Improving the Power Conversion Efficiency of Carbon Quantum Dot

nanomaterials Communication

Improving the Power Conversion Efficiency of Carbon Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells by Growing the Dots on a TiO2 Photoanode In Situ Quanxin Zhang 1 , Geping Zhang 2 , Xiaofeng Sun 1 , Keyang Yin 1 and Hongguang Li 1, * 1

2

*

State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication & Laboratory of Clean Energy Chemistry and Materials, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; [email protected] (Q.Z.); [email protected] (X.S.); [email protected] (K.Y.) Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry & Key Laboratory of Special Aggregated Materials, Shandong University, Ministry of Education, Jinan 250100, China; [email protected] Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-931-496-8829

Academic Editor: Hao-chung Kuo Received: 1 April 2017; Accepted: 24 May 2017; Published: 31 May 2017

Abstract: Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are highly promising since they can potentially solve global energy issues. The development of new photosensitizers is the key to fully realizing perspectives proposed to DSSCs. Being cheap and nontoxic, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have emerged as attractive candidates for this purpose. However, current methodologies to build up CQD-sensitized solar cells (CQDSCs) result in an imperfect apparatus with extremely low power conversion efficiencies (PCEs). Herein, we present a simple strategy of growing carbon quantum dots (CQDs) onto TiO2 surfaces in situ. The CQDs/TiO2 hybridized photoanode was then used to construct solar cell with an improved PCE of 0.87%, which is higher than all of the reported CQDSCs adopting the simple post-adsorption method. This result indicates that an in situ growing strategy has great advantages in terms of optimizing the performance of CQDSCs. In addition, we have also found that the mechanisms dominating the performance of CQDSCs are different from those behind the solar cells using inorganic semiconductor quantum dots (ISQDs) as the photosensitizers, which re-confirms the conclusion that the characteristics of CQDs differ from those of ISQDs. Keywords: carbon quantum dot; solar cell; sensitized; hydrothermal; power conversion efficiency

1. Introduction The worldwide energy crisis evokes an unprecedented enthusiasm for the development of an apparatus for efficient light-to-electricity conversion. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), together with organic photovoltaics (OPVs), are generally considered two types of third-generation energy-harvesting devices. There is an enthusiasm for engineering the electrolytes, i.e., from non-aqueous systems to aqueous ones [1–4]. As another key component in DSSCs, the photosensitizer is responsible for light absorption and the subsequent electron-transfer reactions, and its quality thus determines the power conversion efficiency (PCE). Inorganic semiconductor quantum dots (ISQDs), such as CdS, CdSe, and PbS, represent an important class of photosensitizers. Compared to DSSCs employing Ru–polypyridine complexes or low-molecular-weight organic dyes as photosensitizers, ISQD-sensitized solar cells (ISQDSCs) are expected to have low costs and relatively high PCE [5,6]. A big disadvantage of ISQDSCs, however, is their intrinsic toxicity caused by the presence of heavy metal elements in ISQDs. Developing new types of quantum dots that are environmentally benign is necessary for further realizing the potential of this new branch of DSSCs. In recent years, carbon quantum dots (CQDs), which are photoluminescent (PL) carbon nanomaterials that have spherical shapes and sizes below 10 nm, have received extensive attention Nanomaterials 2017, 7, 130; doi:10.3390/nano7060130

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Nanomaterials 2017, 7, 130

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due to their easy preparation and tunable PL properties [7]. More importantly, CQDs are nontoxic for both environment and biological systems, which is advantageous over ISQDs. Based on these virtues, CQDs exhibit great potential applications in various fields and have been used in bioimaging [8], ion detection [9,10], PL inks [11–13], and coatings for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) [14]. Attempts to integrate CQDs in photovoltaics have also been made [15–17]. Specifically in DSSCs, CQDs have been used as co-sensitizers together with ISQDs [18] or organic dyes [19], and the CQD-based solar cells were found to show superior performances. Applying CQDs as the sole photosensitizer in DSSCs, compared to using CQDs as an additive in mixed photosensitizers, is more interesting but also more challenging. In a seminal work, Mirtchev et al. integrated TiO2 photoanode with CQDs obtained from acid dehydration of γ-butyrolactone, and a PCE of 0.13% was obtained [20]. Zhang et al. also reported the preparation of DSSCs using N-doped CQDs as photosensitizers, and the PCE was found to be the same as that reported by Mirtchev et al. (i.e., 0.13%) [21]. Briscoe et al. used three different types of biomass-derived CQDs as photosensitizers, which were hybridized with ZnO as photoanodes. However, the highest PCE of the solar cells is even lower (0.077%) [22]. Recently, Margraf et al. reported CQD-based DSSCs with a PCE of 0.24% [23]. They found that the pH value of the aqueous solution where CQDs and TiO2 photoanodes were integrated plays an important role in governing the performance of the solar cell, while extending the light absorption of CQDs towards longer wavelengths does not help. Wang et al. also prepared CQD-based DSSCs by integrating CQDs and TiO2 photoanodes in acetone. A PCE of 0.79% was obtained [24]. There are also research interests on edge-bound nanometer-size graphene pieces with lateral dimensions less than 100 nm termed graphene quantum dots (GQDs), which can be viewed as close relatives of CQDs. In this case, two works using GODs as photosensitizers in DSSCs have been presented. Yan et al. synthesized GQDs from small organic molecules, and integrated them with TiO2 photoanodes in a toluene/ethanol mixture [25]. The solar cell exhibits a considerable open-circuit voltage (V OC , 0.48 V) and fill factor (FF, 0.58). However, it suffers from low short-circuit current density (JSC , 0.2 mA/cm−2 ), which gives a final PCE of ~0.06%. Ji et al. prepared GQDs on TiO2 via a Scholl reaction from a preadsorbed polyphenylene precursor functionalized with surface anchoring groups, and a PCE of 0.87% was obtained [26], which is slightly higher compared to that reported for the solar cells sensitized by CQDs. It is clear that research on CQD-sensitized solar cells (CQDSCs) is still in its infancy. Although great efforts have been devoted as mentioned above, further improvement of the PCE is necessary. More importantly, the use of acetone in the preparation of the solar cell with the highest PCE reported to date (0.79%) [24] is not environmentally benign and is incompatible with the majority of the CQDs, which are water-soluble. On the other hand, the GQD-sensitized solar cells, though exhibiting a slightly higher PCE (0.87%) [26] than that of CQDSCs, suffer from multi-step, time-consuming synthesis of the photosensitizers, which will significantly raise the costs of resulting DSSCs. One big challenge causing the unsatisfactory PCE of CQDSCs is the low affinity between TiO2 (or ZnO) and CQDs. In previous studies, the CQDs were always synthesized first, followed by integration with the photoanode by post-adsorption [20,22–26] or hydrothermal treatment [21] in bulk solutions. This simple treatment leads to a poor adsorption of the CQDs onto the TiO2 -coated photoanode. Herein, we provide a new engineering method for a CQD-based photoanode, where CQDs were grown in situ onto the TiO2 surface. We will show that, by using this strategy, the surface coverage of TiO2 by CQDs can be significantly improved, leading to an impressive performance of the solar cell. 2. Results and Discussion For the in situ growth of CQDs, the TiO2 -coated fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass was vertically immersed in a 10 mL aqueous solution containing citric acid (CA, 0.5 mol·L−1 ) and ethanediamine (EDA, 0.5 mol·L−1 ). The system was then sealed in an autoclave and pyrolized at 180 ◦ C for 24 h. After that, the as-prepared CQDs/TiO2 was rinsed with deionized water thoroughly and


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Nanomaterials 130 the as-prepared CQDs/TiO2 was rinsed with deionized water thoroughly 3and of 9 °C for 24 h. 2017, After7, that, dried in air. Here, CA and EDA were selected as the precursors for CQD production because the synthetic procedures of CQDs from this combination have been well-established [13]. The dried in air. Here, CA and EDA were selected as the precursors for CQD production because the CQDs/TiO2 hybridized photoanode (abbreviated to CQDs/TiO2 hereafter) appears as a dark-brown synthetic procedures of CQDs from this combination have been well-established [13]. The CQDs/TiO2 film (inset of Figure 1A), which is in sharp contrast to the control experiment where the TiO2 hybridized photoanode (abbreviated to CQDs/TiO2 hereafter) appears as a dark-brown film (inset of photoanodes were found to be only slightly colored if physical adsorption was applied. This Figure 1A), which is in sharp contrast to the control experiment where the TiO2 photoanodes were indicates that, by adopting the in situ growth method, the amount of CQDs anchored on the found to be only slightly colored if physical adsorption was applied. This indicates that, by adopting photoanode has been significantly improved. From the UV-vis-NIR absorption spectra, it can be the in situ growth method, the amount of CQDs anchored on the photoanode has been significantly seen that CQDs/TiO2 exhibits extensive optical absorption throughout the visible and NIR regions, improved. From the UV-vis-NIR absorption spectra, it can be seen that CQDs/TiO2 exhibits extensive while the absorptions of CQDs alone are mainly located in the UV region (Figure 1A). PL spectra optical absorption throughout the visible and NIR regions, while the absorptions of CQDs alone are indicate that, after being integrated onto the TiO2 photoanode, the fluorescence of CQDs is quenched mainly located in the UV region (Figure 1A). PL spectra indicate that, after being integrated onto (Figure 1B). The shift of the absorption towards longer wavelengths and the fluorescence quenching the TiO2 photoanode, the fluorescence of CQDs is quenched (Figure 1B). The shift of the absorption of CQDs on the photoanode indicate a more compact arrangement of the dots in the film state. The towards longer wavelengths and the fluorescence quenching of CQDs on the photoanode indicate lower emission intensity of CQDs on the photoanode compared to those in the bulk solution is also a more compact arrangement of the dots in the film state. The lower emission intensity of CQDs on the indicative of a lower recombination rate of the excitons, which is preferable when using the photoanode compared to those in the bulk solution is also indicative of a lower recombination rate of materials as photosensitizers [27]. the excitons, which is preferable when using the materials as photosensitizers [27].

Figure 1. 1. (A) (A) UV-vis-NIR UV-vis-NIR absorption absorption of of as-prepared as-prepared carbon carbon quantum quantum dots dots (CQDs) (CQDs) in in water water and and Figure CQDs/TiO2 on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass. Insets are photos of the CQDs aqueous solution CQDs/TiO2 on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass. Insets are photos of the CQDs aqueous solution and CQDs/TiO2 -coated photoanode; (B) PL spectra of CQDs in water and CQDs/TiO2 on FTO glass, and CQDs/TiO2-coated photoanode. (B) PL spectra of CQDs in water and CQDs/TiO2 on FTO glass, excited at 440 nm; (C) FTIR spectra of solid CQDs, TiO - and CQDs/TiO -coated FTO glass; (D) XRD excited at 440 nm. (C) FTIR spectra of solid CQDs, TiO22- and CQDs/TiO22-coated FTO glass. (D) XRD pattern of solid CQDs and CQDs/TiO -coated FTO glass. pattern of solid CQDs and CQDs/TiO22-coated FTO glass.

The changes changes in in the the optical optical properties properties of of CQDs CQDs after after being being integrated integrated with with TiO22 might might also also be be The caused by by the the interactions interactions between between them. them. To To test test this this possibility, possibility, FTIR measurements measurements were were carried carried caused −11assigned out, as as shown shown in Figure 1C. The peak at 1414 cm− assignedto tothe theC–O C–Ostretching stretchingvibration vibration for for CQDs CQDs out,

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shifts to 1440 cm−1 in CQDs/TiO2, which could be caused by the interaction between CQDs and TiO2 [28]. −1 in CQDs/TiO shifts to 1440 cm cm−1 couldinbe caused interaction between and 2 , which Peaks at 1630 and 3400 cm−1, which appear both bare by TiOthe 2 and CQDs/TiO 2, couldCQDs be caused −1 and 3400 cm−1 , which appear in both bare TiO and CQDs/TiO , could TiO [28]. Peaks at 1630 cm 2 2 2 by vibrations of surface adsorbed water. From X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements shown in be caused vibrations of related surface adsorbed diffraction (XRD)38.1°, measurements Figure 1D,bymainly peaks to anatasewater. TiO2 From can beX-ray detected (2θ: 25.1°, 47.9°) in ◦ , 38.1◦ , 47.9◦ ) shown in Figure 1D, mainly to anatase TiO2 can be detected (2θ: 25.1 CQDs/TiO 2. CQDs alone onlypeaks showrelated a broad band centered around 25°, which indicates the low in CQDs/TiO CQDs alone only show a broad band centered around 25◦ , which indicates the low crystallinity of2 .the synthesized CQDs. crystallinity of the synthesized CQDs. The morphologies of the TiO 2-coated photoanode before and after CQDs hybridization have The morphologies of the TiO -coated photoanode after CQDs The hybridization have been 2 been investigated by scanning electron microscopy before (SEM)and observations. TiO2 nanoparticles investigated scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations. TiO2were nanoparticles organized onby FTO glass into a porous structure (Figure 2a). WhenThe CQDs integratedorganized with the on FTO glassphotoanode, into a porous structure 2a).can When CQDs were integrated with the TiO2the -coated TiO 2-coated the presence(Figure of CQDs be confirmed (Figure 2b). Importantly, TiO2 photoanode, the presence of CQDs can be confirmed (Figure 2b). Importantly, the TiO film remains film remains porous after it is hybridized with CQDs without obvious pore blocking, 2 which will porous it is hybridized CQDs in without obvious blocking, which facilitate the facilitateafter the penetration of thewith electrolyte the solar cell. Topore get further details, thewill CQD-sensitized penetration of the electrolyte in the solar cell. To get further details, the CQD-sensitized photoanode photoanode was further checked by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations (Figure was further checked by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations (Figure 2c,d). can be 2c,d). It can be seen that the CQDs grown in situ on TiO2 surfaces have sizes of 2–6 nm, andItmost of seen that the CQDs grown situofon TiO2 aggregation surfaces havehighlights sizes of 2–6 and most distribute them distribute evenly. Theinlack severe thenm, advantage of of thethem in situ growth evenly. The lack of severe aggregation highlights the advantage of the in situ growth method. method.

Figure 2. (a,b) Figure 2. (a,b) SEM SEM images images of of TiO TiO22-coated -coated photoanode photoanode before before and and after after in in situ situ growth growth of of CQDs, CQDs, 2 photoanode. respectively. (c,d) TEM images in different magnifications of the CQDs/TiO respectively. (c,d) TEM images in different magnifications of the CQDs/TiO2 photoanode.

To construct the solar cell, Cu2S on brass was selected as the counter electrode and polysulfide To construct the solar cell, Cu2 S on brass was selected as the counter electrode and polysulfide consisting of 1 mol·L−1−1Na2S and 1 mol·L−1 S−1in aqueous solution was used as the electrolyte. The consisting of 1 mol·L Na2 S and 1 mol·L S in aqueous solution was used as the electrolyte. selection of this cell structure is in favor of comparison with previously reported CdS-sensitized The selection of this cell structure is in favor of comparison with previously reported CdS-sensitized solar cells [29] wherever necessary. An illustration of the cell structure is given in the inset of Figure solar cells [29] wherever necessary. An illustration of the cell structure is given in the inset of Figure 3A. 3A. The IPCE spectrum shown in Figure 3A matches the absorption spectrum of CQDs/TiO2, The IPCE spectrum shown in Figure 3A matches the absorption spectrum of CQDs/TiO2 , indicating indicating that the photocurrent was generated via the photoexcitation of CQDs. From the JV curve, that the photocurrent was generated via the photoexcitation of CQDs. From the JV curve, a JSC of −2, a VOC of 0.43 V, and an FF of 0.31 were obtained, which leads to a PCE of 0.87% a JSC of 6.47 mA·cm 6.47 mA·cm−2 , a V OC of 0.43 V, and an FF of 0.31 were obtained, which leads to a PCE of 0.87% (Figure 3B). To the best of our knowledge, this PCE is the highest reported efficiency for solar cells (Figure 3B). To the best of our knowledge, this PCE is the highest reported efficiency for solar cells sensitized by both CQDs and GQDs (Table S1), which is mainly attributed to the impressively high sensitized by both CQDs and GQDs (Table S1), which is mainly attributed to the impressively high JSC . JSC. As the CQDs were grown in situ, the high JSC could benefit from the improved contact between the CQDs and TiO2. Investigations on parallel-prepared cells indicated that JSC, VOC, and PCE of the


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of 9 in situ, the high JSC could benefit from the improved contact between5 the CQDs and TiO2 . Investigations on parallel-prepared cells indicated that JSC , V OC , and PCE of the cells cells are reproducible variations less than 8%.test To the testlong-term the long-term stability ofsolar the solar it are reproducible with with variations less than 8%. To stability of the cell, cell, it was was stored at room temperature the for dark updays. to 14 No days. No significant decrease both PCE stored at room temperature in theindark upfor to 14 significant decrease of bothof PCE and FF and FFbe could be observed 3C), revealing the good stability of the cell. could observed (Figure (Figure 3C), revealing the good stability of the cell. Nanomaterials 2017, 7, 130grown As the CQDs were

Figure 3. (A) (A,B) IPCE spectra andJVJVcurve curve of the CQDSC, of (A) of shows the Figure 3. IPCE spectra and (B) of the CQDSC. Insetrespectively. of (A) shows Inset the structure the solar cell. (C) Variation of the and PCE of of thethe CQDSC a function of storage (D) EIS results of the structure of the solar cell.FF (C) Variation FF andasPCE of the CQDSC as time. a function of storage time. CdS-sensitized solar and CQDSC.solar The symbols experimental results,are while the solid lines are (D) EIS results of thecell CdS-sensitized cell and are CQDSC. The symbols experimental results, fitted curves based equivalent circuiton developed previously [26]. while the solid lineson arethe fitted curves based the equivalent circuit developed previously [26].

We We noticed noticed that that the the FF FF of of our our solar solar cell cell is is lower lower than thanthat thatof ofpreviously previouslyreported reportedcells cells(Table (TableS1). S1). As researchers tend to use different types of CQDs and the structure of the solar cells also varies, a As researchers tend to use different types of CQDs and the structure of the solar cells also varies, strict comparison between different CQDSCs reported to date could be difficult. Previously, using a strict comparison between different CQDSCs reported to date could be difficult. Previously, using the the same same cell cell structure, structure, we we have have constructed constructed aa CdS-sensitized CdS-sensitized solar solar cell cell [29], [29], which which is is selected selected for for comparison with the CQDSC reported in this work for further insight. The J SC, VOC, FF, and PCE of comparison with the CQDSC reported in this work for further insight. The JSC , V OC , FF, and PCE −2 the CdS-sensitized solar cell have been of the CdS-sensitized solar cell have beendetermined determinedtotobe be6.57 6.57mA·cm mA·cm−, 20.435 , 0.435V,V,0.53, 0.53,and and 1.52%, 1.52%, respectively. Again, it is found that the FF of the CQDSC is lower. It is known that the performance respectively. Again, it is found that the FF of the CQDSC is lower. It is known that the performance of of the the solar solar cell cell is is heavily heavily influenced influenced by by its its internal internal charge charge transfer. transfer. To To find find out out the the reason reason for for the the relatively low FF of the CQDSC, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements on relatively low FF of the CQDSC, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements on the the sensitized by CQDs carried In Nyquist plots, a dominant semicircle twotwo cellscells sensitized by CQDs andand CdSCdS werewere carried out. out. In Nyquist plots, a dominant semicircle was was observed in the mid and low frequencies together with a small one at high frequencies. We observed in the mid and low frequencies together with a small one at high frequencies. We temporarily temporarily adopted the equivalent circuit developed previously [29] to fit the data using Zview adopted the equivalent circuit developed previously [29] to fit the data using Zview software, and software, and fairly are good fittings (the are obtained (the It solid lines). It is known the bigreflects semicircle fairly good fittings obtained solid lines). is known that the big that semicircle the reflects the charge transfer resistance and interfacial capacitance at the counter electrode/electrolyte charge transfer resistance and interfacial capacitance at the counter electrode/electrolyte interface, interface, while the small one represents the charge recombination resistance and constant phase element at the photoanode/electrolyte interface. Compared to the CdS-sensitized solar cell, the CQD-sensitized cell suffers from a larger charge transfer resistance as evidenced from the much larger semicircle in the mid and low frequencies, which might account for its lower FF and PCE. This


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while the small one represents the charge recombination resistance and constant phase element at the photoanode/electrolyte interface. Compared to the CdS-sensitized solar cell, the CQD-sensitized cell suffers from a larger charge transfer resistance as evidenced from the much larger semicircle in the mid and low frequencies, which might account for its lower FF and PCE. This conclusion is consistent with the remarks given in Margraf’s work, where the authors claimed that the balance between the charge recombination and regeneration processes is not ideal in CQDSCls [23]. In ISQDSCs, it has been demonstrated that surface passivation of the photoanode by ZnS has a positive effect on the performance of the solar cells [30]. When this method was applied to the CQDSCs presented in this work, however, decreased JSC and V OC values were observed, which results in a lower PCE of 0.64% (Figure S1). The effects of photoanode annealing on the performance of the CQDSCs were also examined. Briefly, the CQDs-hybridized photoanode was heated in a muffle furnace under nitrogen for 10 min at 350 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C, respectively, followed by natural cooling to room temperature. After annealing, the absorption of the annealed photoanodes were enhanced, as confirmed by UV-vis-NIR measurements (Figure S2). However, the decrease of JSC and V OC was noticed especially after annealing at 350 ◦ C, which eventually led to a decreased PCE (see Figure S3 for a detailed discussion of the effect of post-annealing). The failure of ZnS passivation and post-annealing in terms of further improving the performance of the CQDSCs indicates that the characteristics of this new type of solar cell are different from their counterparts based on ISQDs. This is understandable if one considers that the energy levels and/or charge transfer mechanisms behind CQDs and ISQDs are thought to be different [31]. Although the outcome of ZnS passivation and post-annealing is somehow disappointing, it indicates that further optimization of CQDSCs should adopt a method that is thoroughly different from that well-established for ISQDSCs, which is important in terms of fundamental research. 3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Materials Citric acid and ethanediamine were obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. Terpineol, ethyl cellulose (EC), P25, 200-nm-sized anatase TiO2 nanoparticles were purchased from Jingge Solar Co. Ltd. (Wuhan, China). All chemicals were used without further purification. Solutions for electrolyte and QD deposition were prepared with high-purity water obtained from a water purification system (Ulupure Instrument Co. Ltd. Chengdu, China). The electrode substrate was fluorine-doped tin oxide conducting glass (FTO, thickness: 2.2 mm, Nippon, sheet resistance 14 Ω/square). 3.2. Preparation of TiO2 -Coated Photoanode Two kinds of TiO2 pastes adopted for doctor blading were prepared using P25 and 200 nm TiO2 particles, respectively. A transparent TiO2 layer was first coated on FTO glass using P25 paste, which was further grown by a scattering layer with a 200 nm TiO2 paste. After being leveled for 15 min, the samples were heated at 80 ◦ C for 30 min and then annealed at 450 ◦ C for 30 min. Finally, the samples were treated in a 40 mM TiCl4 solution, rinsed with water, dried under air flow, and heated to 500 ◦ C in air for 30 min. 3.3. In Situ Growth of CQDs on TiO2 Surface A TiO2 -coated photoanode is vertically immersed in the aqueous solution containing 0.5 mol·L−1 citric acid and 0.5 mol·L−1 ethanediamine. The system was then sealed in an autoclave at 180 ◦ C and pyrolized for 24 h. The CQDs/TiO2 hybridized photoanode was rinsed with deionized water thoroughly and dried in air. The CdS/TiO2 hybridized photoanode was also prepared for comparison following the previous method (without annealing, photoanode 1 in Reference [1]).


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For passivation with ZnS, the CQD-sensitized photoanode was dipped into 100 mmol·L−1 Zn(CH3 COO)2 aqueous solution followed by dipping in Na2 S aqueous solution with the same concentration. This dipping circle was repeated twice with a duration of 1 min. To see the post-annealing influence on the performance of the solar cell, the CQD-sensitized photoanode was also sintered at 350 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C, respectively, in a muffle furnace under nitrogen for 10 min. 3.4. Construction of the Solar Cell To construct the solar cell, polysulfide electrolyte was sandwiched between the CQD- or CdS-sensitized photoanode and the counter electrode separated with a silicone spacer. The electrolyte contains 1 mol·L−1 Na2 S and 1 mol·L−1 ·s in ethanol/water mixture (3/7, v/v). Cu2 S on copper was selected as a counter electrode based on the literature. The active area of the solar cell is ~0.20 cm2 . 3.5. Characterizations SEM observations were carried out on JSM-6700F. TEM observations were performed on JEOL JEM-100 CXII (JEOL Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Samples were prepared by scraping the photoanodes from the FTO substrate and dispersed in ethanol solution, followed by transferring several drops of the suspension onto a carbon-coated copper grid. XRD patterns were obtained between 10◦ and 80◦ in the 2θ scan mode using a Rigaku D/Max 2200-PC diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation (λ = 0.15418 nm) and a graphite monochromator (Rigaku Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at room temperature. Photoluminescence was recorded on a PerkinElmer LS-55 fluorescence spectrometer. FTIR spectra were obtained on a Bruker ALPHA-T IR spectrophotometer. The absorbance spectra were recorded by U-4100 UV-vis-NIR spectrophotometer (Hitachi Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The solar cell (active area: 0.20 cm2 ) was prepared in a sandwich structure and its performance was evaluated by a source meter (Keithley 2400) illuminated with a SS150A solar simulator (Zolix Instrument Co. Ltd., Beijing, China) under AM 1.5 illumination of 100 mW·cm−2 . Electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) were recorded in the sandwich cell using a CHI 600E electrochemical analyzer (Chenhua, Shanghai, China) in the dark. The measured frequency for EIS ranged from 100 kHz to 100 mHz, and the amplitude was set to 10 mV. The results were fitted by Zview software. The incident-photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) was measured by the DC method using an Solar Cell Scan 100 (IPCE system, Zolix Instrument Co. Ltd., Beijing, China) without bias illumination. 4. Conclusions In summary, we have demonstrated a simple, low-cost, and effective strategy of growing CQDs in situ on TiO2 surfaces. The CQD-sensitized photoanode was then used to construct solar cell with a PCE of 0.87%, which is the highest record among CQDSCs. Compared to other CQDSCs reported previously, the solar cells demonstrated have higher PCEs and simplified fabrication method. Although the PCE is still much lower compared to that of the solar cells sensitized by ISQDs, the solar cells demonstrated here have a low cost and are environmentally friendly. By systematic optimization of photoanodes, counter electrode, and electrolyte, the performance of the CQDSCs could be further improved in future. Considering the fast growth in both fields related to solar cells and CQDs, there is no doubt that this new type of solar cell has a bright future. Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2079-4991/7/6/130/s1. Table S1: Key parameters of the solar cells sensitized by CQDs or GQDs reported in the literatures, Figure S1: JV curve of the CQDSC constructed with the photoanode passivated by ZnS, Figure S2: UV-vis-NIR absorption of CQD-sensitized photoanodes without and with post-annealing at different temperatures, Figure S3: JV characteristics of CQDSCs constructed by CQD-sensitized photoanodes without and with post-annealing at different temperatures. Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61474124, No. 21402215, No. 51602317).


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Author Contributions: Geping Zhang and Xiaofeng Sun prepared the carbon quantum dots and performed their basic characterizations. Keyang Yin made contributions in terms of TEM and SEM observations. Quanxin Zhang fabricated the solar cells, characterized them, and prepared a draft of the manuscript. Hongguang Li designed the project, discussed the results with all of the members, and revised the manuscript. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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