place by-laws that help control litter within their areas of administration; BOX 7.12 THE PENALTY FOR CAUSING LITTERING

Table 7.7 Litter Don’ts and Dos Don’t

Do

Discard, dump or leave any litter on any land, Place litter in a container provided for that purpose on the street, roadside, school, storm drain, water surface, street, road or college campus or at home site in any place not provided for such purDiscard litter at a place that has been specially pose set apart for such purpose, like a waste disposal site or dumpsite Throw litter through windows and doors of Put litter in a container provided for that private or public vehicles purpose in a public vehicle

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• Provide adequate, and well planned and designed waste dumping sites and landfills; and • Carry out public awareness raising campaigns for a litter free environment in their areas of jurisdiction. Global Warming Global climate change is now viewed as a serious issue by the Government of Zimbabwe, as the weight of scientific evidence regarding climate change appears to indicate that the threat from global warming due to a build up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is real. (Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism, 2003). Government has acknowledged that large scale anthropogenic activities throughout the world may have global consequences, traversing continents as well as national boundaries. The government signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit and ratified it in November of the same year. While Zimbabwe’s contribution to global emissions of GHGs is relatively small, the driving force behind this concern is the potentially serious impacts that global climate change might have on the country (Ministry of Mines Environment and Tourism, 2003). Human-induced global warming will present people and the government with real challenges in the future, particularly in terms of pollution control, regional water management policies, and food production. Given the heavy dependence of the country on rainmfed agriculture, the absence of natural lakes, frequent occurrence of droughts in the region and a growing population, the potential social and economic impacts from climate change could be devastating. Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

Figure 7.17 Minimum and Maximum Temperature Trends, Beitbridge, 1951-2001 (oC)

Figure 7.17 indicates a steady increase in both the annual minimum and annual maximum temperatures for Beitbridge town in Matabeleland South over the previous half century (1951 to 2001). However, there is no evidence to link this increase in temperature exclusively to climate change, as it could also be a manifestation of natural climatic variability. Despite this lack of a conclusive climate change related trend, the several models used to predict the temperature change for Southern Africa confirm that the region will not escape the effects of global warming (IPCC, 1990). Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans, caused by modification of the chemical composition of

183

the atmosphere, particularly by increasing those gases that absorb the earth’s infrared radiation.The term is also used for the scientific theory of anthropogenic global warming, which attributes much of the recently observed and projected global warming to a human-induced intensification of the greenhouse effect. Temperature change is just one aspect of the broader subject of (human-induced) climate change. The scientific opinion on climate change, as expressed by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is that the global average surface temperature relative to 1990 is projected to increase by about 2° C (http://www.wmo.ch/climate/1996/wmo/statement). Since comparable records began in 1861, the 1990s were globally the warmest decade. Figure 7.18 shows an increase in global temperatures since 1860. Recent scientific evidence also indicates that the 1900s were the warmest century during the last 1 000 years. The ten warmest years have all occurred since 1983. The four warmest years were 1998 (+0.58°C above normal), 1997 (+0.44), 1995 (+0.38) and 1990 (+0.35) (http://www.wmo/climate/1999). Like most other regions of the world, the temperature series in Africa show long term warming. The warmth of the last century is near record levels in Southern Africa (WMO, 1998). The (GHGs) emitted by Zimbabwe, in order of importance are, carbon dioxide, (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). These national emissions are significantly influenced by a population distribution that is approximately 30 percent urban. The remaining 70 percent live either in rural areas or on commercial farms. Wood fuel forms the main energy source for most rural people. Paradoxically trees play a vital role in recycling carbon dioxide by taking in carbon dioxide, transforming it chemically, storing the carbon and releasing the oxygen into the air. When trees are cut down for fuel wood, they release stored carbon to the air as carbon dioxide to further aggravate the global warming problem. Recently, in Central Africa, the virgin rainforests were found to have air pollution levels comparable to industrial areas (Nhapi, 2000). A major cause of this pollution is the fires that rage for months in the dry season across huge stretches of land to clear shrubs and trees for the production of crops and grasses and, at times, to aid in hunting. Forest fires have become annual outbreaks of unprecedented levels and are causing major concern in Zimbabwe as well. The concerns do not stem from deforestation alone, but the considerable amounts of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere during the process. The impacts of climate change on Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is landlocked, largely semi arid, has no natural lakes, and suffers from periodic droughts. A shift in rainfall patterns and to a warmer climate could have severe implications on the economy, especially in terms of water resources, vegetation and forestry, agriculture, manufacturing based on agriculture, and tourism. It is also vulnerable to a high incidence of malaria due to possible expansion of malaria endemic areas. Thus critical areas of potential climate change impacts are related to water supply, food security and health. The two main climatic parameters that determine the socioeconomic prospects, as well as the problems in the country, are the annual rainfall (its spatial and temporal distribution) and temperature fluctuations. Some socioeconomic constraints may manifest themselves in the following sectors: SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE The majority of the population is still engaged in subsistence agriculture and depends on rain (and catchment dams) for crop 184

Figure 7.18 Global Temperatures in the Past 150 Years

TOURISM This depends on sustained biodiversity, both in terms of favoured wildlife species, such as elephants, and a healthy, supportive ecosystem. A warmer climate could result in changes to the ecosystem, the food chain, and the wildlife that tourists come to see. Most of the tourism in Zimbabwe is particularly susceptible to droughts. If water levels are low in the Zambezi river, this cuts back on recreational activity in the Kariba Dam and at the Victoria Falls. Recurrent droughts and the expansion of human settlements may lead to decimation of wildlife population. For example the 1991/92 drought resulted in the deaths of wildlife, especially elephants, in major national parks. The major national parks of Hwange and Gonarezhou are located in semi-arid ecological zones of the country and other tourism centres that are also dependent on good rains to maintain their beautiful scenery and sustain flora and fauna may not be spared.

production. A warmer regional climate poses threats of reduced water supplies and expanding areas in which the staple crop, maize, may become more difficult to grow. Increase in rainfall extremes may lead to highly variable yields in arable agriculture (both rain fed and irrigated). Livestock production may face the problem of poor and variable rangeland productivity and desertification processes. WATER DEMAND The water demand is made up of water used for domestic purposes, irrigation, livestock, industry and energy generation. Increased drought frequency and severity of droughts is likely to add more stress to water demand for these uses, especially an increase in irrigation water requirements due to increased potential evapo-transpiration. Preventative and rehabilitative afforestation activities may be negatively affected by deficient rainfall. THE WATER SUPPLY-DEMAND RELATIONSHIP Studies done on the Zimbabwe river catchment system shows that, although the catchments will in any case be water scarce as a result of an increase in demand due to population growth and allied uses, climatic change will make conditions more severe. HUMAN HEALTH Another threat from global warming is its impact on human health. A particular threat is the potential spread of malaria to a wider geographical area of the country. Presently, malaria tends to be a year round problem only in low lying areas such as the Zambezi valley, although the trends are on the increase. (refer to Chapter 5 for more details on malaria). Warmer temperatures allow mosquitoes that transmit diseases such as malaria and dengue fever to extend their range and increase both their biting rate and their ability to infect humans. Thus the vector mosquito may migrate into higher elevation areas where malaria is presently not a serious problem. Other climate change associated diseases that are expected to increase, are cholera, dengue fever, yellow fever and general morbidity. Adaptations to ameliorate climate change

The following are actions to consider in order to lessen and reverse the impact of climate change: CHANGE LAND USE PRACTICES Forest diversity and extensiveness, should be maintained by altering land use, harvesting and planting practice to allow for185

ests to adapt to climate change, conserving large tracts of natural forest (for example, the demarcated forest reserves, nature reserves and national parks) and expanding as well as connecting protected areas with conservation corridors for wildlife (NDR, 2006). PROTECT AREAS UNDER STRESS Protecting critical habitat and potential areas of expansion of species and forest communities likely to come under stress due to altered climate regimes. With tourism, water management within national parks may have to be explored to keep wildlife within the parks and reduce migration to external areas. IMPROVE FOREST MANAGEMENT Managing and planning land uses around forested areas, to identify and manage areas of potential forest migration or decline, especially corridors or buffer zones along water bodies.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION Generation of hydroelectric power at Kariba (Zimbabwe) could be adversely affected. For example, the Kariba Hydroelectric Power Station on the giant Zambezi River was unable to provide the normal supply of electrical energy to either Zambia or Zimbabwe during the 1991/92 drought. TROPICAL CYCLONES Tropical cyclone increasingly cause flooding due their increased frequency and intensity. From 1950, twelve tropical cyclones affected the country, but four of these were in the past decade. These were Bonita, 1996, Lissette 1997, Eline 2000, and Japhet 2003. The most intense tropical cyclone of the century, as measured by rainfall and destruction was Eline in 2000 (Met Office).

INCREASE DAMS AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES More dams could be built to increase national water storage capacity. The amount of water stored as groundwater is still unknown in Zimbabwe. Improvement in the knowledge of groundwater storage may indicate that groundwater is a feasible source of water that can be developed to cushion the impact of climate change. INVEST IN WATER CATCHMENT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Investment in water catchment and distribution systems, like the Zambezi Water Project, could counter the effects of climate change, by tapping water from the Zambezi River. Immense volumes of water, which otherwise flow daily into the Indian Ocean, could greatly reduce water problems to the perennially water deficit provinces of Matabeleland. USE WATER EFFICIENTLY It is estimated that agriculture currently uses about 80 percent of the country’s surface water resources. Irrigation efficiencies vary from 40 to 60 percent. The improvement in water use efficiency is one form of adaptation that has minimal costs. CHANGE TO DROUGHT RESISTANT CROPS The agriculture sector is quite vulnerable, with marginally productive areas likely to shift to non-agricultural use. For areas where crop production becomes non-viable, livestock and dairy production may be developed as major agricultural activities. Other solutions relate to developing new plant varieties that are more drought tolerant and disease resistant crops, so that farmers can change to these. They could also switch to different crops that grow in the new climatic conditions. INVEST IN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS In areas of high temperatures and high evapotranspiration rates the introduction of irrigation systems would help to sustain agricultural production. Switching from monoculture to diversified agriculture is one of the more popular adaptive measures. However, it can be expected that local farmers – mainly subsistence – are conservative and would only gradually accept growing other crops. INCREASE FARMING SKILLS Cash crops, such as tobacco, need high levels of skill, specialised equipment and capital to grow successfully. USE SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS Use of supplementary feeds and livestock breeds 186

INTRODUCE NEW SPECIES Introduction of both native and exotic species, as a means of facilitating shifts in forest range (for example, planting native or exotic species that may already be favourably adapted to future climate at the latitudinal or altitudinal ecozones of present community ranges). Such species may include drought or heat resistant species for regions projected to become drier.

that are adaptable to drought will enable farmers to cope with some adverse climate change impacts. This again requires cash injections and the more vulnerable groups are usually not considered creditworthy, or are sceptical of borrowing and possess no formal training on agricultural practices. MANAGE THE CHANGES Changes in agriculture management practices can also offset the negative impacts of climate change. The timing of farming operations (for example, planting dates, and application of fertilisers, insecticides, and herbicides) becomes imperative if farmers are to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. Changing plant densities and application rates of fertilisers and agrochemicals would also help farmers to cope with the impacts. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

To protect the health and economic wellbeing of current and future generations, it is necessary to reduce our emissions of heat trapping gases by using the technology, know how, and practical solutions already at our disposal. Existing strategies include: • •

•

Reducing the rate of deforestation (see section on deforestation above). Planting trees helps to meet community needs for wood and to provide profits for individual farmers practicing agroforestry. Increasing the efficiency of energy production and use. Energy efficiency should be promoted in urban areas and renewable energy sources such as wind power, water power, geothermal, and solar, should be supported. These may be of great use in areas where no electricity sources exist. Developing regulations to curb pollution from traffic emissions and industry in urban areas.

Ozone Depletion Chloroflocarbons (CFCs) are used in the country as coolants in air conditioners, and propellants in aerosol spray cans. They are also used to clean electric parts, as hospital sterilising agents, and as blowing agents to puff liquid plastic into Styrofoam and other foams used for insulation and packaging. In addition, they are used in preserving stored agricultural products like maize. CFCs were first produced by General Motors in 1928, specifically to replace the more expensive and toxic refrigerant ammonia. The inventor was highly regarded as the multiple purposes of CFCs became apparent. The problem arose when it was discovered that the presumed friendly gas lowers the concentration of an even more life sustaining gas in the atmosphere, ozone. Ultraviolet radiation is a high energy wave that can cause cell damage in plants and animals. It is associated with skin cancer and cataracts, and reduced phytoplankton in the oceans (Fig 7.19). The depletion of ozone in the atmosphere removes the shielding effect provided by ozone, thus exposing the earth to the harmful effects of UV radiation. The ultraviolet light interacting with oxygen molecules also creates natural ozone. Problems occur when chlorine is present because the ultraviolet light breaks down ozone, to oxygen molecules. The chlorine atom then frees itself to attack other ozone molecules, repeating the same process (see Figure 7.20), eventually depleting the atmosphere of this shielding molecule. Thus the thinning of the ozone layer is caused by released CFCs (i.e. with 187

BOX 7.13 INDICATORS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) and World Resources Institute (WRI) (1999)

chlorine). A trend of decreasing ozone has been observed since the industrial revolution due to the increase of CFCs, which are non-reactive in the lower atmosphere but catalyse the destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere. All substances containing CFCs are collectively known as ozone depleting substances (ODS). Effects of ozone depletion

Ozone depletion has negative effects at a number of different levels, as elaborated below: HEALTH EFFECTS Reductions in ozone levels lead to higher levels of ultraviolet light reaching the Earth’s surface. The sun’s output of ultraviolet light does not change; rather, less ozone means less protection, and hence more ultraviolet light reaching the earth. Non-melanoma skin cancer will certainly increase in light skinned individuals and people living near the equator. Ultraviolet light also reduces the ability of the body’s immune system to fight foreign substances entering through the skin. Diseases of the eye, such as cataracts and deterioration of the cornea and retina, are also associated with UV light. EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity. Ultraviolet radiation can penetrate the ocean’s surface, damaging the phytoplankton, thus affecting their growth and reproduction. As fish provide an average of 14 percent of the animal protein in the world (60 percent in Japan), the impact could be significant. 188

Ozone is a rare form of oxygen, which is composed of three (normal oxygen gas has two) atoms of oxygen. Most of the atmospheric ozone is concentrated in the upper atmosphere, or stratosphere, forming the ozonosphere or the ozone layer, and is located from 11 to 24km above the earth. The gas is a natural sunscreen that filters some (about 30 percent) of the ultraviolet radiation travelling from the sun to Earth, as some of the UV is used up in the breakdown of ozone to oxygen gas.

Africa’s “Shining Mountain” may soon shine no more. The snow and ice on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro is melting so fast that some scientists believe its icecap could be gone by the year 2015. The icecap formed more than 11 000 years ago. Researchers say the ice fields on Africa’s highest mountain shrank by 80 percent over the past century. About a foot and a half of the summit’s glacial ice is lost each year due to rising surface temperatures. There is concern that the loss of Kilimanjaro’s icecap could impact upon both the local climate and the availability of fresh water for local populations who depend upon the glacial melt runoff, particularly during the dry seasons. The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites captured this pair of images over Mount Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and February 21, 2000 (bottom). Melting Snows of Kilimanjaro in March 1993 (above) 2000 (below) http://ocrl.kordi.re.kr/directory/20021224e.htm

A Shadow of a Lake: Africa's Disappearing Lake Chad (NASS Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) Online News Release 27/02/01) Lake Chad, once one of the African continent's largest bodies of fresh water, has dramatically decreased in size due to climate change and human demand for water. Once a great lake close in surface area to North America's Lake Erie, Lake Chad is now a ghost of its former self. According to a study by University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers, working with NASA's Earth Observing System program, the lake is now 1/20th of the size it was 35 years ago. Found at the intersection of four different countries in West Africa (Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon,) Lake Chad has been the source of water for massive irrigation projects. In addition, the region has suffered from an increasingly dry climate, experiencing a significant decline in rainfall since the early 1960's. The most dramatic decrease in the size of the lake is shown in the fifteen years between January 1973 and January 1987. Beginning in 1983 the amount of water used for irrigation began to increase. Ultimately, between 1983 and 1994, the amount of water diverted for purposes of irrigation quadrupled from the amount used in the previous 25 years. The first image, taken with the Argon satellite in October 1963, and three subsequent Landsat satellite images taken in January 1973, January 1987, and January 1997, show the progression of the lake as it shrinks. This additional time lapse sequence shows Lake Chad shrinking ever smaller over the course of four decades. The red color denotes vegetation on the lake bed and the ripples on the western edge of the lake denote sand dunes formed by the wind.

The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites captured this pair of images over Mount Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and February 21, 2000 (above).

Solar UV light radiation has been found to cause damage in the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and some animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, solar UV radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures. EFFECTS ON PLANTS The physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UV radiation, even by the amount of ultraviolet light in present day sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UV light, plant growth can be directly affected by UV radiation. Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally, or sometimes more, important than the immediate damaging effects of UV light. These changes can have important implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.

A composite of Landsat-7 images from November 2000 to February 2001 shows the present stage of Lake Chad. The small patch of blue that is now the lake stands in stark contrast to the wide swath of the old lake bed (shown in green, indicating vegetation). (source GSFC 2001)

International cooperation International cooperation to limit CFC emissions through an international treaty called the Montreal Protocol intended to reduce production and use of CFCs by 50 percent from 1986 levels before the year 2000 in industrialised nations, but developing countries were allowed to increase their use slightly. Meanwhile research is attempting to address the need for CFC substitutes, minimising loss to the atmosphere, and recycling. Countries can regulate import and use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration units. 189

Figure 7.19 How the Ozone Layer Shields Earth’s Life from Uultraviolet Radiation

Area/Sector

Substance

Application

Consumption

ODP

ODP

Refrigeration (Domestic)

R12

Charging and servicing

113.0

1.0

113.0

Refrigeration (Commercial)

R12, R115, R11, R22

Car and room AC; Commercial display units; Room AC cleaning and system purging; Large display units

15.0 0.5 68.0 28.0

1.0 0.6 1.0 0.056

15.0 0.3 68.0 1.54

Foams

R11

Blowing agent

20.0 8.2

1.0 10.0

7.0 82.0

Fire fighting

H1301, H1211

Charging fixed and portable units

5.0

3.0

15.0

Aerosols

R12

Propellant; Seedbed fumigation; Soil

7.0

1.0

7.0

Agriculture

MeBr

Sterilisation; Grain stack fumigation

600.0

0.7

420.0

Table 7.8 Country Status: ODS Consumption in Zimbabwe (tonnes)

Figure 7.20 How CFCs Destroy Ozone in the Atmosphere Possible risk reduction measures are: · Total prohibition of importation and use of ODS; · Increased tariffs on ODS imports; · Code of practice/conduct of sale measures on use of ODS; · Individual governments specifying ODS phasing out procedures; · Procedure for permits and period of validity for ODS use; · A ban on second hand ODS equipment; · Penalties for non-compliance including deterrent fines, imprisonment and cancellation of permits; · Providing incentives for recovery of ODS equipment already in use; and · Providing incentives for importers of nonODS and ozone friendly equipment.

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CHAPTER 8 Disaster Risk Managemnet in the Education Sector Introduction As discussed in previous chapters, Zimbabwe is so prone to various disasters that the important role that educators and students can play in creating awareness in their communities is obvious. Moreover children are among the most vulnerable population group during a disaster, especially those attending school at the time of the event. During disasters, it is quite common for school buildings to be destroyed, at times, injuring or taking the lives of children and teachers. Access to education in the aftermath of a disaster can be interrupted and rebuilding schools can take years because of the, often high, costs involved and the limited resources available in a country such as Zimbabwe. Learning about disaster risk management in primary and secondary schools and even at higher levels, helps students to play their essential role in saving lives and protecting members of the community in times of a disaster. Making disaster risk education an integral part of the national school curriculum helps to build greater awareness of the issues across entire communities. Educators and students can do a lot of work in generating awareness, identifying areas of vulnerability, coping with them and working together as a team to reduce the impact of disasters on the community. They should manifest the deep social responsibility that an institution such as a school or college has within its surroundings. In addition to their role in formal education, institutions must also protect students from natural and human made hazard. Investing in strengthening school structures before a disaster occurs, reduces the long term costs, protects generations of children and ensures educational continuity after the event.

The photograph below shows how an education institution can easily be turned into a disaster prone institution, churning out ‘hazardous’ graduates. The Bindura University of Science Education’s faculty of Commerce was gutted by fire during a student demonstration on 10 May 2006. Such incidents clearly demonstrate a lack of disaster literacy among the students. Fortunately no one was hurt during the fracas but the event goes down in history as the worst in the country’s institutions of higher learning.

The country’s worst fire disaster at an institution of higher learning. The whole of Bindura University Faculty of Commerce was razed to the ground along with property worth more than $Z 280 million during student unrest on 10 May 2006. (Source: BUSE May Newsletter, 2006)

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In this chapter, we look at how schools can entrench a culture of disaster resistance. A three part approach to reducing the vulnerability of schools is adopted, focusing on the roles of buildings, teachers and students, and the community. The purpose is to make schools, especially those in high disaster risk areas safer, enabling them to act as a locus for disaster risk reduction and helping to build the disaster risk reduction awareness of children, parents, teachers and local communities. Schoolteachers and children can become model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe disaster in the recent past. It is with this chapter that teachers should be able to ascertain that students have acquired disaster prevention literacy, and knowledge of local disaster history and local natural disaster mechanisms, and have developed a spirit of volunteerism and harmony. The underlying factor is the recognition that disaster training/education at all levels is the key to creating a “…If education is meant to prepare students for life, then it must take into account that there are natural and man-made hazards which simply cannot be ignored. Every community is vulnerable, to a greater or lesser extent, to the threat of loss of life and property as a result of a disaster. A proper education does not promote fear or fatalism. It empowers students to take the necessary measures to reduce the level of risk, and to act as multiplying agents in their own communities.”

BOX 8.1 DISASTER EDUCATION

Manuel Ramirez, Regional Consultant, Disaster Education, Costa Rica

Although the reviewed Civil Protection Act (2005) advocates the integration of disaster risk reduction issues into the education system, hazard mitigation is not the responsibility of government agencies alone. Small, inexpensive measures can be taken to reduce vulnerability in the education sector and can make a great impact. Simple things like wrapping textbooks in plastic bags and storing them a few metres off the floor at the end of each school term may save thousands of dollars if wind and torrential rain from severe storms or tropical cyclones happen to flood a classroom.

cadre of trained personnel in the global battle for disaster reduction (see Box 8.1). In this section we concentrate on primary and secondary school buildings and the children in this age group, as our information indicates that, by virtue of their location and numbers, they are the most vulnerable. However, lecturers should recognise that universities and colleges can also play a key role as agents for change, by exercising their immense capacity to modify attitudes and customs, a key factor in disaster risk management. Because they train teachers, among other professionals, the effects can multiply and cascade to primary and secondary education, ensuring that future generations are disaster risk management literate. During Cyclone Eline, many schools were blown to pieces, especially in Matabeleland South and Manicaland. Such incidences of severe damage to schools show the vulnerability of Zimbabwe’s educational sector to hazards. There are a number of notable hazards with a direct bearing on educational institutions, some of which are: • • • • •

Droughts that have occurred over the years and are the most serious hazard in Zimbabwe, especially affecting the school going age group; Scores of school children being swept away by flooded rivers every year while trying to cross on their way to and from school; Water bodies that pose a serious threat, as in the case of the Lake Chivero ferry tragedy of 1997, in which 22 school children perished when their boat capsized; Bus accidents e.g. the Nyanga bus disaster of 1990, in which 89 school children were killed; Many school buildings being gutted by fire every year, e.g. the complete destruction of the Faculty of Commerce Staff Block worth Z$ 280 million at Bindura University, during student demonstrations in May 2006; 192

• • •

Mass hysteria, which occurs intermittently, particularly in boarding schools; Infrastructure damage, such as roofs being blown off by strong winds and collapse of buildings; and Other potential hazards, including disease outbreaks, fires, food poisoning. etc.

As gloomy as this picture may appear, there is much that can be done by school officials to plan for disaster, to mitigate the risk, to protect the safety of students and educators, and to ensure that schools recover quickly. The Civil Protection Department (CPD) cannot undo the damage of a severe storm on an unprepared school or push back the clock after a flood has swept away a child’s school year. Prevention is always the best disaster action.

A school whose roof was blown off during a severe thunderstorm in Zvimba (Source: CPD, 24 November 2004)

Types of School Crises There are many types of crises that can affect schools but they fall broadly into three categories – personal tragedies (both in and out of school), inschool or on-site crises, and out-of-school or off-site crises. Personal tragedies

Copping with bereavement, of individual pupils and/or staff, is one of the biggest challenges facing many institutions. Occasionally, the need to deal with shock and bereavement among the entire staff and student body occurs after the death or serious injury of a pupil or member of staff, perhaps as a result of a road accident or sudden serious illness. Personal tragedy, such as death or bereavement, is difficult for any person to handle. Schools need to be aware of the main symptoms that pupils and staff might exhibit when they have been unable to grieve; a decline in performance and an inability to concentrate are two particularly noticeable ones. Counselling facilities should be made available at any institution and symbolic acts of comfort, such as attending funerals or holding a memorial day when someone who was a part of the institution has died should be considered.

School under water December 2007. The school was built near the banks of the Save River (source CPU, December 2007)

In-school or on-site crises

These include: • Death of a pupil or member of staff through accident or illness; • Fire or flooding of building (or other destruction); and • A deliberate act of violence, such as a knife attack or the use of a firearm. Death at school: A deputy headmaster of Rusvingo Primary School in Harare’s Highfield suburb, was shot dead through the mouth while one of the female primary school teachers, was shot three times in the shoulder, hip and stomach right in front of primary school children by an identified woman. Death out of school: Such whole institution shock occurs occasionally, as seen earlier (Chapter 6) when Moleli Secondary School and Masvingo Teachers’ college lost 34 and 23 students respectively in different accidents. Incident at school: Students from Belvedere Teacher’s College in Harare jumped out of the second floor of a dormitory building after an earthquake at midnight on 23 February 2006. Fourteen were injured, three of them seriously.

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BOX 8.2 WORST CASE EXAMPLES CPD

Out of school or off-site crises

Some examples are: • Deaths or serious injuries on school trips; • National tragedies affecting many schools; and • Civil disturbances, including acts of terrorism. Box 8.2 below shows some of the worst cases of deaths and other incidents that have occurred in Zimbabwe involving students in and out of school premises. Disaster Risk Management Training and Education in Schools

Zimbabweans naturally regard schools as a refuge during disasters as well as a gathering place for various other functions, such as national election polling stations and food relief distribution points. Schools also have another important function, in that that they offer the only place where disaster risk management education can be carried out systematically. Schools thus have two functions – a place of refuge and a place of disaster mitigation education (see Figure 8.1). Figure 8.1 Disaster Cycle and School Functions

Disaster risk management training and education are essential components in ensuring the long term benefits of disaster risk reduction strategies and goals. Their natural function of knowledge dissemination makes schools the most relevant institutions to lay the foundation for an understanding of the concepts and the knowledge necessary for disaster resistant communities. This section follows the approach of Glasgow (1986), who emphasises the necessity of using the formal education system to,

However, as disaster risk management education is just beginning in Zimbabwe’s schools, it is assumed that there are neither sufficient materials nor a concrete approach to this type of education at the moment. Teachers facing this problem should not feel at a loss when carrying out disaster mitigation education. Disaster prevention and mitigation should be taught, starting from the student’s own immediate reality – their social, economic, and natural environment. It is vital that students be encouraged to change their perceptions and attitudes toward risk management, instead of the educator simply providing information and expecting students to memorise it. This book can always be supplemented through consultation with the CPD.

…teach deliberately towards, not just acquisition of knowledge with respect to possible disasters, but towards the development of mental problem solving skills and most importantly of all and most difficult of all - towards the inculcation of an attitude of concern for the environment which will lead to a commitment to participate in a disciplined way in activities for its protection and improvement.

Disaster management education so far has been aimed mainly at ensuring that staff and students know how to respond during an emergency and immediately after a disaster has occurred, e.g. training in evacuation and extinguishing fires. When the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach was introduced in Chapter 2, learners should have noticed that not only concrete aspects, such as building codes, reconstruction of buildings, roads and bridges, a reliable supply of water and so on are vital, but also that less tangible aspects, such as the importance of the community, help from neighbours, the 194

importance of human life, and welfare and human rights, are also an integral part of disaster mitigation. This should stimulate students to think about how we live in a symbiotic society by linking the natural and the social environment, thus making it easy to relate disaster mitigation to every aspect of school studies. It is possible for teachers to offer disaster mitigation education as a part of every subject if they wish to.

Students need personal and social skills to: · Learn and practice safety skills; · Take responsibility for their own actions and those of others; · Be able to ask for help; · Develop the confidence to give advice; · Deal with unhelpful stereotypes and pressures; and · Recognise risk and make the safest possible choices.

Developing the curriculum

Disaster risk management education is not necessarily about isolating children and young people from all potential hazards, but about equipping them to deal with situations safely. The curriculum developer’s aim should be to identify where in the curriculum they can teach the personal and social skills vital to disaster risk management. Safety issues provide an excellent context for the development of these personal and social skills. But in an overloaded curriculum it is necessary that the range of important safety contexts are covered – home, school, work, road, rail, water, leisure – and that they are introduced and developed to match the age and ability of children and young people. Regular participation in mock drills and minimum emphasis on learning of concepts should be encouraged at school going age. The national curriculum has health and safety as an important requirement in the teaching of subjects that are laboratory based, and in those subjects where students carry out practical activities and use tools and equipment. Since the students work in an environment with hazards and risks in these subjects, it is during the introductory stages of these subjects that pupils can be taught (based on the understanding provided in Chapter1) to: • Recognise the types of hazard they face, the risks and risk control; • Identify the nature of hazards, assess consequent risks and take steps to control the risks to themselves and others; • Use information to assess the immediate and cumulative risks; • Manage their environment to ensure that they do not expose themselves and others to risks; and • Be able to explain the steps they take to minimise or eliminate the risks.

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Figure 8.2 Safety Education in the English Curriculum Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/ /www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/ keystage1.pdf)

BOX 8.3 THE GREEN CROSS CODE

Personal and social skills

Entrenching a culture of taking responsibility for social and moral issues in students is vital. This can be achieved by designing safety rules and safer ways of doing things within the school environment. Students are very prone to peer pressure and they need skills to deal with these pressures and the kind of stereotypes that can encourage risk taking. Envying and imitating the habits of their film heroes e.g. of driving fast, are some examples. Personal and social skills like assertiveness are useful in situations where pupils need to ask for help or ask someone to stop doing something dangerous. The green cross code is a very important road crossing skill to be adopted by every student (Box 8.3). Health skills, such as first aid procedures, also need to be taught and practiced. Selecting and adapting disaster material to meet specific subject objectives

Figure 8.3 Safety Education in the Mathematics Curriculum Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/ /www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/ keystage1.pdf)

The educational objectives of the teacher or trainer should be based on the needs of the course participants. The following are some examples of how the resource book could be used in developing programmes. It is envisaged that teachers will be able to find relevant material to assist in achieving the

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long term goal with respect to disaster reduction, in developing an educated and trained Zimbabwean society, capable of building resilience to natural hazards. Teachers can incorporate disaster preparedness into lessons of science, geography, art, reading and other subjects. They can also use stories, activities and games to make disaster preparedness appealing, especially when dealing with youngsters. Examples of how disaster risk preparedness could be incorporated into the Mathematics and English curriculums are shown in Figures 8.2 and 8.3. These are by no means exhaustive and could also be repeated in other core subjects.

If counselling services are presently absent at the institution, they must be established alongside health facilities. Integrating adolescents needs in health services, including counselling, enhances their access to necessary information. Intersectoral linkages, mass awareness, local community mobilisation, health service providers’ orientation and sensitisation, peer education and information centres would be instrumental in sustaining a pragmatic approach for HIV and AIDS prevention and management in schools.

Information on several types of disasters that may be selected for illustration and demonstration can be found in the earlier chapters of this resource book. This includes graphs and pie charts as well as raw data. Incorporating disaster management in the secondary curriculum Several chapters in this resource book can be used to provide case studies, projects and success stories for various subjects in the curriculum, as outlined below: CASE STUDIES While studying disaster mitigation, the students should not only attend lectures to obtain knowledge, but also set problems or give themselves tasks to accomplish, possibly in cooperation with other students. They may use case studies, such as the one concerning a solution flooding in Muzarabani (Chapter 3) or the one on possible downstream and national effects of the Kariba Dam wall failure (Chapter 4). PROJECTS Students may be encouraged to do projects or field assignments on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping of their community, how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a disaster and the procedures to follow if such an event occurred. They may also recognise other potential hazards in and around their communities. SUCCESS STORIES Students may want to discuss how Zimbabwe has managed to lower the AIDS infection rate and other success stories in the fight against common hazards in the country. Integrating HIV and AIDS prevention and management in the education system. The gravity of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe schools clearly shows that sporadic effort alone will not address adolescents’ vulnerability to the disease in the country context. This has to become an integral part of the public health and education systems, which have the largest network and outreach. Teachers should be aware that adolescence has specific reproductive and sexual health needs. In the absence of appropriate information, education and counselling, and silence around sexuality, adolescents tend to indulge in high risk behaviour, thereby becoming susceptible to HIV infection. Schools should work towards devising and implementing strategies that primarily include community awareness and mobilisation as well as orientation and sensitisation of the nearest district functionaries, health service providers and other schoolteachers on adolescent sexual and reproductive health (ASRH). Efforts should be made to frequently work with 197

Road safety education can contribute to the general educational goals of the whole curriculum by promoting moral, cultural, mental, and physical development, and preparing children for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. School road safety education programmes should address the safety needs of all ages, although the recommendations and activities described in this resource book are mainly applicable to school age children. Teachers must also not forget the needs of pre-school children and of adults, especially the needs of young adults who may be the most in need of a steadying influence.

Within an education for living programme, road safety education could be: · Offered as a specific topic; · Offered as part of a section on safety or personal safety; · Included within themes such as responsibility, citizenship, leisure, relationships etc; or · Promoted as part of events, for example theatre in education performances. Within curriculum subjects, road safety education could be offered: · As a specific life skills option; or · Within national curriculum subjects;

and bring relevant key stakeholders together on a common platform to share experiences about adolescent vulnerability to HIV. This may help in developing an enabling environment for ASRH. If counselling services are presently absent at the institution, they must be established alongside health facilities. Integrating adolescents needs in health services, including counselling, enhances their access to necessary information. Intersectoral linkages, mass awareness, local community mobilisation, health service providers’ orientation and sensitisation, peer education and information centres would be instrumental in sustaining a pragmatic approach for HIV and AIDS prevention and management in schools. Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum

We focus on how to incorporate the section on Road Traffic Accidents in Chapter 6 because this is the most worrying technological hazard faced by Zimbabwe. Road traffic accidents are one of the main causes of death and injury to children of school going age. Most road accidents are preventable and the risk can be reduced through measures that include education, training and environmental improvements. Road safety education is an essential part BOX 8.4 EXAMPLE OF ROAD SAFETY POLICY DOCUMENT FROM AN UNIDENTIFIED SCHOOL

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of a child’s education and the time and resources available for road safety education should be safeguarded against curriculum pressures. Pupils at primary level are generally beginning to make independent journeys on foot, by bicycle and by public transport, while students at secondary level begin to experience an even wider range of opportunities for independent travel. The safety lessons learnt at primary school should help to establish a sound basis for safer behaviour as pedestrians and cyclists and prepare children for the transition to secondary school and associated freedoms, while those learnt at secondary school should assist to establish a sound foundation for safer behaviour as adult road users. A number of teaching ideas are provided here that demonstrate how road safety education may either be taught within ‘education for living’ or integrated into curriculum subjects. The bottom line is that learners need to know: • How to keep themselves and others safe, now and in the future; • About the road environment and how it functions; and • How to influence positive changes in that environment.

In addition, this meeting gives the school an opportunity to explain to parents: · The policy of the school when taking pupils on outings; and · The possible need for parents to act as volunteer helpers to accompany children on school outings or to help with activities such as pedestrian training and cycle training.

Practical activities and events might include: • Pedestrian awareness training; • Cyclist training; • Pre-driver training; • Theatre in education and road shows, which are usually coordinated by the local road safety officer; • A suspended timetable safety day, e.g. if the school has a traffic police officer who is willing to come into school and talk to the pupils about their job and how the children should use the crossing patrol. Road safety education before children start school

The most appropriate time to initiate road safety issues with parents is when their children are about to start school. The issue of road safety education should be highlighted to parents or guardians who accompany their children on the first day of school. Schools have the option to develop a letter or agreement for the parents to sign that outlines parental responsibilities for the safety of their children on the roads. The advantages of parents walking to school with their children should be outlined to encourage this practice. They are: • Daily exercise and fresh air for both the parent and the child; • A time to talk to the child; and • An opportunity for parents to practice road safety with their child, study the effects of different weather conditions on road safety, plan a route with the child on which there are protected crossing places, discuss how to walk on roads where there are no footways or crossing places and explain the importance of wearing reflectors so as to be seen by other road users. Developing responsibility

Road safety education should aim to develop pupils’ understanding of the dangers of traffic, so that they appreciate safer strategies appropriate to their 199

Rural schools Due to the scarcity of traffic on rural roads, children living in rural areas who travel to town to attend school face more problems than children familiar with urban areas. Some ways of helping children from rural areas cope in an urban road environment include: · Arranging class outings to a nearby town, where the children can experience a planned traffic trail; and · Investigating the specific problems of transport and travel in rural areas, the types of traffic using the roads and safety issues relating to walking and cycling, especially where danger warning signs have been removed by vandals.

own circumstances. Possible activities include school debates, pupil road safety committees and school outings and visits.

Other road safety practices to consider While identifying safe practices, teachers and students could also consider writing a safety policy for the school, covering: · School transport, school vehicles and school trips; · The journeys of pupils to and from school, especially arriving and leaving; · Use of bicycles; · School uniforms and other clothing; and · Dangerous behaviour.

A safe road environment is not the responsibility of schools alone but they have an important role to play in helping to provide safety education for all their pupils. The school can make a difference. Useful working partnerships with external agencies, such as road safety units, the police and health promotion units, will certainly assist.

Every child is entitled to a safer journey to and from school. Teachers should ensure that surveys are carried out of the most frequently used routes and then record information on the safest crossing places so that this is available for all parents and pupils to follow. This could also lead to the identification of possible improvement, e.g. a request to the local council for a school crossing patrol or zebra crossing. Checklist for pre school and primary school road safety training

Children should always: • Be protected, supervised and accompanied on any school activities off• the premises; • Walk on the pavement where available; • Recognise that roads are for traffic and pavements are for people; • Recognise features of their local roads and the people who will help them to cross the road; • Be able to distinguish between safe and unsafe places to walk and to crossroads; • Know that they must stop at the edge of the carriageway, look all around and listen before crossing; • Recognise and play in safe places; • Develop the ability to keep themselves safe; • Know the safest route to school; • Know how to travel safely to and from school; • Understand and use the principles of the Green Cross Code; • Know that there are rules governing the behaviour of pedestrians and traffic; • Understand the problems faced by all road users, particularly problems associated with visiblity and with the effects of weather; • Understand that traffic accidents cause avoidable deaths and injuries; and • Be given the opportunity to take pedestrian and cyclist training. Checklist for secondary schools and colleges’ road safety training

Training at this level requires the development of self esteem and the ability to value others. Students need to gain skills in decision making, combined with an understanding of the consequences of choices, and they need to know how to use roads safely. Students should be: • Given the opportunity to investigate the local road environment, consider the safety aspects of traffic movement and identify hazards; • Assisted to develop an understanding of how accidents happen, and of common accident situations, particularly those involving their age group; • Encouraged to think clearly about their own and other people’s use of the roads as pedestrians, cyclists and passengers; • Required to consider the consequences of an accident and the effect on those involved, and their families and friends; • Given the opportunity to take cyclist training if they have not already done so; 200

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Encouraged to explore and understand their own behaviour relating to road use, both as an individual and as a member of a group; Able to understand the effect of alcohol and other drugs on the body’s physical and mental performance, particularly the detrimental effect on pedestrian and driving skills so that they are able to make informed decisions about drinking and road use; Encouraged to consider how best to reduce the probability and consequences of road accidents; and Given the opportunity to explore the transport options open to them and decide which best meets their needs, wants and resources, taking into account training, safety factors, legal requirements and environmental consequences.

Disaster risk management in other curriculum subjects

The ways in which disaster risk management can be incorporated into other subjects in the school curriculum include: ART Secondary school students may develop road safety advice that is designed and produced (poster or leaflet) for pupils in feeder primary schools. A competition could be initiated to find the best designs. Some students might develop their designs using computers if these are in place in their school. DRAMA Pupils could be encouraged to write and perform short plays on road safety issues that are relevant to them. These may be based on safety themes such as speed, drink driving and joyriding. GEOGRAPHY Hazard mapping of areas of high road traffic accident risk may be done for the local area, based on information from the local police station. The planning of safe routes to school and other places may be included in the map making. Emphasis might be placed on a discussion of safe routes, general safety concerns and the behaviour of road users, as well as on the map reading skills. MATHEMATICS Students could undertake a drink and drive survey at a local police roadblock during an important holiday. The data would then be analysed by age group with the results as well as the national implications being presented at a parent’s day. Accident data provided in Chapter 6 could be used for drawing national graphs and carrying out trend analysis to strengthen the presentation.

TECHNOLOGY The design of traffic lights taking account of speed, distance and stopping distances could be studied. Speed data to be collected outside the school from the Traffic Police (who use radar guns) and average speeds and stopping distances calculated from the data obtained. Factors affecting vehicle stopping distances, such as rainfall and the condition of tyres, could be investigated. This topic is easy to link to what students see happening in real life. The students have to report the results and comment on the safety implications and consequences of inappropriate stopping distances during different weather conditions.

ENGLISH All students are expected to be road safety literate. Topics related to road safety should feature prominently in essay writing e.g. topics like preparing for a trip by school bus or developing a school trip policy. SCIENCE When considering health issues, the effect of alcohol and drugs on the ability to drive is to be considered and discussed. First Aid skills should be incorporated as part of the science curriculum. “Most schools will have no experience of disasters and when they do occur much of the response is a ‘flying by the seat of one’s pants’ activity. This is why two things are particularly important: ensuring there is a ready made plan to help deal with the incident, and ensuring that there is an adequate command and control system.” David G. Kibble

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BOX 8.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF A DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN

The schools need to incorporate health and safety and this will include a range of sensitive issues, such as death and violence. Plans should be made to explore these within the curriculum, so that students will be able to cope with and resolve the range and complexity of feelings that a crisis can engender. Schools that adopt the ‘ostrich’ approach are at a disadvantage and are likely to take longer to recover in the event of a disaster. The essential stages in the planning process are shown in figure 8.4. This process of disaster planning often leads to an improvement in procedures that ensures a greater level of safety. Preventive measures are devised that lower the likelihood of tragedies and accidents.

Understanding the work of disaster management professionals

Students should be given the opportunity to visit career guidance shows and see for themselves disaster related professionals exhibiting and describing their work. The opportunity should also be taken to invite these professionals into the school, especially after a major disaster has taken place, to talk about their experiences during and after the disaster. Guest teachers or lecturers could come from universities, police stations, fire stations, life line related companies, government departments, non governmental organisations, volunteer organisations, and so on. Identifying the responsibilities and skills of the school crossing patrol, firefighters or police sub-aqua units, for example, could be the basis for thinking about their own safety skills and knowledge. Discussing the roles of disaster management professionals can help children to understand the importance of disaster related issues.

Figure 8.4 Planning Process Stages in an Institution

The planning process Disaster risk management planning in schools While safety planning is familiar to schools, disaster planning is relatively new to the country’s education sector. High profile accidents and disasters in the education sector, referred to above, have demonstrated the common sense of disaster planning and, conversely, the often tragic cost of failing to identify hazards and their potential for sudden, dramatic escalation if the arrangements to control and contain them are inadequate. Each school, therefore, should develop plans that include teaching students and staff what to do during the sort of disasters that are likely to occur in their area, whether these occur while they are at school or at home.

Although no amount of foresight and planning can completely prevent disasters occurring, since many tragedies are entirely outside the control of the school, the school must be prepared to cope with the effects. The Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach described in Chapter 2 offers effective measures to deal with local disasters. This is an ‘all hazards’ approach involving joint consultation of all stakeholders. By planning in advance and anticipating as many health and safety variables as possible, schools can ensure that the decisions made on the day of a crisis are not only made quickly and effectively, but are correct and automatic responses arising out of the time spent on pre-planning for the disaster. When an incident does occur, the school should be in a strong position to contain and control events, thus ensuring that normality returns to the institution as soon as possible and that unnecessary damage is not done to the children and staff, or to the valuable relationships built up between the school, parents and the local community. The school disaster management plan

The Civil Protection Department (CPD) recommends the following actions for all school officials: IDENTIFY HAZARDS LIKELY TO AFFECT THE SCHOOL Begin with a determination of which natural and technological disasters are possible in your area. Contact the CPD for help. Don’t assume you know all the risks. You may be surprised to learn that your area is subject to natural disasters you hadn’t anticipated. For example, earthquake risk is not restricted to Matabeleland North alone, but southern Manicaland is also active. Also, remember that disasters can have a cascading effect, e.g. tropical cyclones can bring mudslides, earthquakes can cause fires, thunderstorms can cause downed power lines and so 202

on. Think about how transportation routes or other external factors may also affect your schools, e.g. if you are near a major highway where hazardous chemicals are transported, your school could be in danger of the effects of a chemical spill. Once you have worked out what disasters are possible in your area, assess your structures. If you are in a wildfire area, for example, do you have bushes trimmed back from the buildings and non-flammable roofs? If you are located in a tropical cyclone prone area, do you have the roof securely attached? And if you are in earthquake active areas, like Chipinge and Matabeleland North, ensure that heavy appliances are securely bolted to the walls. Most of the injuries and deaths related to natural disasters are caused by falling objects, fires, the release of hazardous materials, flying debris and roof collapse. Therefore, these are some of the hazards to look for when doing your assessment. MITIGATE AGAINST THESE HAZARDS Hazard mitigation is any action taken to reduce the loss of life or damage to property from any hazards. Based on your assessment and using information on mitigation contained in the earlier chapters of the resource book, it is best to prioritise your needed mitigation measures by degree of life safety, cost, frequency of identified potential hazard and potential number of people exposed. Some hazards cannot be mitigated

Figure 8.5 Stages of a Disaster Response Plan

In addition to the plan, it is useful to place emergency telephone numbers of the following at strategic points: · District Administrator and directors of Area Civil Protection and District Education; · Chair of Parents-Teachers Association; · Home School Liaison Officer; · Education social worker; · Social Services; · Emergency services – ambulance, police, fire brigade; · Medical team – school doctor, school nurse; · Emergency Department at the local hospital; · Emotional/behavioural support team – educational psychologist, clinical child psychologist, child guidance clinic; · Counselling services; · Local religious group leaders; · Local traditional leadership e.g. Chief and Headman; and · Local press and media contacts.

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Necessary follow up actions to the response plan include: · Determining the best escape routes from each building in case of evacuation; · Identifying a preferred assembly point and alternative assembly point in case of evacuation; · Making arrangements for the management of psychological distress; · Making arrangements for a sick bay; and · For large institutions, providing a ground map and ensuring that the grid reference of the school is known. Your plan should also address the needs of students and staff with disabilities and this must be incorporated into the practice of disaster drills.

Signs to look out for include withdrawn or quiet students, those acting in an overly responsible or parental manner, hyperactive children with little focus, children who are edgy, jumpy or quick to anger, vying for attention, out of control or with an attitude of not caring. Very young children may show regressive and antisocial behaviour. Classroom exercises that can help include discussions of the recovery from the disaster, as they can temporarily reduce academic performance expectations. They also encourage involvement in school recovery efforts and, thereby, more speedy resumption of social activities.

The reactions of children to disaster are affected most by the following five factors: 1 Their perception of the adults’ reactions; 2 The direct exposure they have had to the destruction; 3 The child’s developmental age; 4 The existence of problems prior to the event; and 5 Previous experience of another disaster.

against; others are too costly to mitigate. For example mitigation efforts in the future might include moving schools that are in particularly risky locations. Mitigation of community risks is probably beyond the control of school officials. DEVELOP A RESPONSE PLAN Mitigation activities alone cannot prevent the occurrence of disasters. Therefore a school disaster management plan, including the definition of an evacuation route, can be seen as an insurance policy for the school against disasters. Disaster management is planning how to respond when an emergency occurs and is designed to help save lives and minimise damage by preparing both students and staff to respond appropriately. It leads to an awareness of the possibilities of preventing disasters from happening in the first place. This type of preparedness involves proper planning, organisation, staff, student and community involvement, training and dissemination of information. Remember that, at all stages, good communication is vital to the successful management of any crisis. DEVELOP A STRATEGY FOR COPING AFTER A DISASTER This is a sequence of steps recommended in preparing an emergency contingency plan (see Figure 8.5). The drafting of the strategy should be an interactive and consultative process, resulting in a clear understanding of roles and responsibilities, greater awareness of the prevailing hazards, the establishment of a communications system and danger warning signals, and a written plan. Facilitating coping and psychological healing after a disaster

Schools need to be aware of the range of symptoms children and teachers may show after a traumatic event. Never underestimate the traumatic effects of a major crisis on people’s lives and never try to forget or ignore what has happened. There may still be funerals to attend, legal processes to get through and people to support, and anniversaries of an event serve as reminders, whether we like it or not. Psychological trauma after a disaster is very real. Therefore, it is important that schools plan ahead of time to deal with the inevitable psychological aftermath and monitor the situation on a regular basis. Watch particularly for major changes in behavior that may suggest post traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]. The CPD has a pamphlet that includes information that teachers may use to identify children at risk psychologically and for conducting classroom exercises to help students voice their fears and overcome them. Identifying at-risk students is one of the most important things your staff can do after a disaster. The children most likely to be affected by a crisis include: • Those who had the longest contact with the hazard, and whose lives were at the greatest risk; • Those who actually witnessed death or carnage (e.g. a violent act or accident); • Children from unstable homes (where support systems are lacking); • Weak or less able children; and • Very young children, for whom vivid memories of the event may linger until they become mature enough to understand and cope with them.

Students are responsible for policing each other so that they maintain the facilities and refrain from vandalism.

Once the immediate crisis is over, it is important to facilitate recovery from the traumatic event. This requires an environment where students, faculty and 204

staff receive support. Fear itself can be extremely debilitating following an emergency. The much needed sense of security in the school and in the lives of all those affected is restored by providing a safe atmosphere in which students and adults can voice concerns, fears and feelings, and can express grief. Facts, whenever possible, about what has actually happened and what can be expected to happen (including burial ceremonies, if appropriate) should also be freely provided. There should be as little disruption of normal school routines as possible. The roles of teachers and students

Teachers are to ensure that: • The disaster response plan exists and is revised regularly, preferably annually; • Recommendations are made to the local disaster management team and thus to Government, of the school’s urgent disaster related needs, etc; • Security measures are in place for off limits areas of the school; • Students, teachers and other workers who are at work are accounted for daily, usually by means of roll call; and • Necessary drills identified in the Response Plan are carried out regularly with the students. The importance of school buildings in disaster management Safe school buildings are as important as disaster risk management education and they are a key priority area for action outlined in the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters, which 168 Governments adopted at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in January 2005. In line with this Framework, integration of disaster risk education into national curriculums and building safe school facilities are two priorities that contribute to a country’s progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is possible, of course, to construct solid disaster resistant buildings. Although there are likely to be economic constraints, schools must meet various requirements so that they are ready to withstand various kinds of disaster. Depending on the type and severity of a particular disaster, the building may have to provide shelter for a large number of people who could end up staying there for several days. The vulnerability of school facilities must not be seen only in terms of the need to prevent catastrophic damage that may destroy the buildings. It is also necessary to prevent lesser damage that might affect the continuity of the services provided. For example, if a school is unusable, the children will have to go to other schools, often in shifts, and their education will suffer. When an extreme natural event is expected, emergency shelters, often school buildings, might be opened to house the local population and keep them out of harm’s way, as was the case with tropical cyclone Eline in Chikwarara, situated at the confluence of the Bubi and Limpopo rivers. Many people had to seek refuge at the school, which is located on high ground. Thus they relied on the structural integrity of the buildings to protect them and save them from the weather elements. Unfortunately, in many other cases in the country, school buildings have not withstood the impact of a cyclone and have ended up roofless or flooded. 205

A hazardous learning environment. One of the schools that was badly damaged by the earthquake of 23 March 2006 in Chipinge. The school has been earmarked for reconstruction by the CPD.

School buildings often serve multiple purposes in a community. For most of the day, they house one of the nation’s most precious resources – the students. Although intended primarily to serve as educational institutions, they may also be used as polling stations during elections, gathering places for community, meeting places for clubs and religious organisations, storage places for books and other technical equipment, post disaster food distribution centres and public shelters in emergencies. Therefore, when a school building is vulnerable to hazards, the welfare of the entire community is at risk. A school building in the state shown below is no longer safe for either the students or the community.

Some of Zimbabwe’s school buildings are gifts from donor organisations or foreign governments. Decisions to donate to a particular community and specific site are usually made hastily, in concurrence with politicians, and the funding agencies do not always take into consideration the local natural hazards. The schools, therefore, may not be built with specific hazard vulnerability criteria in mind, but based on the immediate need of the community. In addition, schools are usually built on marginal pieces of land owned by the government that are unsuitable for commercial or agricultural use. Thus, proper site selection criteria are usually not applied.

The maintenance of existing buildings covers two areas: 1 General maintenance on an annual basis to prevent the building from falling into a state of disrepair; and 2 Specific maintenance, including any upgrading or renovation required to enable the building to resist tropical cyclones, earthquakes, fires and floods.

It is common knowledge that a structure that is not properly maintained is more vulnerable to natural disasters. Unfortunately, school buildings are often poorly maintained and usually little money, if any, is set aside for maintenance in recurring budgets. Even though school building manuals for some schools were developed for non-technical staff (school principals, principals, and teachers), the manual contains only a series of checklists and hints on how to prolong the life of school buildings. School maintenance should become a routine activity, like changing the oil in a car or visiting the dentist for a sixmonthly cleaning.

Information on disaster preparedness can be expanded through the preparation of individual or family plans, and plans prepared by churches, local organisations, etc. The involvement of the Parent-Teacher Association is also a means of involving the community at large. A disaster risk management literate school should strive to let the information spill over to produce an equally literate local community that will be disaster resistant.

It should be recognised that schools have multiple roles in enhancing the disaster reduction activities carried out by local communities. When a local community organises itself to prevent disasters and prepares to cope better with an insurgent major hazard, schools become a focal point for the spread of knowledge of the risks and the resources present in the community. They are also responsible for instilling in the younger generation the educational element that facilitates respectful behaviour, and interaction between groups in the society at risk and the local environment. Schools can provide a suitable interface between the disaster reduction programmes that they initiate themselves and the less accessible groups of the society at risk, including families.

Reducing vulnerability with reference to buildings

Ideally, vulnerability to natural hazards should be considered before construction begins. Engineers estimate that safety measures against natural hazards add a very small fraction to the capital cost of an entire project at the time of initial construction. The cost of structural mitigation varies according to the hazard. For example, mitigation for earthquake prone areas is typically more costly than mitigation against wind and rain. Before going into the problem of vulnerable buildings, the first step is to create a database or profile of the existing stock of school buildings. However, the record keeping systems of schools often do not allow easy access to basic information about school or shelter buildings, such as the date of construction, design type, as-built drawings and plans, or the institution that financed the construction. It is necessary to know what types of hazards are prevalent in the area and how the building will perform if faced with these hazards. Once this information is collected, a strategy can be developed and priorities set to retrofit or upgrade the buildings. Experts in structural engineering can suggest ways to mitigate hazards at the school. After school officials have the necessary information about existing hazards and structural mitigation possibilities, they can identify the costs of mitigation and the feasibility of the steps to be taken. The building maintenance section of the Ministry of Education must also be informed to allow for timely and appropriate maintenance within resource limitations. The need for community capacity building has to be recognised. Where possible, community/local builders should be used during construction to help build identification and ownership. It may even be possible, based on the nature and scope of the work to be done, to implement youth skills training modules, thereby enhancing the construction skills capacity of the local community and building greater awareness among young people. The community should be made aware of the reasons that the school has decided to retrofit its buildings so that members are encouraged to do the same at their homes. Education and training on disaster management for communities The role that teachers and students can play in creating awareness in local communities cannot be overemphasised. Schoolteachers and children can become model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe disaster in the recent past. They can work in generating awareness, identifying the vulnerabilities and recommending coping mechanisms. Working as a team, they can reduce the impact of disasters on the community. These are examples that reiterate the strong social responsibility that an institution such as a school bears. To achieve this end, the school’s curriculum activities should not be tied to the classroom alone. Students should be encouraged to do projects or field assignments on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping of their community, how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a disaster, and the procedures to follow if such an event did occur. They may scout for other potential hazards in and around their communities or identify the most prevalent hazard in the region or locality. A detailed study of these local hazards can lead to the discovery of ways to reduce the vulnerability of both the school and the community.

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TERMINOLOGY Basic Terms in the Field of Disaster Risk Reduction The following is a list of terminology selected and adapted from those that the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Secretariat presented in 2004. These basic definitions were produced in order to promote a common understanding of this subject, for use by the public, authorities and practitioners. Acceptable Risk The level of loss a society or community considers acceptable, given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental conditions. In engineering terms, ‘acceptable risk’ is also used to assess structural and non-structural measures undertaken to reduce possible damage at a level which does not harm people and property, according to codes or ‘accepted practice’ based, among other issues, on a known probability of hazard. Biological Hazard Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Examples of biological hazards are outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insect plagues and extensive infestations. Building Codes Ordinances and regulations controlling the design, construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of any structure to ensure human safety and welfare. Building codes include both technical and functional standards. Capacity A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organisation that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. Capacity may include physical, institutional, social or economic means as well as skilled personnel or collective attributes, such as leadership and management. Capacity may also be described as ‘capability’. Capacity Building Efforts that aim to develop human skills or social infrastructure within a community or organisation that are needed to reduce the level of risk. In extended understanding, ‘capacity building’ also includes development of institutional, financial, political and other resources, such as technology, at different levels and in different sectors of the society. Climate Change The climate of a place or region is changed if, over an extended period (typically decades or longer), there is a statistically significant change in measurements of either the mean state or variability of the climate for that place or region. Changes in climate may be due to natural processes or to persistent anthropogenic changes in atmosphere or in land use. Note that the definition of ‘climate change’ used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is more restricted, as it include only those changes that are attributable directly or indirectly to human activity. Coping Capacity The means by which people or organisations use available resources and abilities to face adverse consequences that could lead to a disaster. In general, this involves managing resources, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and human-induced hazards. Counter Measures All measures taken to counter and reduce disaster risk. They most commonly refer to engineering (structural) measures but can also include non-structural measures and tools designed and employed to avoid or limit the adverse impact of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. Crop Failure Abnormal reduction in crop yield such that it is insufficient to meet the nutritional or economic needs of the community. Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society, causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A group of chemical compounds used in industry and in the household, the excessive and universal use of which is believed to be one of the causes of ozone depletion, with resulting environmental damage. Declaration of Disaster Official issuance of a state of emergency upon the occurrence of a large scale calamity, in order to activate measures aimed at the reduction of the disaster’s impact. Disaster Management The body of policy and administrative decisions, and operational activities pertaining to the various stages of a disaster at all levels. Disaster Risk Management The systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills and capacities to implement the policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. This comprises all forms of activity, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse effects of hazards. Disaster Risk Reduction (Disaster Reduction) The conceptual framework of elements considered to have the potential to minimise vulnerability and disaster risk throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development. The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action, as described in ISDR’s 2002 publication, Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives, page 23: • Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis; • Knowledge development, including education, training, research and information;

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Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislative and community action; Application of measures, including environmental management, land use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments; and Early warning systems, including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and reaction capacities.

Early Warning The provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions, that allows individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response. Early warning systems include a chain of concerns, namely: • Understanding and mapping the hazard; • Monitoring and forecasting impending events; • Processing and disseminating understandable warnings to political authorities and the population; and • Undertaking appropriate and timely actions in response to the warnings. Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. The boundaries of what could be called an ‘ecosystem’ are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focus of interest or study. Thus the extent of an ecosystem may range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire earth (IPCC, 2001). El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of changed ocean and weather patterns in many parts of the world, often with significant impacts, such as altered marine habitats, rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and changes in storm patterns. The El Niño part of ENSO refers to the well-above-average ocean temperatures along the coasts of Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile and across the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, while the Southern Oscillation refers to the associated global patterns of changed atmospheric pressure and rainfall. La Niña is approximately the opposite condition to El Niño. Each El Niño or La Niña episode usually lasts for several seasons. Emergency Management The organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and rehabilitation. Emergency management involves plans, structures and arrangements established to engage the normal endeavours of government, and voluntary and private agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to respond to the whole spectrum of emergency needs. This is also known as ‘disaster management’. Drought Index A computed value which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged and abnormal moisture deficiency. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Studies undertaken in order to assess the effect on a specified environment of the introduction of any new factor that may upset the current ecological balance. An EIA is a policy making tool that serves to provide evidence and analysis of environmental impacts of activities from conception to decision making. It is utilised extensively in national programming and for international development assistance projects. An EIA must include a detailed risk assessment and provide alternative solutions or options. Environmental Degradation The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Some examples are, land degradation, deforestation, desertification, veldt fires, loss of biodiversity, land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise and ozone depletion. Forecast Definite statement or statistical estimate of the occurrence of a future event (UNESCO/WMO). This term is used with different meanings in different disciplines. Geological Hazard Natural earth processes or phenomena that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Geological hazard includes internal earth processes of tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, geological fault activity, tsunamis, volcanic activity and emissions, as well as external processes, such as mass movements – landslides, rockslides, rock falls or avalanches, surfaces collapses, expansive soils and debris or mud flows. Geological hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) A gas, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation, warming the earth’s surface and contributing to climate change (UNEP, 1998). Hazard A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent future threats and can have different origins – natural (geological, hydrometeorological or biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its location, intensity, frequency and probability. Hazard Analysis Identification, studies and monitoring of any hazard to determine its potential, origin, characteristics and behaviour. Hydro-Meteorological Hazards Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Hydro-meteorological hazards include floods, debris and mud floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunderstorms, hailstorms, rain and wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms, drought, desertification, wild fires, temperature extremes, sand or dust storms, permafrost and snow or ice avalanches. HydroMeteorological hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Industrial Hazards A disaster term used to describe technological accidents of an industrial nature or involving industrial buildings (e.g. factories). It comprises a number of disaster subsets – chemical spill or leak, explosions, radiation leakages, collapses, gas leaks from industrial sites, poisoning, fires and other technological accidents involving industrial sites. La Niña see El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Land Use Planning Branch of physical and socioeconomic planning that determines the means and assesses the values or limitations of various ways in which land is to be utilised, with the corresponding effects on different segments of the population or interests of a community being taken into account in resulting decisions. Land use planning involves studies and mapping, analysis of environmental and hazard data, formulation of alternative land use decisions and design of a long range plan for different geographical and administrative scales.Land use planning can help to mitigate disasters and reduce risks by discouraging high density settlements and construction of key installations in hazard prone areas, control of population density and expansion, and in the siting of service routes for transport, power, water, sewage and other critical facilities.

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Mitigation Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazards. Natural Hazards Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event.Natural hazards can be classified by origin namely, geological, hydro-meteorological or biological. Hazardous events can vary in magnitude or intensity, frequency, duration, area of extent, speed of onset, spatial dispersion and temporal spacing. Pest Infestation Pervasive influx and development of insects or parasites affecting humans, animals, crops and materials. Preparedness Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. Prevention Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards and means to minimise related environmental, technological and biological disasters. Depending on social and technical feasibility and cost/benefit considerations, investing in preventive measures is justified in areas frequently affected by disasters. In the context of public awareness and education related to disaster risk reduction, changing attitudes and behaviour contributes to promoting a ‘culture of prevention’. Public Awareness The processes of informing the general population, increasing levels of consciousness about risks and how people can act to reduce their exposure to hazards. This is particularly important for public officials in fulfilling their responsibilities to save lives and property in the event of a disaster. Public awareness activities foster changes in behaviour, leading towards a culture of risk reduction. This involves public information, dissemination, education, radio or television broadcasts, use of printed media, as well as the establishment of information centres and networks and community and participation actions. Public Information Information, facts and knowledge provided or learned as a result of research or study, available for dissemination to the public. Recovery Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring or improving the pre-disaster living conditions of the affected community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk. Recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction) affords an opportunity to develop and apply disaster risk reduction measures. Relief/Response The provision of assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected. It can be of an immediate, short term, or protracted duration. Resilience The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures. Retrofitting (Upgrading) Reinforcement of structures to become more resistant and resilient to the forces of natural hazards. Retrofitting involves consideration of changes in the mass, stiffness, damping, load path and ductility of materials, as well as radical changes, such as the introduction of energy absorbing dampers and base isolation systems. Examples of retrofitting include the consideration of wind loading to strengthen and minimise the wind force, or in earthquake prone areas, the strengthening of structures. Risk The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, livelihoods and economic activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Conventionally risk is expressed by the notation: Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability. Some disciplines also include the concept of exposure to refer particularly to the physical aspects of vulnerability. Beyond expressing a possibility of physical harm, it is crucial to recognise that risks are inherent or can be created or exist within social systems. It is important to consider the social contexts in which risks occur and that people, therefore, do not necessarily share the same perceptions of risk and its underlying causes. Risk Assessment/Analysis A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. The process of conducting a risk assessment is based on a review of both the technical features of hazards, such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability, and also the analysis of the physical, social, economic and environmental dimensions of vulnerability and exposure, while taking particular account of the coping capabilities pertinent to the risk scenarios. Structural/Non-Structural Measures Structural measures refer to any physical construction to reduce or avoid the possible impacts of hazards, including engineering measures and construction of hazard resistant and protective structures and infrastructure. Non-structural measures refer to policies, awareness, knowledge development, public commitment, and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and the provision of information to reduce risk and related impacts. Sustainable Development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Sustainable development is based on sociocultural development, political stability and decorum, economic growth and ecosystem protection, all of which relate to disaster risk reduction.

Technological Hazards Danger originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or certain human activities, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Some examples are industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport, and industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills). Vulnerability The conditions, determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards. For positive factors that increase the ability of people to cope with hazards, see definition of capacity. Veldt Fire (Wild Fire) Any fire occurring in vegetation areas regardless of ignition sources, damages or benefits.

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ANNEX I GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICY GUIDELINES 1. GUIDING PRINCIPLES 1.1 Humanitarian Charter The Humanitarian Charter is derived from international human rights laws. It describes the critical tenets that guide humanitarian action and asserts the rights of populations to protection and assistance. This manual recognises the overall principles of the Humanitarian Charter. Thus preparedness in the education sector advocates for the preservation of and the right to life with dignity, protection against threats and availability of basic necessities in case of disasters. 1.2

The Rights of the Child The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a United Nations agreement that outlines the rights of children worldwide. It has five broad areas: i. Survival rights - these are basic rights to life and include shelter, food and medical care. ii. Development rights – these are requirements that enable a child to reach their fullest potential and include access to information, education, and freedom of thought, play and cultural activities. iii. Protection rights – these relate to safeguarding children from neglect and other forms of abuse. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child also advocates for mentally or physically disabled children to have the right to special measures of protection in keeping with their physical and moral needs and under conditions that ensure their dignity, and promote self reliance and active participation in the community. iv. Participation rights – these advocate for children to be able to actively engage in various roles in their communities. v. Environmental rights – every child has a right to a clean environment.

1.3

The Rights of the Teacher 1.3.1 Employment injury benefit According to ‘The 1966 Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers’ by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation in cooperation with International Labour Organisation, Paris, 5 October: i. Teachers should be protected against the consequences of injuries suffered not only during teaching at school but also when engaged in school activities away from the school premises or grounds. ii. Certain infectious diseases prevalent among children should be regarded as occupational diseases when contracted by teachers who have been exposed to them by virtue of their contact with pupils. 1.3.2 i. ii.

Means of providing social security for teachers The social security protection of teachers should be assured as far as possible through a general scheme applicable to employed persons in the public sector or in the private sector. Where no general scheme is in existence for one or more of the contingencies to be covered, special schemes, statutory or non statutory, should be established.

1.3.3 Professional freedom While teachers should exercise the utmost care to avoid accidents involving pupils, employers of teachers should safeguard the teachers against the risk of having charges levelled against them in the event of injury to pupils occurring at school or in school activities away from the school premises or grounds. 1.3.4 i. ii.

School buildings School buildings should be safe and attractive in overall design and functional layout; they should lend themselves to effective teaching. They should be constructed in accordance with established sanitary standards and with a view to durability, adaptability and easy, economic maintenance. Authorities should ensure that school premises are properly maintained, so as not to threaten in any way the health and safety of pupils and teachers.

2. POLICY GUIDELINES 2.1 Civil Protection Policy in Zimbabwe The policy states that every citizen of this country should assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of a disaster. Central Government initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for implementing and maintaining its effectiveness. The education sector is bound by this policy. 2.2 Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture/ Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education - Commitment and Policy Guidelines The two Ministries are committed to emergency preparedness and response issues. This is evidenced by the following: 2.2.1 i. ii.

iii.

Legislation Section 57 of the Education Act ensures healthy practices in schools to avoid health hazards. The purpose of this section is to safeguard the health of pupils and students attending any educational institution. Statutory Instrument 59 of 1993 Section 5, ‘Inspection by Health Authorities’, states that any school and the pupils thereof shall be subject to inspection by government medical officers, health inspectors or other qualified officers of the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare. Section 4 of the instrument details specifications for standards facilities, sanitary and water requirements for schools. Statutory Instruments 87 of 1992 and 70 of 1993 on School Development Committees and Associations respectively empower School Development Committees and School Development Associations to take all measures that appear to them to be necessary or expedient to preserve and maintain the property and facilities of the school.

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2.2.2 i. ii. iii.

2.3

Related policies There are a number of policy circulars that relate to risk reduction and emergency preparedness in the education system e.g. Policy Circular No. P. 5: Scholars Participation in Inter-School Non Sporting Competitions This policy circular is intended to protect children against injuries, abduction, abuse and other forms of maltreatment. A contract is entered into between the parent and school before the child participates in any such competition. Policy Circular No.51: Medical and Health Topics: Policies and Procedures to be Observed. The policy stresses important medical and health topics. The school environment should be kept scrupulously clean with adequate and functional sanitary facilities. Policy Circular No. P.19: Fire Precaution and Procedures and Civil Defence Procedures in Private and Government Schools and Institutions The policy spells out precautions that should be taken by every learning institution in the prevention of fires and the preparation of contingent measures for fire disasters. It also instructs heads of schools to conduct preparedness fire drills in their respective schools at least twice a year in which both teachers and pupils participate. Assistance in preparedness education and fire drills procedure can be sought from the Fire Brigade. The circular also advises heads to invite Fire Brigade officers to give lectures/ lessons on fire disaster preparedness.

Ministry of Health Policies and Guidelines i Immunisation A record on immunisation must be presented to early childhood education and care and to the school. This must be up to date. ii Allergies Schools should oblige parents to provide information on a child’s allergies and the steps to be taken in case of emergency. (Teachers are encouraged to believe parents when they provide such information) iii Chronic Diseases A record must be kept of children who suffer from chronic diseases. These include heart conditions, asthma, diabetes mellitus, epilepsy etc. The record must include essential information on dos and don’ts and medication taken, if any. iv Other Medical Conditions A record must be kept indicating other medical conditions like prosthesis and various forms of disability etc. 2.3.1 i ii

Hygiene Food Handling Strict hygiene practices must be observed in food preparation and storage in terms of prevailing regulations. A system must be in place to ensure facilities for washing of hands. Environmental Hygiene o The environment must be clean with provisions for appropriate refuse collection and disposal. o If children are to do the cleaning, for instance toilets, they must be provided with recommended protective clothes such as gloves and heavy duty, rubber soled shoes.

2.3.2 Safe water and sanitation These must meet the set minimum standards according to the Public Health Act of 1996, Chapter 15.09. Environmental Health Technicians should reinforce set standards without discrimination. 2.3.3 Nutrition Nutritious meals must be provided or arranged for by parents and guardians. Where possible there should be a nutrition garden and an orchard.

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ANNEX II CIVIL PROTECTION DEPARTMENT BASIC SAFETY REQUIREMENTS i.

Safe education infrastructure. All development of education infrastructure must meet prevailing regulations and set standards as per building by-laws. Due care must be taken in siting of schools particularly with regards to pre existing or anticipated hazards such as blasting in mining areas. Buildings in such environments must be constantly monitored for structural defects and requisite corrective action should be taken timeously. In general all educational infrastructure must be adequately monitored to ensure that it does not pose danger to the occupants.

ii.

Sick Bay o Person with basic knowledge in First Aid and resuscitation o Two to four beds, hand washing facilities, refrigerator and furniture items e.g. desk and chair, cardiac table and two to four stools, bed linen e.g. bedspreads, blankets, sheets, pillows and pillow slips o Back rest o Skips for dirty linen, bins for refuse o Toilet with hand washing facilities and a shower o Over the counter essential drugs e.g. Paracetamol and lotions like Betadine and Sodium Hypochlorite (bleach) o Oxygen cylinder with tubings and masks (different sizes) o Gloves, bandages, sanitary pads, sterile blades or new razor blades. o Blood pressure (BP) machines and thermometers for checking vital observations o Up to six receivers for vomitus, bedpan o Take note of expiry dates of medicines, drugs and chemicals

iii.

First Aid Teachers and pupils/students should be trained in First Aid. o Schools are to provide fully equipped First Aid kits

iv.

Traffic Safety and Educational Trips (Circular No. P54) o A system must be in place to ensure children are conversant with traffic safety rules o Parental consent must be sought for school trips o Correct and appropriate roadworthy public service vehicles must be provided o Use a vehicle with a certificate of fitness o No overloading. Daylight travel encouraged o Correct record of those on a trip must be maintained at the school o Students/pupils should be under supervision

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ANNEX III WORKSHOP HAZARDS (Metalwork, Woodwork, Laboratory, Home Economics and Technical Graphs) Introduction Workshops or rooms for practical subjects may be dangerous places due to the nature of the tools, equipment and materials that are used. The following are some of the dangers or hazards that may be experienced and ways of minimising them. Hazard 1: Fire and Explosion Risks (suffocation, shock, death and destruction of property Causes: Electrical faults, gas, highly flammable liquids (spirits, solvents, resins, petroleum based adhesives) Remedy, Prevention: o Switch off all electric switches and gas taps o Use fire-fighting equipment i.e. hoses, sand, extinguishers, etc. o All electrical equipment, eg. plug wiring, insulation , fuse size, earthing, voltage and current, to be regularly checked for faults, by qualified personnel o Gas connection to be checked for leakages o Workshops and storage rooms to be well ventilated o Storage rooms to bear bold danger warning signs o Cabinet to be used for keeping harmful materials, under lock and key o No smoking, no forms of natural flame in the vicinity of inflammable stores o Inflammable stores should be under strict supervision by someone fully conversant with the dangerous nature of the content o Only enough quantities of flammable liquid should be available outside the store or cabinet o Containers of flammable substances must be kept closed, when not in use o Training operations on how to use fire fighting equipment and fire drills to be practiced regularly Hazard 2: Causes:

Burns (a) Fist Degree (b) Second Degree (c ) Third Degree a) Scalds/contact with hot objects b) Heavier contact with very hot objects or solvent flames c) Severe burns (evidence by white/charred look) Remedy, Prevention: o Submerge burnt part in cold water and apply dry dressing o Submerge burnt part in cold water until worst pain subsides , gently blot dry and apply dry sterile gauze then consult a doctor NB Do not use an antiseptic preparation ointment or spray o Call a doctor /ambulance immediately. Apply dry sterile dressings NB Do not remove clothing, use cold water or apply any burn remedy Hazard 3: Electrocution (shock, death) Causes: Defective or faulty electrical equipment Remedy, Prevention: o Switch off all main switches and gas taps o All electrical equipment to be efficiently earthed o Reduced voltage tools (and use of power packs) strongly recommended o All electrical equipment to have good insulation o Wear protective clothing (like rubber soled shoes) o Avoid wet or damp areas Hazard 4: Causes:

Poison a) Swallowed b) In contact with skin c) In eyes Remedy, Prevention: o Dilute poison by giving patient as much water or milk as possible; Try to get a conscious person to vomit (salt water will help); Do not try to make an unconscious or convulsing patient drink anything; Keep all chemicals in locked sore rooms o Wash contaminated area with cold water for at least 15 minutes; Remove all contaminated clothing; Do not use any medication on affected skin o Wash thoroughly the affected eye(s) with cold or lukewarm water for at least 15 minutes and keep eyelids open Hazard 5: Skin Hazards Causes: Direct handling of harmful materials (liquids) Remedy, Prevention: o Use industrial gloves o Use barrier creams o Such materials to be used under strict supervision Hazard 6: Breathing Hazards (suffocation/fainting, death) Causes: Inhaling toxic fumes and dust Remedy, Prevention: o Workshop to be well ventilated o Provision of respirators and face masks Hazard 7: Causes:

Injuries, Cuts, Bruises, Bleeding a) Inhaling toxic fumes and dust b) Sharp objects c) Careless and incorrect use of hand tools and machines d) Ill maintained, defective or faulty tools and machines e) Poor storage of tools and materials f) Slippery floors g) Congestion

Remedy, Prevention: o Rinse the cut under a running tap, and then apply dressing; Consult doctor (for tetanus injection) o Tools and machines to be used for the job they are designed to; Users/operators to be well trained and to demonstrate a high level of competence in the use of tools and machines; Strict supervision encouraged o Regular maintenance of equipment o Checking and rectifying faults before using equipment o Tools and materials to have proper racks o Floors to be free from fluids eg. water, grease and oils o Workshop to provide sufficient, clear and unobstructed space

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