distribution and habitat use of pheasants in the ...

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT USE OF PHEASANTS IN THE HEADWATER FORESTS OF SETI KHOLA, ANNAPURNA CONSERVATION AREA, NEPAL

Thesis Submitted to the Tribhuvan University-Institute of Forestry Office of the Dean, Pokhara Nepal

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

By LAXMAN PRASAD POUDYAL

Tribhuvan University-Institute of Forestry Office of the Dean, Pokhara, NEPAL

November 2008

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT USE OF PHEASANTS IN THE HEADWATER FORESTS OF SETI KHOLA, ANNAPURNA CONSERVATION AREA, NEPAL

Thesis Submitted to the Tribhuvan University-Institute of Forestry Office of the Dean, Pokhara Nepal

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

By Laxman Prasad Poudyal

Advisor Shree Prasad Dhoubhadel Associate Professor, IOF, Pokhara Nepal Co-advisors Biswombher Man Pradhan Institute of Forestry Nepal

Dr K Ramesh Wildlife Institute of India India

Dr Philip McGowan World Pheasant Association UK

Tribhuvan University-Institute of Forestry Office of the Dean Pokhara

November 2008

Declaration I, Laxman Prasad Poudyal, hereby declare to the Tribhuvan University- Institute of Forestry that this thesis is my original work and all other sources of information used are duly acknowledged. This work has not been submitted to any other university for any academic award.

………………………… Laxman Prasad Poudyal

Preferred Citation: Poudyal L.P. 2008. Distribution and Habitat Use of Pheasants in the Headwater Forests of Setikhola, Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Masters Thesis to the Tribhuvan University-Institute of Forestry, Nepal. ii

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY Office of the Dean Hariyokharka, Pokhara, Nepal Ref. No.:

Date:

LETTER OF ACCEPTANCE The thesis attached hereto entitled “Distribution and Habitat Use of Pheasants in the Headwater Forests of Seti Khola, Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal” prepared and submitted by Laxman Prasad Poudyal, in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Natural Resource Management and Rural Development (NRMRD) is hereby accepted. Principal Advisor

Mr Shree Prasad Dhoubhadel Associate Professor

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Preface My interest for a master thesis in the distribution and habitat use of Galliformes species was stimulated by workshops during the 4th International Galliformes Symposium held in Chengdu, China on October 2007. The workshop on Landscape Ecology leaded by Qamar Qurushi and Dr K Ramesh at Wolong National Nature Reserve and WPAScientist’s Workshop on Galliformes at Baishuihe Nature Reserve leaded by Professor Dr John Caroll encouraged me to do this study. Choosing Setikhola valley for my field work was a combination of my interest and earlier experience on pheasants of Pipar, and advice from Dr Peter Garson (Chair, Pheasant Specialist Group), Dr Philip McGowan (Director, World Pheasant Association) and Dr K Ramesh (Wildlife Institute of India). The valley is a flagship area for bird conservation in Nepal. This masters thesis is mainly aimed to conduct altitudinal surveys of Galliformes, analyse habitat association and map habitat suitability at a landscape level covering the whole area of Lawang Sector of Annapurna Conservation Area. This project also aimed to train an IOF student on pheasant fieldworks. My colleague Mr Babu Ram Lamichhane was involved during the fieldworks and data analysis at WII. If we have more people involved on research we will have more people involved on conservation. Most of the field assistants (Tapta Bahadur Pun, Sula Bahadur Tamang, Santa Bahadur Tamang, Surya Tamang and Mana Prasad Poudyal) were taken from Karuwa village thinking that future researchers can use them for field verification and data collection as we did this time. The fieldwork supporting this thesis was undertaken in 2008 winter at Pipar forests and in spring at Khumai, Thulokhobang, Pipar, Kalki, Nhirgu, Dhije, Khuine and Namsung areas. The analysis works were done at Wildlife Institute of India (WII) under the direct guidance from Shree Qamar Qurushi and Dr K Ramesh. The supervisors of this thesis were Associate Professor Shree Prasad Dhoubhadel and Lecturer Biswombher Man Pradhan, Institute of Forestry, Nepal; Dr K Ramesh, Wildlife Institute of India; and Dr Philip McGowan, World Pheasant Association, UK.

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Abstract A study was carried out in the upper Setikhola forests of Annapurna Conservation Area in winter and spring of 2008 to estimate the abundance of Galliformes, assess their habitat and map their habitat suitability of these species at a landscape level. Dawn call counts for Hill Partridge, Satyr Tragopan and Koklass Pheasant, and trail walks were carried out to determine abundance and distribution of Galliformes in the study areas in the altitudinal range 1600m to 4000m. Ocular estimation of canopy cover, shrub cover and herb cover were made in the plots. Means, deviations, correlations and one way ANOVA were applied to analyse the data. Topographic map (1:50000), Landsat Image, and GPS data acquired from the field were used for spatial analysis. Hill Partridge, Satyr Tragopan, Koklass Pheasant, Blood Pheasant and Himalayan Monal were observed (seen) both in winter and spring whereas Snow Partridge was observed only in spring. Kalij Pheasant and Rufous-throated Partridge were observed in winter only. Himalayan Monal was the most highly encountered Galliform in the trail walk (6.74 bird/kilometer) followed by Hill Partridge (0.81), Blood Pheasant (0.81), Satyr Tragopan (0.42) and Kalij Pheasant (0.36). Rufous-throated Partridge, Snow Partridge and Koklass Pheasant were observed only once. The detection rate per listening station was 3.64 males for Satyr Tragopan followed by Hill Partridge (2.99) and Koklass Pheasant (1.37). Galliform per listening stations heard from different sites differed significantly. While comparing the data across the seven surveys since 1979, the number of Satyr Tragopan and Koklass Pheasant heard at Pipar was stable. There was coexistence between Satyr Tragopan, Koklass Pheasant and Hill Partridge. The habitats were mainly Rhododendron forest sparsely associated with other broadleaf forest mostly Arundinaria species in the shrub layer. The Habitat Suitability Index Model suggested that more habitat is suitable for Himalayan Monal (5.55 to15.08 percentage of the area of Setikhola valley) compared to the other study species. The suitable areas for Satyr Tragopan, Koklass Pheasant and Hill Partridge were 2.83 to 7.55, 2.65 to 6.35 and 2.79 to 9.27 percentages respectively. Further studies are suggested in the forests North-West of Mardikhola as habitat suitability map indicated the presence of Galliform there as at Pipar and Santel forests.

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Acknowledgements This report is based on research conducted on the forests of upper Setikhola valley of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal in February to May 2008. I would like to thank Institute of Forestry for acceptance this piece of work as a thesis for my master’s degree. I would like to thank IUCN/SSC/WPA-Pheasant Specialist Group for endorsement of this project and World Pheasant Association, Jimmy Robberts Memorial Fund and James Goodhart for funding support. I would like to thank Associate Professor Shree Prasad Dhoubhadel, Lecturer Bishwombher Man Pradhan, Dr K Ramesh, Dr Philip McGowan, Dr Peter Garson, Keith Howman, Robin Marston and Qamar Qurushi for their guidance and suggestions during all phases of the project. Shree Qurushi and Dr Ramesh taught me at WII to analyse the data and prepare habitat suitability map. Dr Ramesh did very hardwork to conclude the data available from the field and prepare the maps. Most of the GIS analyses were done on his computer. I stayed in new hostel on 20th to 30th August 2008 and got facilities what a WII student gets. I am very much thankful to Director and Dean of WII for such a help and endorsement of my application on internship for this short period. I would like to thank S Satya Kumar, Sabita Malla, Merwyn Fernandes, Tapajit Bhattacharya, library staff, computer staff, and hostel and canteen staff for their cordial help during the staying at WII. I always get encouragement from Mrs Carol Inskipp and Dr Hem Sagar Baral to do the works on birds in Nepal. I am very much grateful to them for their suggestions and comments on entire peeriod of this project. I would like to thank Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Bird Conservation Nepal, National Trust for Nature Conservation and Annapurna Conservation Area Project. I would like to thank Nawaraj Chapagain and Narendra Shrestha for their help in preliminary GIS works and map preparation. I never forget my colleague Babu Ram Lamichhane for his tireless works from field to new hostel at WII India. Special thank goes to Mr Heera KC for his valuable efforts on bird identification. I would like to thank Ashok Kumar Ram, Yajna Murti Khanal and all colleagues of my class for their help during the study. I would like to thank crew members of the field works Renji Sherpa, Tapta Bahadur Pun, Khadga Ghale, Kajiman Tamang, Gaman Singh Tamang, Sula Bahadur Tamang, Santa Bahadur Tamang, Surya Tamang, and Mana Prasad Poudyal. Pahar Trust Nepal provided us camping equipment and kitchen utensils. All our crew members arranged the camping in a very good manner in the remote fields even there were very difficult situations and hurricane days. I would like to thank Lal Prasad Gurung (Director, Annapurna Conservation Area Project), Raj Kumar Gurung (Office Incharge of Lawang Sector of ACA), Rohit Kumar Pokharel and Surya Bahadur Pande (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation) for their cordial help and encouragement during the study. I would like to acknowledge my wife Shanti and children Biplab and Ashma for their patience and sacrifice during my long absence in the period of my study.

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Contents DECLARATION LETTER OF ACCEPTANCE PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.

BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 GALIFORMES STUDIES IN NEPAL 2.1.1 Studies in Setikhola Valley 2.1.2 Studies in Other Areas in Nepal 2.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SPECIES 2.2.1 Taxonomy 2.2.2 Biology and Ecology

3.

STUDY AREA 3.1 ANNAPURNA CONSERVATION AREA 3.2 INTENSIVE STUDIES AREAS 3.2.1 Khumai Forest 3.2.2 Thulokhobang Forest 3.2.3 Pipar 3.2.4 Kalki Forest 3.2.5 Nhirgu 3.2.6 Dhije 3.2.7 Khuine and Namsung

4.

METHODS 4.1 4.2 4.3

5.

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE HABITAT USE SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND HABITAT MODELING

RESULTS 5.1 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE 5.1.1 Winter Survey 5.1.2 Spring Survey 5.2 HABITAT AVAILABILITY 5.3 SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND HABITAT MODELING

6.

DISCUSSION 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

7.

III IV

ABSTRACT

1.

II

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE HABITAT USE SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND HABITAT MODELING CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

V VI VII 1 1 3 3 4 4 4 6 7 7 8 16 17 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 24 25 28 28 28 31 35 43 46 46 48 49 50 51

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Galliformes of Nepal ............................................................................................2 Table 2: Winter Trails of the Study Area .........................................................................22 Table 3: Variable Considered for Habitat Suitability Modeling ......................................26 Table 4: The Range and Type of Habitat Variables Incorporated....................................26 Table 5: Mean Encounter Rate of Different Species During Winter of 2008 ..................28 Table 6: Mean Number of Individuals per Listening Stations ........................................34 Table 7: Mean Encounter Rate of Different Species During Spring of 2008...................34 Table 8: Mean Habitat Variable Available for Different Galliformes in Winter .............37 Table 9: Mean Habitat Variables used by Different Galliformes in Winter 2008............38 Table 10: Correlations Between Species and Habitat Variables ......................................41 Table 11: Estimated Area of Distribution of the Galliformes in the Setikhola Valley....43 Table 12: Estimated Numbers of Galliformes in the Setikhola Valley ............................43

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Pipar and Santel Forest Showing Intensive Study Area………………………16 Figure 2: Flow Chart of the Modeling works …………………………………………...27 Figure 3: Equipment Used ……………………………………………………………...27 Figure 4: Galliformes Density at Different Sites..............................................................33 Figure 5: Calls of Pheasants in Pipar Since 1979 .............................................................33 Figure 6: Ground Coverage Available in Winter .............................................................36 Figure 7: Ground Coverage Available in Spring..............................................................36 Figure 9: Ground Coverage used by Galliformes in Winter.............................................42 Figure 10: Ground Coverage used by Galliformes in Spring ...........................................42 Figure 11: Predicted Area of Distribution for Satyr Tragopan and Hill Partridge………44 Figure 12: Predicted Area of Distribution for Satyr Tragopan and Hill Partridge………45

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1: Number of Calling Birds Heard During the Field Survey. ..........................57 Appendix 2: Pheasants of the World ................................................................................60 Appendix 3: Birds Recorded During the Field Survey 2008............................................61 Appendix 4: List of Acronyms .........................................................................................65

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1. Introduction 1.1 Background Pheasants are large, ground dwelling birds the males often with brightly colored plumage and inhabit diverse habitats in the tropical and temperate forests of Asia and Africa. Taxonomically, they represent the family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes. Among 52 species of pheasants belonging to 16 genera have been recognized so far, 51 species survive in the world (Appendix 2). The pheasants are Asian in their native distributions, with the single exception of Congo Peafowl Afropavo congensis, which is endimic to the Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa (Fuller and Garson 2000). Out of eight pheasant species distributed in Nepal six are restricted to the Himalayan ranges. The Himalayan pheasants of Nepal are Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus, Satyr Tragopan Tragopan satyra, Koklass Pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha, Kalij Pheasant Lophura leucomelanos, Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii and Blood Pheasant Ithaginis cruentus. Nepal is rich in avifaunal diversity due to its wide variety of forests and other habitat types ranging from bare rock and scrub in the alpine zone to tropical rainforests in the lowlands (Baral and Inskipp 2005). Altogether 863 bird species (Bird Conservation Nepal 2006, BCN 2008) have been recorded so far which include 22 Galliformes species. The Galliformes of Nepal occupy a wide range of altitudes (Table 1). Red Jungle Fowl Gallus gallus and Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus are found as low as 75m altitudes (Baral 2005) whereas Himalayan Snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis is recorded as high as 6,000 m altitude (Inskipp & Inskipp 1991). Himalayan Monal is the national bird of Nepal and is also protected by law. Of the nine bird species that are protected by law, three are pheasants; the other two pheasant species are Cheer Pheasant and Satyr Tragopan. Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) is the largest protected area of Nepal. It is the country’s only protected area that has all of Nepal’s six Himalayan pheasant species (Inskipp 1989, Baral and Inskipp 2005). Pipar and Santel area within ACA, which lies in Setikhola watershed, is a flagship area for Himalayan pheasant conservation and provides habitat for five Himalayan pheasants and seven other Galliformes species. This 1

study describes ecological relationships of pheasants and partridges with their habitats, and their abundances in the Setikhola watershed. Table 1: Galliformes of Nepal

SN Common Name 1 Cheer Pheasant

Scientific Name Catreus wallichi

2

Satyr Tragopan*

Tragopan satyra

3

Blood Pheasant *

Ithaginis cruentus

4 5

Himalayan Monal * Indian Peafowl

Lophophorus impejanus Pavo cristatus

6

Kalij Pheasant*

7

Koklass Pheasant* Red Junglefowl

Lophura leucomelanos Pucrasia macrolopha Gallus gallus

11

Tibetan Snowcock* Himalayan Snowcock* Chukar *

Tetraogallus tibetanus Tetraogallus himalayensis Alectoris chukar

12

Hill Partridge*

13

15

Rufous throated Partridge* Tibetan Partridge* Snow Partridge*

Arborophila torqueola Arborophila rufogularis Perdix hodgsoniae Lerwa lerwa

16

Black Francolin

8 9 10

14

17 18 19 20 21 22

Francolinus francolinus Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Rain Quail Coturnix coromandelica Blue-breasted Coturnix Quail chinensis Jungle Bush Perdicula Quail asiatica

Habitat steep craggy hillsides with scrub, secondary growth moist evergreen forest with dense undergrowth bamboo clumps, forests or scrub of rhododendron, birch and juniper rocky and grass covered slopes in summer and forests in winter dense riverine vegetation and open Shorea robusta forest all types of forests with dense undergrowth conifer, oak and Rhododendron forest Forest undergrowth and scrub rocky slopes and alpine meadows rocky slopes and alpine meadows open rocky or grassy hills; dry terraced cultivation broadleaved evergreen forest broadleaved evergreen forest semi desert, rock and scrub slopes rocky and grassy slopes with scrub cultivation, tall grass and scrub in plains and hills tall wet grassland and marshes

Altitude (meter) 1800 to 3050 (-2100) 2500 to 3800 3200 to 4400 (-2500) 3300 to 4750 below 300 245 to 3050 (3700) 2680 to 3200(3500) mainly below 300 (-1200) (-3650) 4500 to 5000 4250 to 5500 (5900) 2100 to 3960 1830 to 3200 (3550) mainly 1450 to 1830 (250-2050) 3700 to 4100 (5000) (-3050) 4000-5000 up to 2050 below 200

dry grass and thorn scrub

below 200

crops and grasslands

below 915 (-2900)

cultivation, grass and scrub

vagrant species

wet grassland, field edges and up to 1200 scrub Extirpated; only recorded in 19th century

*Species found in Setikhola Valley

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1.2 Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study was to describe general ecological relationship of pheasants with their habitats. The specific objectives were to: 1. Conduct altitudinal surveys of Galliformes and their habitat use in winter and spring in upper Seti-Khola valley 2. Assess available habitat throughout headwater forests of this valley. 3. Analyse the species – habitat association, and map habitat suitability at landscape scale. 1.3 Rationale of the Study Pheasants and partridges have been associated with social and religious status of people living in Asia and Europe. They are killed for food, feathers and entertainment. Pheasant hunting is a very popular game sport in Europe and America. Though the hunting is banned by the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, the male Himalayan Monal has been under heavy hunting pressure for its crest feathers which are used in traditional hats in several rituals in Himalayan range of Nepal. About 300 species of Galliformes around the world (26%) are at risk (WPA 2008). 21 species of pheasants are globally threatened and 12 species are near threatened. Three pheasants are endangered and 18 are vulnerable in IUCN category (IUCN 2007); 17 species are listed in CITES Appendix I, eight are in Appendix II and four are in Appendix III (CITES 2008). These birds are threatened because of high human activities on their natural habitats. Many pheasant species are likely to become extinct within the next 100 years, if over exploitation and habitat destruction continues (Ramesh 2003). The first ecological studies on pheasants in the Setikhola valley were conducted in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a, Lelliott 1981). Since the late 1970s, a series of studies have been conducted in this area by various teams (Yonzon 1987, Picozzi 1984, 1986, 1987, Bhandary et al. 1986, Howman and Garson 1993, Kaul and Shakya 2001, Baral et al. 2001, Gyawali 2004, Poudyal 2005, Mahato et al. 2006). Poudyal et al. (2007) have suggested declaring the area as a strict nature reserve due to its ecological importance. Most of these surveys were restricted to Pipar areas only but most have recommended and encouraged the study of pheasants in other areas including Khumai and the upper Seti-Khola valley. Analysis of the relationship between Galliformes species and ecogeographical variables is highly imperative to prepare maps on habitat suitability in the upper Setikhola valley and Lwang Sector of Annapurna Conservation Area as a whole. 3

2. Literature Review 2.1 Galiformes Studies in Nepal 2.1.1

Studies in Setikhola Valley

Jhalak Thapa discovered Pipar in 1977 when he was scouting for a new trekking route. He reported that it was particularly rich in Galliformes and appeared to contain five of Nepal's six Himalayan Pheasant species (WPA 2004). The World Pheasant Association (WPA) has been monitoring the health of the Pipar forest and Galliformes since 1979 at regular interval (McGowan 2004). Anthony D. Lelliott carried out studies and counted the pheasants at Pipar and Annapurna Himalayas in 1979-1980. He suggested boundaries for a Pheasant Conservation Reserve and made management proposals to the World Pheasant Association in his MSc research project (Lelliott 1981). He was accompanied by Pralad Bahadur Yonzon of the Department of Zoology of Tribhuvan University. They provided basic ecological information on Blood Pheasant, Koklass Pheasant, Satyr Tragopan and Himalayan Monal (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a, Yonzon and Lelliott 1981). Their observations concentrated on populations, human impact, behaviour, feeding, reproduction and vocalization (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a). They examined the extent of pheasant hunting and trapping and suggested proper conservation measures to ensure pheasants existence (Yonzon and Lelliott 1980). Forster and Lelliott also formulated a management plan in 1982 (Forster and Lelliott 1981, Forster 1982). Anthony D. Lelliott revisited the area in 1981 with WPA funding accompanying JK Tamrakar, and prepared a further report on Pipar area to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Tamrakar and Lelliott 1982). Pralad Bahadur Yonzon made counts of calling Pheasants on Pipar in May 1982. Botanist Hemanta Ram Bhandary of TU accompanied him and made a large collection of plants from Pipar (Yonzon 1987). Col. Roberts and his party counted Pheasants in 1983 in the same area to continue the series began by A.D. Lelliott in 1979. In November 1983, N. Picozzi carried out an ecological survey of a proposed reserve for Himalayan Pheasants at Pipar. He described the vegetation of Pipar and effects of human 4

activities on pheasants (Picozzi 1984). Dr Sanford D. Schemnitz of New Mexico State University and botanist Hemanta Ram Bhandary of TU accompanied him. They collected droppings and identified main autumn foods of pheasants (Bhandary et al. 1986). Around the same time Stapleton and Tamrakar studied the bamboos of Pipar (Stapleton and Tamrakar 1984). Members of a WPA trek carried out dawn call counts of Satyr Tragopan and Koklass Pheasant in May 1985 in the same site that AD Lelliott did at Pipar. The maximum estimates from the Pipar bowl from positions 1-4 were 12 Koklass and 13 Tragopan (Picozzi 1986). N Picozzi revisited the same area in April 1987 and counted pheasants in four listening points at Pipar. Pheasants were counted in the same area in 1991 also. The maximum estimates from the Pipar bowl from positions 1-4 were 30 Koklass and 31 Tragopan in 1987 and 18 Koklass and 30 Tragopan in 1991(Picozzi 1987, Howman and Garson 1993). Dr Rahul Kaul, Director of WPA South Asian Regional Office visited Pipar and adjoining areas in 1995. He collected first hand information about the activities of WPA in this region and conducted dawn call counts on 14-16 October. He counted maximum of 16 calling groups of Koklass Pheasant from 1-3 listening stations at Pipar bowl (Kaul 1995). A French team assembled of botanist, ornithologist, grouse specialists and mammologist, visited Pipar area in April 1997 and counted the pheasants following methods used by previous team. They counted 16 Satyr Tragopan and 9 Koklass at Pipar bowl (Emmanuel et al. 1997). Rahul Kaul and Suresh Shakya conducted dawn call counts at Pipar between 28 April and 5 May 1998. They recorded fewer individuals calling in 1998 than in 1991 for both Satyr Tragopan and Koklass Pheasant. They reported that serious consideration should be given to the inclusion of Santel within the area covered by the Reserve (Kaul and Shakya 1998, Kaul and Shakya 2001). In April/May 2001, Hem Sagar Baral, Prem Chandra Gurung, Rahul Kaul and K Ramesh conducted dawn call counts of Galliformes species in the Santel area, east from the Seti River. They were accompanied by some staff from the Annapurna Conservation Area 5

Project, students of Institute of Forestry- Pokhara, and members of Bird Conservation Nepal. They counted maximum of 36 Satyr Tragopan, nine Koklass Pheasant and 29 Hill Partridge from the 10 listening stations at Santel forests (Baral et al. 2001). Further they prepared a list of 191 species of birds recorded during the survey period. In August 2004, Nabin Gyawali studied summer grazing and forest resource collection and their effects on pheasants of Pipar and adjacent areas. He observed the extent and pattern of nomadic grazing and determined the pattern of NTFPs collection (Gyawali 2004). I carried out a study on vegetation and effects of nomadic grazing on pheasants in autumn 2004 for my BSc thesis. I mostly followed the same methods that Picozzi had done two decades before. A total of 67 plant species was identified belonging to 51 Genera and 30 Families. Grazing pressure and NTFP collection from Pipar have reduced considerably during the last 20 years (Poudyal 2005, Poudyal et al. 2007). In continuance of the long-term monitoring at Pipar and to provide a second count at Santel, dawn call counts were conducted in both areas between 29th April and 9th May 2005. The numbers of species detected were found to be reasonably stable and that there was no long-term decline (Poudyal et al. 2008). Both areas have exceptional bird species richness, with 227 species recorded in Pipar and 236 in Santel (Mahato et al 2006). 2.1.2

Studies in Other Areas in Nepal

Tony Lelliott carried out a study on Cheer in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in 1980 (Lelliott 1981). Poorneswor Subedi carried out a Cheer study in 2003 in the same area. The population of Cheer in the upper Dhorpatan valley was found to be unchanged since the 1980; there are estimated to be 100-200 breeding territories, making this one of the largest known populations of Cheer in the world (Subedi et al. 2005). In 2004 Raju Acharya carried out a survey of Cheer Pheasant in the Kali Gandaki valley in the Annapurna Conservation Area. He discovered Cheer populations at five of seven sites they selected at random in the both sides of the valley, extending 300m east of the River (Acharya 2004). This is the place where Nepal’s other five pheasant species also exist. In 2005 Bharat Budthapa, Jeetendra Mahat and Suman Sharma visited Rara National Park. They found Cheer at five of the six sites they visited near Rara Lake (Garson and

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Baral 2007). Paras Bikram Singh and I carried out a survey of Cheer Pheasant in Baglung and Myagdi Districts near Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and recorded high densities of Cheer despite evident heavy pressure on the vegetation by human and livestock (Singh et al. 2006). Ramji Gautam studied habitat use of Nepal Kalij at Dhital VDC of Kaski district in Nepal in 1998 for his Master’s Thesis. He found that the maximum number of birds in closed forest with high understorey followed by closed forest with low understorey, terraced field and open forest (Gautam and Baral 2002). Bhagawati Subedi studied population status, habitat use and conservation threats of Kalij Pheasant in Hemja area of Kaski district for her Masters degree. She identified Castanopsis indica as main roosting tree species followed by Schima wallichii, Angelhardia spicata and Myrica esculenta (Subedi 2006). Hem Sagar Baral studied the status, distribution and habitat preferences of Swamp Francolin Francolinus gularis in Koshi Tappu and Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve on several occasions between 1991 and 1995. He estimated the total population of 212 individuals in Nepal (Baral 1998). Bhagawan Raj Dahal carried out a study on status and conservation of Swamp Francolin in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in 1999. He observed 80 individuals and recorded 106 calls in May and 90 individuals and 122 calls in October-November (Dahal 2000). Suresh Shakya, Anil Shrestha and Rajiv Kalsi carried out a survey of Swamp Francolin in March-April 2000. They found 14.26 birds/Km2 at Koshi Tappu, 8 birds/Km2 at Chitwan and 23 birds/Km2 at Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (Shakya et al 2000). Paras Bikram Singh studied the population status and habitat utilization of Swamp Francolin in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in April-June 2004 and estimated a maximum 46 pairs of birds at Suklaphanta, Jhilmila, Singhpur and Kalikitch grasslands of the reserve (Singh 2005, 2007). 2.2 Description of the Study Species 2.2.1 Taxonomy Kingdom: ANIMALIA Phylum: CHORDATA Class: AVES GALLIFORMES Order: Family: PHASIANIDAE

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Scientific Names Tragopan satyra Pucrasia macrolopha Lophura leucomelanos Ithaginis cruentus Lophophorus impejanus Arborophila torqueola 2.2.2

Sub Species in Nepal Macrolopha, nipalensis leucomelanos, hamiltonii, melanota Cruentus

Common Names Satyr Tragopan Koklass Pheasant Kalij Pheasant Blood Pheasant Himalayan Monal Hill-Partridge

Biology and Ecology

SATYR TRAGOPAN Physical Description: The male is about 67-72cm in length and brightly coloured. Plumage on the neck and under part is bright red. The back and sides are mottled black and brown with round white spots. Head and tail is black. The male has two fleshy horns of sky-blue colour which along with the blue bib, get engorged during courtship displays. The female is smaller than the male and is rufous-brown with white streaking and spotting (Grimmett et al. 2000). Distribution: Satyr Tragopan is native to Bhutan, China, India and Nepal. It occurs in the Himalayas of Nepal (uncommon), India (uncommon), Bhutan (fairly common) and China (local, with a limited range in south and south-east Tibet). In Nepal it is scarce resident and reported from 2500-3800m in summer and down to 2100m in winter. It is found west to Jumla. Sites include Ghasa, Langtang and Khumbu (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). This bird is reported from Khaptad National Park (KNP), Shey Phoksundo National Park (SPNP), Langtang National Park (LNP), Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Makalu Barun National Park (MBNP), Kanchanjungha Conservation Area (KCA) and ACA (Bhuju et al. 2007). Habitat: It is resident in moist oak and rhododendron forest with dense undergrowth and bamboo clumps, mixed forest, scrub and densely vegetated ravines in gentle and steep slopes (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991, Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a). Habits: This species is shy but less difficult to observe than the Koklass. It is solitary or in pairs. The mating call is a long drawn out wah, waah oo-aaaaa much like the crying of an infant voiced 12-14 times

mainly at dawn, the series rising in volume and

becoming more protracted; also a wah wah at any time (Grimmett et al. 2000). Food: The birds feed on young leaves and other edible parts of plants like Berberis and Rhododendron. This is in addition to mosses, grasses and insects, lichens and quartz

8

fragments (Yonzon and Lelliott 1981). Individuals feed actively in the morning and late afternoon. Breeding: There is very little known of its breeding but the season is believed to be in May-June and occasionally into July (Madge and McGowan 2002). Satyr is partly arboreal; nests have been found in trees and also on the ground. Clutch size is 2-3 eggs in the wild and 4-6 in captivity. The reddish buff coloured eggs are generally freckled all over with deeper brick red (Johnsgard 1986). Threats: Major threats include hunting for local consumption as well as habitat clearance and degradation due to timber harvesting, fuelwood and fodder collection and livestock grazing (IUCN 2007, Madge and McGowan 2002). Extraction of bamboo also poses problems for habitat of the species, given its association with bamboo undergrowth. KOKLASS PHEASANT Physical Description: Male is about 58-64cms and has bottle green head and ear tufts, chestnut on under parts, and streaked appearance to upperparts. Female is smaller than the male and has white throat, short buff ear tufts, and heavily streaked body. Both sexes have wedge-shaped tail (Grimmett et al. 2000). Distribution: Koklass is native to Afganistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal and China (IUCN 2007). It occurs in the Himalayas of Afghanistan to Pakistan in west, continuously through northern India, Nepal, North east Tibet and China. In Nepal it is locally resident and reported from 2680m to 3200(-3500)m in summer and down to 2135 m in winter (Grimmett et al. 2000). Race in Nepal is mainly nipalensis and extends as far east as the Madi khola and possibly to the Marsyandi khola (Roberts 1980). Birds in the far west may be sub species macrolopha (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). It is regularly recorded at Pipar, Ghasa, Ghorepani and Dhorpatan valley. This bird is reported from KNP, RNP, SPNP, DHR, and ACA (Bhuju et al. 2007). Habitat: It occurs mainly in mature Oak and mixed Spruce Juniper, Cedar, Rhododendron forest and occasionally in adjacent Berberis scrubland and grasslands (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a, Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). Habits: It is shyest and most secretive species among the Himalayan pheasants of Nepal, though it is the most vocal. It can be met singly or in pairs of coveys of 1-3 pairs (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980b). Call of male is a far carrying, rough kuk -kuk- kuk- kokas- kokas 9

(in Setikhola valley local people say parkhes kaakaa) in the early morning and evening but also at other times of the day in cloudy weather. The species derives its name to its crowing. Food: The birds feed on young leaves grass, moss, seeds and quartz fragments (Yonzon and Lelliott 1981) during early morning and late afternoon, in grassy areas, but dug over patches found in a variety of places, presumably searching for roots and tubers (Madge and McGowan 2002). Breeding: In courtship display, the cock puffs out his body feathers, erects the long black ear tufts with the brown crest between them and struts about in the proximity of the hen. The breeding season is April through June (Ali and Replay 1978). The nest is a scrape in the ground roughly lined with sticks leaves and grass concealed under dense bushes or rocks. The clutch size is 5-7 up to 9 eggs with an incubation period of 26-27 days (Johnsgard 1986) although 21-22 days also reported (Madge and McGowan 2002). Threats: Habitat destruction is one of the primary causes of concern. It appears to prefer a significant understorey and where this is being degraded through grazing or collection of fodder for domestic stock or firewood, the species is probably under pressure (Madge and McGowan 2002). KALIJ PHEASANT Physical Description: The male is about 65-73cm and female is 50-60cm in length. Both sexes have red facial skin and down curved tail. Three intergrading race occur in Nepal; white crested L. l. hamiltonii (male has white or grey brown crest, broad white barring on rump) black crested or Nepal Kalij L. l. leucomelanos (male has blue black crest and white barring on rump, and heavily scaled upper parts) and black backed L. l. melanota (male has blue back crest, and blue black rump that lacks pale scaling). Female is reddish brown, with grayish-buff fringes producing scaly appearance (Grimmett et al. 2000). Distribution: Kalij Pheasant occurs in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, China and United States. In Nepal it is fairly common and widespread resident and reported from 245-3050m altitude. Maximum height recorded is 3660m in May 1954 (Biswas 1974). This bird is reported from all protected areas of Nepal except Bardia and Koshitappu (Bhuju et al. 2007). Sub species leucomelanos is endemic to Nepal and is central Nepal bird. Sub species hamiltonii is west Nepal bird 10

occurring about as far east as Jumla; leucomelanos occurs thence to about the Arun valley in east Nepal. Sub species melanota continues to eastern boarder (Roberts 1980). Habitat: This is one of the more adaptable pheasant species found in many habitat types and frequents in all types of forests (including Sal, oak, spruce and rhododendron, and other evergreen and deciduous forests) with dense undergrowth (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991, Madge and McGowan 2002). Habits: The birds keep in pairs or small groups and feed in open areas early in the mornings. They are very shy and run quickly for cover at the slightest hint of alarm. The bird does not seem to have a mating call but emits a low chirrip accompanied with wing whirring or wing drumming (WPA India 2008). Food: Kalij pheasants are omnivorous, eating almost anything from bamboo seeds to small snakes and lizards, and wide variety of foods including berries, grass, herbs, shrubs, roots, and diversity of insects, worms and larvae (Johnsgard 1986). Breeding: The breeding season is from February to October but mainly in April – May. The white crested Kalij is said to be breed from March to June, the Nepal Kalij from April to June and the Black backed Kalij from March to May ((Johnsgard 1986). Threats: It is elusive, but dazzaled by a flash lamp an entire family may be shot, one by one, as it roosts at night. Roosting sites can be spotted in advance by the droppings at the foot of trees (Roberts 1980). Being usually found close to villages, it is a victim of local hunting. As the species seems to be tolerant to habitat changes, it is thus not particularly threatened by habitat loss (WPA India 2008). BLOOD PHEASANT Physical Description: Looks somewhat like a large partridge, with a dumpy appearance. The male and female are the same size about 38cm in length. Both sexes have crested head, and red orbital skin and legs/feet. Male has grey upper parts streaked with white, and greenish under parts and plumage is splashed with red. Female has grey crest and, rufous orange face, dark brown upperparts, and rufous brown underparts (Grimmett et al. 2000). Distribution: Blood pheasant is native to India, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar. Sub species cruentus is found in Nepal. It is locally fairly common resident mainly in 11

centre and east found between 3200m-4400m altitude (Grimmett et al. 2000). It occurs eastwards from the Kali Gandaki valley (Roberts 1980) but there are also reports from west to Rara and Jumla areas (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). It is frequently seen in Gosaikunda, Khumbu, Pipar, and the upper valley Arun. Protected areas include RNP, LNP, ACA, SNP, MBNP and KCA (Bhuju et al. 2007). Habitat: The birds inhabit bamboo clumps, forests or scrub of rhododendron, birch and juniper, often near water (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991, Fleming et al. 1984). It also occurs in open areas of Berberis scrub and hill side (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a). Habit: Blood Pheasants are usually tame and gregarious in habit and often found in coveys of about 10 birds (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). Outside the breeding season the blood pheasant travels in small flocks through open scrub or thin forest (Roberts 1980) and can be observed as many as six or seven flocks of birds, each one composed of eight to ten members (Shakya 1980). The birds emit a repeated chuk; a loud grating alarm screech kzeeuuk-cheeu-cheeu-chee (Fleming et al. 1984). Food: The bird feeds on berries and other vegetable matter (Fleming et al. 1984) which consist mainly moss, leaf litter, grass shoots and lichens. Some times it flies to catch flying insects. They do not have their own special feeding period, they feed at all time of the day including arboreal feeding on moss covered branches, but it is greatest in the morning (Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a). Breeding: The bird is believed to be monogamous, but polygamy and polyandry is also reported. Breeding probably occurs in April-May as small chicks have been seen in June and early July (WPA India 2008). Cheeks were found at 3200m in June 1981 at Pipar (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). The nest is a depression in the ground lined with dead grass stems. A clutch of 2-7 eggs is known to be laid from mid April to late June; most nests found in May. Incubation in captive birds is 26-29 days (Madge and McGowan 2002). Threats: As this is a bird of the high altitude region, it is not really under human pressure like the other forest dwelling pheasants. However, hunting for local consumption by shepherd and poachers during and after monsoon cannot be ignored (Yonzon and Lelliott 1980).

12

HIMALAYAN MONAL Physical Description: The male bird is around 70 cm in length and has a crest on its rather large head. It is iridescent green, copper and purple, with white patch on back and cinnamon-brown tail. Female has white throat, short crest, boldly streaked under parts, white crescent on upper tail coverts, and narrow white tip to tail (Grimmett et al. 2000). The bare skin of both sexes around the eye is blue (Fleming et al. 1984). This is the Nepali national bird of nine colours. Distribution: Himalayan Monal is native to Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar. In Nepal it is fairly common widespread resident subject to vertical movements between from 3300-4750m in summer and down to 2500m in winter. This bird is reported from all Himalayan protected areas (Bhuju et al. 2007). Habitat: The species prefers alpine and sub-alpine areas in steep grassy and open rocky slopes and the adjacent forest during summer and descends to lower altitudes in rhododendron forest during winter, especially in times of heavy snow fall (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991, Lelliott and Yonzon 1980a). Habit: The species is reported to be polygamous; males can be seen with more than one female. Both sexes utter a series of upward –inflected whistles, kleee, kleee …kluks. The bird is usually quite shy and flushes at a considerable distance. When flushed, the birds take to wing emitting a loud call sounding like pi-pi-pi. It digs for tubers with powerful bill, often remaining in one spot for half an hour or more. A dozen of cocks can be seen digging under the trees and open lands in the early morning (Fleming et al. 1984). Food: Terrestrial insects and tubers forms are the chief food (Johnsgard 1986). The bird is usually seen digging for tubers and roots, which seem to form their main diet in addition to grass roots and seeds, berries, mosses, insects and grubs (Yonzon and Lelliott 1981). Breeding: Eggs are laid in rudimentary nests on ground during May-June, generally under boulders and are 4-6 in number. Incubation period is 28 days (WPA India 2008). The nest is a simple scrape, often under the shelter of a bush, a rock, or in the hole of some large tree (Johnsgard 1986). Threats: The main threats to the species arise from hunting and trapping for local consumption especially during winter, when the bird descends to lower altitudes, closer 13

to human habitations. Hunting and trapping by shepherds and poachers during and after monsoon cannot be ignored (Yonzon and Lelliott 1980). It is also killed for its plumes. HILL PARTRIDGE Physical Description: Male has rufous crown and ear coverts, black eye patch and eye stripes, white neck sides streaked with black and white collar. Female has a black barring on mantle and rufous orange foreneck lacks black lower boarder. Both sexes are about 28 cm in length and have grey or brown legs and feet (Grimmett et al. 2000). Distribution: Hill Partridge is native to India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Vietnam. Sub species torqueola is found in Nepal. It is fairly common and quite widespread resident found from 1830m to 3200m (Grimmet at al. 2000). This bird is reported from KNP, RNP, LNP, ACA, MBNP and KCA (Bhuju et al. 2007). Habitat: The bird is seen in ravines and slopes in damp, dense forests and other evergreen trees and shrubs (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). It prefers oak forest, with mix of laurel and rhododendron; chiefly in heavy undergrowth, such as stunted forest in ravines (Madge and McGowan 2002). Habit: This gregarious bird keeps in coveys of 5-10 birds in dense undergrowth scratching for food. Trusts its legs for escape but when in danger, it suddenly flies. Roosts in trees but generally the covey sits huddled together along a branch. A single low mournful whistle is repeated every two or three seconds repeated two or three times followed by a series of three to six double whistles (Grimmett et al. 2000). It sounds like do-eat, do eat, do eat (WPA India 2008). Food: This bird prefers seeds, shoots, tubers berries, insects and their larvae, grubs and tiny mollusces and feeds amongst humus on the forest floor (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). Breeding: The breeding season is April to June though it is earlier at lower elevation. The nest is a rough scrape in the ground sparsely lined with grass to a deeper cup, well padded with grass. The nest is generally placed in dense ringle or scrub undergrowth in a forest. About 3-5 eggs are laid which white, glossy and with a fine texture (Madge and McGowan 2002). Threats: Habitat loss and fragmentation and degradation of primary forest is a major threat.

14

© Daniel Cole

15

3. Study area Intensive studies were conducted in seven sites of Setikhola valley in Annapurna Conservation Area. They were (1) Khumai forest, (2) Thulokhobang, (3) Pipar, (4) Kalki forest, (5) Nhirgu-Pamche Kharka, (6) Dhije and (7) Khuine-Namsung. These areas lie in the Lwang Sector of Annapurna Conservation Area. The first five lie west from Seti River and the last two lie in the east. The Annapurna Conservation Area is managed by the National Trust for Nature Conservation under the legislative Act of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and its Regulations. This Conservation Area has been described as the most geographically and culturally diverse conservation area in the world (UNEP 1995).

Figure 1: Pipar and Santel Forests Showing Intensive Study Sites

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3.1 Annapurna Conservation Area Background History Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) was gazetted in 1992 as a protected area under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 and the KMTNC - King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (now the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) was given the authority to manage the designated Conservation Area (KMTNC 1997). Being the largest protected area of Nepal, the ACA encompasses 7629 km2. Prior to official declaring the protected area, ACA Project was implemented in Ghandruk Village Development Committee (VDC) with an area of 200 km2 in 1986; and was expanded to 16 VDCs in 1990 with an area of 1500 km2. Physical Attributes ACA is located in the north central Nepal covering the whole of Mustang District and some parts of other four districts namely Kaski, Lamjung, Myagdi and Manang. It lies between 28º15' - 28º50' latitudes and 83º34' - 84º25' longitudes. The altitude ranges from 1000 to over 8000 meters above sea level within a horizontal distance of less than 35km (Gurung 2003). It is bounded by the Marsyangdi valley in the east, the Kali Gandaki River in the west, the dry alpine desert of Tibet (China) in the north and the valleys and foothills of Pokhara in the south. The main mountains are Annapurna peaks, Nilgiri south, Nilgiri north, Tilicho peak, Himchuli, Machhapuchhre, Gangapurna, Lamjung Himal and Tukuche peak. Kaligandaki and Marsyangdi are two major river systems and Modikhola, Setikhola and Madikhola are other rivers which drain ACA. Ecological Attributes The Annapurna region provides sub-tropical to arctic climate. The climate varies with altitude and aspect. There is a 6ºC drop in temperature for every 1,000 m rise in elevation. The average daily temperature decreases between the months of December and February and reaches a maximum between May and July. The seasonal climate is dominated by the southerly monsoon, which occurs between June and September. The southern Annapurna region, with 3,000mm of annual rainfall, has the highest precipitation in the country. The northern Annapurna receives 25-500 mm of precipitation annually. The rainfall type is mainly related to aspect, altitude, and the presence of a rain shadow effect.

17

Annapurna Conservation Area supports a wide range of biodiversity which is nationally and globally important. Due to the wide range of climatic conditions and altitude, ACA supports 22 different forest types with 1233 plant species (BCDP 1994). At the lowest levels there are subtropical broadleaved forests of Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Pinus roxburghii and Alnus nepalensis. Higher up at the altitude of 1500-3000m these are replaced by mixed broadleaved temperate forests of Quercus and Rhododendron species; and coniferous forests of Abies spectabilis, Pinus wallichiana and Tsuga dumosa. Betula utilis, Pinus wallichina and Juniper species are lie in the sub alpine zone (3000-4000m); and Rhododendron and Juniper scrub grow in the alpine zone above 4000m (Inskipp and Inskipp 2001). The area to the north to the Himalayas, there are deserts, small scattered bushes and Juniper forests. A total of 101 species of mammals, 32 species of reptiles and 21 species of amphibians have been recorded so far from the area (KMTNC 1997). The Conservation Area harbours Endangered species including Asiatic Wild Dog Cuon alpinus, Red Panda Ailurus fulgens, Particolored Flying Squirrel Hylopetes alboniger, Tibetan Antelope Pantholops hodgsonii, Snow Leopard Uncia uncia; Vulnerable species Irrawaddy Squirrel Callosciurus pygerythrus, Serow Capricornis sumatraensis, Himalayan Tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, Malayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyuran, Smooth-Coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis, Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa, Argali Ovis ammon and Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata (Inskipp and Inskipp 2001, IUCN 2007). A total of 486 species of birds has been recorded including 9 globally threatened species (Baral and Inskipp 2005, IUCN 2007). The reserve contains critically endangered Whiterumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis and Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus; Endangered Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnoptrus, and Vulnerable Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichi, Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca, Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni, Pallas's Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus and Wood Snipe Gallinago nemoricola. Seven near threatened species occur, notably Satyr Tragopan and Yellow-rumped Honeyguide Indicator xanthonotus that are both residents. Administrative Division The area has been divided into seven units for administrative and development purposes. Of these seven units, Lomanthang occupies nearly one third (33.7 percent) of the ACA

18

followed by Manang (25.1 percent) and Jomsom (13.0 percent), whereas Bhujung is the smallest unit (5%). Conservation Area management Committees (CAMCs) has been formed in all the 57 VDCs. Under the umbrella of CAMC, other sub committees are constituted and mobilized as per the need. SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total

Unit Ghandruk Lwang Sikles Bhujung Manang Jomsom Lomanthang

District Kaski, Myagdi Kaski Kaski Lamjung Manang Mustang Mustang

Area (km2) 807.8 503.4 458.7 382.4 1914.7 994.5 2567.6 7629.0

Proportion of ACA 10.6 6.6 6.0 5.0 25.1 13.0 33.7 100.0

No of CAMCs 6 7 7 8 13 9 7 57

Anthropological Attributes According to the 2001 population census, ACA provides home to nearly ninety thousand people from 18680 households. The household size of the ACA ranges from a minimum of 4.3 in Ghandruk to a maximum of 5.3 in Manang with 4.7 average. Major ethnic groups of the ACA are Gurung, Thakali, Bhotia, Ethnic Tibetan, Magar, Brahmin, Kshetri, Kami, Damai and Sarki. The former five groups belong to TibetoBurmese by race and dominate the ethnography of the region. The dominant ethnic group of the ACA is the Gurungs, followed by others and Brahmin/Chetri. Gurung caste group dominates in all the UCOs except in Lwang which is dominated by other caste groups.

Photo: Machhapuchhare from Santel Forest

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3.2 Intensive Studies Areas Intensive studies were conducted in the eight sites of Setikhola valley which lie in the Lawang Sector of the Annapurna Consrvation Area. 3.2.1

Khumai Forest

Khumai is a hill at 3260m altitude, 3.5 km North West of Mirsa village in the upper Sitikhola valley. It is located at 26°23’29”N latitudes and 83°56’06”E longitudes. I carried out the studies on the ridge top and low gradient forest on the eastern side of the ridge. Trail walks were made only on the ridges. This area contains some Kharkas (goth areas) and forests like Pipar area. The notable vegetations are Rhododendron arboreum, R. barbatum, R. campanulatum, Betula alnoides and B. utilis.

Khumai forest seems

unhealthy in comparison than that of Pipar forest. We found 10-15 percentage of trees had died. 3.2.2

Thulokhobang Forest

The Thulokhobang forests lie in the 2200-2500m altitudes. This area is located at 28°23’37”N latitudes and 83°58’02” E longitudes. This area dissects mixed broadleaved forest and Rhododendron forests. Rhododendron forests start up from here. The main species found in the mixed broad leaved forests are Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Lithocarpus elegans, Castanopsis tribuloides, Alnus nepalensis, Quercus and Macaranga species. 3.2.3

Pipar

Pipar is a 3300m hill west of the Upper Setikhola valley south from Machhapuchhare peak, 24km north from Pokhara city. It is located at 28°24’44”N latitudes and 83°57’34”E longitudes. I carried out the studies on the eastern facing slopes of the Pipar area generally known as Pipar Bowl and western slopes known as Pipar kharka. Pipar Bowl is mainly covered with Rhododendron forests which consist of Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus semecarpifolia, Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Acer campbelli, A. pectinatum, Sorbus cospidata and Juniperus. Rhododendron barbatum and R. campanulatum are found in the upper areas.

The shrub layer mainly comprises

Arundinaria species which form large stands. The uphill ridges are characterized by scrubs and tussock grasslands. 3.2.4

Kalki Forest

Kalki forest is located at 28°26’07”N Latitudes and 83°57’56”E Longitudes, at 3300m altitude 2.5Km north from Pipar Bowl. We reached there just after crossing the Kalki danda. The easterly facing terrain is undulating terrain and there is a small area of flat 20

land. After crossing the Kalki hill there was no route/ trail to go ahead, so we were escorted by local guides pushing and cutting through the bushes. The main vegetation consists of Rhododendron barbatum, R. campanulatum, Betula utilis, and Viburnum spp. The Jarbutta nigalo (Arundinaria) is sparsely distributed. There is very little presence or probably absent of Berberis species which was a major species of undergrowth in PiparBowl. 3.2.5 Nhirgu Nirgu is located at 28°26’49”N latitudes and 83°58’18”E longitudes at 3350m altitude and 1.6 km further north from Kalki forest. To reach Nhirgu from Kalki it takes about 4 hours walk pushing and cutting through the bushes in the rolling terrain. In the north there is Dangdunge khola and Tinchuli khola in the south. After crossing the Tinchuli khola, there is a steep slope and comes flat land which is densely covered by bamboo stands.

Between Dangdunge and Tinchuli, Nirgu-Pamche khola temporarily runs

towards Dangdunge khola. Dangdunge and Tinchuli run towards east and make Sadhu khola. The vegetations comprise Rhododendron barbatum, R. campanulatum, Betula utilis, Viburnum spp, Tsuga dumosa. Jarbutta nigalo (Arundinaria spp) is very densely distributed. 3.2.6

Dhije

Dhije Kharka lies at 2035m altitude in the lower altitudes of Santel forest area. This area is located at 28°24’06”N latitudes and 83°59’46”E longitudes. The area consists mainly of mixed broadleaved forest. Notable species are Alnus nepalensis, Rhododendron Arboreum, Quercus, Michelia, viburnum and Berbersi species. 3.2.7

Khuine and Namsung

Khuine and Namsung area are the higher altitudes of Santel forest which lies east from the Seti River. Kuhine is located at 28°23’58”N latitude and 84°01’27”E longitude at 3070m altitude. Namsung is located further higher at 3250m at 28°23’26”N latitudes and 84°01’11”E longitudes. The area is covered by temperate broadleaved forests. The notable tree species in these areas are Alnus nepalensis, Daphniphyllum himalense, Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, R. barbatum, Quercus semicarpifolia, Q. lamellosa, Betula alnoides, B. utilis, Acer campbelli, A. pectinatum, Sorbus cospidata, Lyonia ovalifolia cotoneaster spp and the shrub layer includes Berberis asiatica, Viburnum grandiflorum and Arundinaria species.

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4. Methods All surveys were carried out in the altitudinal range 1600m to 3200m in winter (19 February -5 March) and 2000m to 4000m in spring (28 April– 21 May) in Setikhola Valley of Annapurna Conservation Area. All the statistical tests were conducted using Excel and SPSS 11.5 and the analysis where confidence interval applies calculations were done at 95% confidence limit. 4.1 Relative Abundance WINTER SURVEY There were routes from Karuwa to Pipar and Karuwa to Dhije along the altitudinal gradient. Trail walks were made in these routes. Furthermore, some trails were temporarily created to walk in the forests as possible as along the contour on the right and left of the existing trails. Altogether 9027m distance was walked of which existing trails were 6060m and newly created trail was 2967m. The walks were replicated three times. Pheasants and partridges were counted along the trails. Table 2: Winter Trails of the Study Area (* Denotes newly created trails)

SN Trail Description

Length (meter)

1

Sano Khabang- Bhajaudi

Elevations Vegetations Lower Higher 878 (450+428*) 1673 1858 Mixed forest

2

Sano Khabang- Seti Khola

912 (443+469*) 1748

3

Sano Khabang-thulo Khabang 907

4

Thulo Khabang Seti khola

5

2045

Mixed forest

1684

2198

Mixed forest

1800*

2280

2392

Mixed forest

Thulo Khabang -Bhedi goth

896

2327

2828

Rhododendron forest

6

Bhedigoth-Bhajaudi Khola

705

2750

2820

Rhododendron forest

7

Bhaisikharka area

270*

2620

2723

Rhododendron forest

8

Bhedi goth -pipar kharka

1200

2820

3227

Rhododendron forest

9

Pipar pond-pipar kharka

593

3252

3314

Open area

10

Dhije Area

866

2035

2173

Mixed forest

Encounter rate or detection rate of pheasants and partridges were calculated by summing up the total number of individual counted per unit effort in the trail walk. This was obtained using the formula, Encounter Rate = n/L, where n = number of birds sighted and L= Distance walked.

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Kalij Pheasant and Hill Partridge were taken into account in all the trails. Satyr Tragopan was not taken into account in the Sanokhobang- Bhajaudi trail as this was below 2000m. Koklass and Himalayan Monal were taken into account from two trails only i.e. Bhedigoth Pipar kharka and Pipar pond- Pipar Kharka trails. Other trails were considered unsuitable for these two species due to lower altitudinal range. As Rufous throated Partridge was found only at lower altitudes, only four trails of lower altitudes were taken into account for this species. SPRING SURVEY Dawn call counts were conducted using methods developed by Gaston (1980). Satyr Tragopan, Koklass Pheasant and Hill Partridge were counted using this method. Call counts were carried out at previously established listening stations at Pipar Bowl (6 stations), Thulokhobang (3) and Santel forests (3 Dhije, 4 Khuine and 3 Namsung). Further three new call count stations at Khumai, two at Kalki forest and four at Nhirgu were established. The audible range of the calls of pheasants was estimated 300m from listening stations. The protocol for data collection was the same as that used in many studies on Himalayan pheasant species (e.g Gaston and Singh 1980, Yonzon 1987, Garson 1983, Picozzi 1984, Duke 1990, Howman and Garson 1993, Khaling et al. 1998). Counts were made of calling birds at dawn from which a minimum number of calling birds can be calculated. The assumption is that the male produces characteristics loud calls at dawn during their breeding season, as a display mechanism to defend their territory or to attract females for mating (Ramesh 2003). The field protocol involves positioning observers at pre-determined points (point count stations or listening stations) where the apparent position of a calling individual can be plotted on a data recording sheet. Calls of the Galliformes species present in the study area are distinctive.

Duplicate counts between adjacent observation points were

eliminated by comparison of these recording sheets and noting time and direction of calling individuals. The counts were translated into an abundance index expressed as the number of calling males per listing stations or point. An estimate of density was also derived from the data. It was assumed that each calling male is likely to be associated with one female bird, and hence, the density estimate was converted for the breeding pair. 23

After conducting dawn call counts every morning, trail walks were made to see other Gallifromes- Himalayan Monal, Blood Pheasant and Snow Partridge. Altogether we walked 6893m distance in spring for trail walks. The walks and dawn counts were replicated three times whereas the dawn counts at lower altitudes at Dhije and Thulokhobang were replicated only two times. Mean encounter rate of the trail counts was calculated as in winter we did. Analytical Method The descriptive analysis was done to represent the collected call count/trail count data for further interpretation. Since the sampling plots were repeated so that pooled mean, standard deviation and variance were preferred to represent the overall status of abundance of the Galliformes species in the study areas. The following formula was used to calculate the pooled mean and variance.

x=

n1 x1 + n2 x 2 + n3 x3 + ........................ + n N x N n1 + n 2 + n3 + ........................ + n N − N

Where, n =Number of repeated measures in each station

x = Mean of each plot

σ =

σ2 =

Σ( x − x ) N

2

( n1 − 1)σ 12 + ( n2 − 1)σ 22 + ..... + ( n N − 1)σ N2 n1 + n2 + .... + n N − N

ER= x ±

σ N

x = pooled mean or mean of the mean

σ = Standard deviation

σ 2 =Variance ER=Detection rate at 95% confidence limit

* 1.96

We obtained mean value per station representing the number of callers heard from eight study sites every three consecutive mornings. These data were subjected to one way ANOVA plus LSD to test for differences in the number of birds of either species in different sites. One way ANOVA was also performed to see whether the numbers of Satyr Tragopan and Koklass Pheasants were changed over seven successive surveys at Pipar since 1979. 4.2 Habitat use

Broad details on vegetation characteristics such as what were the vegetation types, canopy cover, tree cover, shrub cover and herb cover, litter, rock, moss and bare ground

24

percentage, elevation range, aspect, slope of the area were obtained in the bird calling sites in the spring and trail walking areas in the winter. Data were collected on 10m*10m for trees, 5*5 for plot for shrubs and 1*1 for herbaceous species. Data were collected from 56 plots in winter and 28 plots in spring. Tree canopy coverage, shrub coverage, and ground coverage (herbaceous plants, leaf litter, rock, moss and bare ground) were estimated in percentage. The numbers of trees and shrubs were counted in the plots. Euclidean distance model was created by using SPSS-NMDS (Non Metric Multidimentional Scaling) and bivariate correlation coefficients were calculated to know the relationship among different habitat variables such as canopy cover, shrub cover, tree number, shrub number, ground coverage, elevation and slope. 4.3 Spatial Analysis and Habitat Modeling

Digital Topographic maps (1:50,000 scale) published by the Survey Department of Nepal were used to delineate transects and plots as well as for habitat preference modeling. The Landsat Image was projected on the projection system Modified UTM, Spheroid Everest 1830, central meridian 84°East, false easting 500000 meter and scale factor 0.9999. The Normalized Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) was derived from the image. Based upon NDVI value, the land cover is classified as following 1. Snow cover,

4. Rhododendron and Scrub

2. Barren area

5. Mixed Broadleaved Forest

3. Open forest

6. Dense Forest

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with grid size 100x100m was created by interpolation of contours. Aspect, slope and hillshade were derived from DEM. The habitat variables considered for modeling were landcover, elevation, aspect and slope (Table 3). According to habitat preferences of each species and on the basis of call count data as well as researcher’s expertise, the values were assigned for each class of land cover, slope, aspect and elevation (Table 4). The values were given from 0 (least preferred) to 10 (most preferred). By using raster calculator land cover, slope, aspect and elevation classes were multiplied. Multiplying the layers we got values 0 to 10000. The higher the value the more was the preference of species for the area. Arc/Info was used to create DEM. Erdas Imagine was used to derive NDVI. ArcGIS and ArcView were used to further analysis and display. DNR Garmin was used to create shapefile from GPS data.

25

Table 3: Variable Considered for Habitat Suitability Modeling

SN

Primary Variable

1

Aspect

2

Land Cover

Dummy Variable

Measurement Unit

North East (23-68), East (68-112), South East (113-157), South (158202), South West (203-247), West (248-292), North West (293-337), North (0-22, 338-360) Snow cover, Barren, Open forest, Scrub, Rhododendron forest, Mixed broadleaf forest, Dense forest

Degree (0-360)

Slope

Degree (0-90)

4

NDVI

Index (-1 to +1)

5

Elevation

Meter (1040-7520)

3

Table 4: The Range and Type of Habitat Variables Incorporated in the Habitat Suitability Model

Himalayan Monal

Hill Partridge

Koklass Pheasant

Satyr Tragopan

Species

Assigned Value 10

Slope

Elevation

Aspect

Land Cover

20-40

3000-3500

NE, E

8 6 4

10-20 00-10 40-50

SE S -

2

50-60

2500-3000 2000-2500 3500-4000 -

Scrub and Rhododendron Forest Open forest Mixed Broadleaf forest Dense Forest

0 10

60-90 20-40

3000-3500

8 6 4 2

0-10 10-20 40-50 50-60

2500-3000 -

0 10

60-90 20-40

2500-3000

8 6 4 2

10-20 00-10 40-50 50-60

3000-3500 2000-2500 1500-200 -

0 10 8

60-90 -

6 4 2 0

-

3500-4000 3000-3500 4000-4500 -

N,SW, W, NW NE, E SE S N,SW, W, NW NE, E SE S N,SW, W, NW SW EWS -

Snow, Barren Scrub and Rhododendron Forest Open forest Mixed Broadleaf forest Dense Forest Snow, Barren Scrub and Rhododendron Forest Open forest Mixed Broadleaf forest Dense Forest Snow, Barren Barren Open forest -

26

Figure 2: Flow Chart of the GIS Works

Landsat Image

Topographic Map

DEM

Slope

Aspect

NDVI

Elevation

Land Cover

Values assigned according to field data and expertise (Table 4)

Output Map

Figure 3: Equipment Used

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5. Results 5.1 Relative Abundance 5.1.1

Winter Survey

Seven Galliformes species were observed during the winter survey; they were Rufousthroated partridge (1 sighting), Hill Partridge (11 sightings), Kalij Pheasant (9 sightings), Satyr Tragopan (4 sightings), Koklass Pheasant (1 sighting), Blood pheasant (fecal materials only) and Himalayan Monal (7 sightings). The mean encounter rate obtained for each species is given in the Table 5.

Himalayan Monal

Koklass Pheasant

R Throated Partridge

Satyr Tragopan

Hill Partridge

Kalij Pheasant

Altitude in Meter

Length km

Trail

Table 5: Mean (±SD) Encounter Rate of Different Species at Setikhola Valley During Winter of 2008

Sano KhoBhajaudi Sano KhoSeti Khola Sano Khothulo Khobang Dhije Area

0.878 1673- 1.52±1.74 1858 0.76±1.32 0.76±1.32 0.912 1748- 0.73±0.63 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 1.83±1.67 2045 0.907 1684- 0.37±0.64 0.37±0.64 2198 0.00±0.00 2.57±2.77 0.866 2035- 0.77±1.33 0.38±0.67 2173 0.00±0.00 1.15±2.00 Thulo Kho- 1.800 2280- 0.19±0.32 0.00±0.00 Seti khola 0.56±0.96 2392 Thulo Kho - 0.896 2327- 0.00±0.00 0.74±0.64 Bhedi goth 0.74±1.29 2828 Bhasikharka 0.270 2620- 0.00±0.00 1.23±2.14 area 0.00±0.00 2723 Bhedigoth- 0.705 2750- 0.00±0.00 0.47±0.82 Bhajaudi 0.47±0.82 2820 Bhedi goth - 1.200 2820- 0.00±0.00 0.56±0.96 0.00±0.00 pipar 3227 1.11±0.48 kharka 0.00±0.00 Pipar pond- 0.593 3252- 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 1.12±1.95 pipar 3314 12.37±2.58 kharka 0.00±0.00 Pooled Mean ± SD 0.36±0.76 0.81±1.39 0.42±0.91 0.19±0.66 0.56±1.37 6.74±1.85

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Rufous-throated Partridge: We saw two birds at altitude of 1673m when we walked

towards Bhajaudikhola from Sanokhobang on 21 February. We heard calls but did not observe this bird again in this trip. The encounter rate was 2.30 (n=2, L= 0.866) individual per kilometer excluding the trails where the birds were not observed at all. It was 0.56 (n=2, L= 3.563) birds per kilometer including all four trails that were considered for this species. Mean encounter rate obtained for the Rufous-throated Partridge was 0.76 (±1.32 SD) birds per kilometer with a pooled mean of 0.19 (±0.66 SD, n=4). Hill Partridge: 24 individuals were observed during the trail walks. The calls of the

birds were heard time to time but observers did not take account of call counts. The encounter rate was 3.45 (n=24, L= 6.964) individual per kilometer excluding the trails where the birds were not observed at all. It was 2.66 (n=24, L= 9.027) birds per kilometer including 10 trails. Mean encounter rate obtained for the Hill Partridge ranged between 0.47 (±0.82 SD) and 2.572 (±2.77 SD) birds per kilometer in different trails with a pooled mean of 0.8 (±1.39 SD, n=10). Kalij Pheasant: We observed 11 individuals (9 male and 2 female) during the trail walk

observations. A pair was seen at Sanokhobang area (1854m) on 21st February and next pair was seen at Dhije area at 2035m on 3rd March. A Kalij was observed same time and place where we observed a pair of Rufous-throated partridge. The encounter rate was 2.051 (n=11, L= 5.363) individual per kilometer excluding the trails where the birds were not observed at all. It was 1.21 (n=11, L= 9.027) birds per kilometer including 10 trails. The mean encounter rate obtained for the Kalij Pheasant ranged between 0.19 (±0.32 SD) and 1.52 (±1.74 SD) birds per kilometer in different trails with a pooled mean of 0.36 (±0.76 SD, n=10). Satyr Tragopan: Eight birds were observed in seven sightings during the trail walks.

We observed a male on the way of Karuwa to Pipar at 2623m on 25 February. There was a Goth where people of Karuwa take buffaloes in summer. This area is meeting place of rhododendron and mixed broadleaved forest. A pair was seen at 2850m on 28th February in pure rhododendron forest in eastern aspect. The birds were feeding / playing, escaped flying downward while they felt disturb. A female was seen at 2799m on 26th February in pure rhododendron forest in western aspect. It was seen in a short flight while it

29

escaped from our disturbance. A male was observed at Santel forest (Dhije area) at 2078m altitude on 4th March. We found fecal materials of this species (2084m, 2649m, 2789m, 2820m) and feathers (2115m) during our trail walk. We saw some footprints above Pipar Bowl at 3497m. Two tragopans were heard at Pipar Bowl (3100-3200m) on 29th February and two were at Dhije (2100-2200m) on 3rd March. The encounter rate was 1.65 (n = 8, L = 4.844) individual per kilometer excluding the trails where the birds were not observed at all. It was 0.98 (n=8, L=8.149) birds per kilometer including all the nine trails. The mean encounter rate obtained for the Satyr Tragopan ranged between 0.37 (±0.64 SD) and 1.23 (±2.14 SD) birds per kilometer in different trails with a pooled mean of 0.42 (±0.91 SD, n=9). Koklass Pheasant: Two Koklass Pheasants were observed at 3289m altitude at western

slope of Pipar Kharka in the edge of rhododendron forest and grassland on 29th February. These birds escaped after a few seconds observation and we confirmed a male. We didn’t able to confirm that it was a pair of both male and female or not. Five Koklass Pheasants were heard at dawn on 29th February at Pipar Bowl. The encounter rate was 3.37 (n=2, L= 0.593) individual per kilometer excluding the trails where the birds were not observed at all. It was 1.12 (n=2, L= 1.793) birds per kilometer including all two trails that were considered for this species. Mean encounter rate obtained for the Koklass Pheasant was 1.12 (±1.95 SD) birds per kilometer with a pooled mean of 0.56 (±1.37 SD, n=2). Himalayan Monal: Himalayan Monals were observed mainly at Pipar kharka area. A

dead male was seen at altitude of 3012m at the cliff area. That was absent next day, probably vultures or other prey bird species took it away. Altogether 26 individuals were observed in 6 sightings. Two flocks of 4 (2♂2♀) and 3 (2♂1♀) were seen at Pipar Kharka at altitude of 3252 and 3289m altitudes on 29th February morning. Two flocks of 6 (4♂2♀) and 3 (1♂2♀) were observed on the same area in the next visit of same day. Two flocks of 9 (5♂4♀) and 6 (2♂4♀) were observed on the same places on 1st March morning. The habitat type was westerly faced open grassland and cliff area. The encounter rate was 14.50 (n=26, L= 1.793) individual per kilometer. Mean encounter rate obtained for the Himalayan Monal ranged between 1.11 (±0.48) and 12.37 (±2.58 SD) birds per kilometer in different trails with a pooled mean of 6.74 (±1.8 SD, n=2). 30

5.1.2

Spring Survey

Calls of the Satyr Tragopan, Koklass Pheasant and Hill Partridge were heard at dawn. Blood Pheasant, Himalayan Monal and Snow Partridge were observed during the trail walk. Table 6 shows the mean number of individuals per listening stations in different sites and Table 7 shows the mean encounter rate of the species during the trail walk in different trails. Satyr Tragopan: Calls of the Satyr Tragopan were heard from the all sites except Dhije.

The mean number of birds heard from each listening stations ranged between 0.50 (±0.41 SE) and 5.25 (±1.08 SE) with a pooled mean of 3.64 (±0.93 SE, n=28). The number of calling birds was higher in Khuine followed by Kalki, Nhirgu, Pipar, Khumai and Namsung. The bird density was estimated 1.31-2.23 males per square kilometer at Thulokhobang, 11.19-13.18 at Namsung, 11.84-14.10 at Khumai, 13.28-15.01 at Pipar, 14.35-16.31 at Nhirgu, 16.89-18.49 at kalki and 17.51-19.63 at Khuine. A male and a female Satyr Tragopan were sighted on 4th May near a stream under a rhododendron tree during call count time at Pipar. A male was seen at Khuine-Namsung area on a Juniperus tree during call count time on 19th May. The mean number of Satyr Tragopan per listening station heard from different sites differ significantly (One Way ANOVA, P-value 0.006). There is significant difference between Khumai and Kalki, Khumai and Khuine, Pipar and Namsung, Kalki and Namsung, Nhirgu and Khuine, and Khuine and Namsung (LSD test, P