Supporting information (SI)

Supporting information (SI) for: Environmental performance of hydrothermal carbonization of four wet biomass waste streams at industry-relevant scales Mikołaj Owsianiaka*, Morten W. Ryberga, Michael Renzb, Martin Hitzlc, Michael Z. Hauschilda a

Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet, Building 424, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark b Instituto de Tecnología Química (UPV-CSIC), Universitat Politècnica de València- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avenida de los Naranjos s/n,46022 Valencia, Spain c Ingelia, S.L., C/Jaime Roig 19, 46010 Valencia, Spain * corresponding author: phone: 0045 4525 4805 e-mail: [email protected] Pages: Figures: Tables:

25 2 48

Content S1. Expected changes introduced by upscaling on the environmental performance of HTC S2. Life cycle impact assessment methods and normalization factors S3. Parameters and data underlying LCA model S4. Unit processes and LCI results S5. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations S6. Additional LCIA results S6.1. Characterized impacts at pilot scale S6.2. Normalized impacts at pilot scale S6.3. Sensitivity to transportation distance of the biowaste to the plant S6.4. Sensitivity to plant scale S6.5. Sensitivity to geographic location and replaced waste management system

S1

S1. Expected changes introduced by upscaling on the environmental performance of HTC Table S1 shows expected changes introduced by upscaling on the environmental performance of HTC. The tradeoffs between the potential environmental benefits and burdens of upscaling are quantified using life cycle assessment (LCA), as explained in the main part. Table S1. Expected changes introduced by upscaling from 1-reactor pilot-scale to full commercialscale in either 2- or 4-reactor configuration (with increased dimensions of reactors) and their expected consequences for overall environmental performance. Model parameter Overall plant capacity

Material input for construction of the HTC plant

Material input for construction of the posttreatment equipment

Heat input for running the HTC process

Electricity use for pumping, drying and pelletizing

Change when up scaled from pilot-scale to full-scale Increase from 2.4 to 15 (2 reactors) and 30 t wet biowaste/day (4 reactors)

Material input is expected to increase by a factor of 2.2 when the number of reactors doubles from pilot- to full commercial-scale (and by a factor of 2 when number of rectors doubles at the full scale), apart from building materials which are independent of the number of reactors Material input is expected to increase by a factor of 1.7 when the number of reactors doubles, apart from building materials which are independent of the number of reactors Overall decrease in energy requirements from 2460-4070 (depending on the biowaste type) to 2200 MJ/t dry biowaste (irrespective of the biowaste, for both 2 and 4 reactors) Decrease from ca. 275 to 125 kWh/t dry biomass (irrespective of the biowaste type, for both 2 and 4 reactors)

Differences induced by upscaling and expected consequences on environmental performance Higher hydrochar output per unit of plant is expected to cause a decrease of the impacts on climate change, resource depletion, and various toxicity- and non-toxicity related impact categories, depending on the contribution of the plant materials to total life cycle impacts Higher input of steel, metals and crude oil per unit of plant is expected to cause an increase of the impacts on climate change, resource depletion, and various toxicity- and non-toxicity related impact categories due to the need for manufacturing of additional reactors and plant equipment

A decrease in impacts on eutrophication and particulate matter formation can be expected due to lower energy requirements and lower emissions of PM and NOx, depending on the environmental performance of wood combustion relative to hydrochar combustion Climate change, terrestrial eutrophication, acidification, and toxic-impacts on humans and freshwater ecosystems are expected to be reduced due to lower emissions of fossil CO 2 , NO x , SO 2 , and metals stemming from reduced electricity inputs

S2

S2. Life cycle impact assessment methods and normalization factors Table S2. LCIA methods and normalization factors for the impact categories considered in this study. LCIA methods are recommended methods by the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD).1 Normalization factors are for EU27 (2010).2 Impact category

Indicator

Unit

Model reference

Climate change

Radiative forcing as Global Warming Potential, 100 years horizon (GWP100) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)

kg CO2 eq

Baseline model of 100 years of the IPCC

kg CC-11 eq

2.16E-02

Comparative Toxic Unit for humans

CTUh

Steady-state ODPs 1999 as in World Meteorological Organization (WMO) assessment USEtox model3

Comparative Toxic Unit for humans

CTUh

USEtox model3

5.32E-04

Intake fraction for fine particles Human exposure efficiency relative to U235 Tropospheric ozone concentration increase

kg PM2.5 eq

RiskPoll model4,5

4.82E+00

kg U235 eq

Human health effect model as developed by6,7

1.13E+03

kg NMVOC eq

LOTOS-EUROS as applied in ReCiPe8

3.18E+01

Accumulated Exceedance Accumulated Exceedance Residence time of nutrients in freshwater and compartment (P) Residence time of nutrients in marine and compartment (N) Comparative Toxic Unit for ecosystems Soil Organic Matter

mol H+ eq

Accumulated Exceedance9,10

4.72E+01

molc N eq

Accumulated Exceedance

1.74E+02

kg P eq

EUTREND model as implemented in ReCiPe11

1.48E+00

kg N eq

EUTREND model as implemented in ReCiPe11

1.68E+01

CTUe

USEtox model3

8.71E+03

kg C deficit

6.30E+05

Water use related to local scarcity of water Scarcity

kg water eq

Model based on Soil Organic Matter (SOM)12 Model for water consumption as in Swiss Ecoscarcity13 CML 200214

Ozone depletion Human toxicity, cancer effects Human toxicity, noncancer effects Particulate matter Ionizing radiation (human health) Photochemical ozone formation Acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Land use Water resource depletion Mineral fossil and renewable resource depletion

kg Sb eq

Normalization factor [Unit/person/year] 9.10E+03

3.68E-05

7.89E+031 1.00E-01

S3

S3. Parameters and data underlying LCA model Table S3. Model parameters and data sources for foreground processes in the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of wet biomass waste streams at pilot- and full-commercial scale. Units refer to: dw - dry weight basis; dwaf - dry weight ash free basis; ww - wet weight basis. Parameter

Unit

Note

Source

59

%

measured

Ash content 23.5 4.8 32.7 Carbon content 49.8 47.9 49.8 Nitrogen content 1.7 1.7 2.6 Sulfur content 0.1 0.1 0.6 HTC plant and post-treatment equipment Material inputs please see SI, Section S3 full, 2 reactors please see SI, Section S3 full, 4 reactors please see SI, Section S3

16.2 48 1.0 0.2

%, dw %, dwaf %, dwaf %, dwaf

Water content of the feedstock pumped into the reactor is 81, 84, 62, and 59%, for green waste, food waste, organic fraction of MSW, and digestate, respectively Determined according to UNE 32-004-84. Please see Section S2 for details of the composition of the ash Note, that we assumed that all carbon is of biogenic origin Measured through elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O Measured through elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O

measured

Life time of HTC plant and posttreatment equipment Life time of buildings Life time of reverse osmosis membrane

20

20

20

20

yr

Bills of steel, plastic, or concrete needed to construct a pilot-scale plant are presented in Section S3. When upscaling from pilot to the full commercial-scale with two reactors, material input for the HTC plant increases by a factor of 2.2 when the number of reactors doubles. The factor is larger than 2 because both the number of elements and their dimensions increase. At full commercial scale dimensions of reactors are the same and material input increases by a factor of 2 when number of reactors doubles. Material input for the post-treatment equipment increases by a factor of 1.7 when the number of reactors doubles, irrespective of the plant scale. The factor of 1.7 is smaller than 2 because increase in dimensions of the post-treatment equipment is foreseen rather than increasing the number of individual elements. Inputs for building materials are independent of the number of reactors Value expected to be in realistic range for chemical reactors and equipment

80 5

80 5

80 5

80 5

yr yr

assumed assumed

Overall plant capacity (pilot) full, 2 reactors full, 4 reactors

2400 15000 30000

2400 15000 30000

2400 15000 30000

2400 15000 30000

kg/d, dw

Electricity use for pumping (pilot) full, 2 reactors full, 4 reactors Heat use (pilot) full, 2 reactors full, 4 reactors Yield of raw hydrochar Electricity use for drying and pelletizing (pilot)

189

250

68

99

kWh/t biowas te , dw

50 50 3639 2200 2200 0.59 86

50 50 4072 2200 2200 0.37 62

50 50 4053 2200 2200 0.72 43

50 50 2461 2200 2200 0.56 34

Values expected to be in realistic range for industrial buildings Values depend on various factors including system operation and maintenance, which are not yet fully known. Thus, a life time of 5 years was assumed which is in realistic range of values for reverse osmosis membranes.15 Cleaning of the membrane might happen every 1-2 years, and was not considered Plant operates in continuous mode in two shifts, 16 h of operation per day, for 320 days per year, corresponding to plant utilization rate of 0.59 yr/yr. At full commercial-scale plant operates in continuous mode, 24 h per day, resulting in capacity of 0.89 yr/yr. Higher overall plant capacities are due to increasing number and dimensions of reactors and higher plant utilization rates Electricity use for pumping of feedstock into the reactor. Total electricity consumption is measured at the plant, and it is estimated that this electricity is equal to 62-80% of total consumption, depending on the feedstock moisture. At full commercial-scale there is an overall decrease in the electricity use

MJ/t biowaste , dw

Heat needed to maintain temperate in the HTC reactor at 200-250 °C. Wood is used for generation of heat. At full commercial-scale there is and overall decrease in heat use

measured

kg/kg, dw kWh/t biowas te , dw

measured measured

full, 2 reactors full, 4 reactors Ash content of cleaned hydrochar Yield of cleaned hydrochar

40 40 13.0 0.54

40 40 4.8 0.37

40 40 16.3 0.62

40 40 10.7 0.56

Represents yield of raw hydrochar as output from the reactor per unit weight of dry biowaste input to the reactor Electricity use for drying of raw hydrochar and pelletizing of cleaned hydrochar. Total electricity consumption is measured at the plant, and it is estimated that this electricity is equal to 20-38% of total consumption, depending on the feedstock moisture. At full commercial-scale there is and overall decrease in electricity use due to optimization of the plant

%, dw kg/kg biowast

Determined according to UNE 32-004-84. No cleaning of raw hydrochar from food waste and digestate was done Represents yield of cleaned hydrochar as output from the pelletizer per unit weight of dry biowaste input to the reactor

measured measured

Biowaste Water content of biowaste

Value green waste

food waste

organic fraction of MSW

digestate

45

84

34

kg/plant

measured measured measured measured

assumed

measured

measured

S4

Capacity of reverse osmosis membrane Electricity use for reverse osmosis Amount of process water

18

18

18

18

e,

dw m3/d

Nominal capacity of reverse osmosis membrane to treat process water

measured

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

kWh/m3

Electricity needed for applying hydrostatic pressure to maintain reverse osmosis filtration

measured

0.565

0.873

0.479

0.677

2070

2070

1690

2070

100

100

4

100

ppm

457

976

1178

1346

ppm

0.0645

0.0447

0.027

0.0126

kg/kg biowast e dw

In addition to the water originating from the moisture within wet biomass which was measured, a part of the process water originates from decomposition of the biowaste matter which is estimated to be equal to 0.2 kg/kg biowaste dw Measured using Kjeldahl method. Values for green waste and digestate were assumed equal to measured values for food waste. Please see Section S2 for details of the composition of the process water Measured during elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O. Values for green waste and digestate were assumed equal to measured values for food waste Measured during elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O. Values for green waste and digestate were assumed equal to measured values for food waste The following gases were measured: CO 2 , CO and H 2 . Content of other gases ranges from 0.4 to 3.2%, but individual compounds were not measured. Please see Section S2 for details of content of the measured gases

measured

Content of nitrogen in process water Content of phosphorus in process water Content of potassium in process water Emission of gases from HTC process Hydrochar pellets Water content of hydrochar pellets Ash content

kg/kg biowast e , ww ppm

5

5

5

5

%

Drying reduces water content from ca. 50 to 5% 16

measured

13.0

4.8

16.3

10.7

%, dw

measured

Carbon content Nitrogen content Sulfur content Chloride content Fluoride content Higher heating value Combustion of hydrochar pellets Emission of CO Emission of NOx Emission of PM10-2.5 Emission of PM2.5

58.4 1.20 0.10 0.059 0.012 21.0

63.8 1.68 0.10 0.032 0.006 23.2

58.1 1.13 0.23 0.100 0.013 23.0

55.2 1.17 0.20 0.106 0.021 20.4

%, dwaf %, dwaf % dwaf % dwaf % dwaf MJ/kg

Determined according to UNE 32-004-84. No cleaning of raw hydrochar from food waste and digestate was performed. Please see Section S2 for details of the composition of the ash. Emissions of metallic elements from the ash (both from post-treatment and combustion of the hydrochar) were calculated using transfer coefficients for landfilling of hard coal ash as in the respective ecoinvent process, corrected for differences in ash composition between the coal ash and hydrochar ash Determined according to UNE 32-004-84. It is assumed that all carbon is of biogenic origin Measured during elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O Measured during elemental analysis using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O Determined according to UNE EN 15289 using a calorimeter followed by ion chromatography Determined according to UNE EN 15289 using a calorimeter followed by ion chromatography Values consider water and ash content of the hydrochar

3.8E-5 3.0E-3 1.2E-4 7.3E-4

3.8E-5 3.0E-3 1.2E-4 7.3E-4

3.8E-5 3.0E-3 1.2E-4 7.3E-4

3.8E-5 3.0E-3 1.2E-4 7.3E-4

kg/kg dw kg/kg dw kg/kg dw kg/kg dw

measured

0.7

MJ/MJ

Emissions of particulate matter (PM), CO 2 , CO, nitrogen oxides (NO x ), and SO 2 from hydrochar combustion in the stove are based on measurements performed during experiments using a pilot-scale (180 kW) grate combustion unit. Emissions of metallic elements to air were calculated using transfer coefficients for emissions to air from the ecoinvent process for incineration of biowaste,17 corrected for differences in composition and moisture between the hydrochar and the biowaste in the ecoinvent process Thermal efficiency measured for a 5-15 kW stove fueled with hard coal briquettes 18

Thermal efficiency of a 5-15 kW 0.7 0.7 0.7 stove Thermal efficiency of a 600 kW 0.9 0.9 0.9 boiler Transportation of hydrochar pellets Collection of biowaste (ES) 7 26 36 From plant to ship port (ES) 29 29 29 From ship port (ES) to ship port 2936 2936 2936 (UK) From ship port (UK) to retail and 182 182 182 final user Disposal of the HTC plant and post-treatment equipment Rates of treatment of waste from Please see SI, Table S4 construction materials

18

measured or assumed measured or assumed measured or assumed measured

measured measured measured measured measured measured

measured

0.9

MJ/MJ

Assumed based on values measured for wood chip boiler 100 kW - 1.25 MW burning wood pellets

70 29 2936

km km km

calculated calculated calculated

182

km

Distance between biomass collection point and the plant, calculated using Google maps. Transport by lorry Distance between plant location and port in Valencia, Spain, calculated using Google maps. Transport by lorry Distance between the port in Valencia, Spain and port in Dundalk, the UK, corresponding to a distance of a regular oceanic route. Transport by ship Distance between the port in Dublin (the UK) and final use including retail. The location of final user is unknown and was assumed to be 100 km from retailer (located in Dublin) to the user. Transport by lorry Recycling, incineration, landfilling rates of construction materials like steel, plastic, or concrete are based on statistical data as of 2012 for the relevant country, provided by Eurostat.19 Data for plastic were retrieved from Plastics Europe.20 Please see Section S3 for details of end-of-life options

measured

%

assumed

assumed

S5

Table S4. Composition of hydrochar ash measured using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O. Values for Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, Si, Ti, Mn, Fe and P are expressed in % on the oxide basis. Element Na 2 O K2 O MgO CaO Al 2 O 3 SiO 2 TiO 2 MnO 2 Fe 2 O 3 P2O5 As Cd Cr Co Cu Pb Mo Ni Se Zn B

Unit % % % % % % % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Wet biomass waste stream green waste food waste 0.70 1.20 3.70 3.27 2.40 3.57 28.10 39.53 8.30 2.93 37.70 10.70 0.80 0.17 0.50 0.10 4.50 4.77 5.50 12.77 1.05 63.13 68.5 2.9 67 162 112 1262 86 531 244 235 69 38 284 108 37 51 332 1009 955 787

Source organic fraction of MSW 1.70 4.65 3.75 33.15 12.35 45.60 0.45 0.15 6.70 4.85 300.2 154.1 402 392 1869 293 740 227 342 2129 1671

digestate 1.40 2.70 4.73 34.70 4.20 32.77 0.10 0.30 3.00 14.50 45.37 8.2 122 278 543 72 43 88 36 2807 6393

measured

Table S5. Composition of process water measured using Kjeldahl method (N) and using Fisons EA 1108 CHNS-O (other elements). Values for green waste and digestate were assumed equal to values measured for food waste. Element N P K Na Mg Ca Al Si Ti Mn Fe As Cd Cr Co Cu Pb Mo Ni Se Zn B

Unit ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Wet biomass waste stream green waste food waste 457 976 100 100 2070 2070 723 723 550 550 1320 1320 4.3 4.3 115 115 0 0 5 5 18.5 18.5 0.1 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.3 1.3 3.1 3.1

Source organic fraction of MSW 1178 4.3 1690 1540 294 3020 7.5 95.8 0.1 5.3 49.6 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 1.1 0.3 13.5 5.6

digestate 1346 100 2070 723 550 1320 4.3 115 0 5 18.5 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 1.3 3.1

measured or assumed

Table S6. Composition of gases measured in the gas emitted from HTC reactor. Element CO 2 CO H2 other gases (sum)

Unit % % % %

Wet biomass waste stream green waste food waste 96.8 97.2 0 1.3 0 0.2 3.2 1.5

Source organic fraction of MSW 95.1 1.3 3.2 0.4

digestate 93.6 5.1 0.3 1

measured

S6

Table S7. Bill of materials for HTC plant and post-treatment equipment at pilot-scale. STEEL CORROSIVE BOARD HTC plant

Weight (kg)

STEEL ANTICORROSIVE BOARD HTC plant

Weight (kg)

Reactor Structure 1 Hydraulic power unit Incoming Biomass pump Hopper Auxiliary structure Screw Conveyor (Incoming biomass) Compressor (B) Compressor (L) Post-treatment equipment

7000 1000 1400 2000 300 645 100 60

Pre heating Pipe Outlet Pipes Installation Reactor Condensate tank Pressure tank Despressurization tank Evaporator Chimneys PLASTIC BOARD

1880 13600 4250 165 482 150 550 350 Weight (kg)

Intermediated tank Hydroclassifier Separation Structure Filter press Structure Filter press Screw Conveyor-Filter press Pumps- Separation Installation Filter press tanks wet scrubbing process Chimney Structure Industrial Dryer Pellet Machine Boiler Boiler Tanks Sieve Sieve Structure

250 360 2000 1500 8000 500 100 400 5000 1500 5000 1200 3500 400 210 1000

Condensate Intermediated Tank Condensate warehouse tank Sand Tank Press Filter spiral chute CONCRETE BOARD

54 60 33 500 200 Weight (kg)

Control Building Post treatment building Evaporator room Concrete bed

50000 60000 40000 60000

Table S8. Rates of recycling, incineration, and landfilling in Spain (ES) and Germany (DE) for the major materials in the HTC plant and the post-treatment equipment. Waste

Metal wastes, ferrous Mineral waste from construction and demolition Plastic waste

Country

Landfilling (%)

Incineration (%)

DE ES DE ES DE ES

0.16 0.07 6.24 15.9 0.042 0.8

0.01 0 0.19 0 0 0

Incineration with energy recovery (%) 0.42 0 1.02 0 0.0042 0.035

Recovery other than energy recovery (%)

Source

99.4 99.9 92.5 84.1 0.265 0.165

Eurostat

Plastics Europe

S7

Table S9. Adaptation of existing ecoinvent processes for treatment of wet biomass waste streams in the study. Process Ecoinvent process as starting point for adaptation

Incineration with or without energy recovery Biowaste {GLO}| treatment of biowaste, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U (all biowaste streams apart from digestate); Digester sludge {GLO}| treatment of digester sludge, municipal incineration | Alloc Def, U (digestate only) Correction of emission flows based on differences in biowaste moisture Correction for biowaste All input and output flows were corrected for the moisture difference in moisture (73% for incineration of ecoinvent digester sludge vs. 59 % for the actual digestate, and 65% for incineration of ecoinvent biowaste vs. 34-84% for the other actual biowaste types) Correction of emission flows based on differences in biowaste composition Metals, metalloids, and Emissions of metallic elements and Se to air, river, or selenium groundwater (long-term) were adjusted to match the measured concentration of the elements in the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Nitrogen compounds Emissions of N2O, NOx, ammonia and cyanide to air, and emissions of nitrate to river or groundwater (longterm) were adjusted to match the measured N content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Sulfur compounds

Phosphorus compounds

Emissions of sulfate to air, river or groundwater (longterm) were adjusted to match the actual S content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same.

Emissions of phosphorus to air, and emissions of phosphate to river or groundwater (long-term) were adjusted to match the measured P content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Organic carbon (including Emissions of phenol, benzo(a)pyrene, carbon monoxide hydrocarbons) (biogenic) NMVOC, methane (biogenic), toluene, carbon dioxide (biogenic) and benzene to air, and emission of DOC, TOC, BOD5, COD to river or groundwater (long-term) were adjusted to match the measured C content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Halogen compounds Emissions of pentachlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, hydrogen chloride (apart from digestate where this compound was not inventoried), hydrogen fluoride (again, apart from digestate where this compound was not inventoried) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p,dioxin to air, and emissions of chloride and fluoride (again, apart from digestate where this compound was not inventoried) to river or groundwater (long term) were adjusted to match the measured halogen content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. For digester sludge, the halogen content of the sludge in the ecoinvent process was not available, and no adjustment of emissions of halogen compounds listed in the inventory of the original ecoinvent process was done. Particulate matter Emissions of particulates (< 2.5 um, and > 2.5 um < 10um) to air were adjusted to match the measured ash content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Removing or adding of flows Emissions of elements not measured in the biowaste (like Hg and Sn in the digester sludge or Br, I, Hg, Sn, and V for other types of biowaste) were removed.

Composting with NPK fertilizer recovery Biowaste {CH}| treatment of, composting | Alloc Rec, U (all biowaste streams apart from digestate)

All input and output flows were corrected for the difference in moisture (60% for composting of ecoinvent biowaste vs. 34-84% for the other actual biowaste types)

No emissions of metallic elements occur during the anaerobic digestion. Avoided K fertilizer was adjusted to match the measured K content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Emissions of N2O, NOx and ammonia to air, were adjusted to match the measured N content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Avoided N fertilizer was adjusted to match the measured N content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Emission of H2S to air was adjusted to match the measured S content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. No emissions of phosphorus compounds occur during the anaerobic digestion. Avoided P fertilizer was adjusted to match the measured P content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same. Emissions of CO2 (biogenic) and CH4 (biogenic) to air was adjusted to match the measured C content of the biowaste assuming that transfer coefficients are the same.

No emissions of halogen compounds occur during the anaerobic digestion.

No emissions of particulate matter occur during the anaerobic digestion

No flow had to be removed.

S8

Metals, metalloids, and selenium

Removing or adding of processes

Emissions of metals measured in the biowaste but the ecoinvent process (like Na, K, Ti, Se and B for digester sludge, or Ti for other biowaste types) were modeled assuming transfer coefficient’s for Mg, Ca, Fe, As, and Al apply, respectively, based on their proximity in the periodic table of elements. No process had to be removed

No flow had to be added

No process had to be removed

S4. Unit processes and LCI results Table S10. Inventory for the unit process “Output of heat through firing of hydrochar pellets in a domestic 5-15 kW stove, {ES, DE, miow}| hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) with energy recovery, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale or at full commercial-scale with 2 or 4 reactors. Differences between scales are not apparent as they introduced within some of the subprocesses. Activity Products Output of heat through firing of hydrochar pellets in a domestic 5-15 kW stove, {ES, DE, miow}| hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) with energy recovery, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW

Known outputs to technosphere. Avoided products Heat, central or small-scale, other than natural gas {Europe without Switzerland}| heat production, hard coal briquette, stove 5-15kW | Alloc Rec, U Wet biomass waste streams {ES, miow}| treatment, Spain | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Wet biomass waste streams {DE, miow}| treatment, Germany | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat) Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Municipal waste collection service by 21 metric ton lorry {CH}| processing | Alloc Rec, U Coal stove, 5-15kW {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Transport, freight, lorry 7.5-16 metric ton, EURO6 {RER}| transport, freight, lorry 7.516 metric ton, EURO6 | Alloc Rec, U Transport, freight, sea, transoceanic ship {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Transport, freight, lorry 7.5-16 metric ton, EURO6 {RER}| transport, freight, lorry 7.516 metric ton, EURO6 | Alloc Rec, U Emissions to air Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates, < 10 um Particulates, < 2.5 um Carbon monoxide, biogenic Carbon dioxide, biogenic Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Aluminium Silicon Titanium Manganese Iron Phosphorus Arsenic Cadmium Chromium VI Cobalt Copper Lead Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Zinc Boron Benzene, hexachloroToluene Ammonia Cyanide

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

3.942

0.970

5.731

3.253

MJ

see Table S3; set equal to 1 (unit: kg) for treatment of 1 kg of wet biowaste

3.942

0.970

5.731

3.253

MJ

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

ecoinvent; hard coal briquettes see Table S32; ES see Table S33; DE

0.295 0.007

0.060 0.026

0.412 0.036

0.228 0.070

kg tkm

see Table S22 ecoinvent

3.3E-06 6.2E-02

8.0E-07 1.3E-02

4.7E-06 8.7E-02

2.7E-06 4.8E-02

p tkm

ecoinvent ecoinvent; ES

8.7E-01 3.0E-02

1.8E-01 6.0E-03

1.2E+00 4.1E-02

6.7E-01 2.3E-02

tkm tkm

ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE

1.6E-05 8.4E-04 1.9E-04 3.9E-05 1.1E-05 5.5E-01 5.99E-06 1.90E-05 2.64E-06 2.30E-04 7.05E-09 6.12E-08 1.49E-09 9.95E-08 8.40E-09 5.82E-06 8.57E-10 3.64E-09 6.05E-09 2.12E-08 8.23E-10 2.09E-09 9.40E-09 3.72E-08 4.56E-08 2.32E-08 8.11E-11 1.18E-11 2.50E-07 1.59E-06 2.34E-06




kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

S9

Benzo(a)pyrene Dioxin, 2,3,7,8 Tetrachlorodibenzo-pHydrogen fluoride NMVOC, non-methane volatile organic compounds, unspecified origin Hydrogen chloride Benzene Phenol, pentachloroBenzene, pentachloroKnown outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow

2.79E-12 1.13E-14 6.49E-07 5.70E-06 2.70E-07 1.25E-07 2.45E-12 2.98E-11

6.75E-13 1.24E-15 6.99E-08 1.38E-06 2.96E-08 3.03E-08 2.69E-13 3.26E-12

3.69E-12 2.67E-14 9.81E-07 7.55E-06 6.39E-07 1.66E-07 5.81E-12 7.04E-11

2.23E-12 1.56E-14 8.79E-07 4.55E-06 3.74E-07 1.00E-07 3.40E-12 4.12E-11

kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

0.0384

0.0029

0.0672

0.0243

kg

see Table S31

Table S11. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale. Activity Products Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat) Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

1.097 6.26E-08 0.206 0.206

1.000 5.71E-08 0.266 0.266

1.149 6.56E-08 0.078 0.078

1.000 5.71E-08 0.098 0.098

kg p kWh kWh

see Table S14 see Table S21 ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE

0.097

0.000

0.149

0.000

kg

see Table S31

Table S12. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Activity Products Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat) Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

1.097 2.51E-08 0.093 0.093

1.000 2.29E-08 0.134 0.134

1.149 2.63E-08 0.080 0.080

1.000 2.29E-08 0.090 0.090

kg p kWh kWh


0.097

0.000

0.149

0.000

kg

see Table S31

Table S13. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity Products Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat) Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

1.097 1.25E-08 0.093 0.093

1.000 1.14E-08 0.134 0.134

1.149 1.31E-08 0.080 0.080

1.000 1.14E-08 0.090 0.090

kg p kWh kWh


0.097

0.000

0.149

0.000

kg

see Table S31

Table S14. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

3.14E-08 0.279 0.279 2.00

9.13E-09 0.570 0.570 0.65

3.77E-08 0.087 0.087 2.67

2.34E-08 0.141 0.141 1.01

p kWh kWh MJ

see Table S18 ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE see Table S17

0.034 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

0.007 9.30E-05 1.43E-05

0.017 2.32E-04 5.70E-04

0.005 2.63E-04 1.55E-05

kg kg kg

see Table S3

Products

Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas | heat production, softwood chips from forest, at furnace 1000kW | Alloc Rec, U, miow Emissions to air

Carbon dioxide, biogenic Carbon monoxide, biogenic Hydrogen

see Table S3 see Table S3

S10

Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Process water, treatment with nutrient recovery, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW

0.00057

0.00087

0.00048

0.00068

m3

see Table S30

Table S15. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values and processess in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

1.26E-08 0.127 0.127 1.21

3.66E-09 0.288 0.288 0.35

1.51E-08 0.089 0.089 1.45

9.37E-09 0.130 0.130 0.90

p kWh kWh MJ

see Table S19 ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE

0.034 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

0.007 9.30E-05 1.43E-05

0.017 2.32E-04 5.70E-04

0.005 2.63E-04 1.55E-05

kg kg kg

see Table S3

0.00057

0.00087

0.00048

0.00068

m3

see Table S30

Products


HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas | heat production, softwood chips from forest, at furnace 1000kW | Alloc Rec, U, miow

ecoinvent

Emissions to air





Table S16. Inventory for the unit process “Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values and processess in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

kg

see Table S3

6.28E-09 0.127 0.127 1.21

1.83E-09 0.288 0.288 0.35

7.54E-09 0.089 0.089 1.45

4.68E-09 0.130 0.130 0.90

p kWh kWh MJ

see Table S20 ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE

0.034 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

0.007 9.30E-05 1.43E-05

0.017 2.32E-04 5.70E-04

0.005 2.63E-04 1.55E-05

kg kg kg

see Table S3

0.00057

0.00087

0.00048

0.00068

m3

see Table S30

Products


HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, low voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas | heat production, softwood chips from forest, at furnace 1000kW | Alloc Rec, U, miow

ecoinvent

Emissions to air





Table S17. Inventory for the unit process “Heat, hydrochar combustion, at boiler 600kW, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. The process is used at plant-scale only. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

MJ

see Table S3

0.058

0.048

0.056

0.054

kg

see Table S11

2.68E-06 1.82E-04 3.82E-05 7.65E-06 2.19E-06 0.125 1.18E-06 3.75E-06 5.20E-07 4.54E-05 1.39E-09 1.21E-08 2.94E-10 1.96E-08 1.66E-09 1.15E-06 1.69E-10 7.17E-10 1.19E-09




kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

Products

Heat, hydrochar combustion, at boiler 600kW, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Emissions to air

Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Particulates, < 10 um (stationary) Particulates, < 2.5 um Carbon monoxide, biogenic Carbon dioxide, biogenic Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Aluminium Silicon Titanium Manganese Iron Phosphorus Arsenic Cadmium Chromium VI

S11

Cobalt Copper Lead Molybdenum Nickel Selenium Zinc Boron Benzene, hexachloroToluene Ammonia Cyanide Benzo(a)pyrene Dioxin, 2,3,7,8 Tetrachlorodibenzo-pHydrogen fluoride NMVOC, non-methane volatile organic compounds, unspecified origin Hydrogen chloride Benzene Phenol, pentachloroBenzene, pentachloro-

4.18E-09 1.62E-10 4.13E-10 1.85E-09 7.33E-09 8.98E-09 4.57E-09 1.60E-11 2.32E-12 4.93E-08 3.13E-07 4.61E-07 5.49E-13 2.22E-15 1.28E-07 1.12E-06 5.32E-08 2.47E-08 4.84E-13 5.87E-12




kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

0.0076

0.0023

0.0091

0.0058

kg

see Table S31


Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow

Table S18. Inventory for the unit process “HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilotscale. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

37500 647 200

37500 647 200

37500 647 200

37500 647 200

kg kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent

21400 12505 33905

21400 12505 33905

21400 12505 33905

21400 12505 33905

kg kg kg


1

1

1

1

p

see Table S25

Products

HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Polypropylene, granulate {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulded {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Steel, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Steel, unalloyed {RER}| steel production, converter, unalloyed | Alloc Rec, U Metal working, average for steel product manufacturing {RER}| processing | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Disposed HTC plant, Alloc Rec, U, miow

Table S19. Inventory for the unit process “HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

37500

37500

37500

37500

1423.4

1423.4

1423.4

1423.4

kg kg kg


440 47080 27511

440 47080 27511

440 47080 27511

440 47080 27511

kg kg kg


74591

74591

74591

74591

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S25

Products


Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Polypropylene, granulate {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulded {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Steel, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Steel, unalloyed {RER}| steel production, converter, unalloyed | Alloc Rec, U Metal working, average for steel product manufacturing {RER}| processing | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment


Table S20. Inventory for the unit process “HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

37500 2846.8

37500 2846.8

37500 2846.8

37500 2846.8

kg kg kg


880 94160

880 94160

880 94160

880 94160

kg

ecoinvent

Products


Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Polypropylene, granulate {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulded {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Steel, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U

S12

Steel, unalloyed {RER}| steel production, converter, unalloyed | Alloc Rec, U Metal working, average for steel product manufacturing {RER}| processing | Alloc Rec, U

55022 149182

55022 149182

55022 149182

55022 149182

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S26



S13

Table S21. Inventory for the unit process “HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

30920 15000 30920

30920 15000 30920

30920 15000 30920

30920 15000 30920

kg kg kg


1

1

1

1

p

see Table S27

Products

HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

Reinforcing steel {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Metal working, average for steel product manufacturing {RER}| processing | Alloc Rec, U Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Disposed HTC post-treatment plant, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW

Table S22. Inventory for the unit process “HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

52564

52564

52564

52564

15000

15000

15000

15000

kg kg kg


52564

52564

52564

52564

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S28

Products




Table S23. Inventory for the unit process “HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

89359

89359

89359

89359

15000

15000

15000

15000

kg kg kg


89359

89359

89359

89359

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S29

Products




Table S24. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

21386 12497 31538 140 5962 678 23 30

21386 12497 31538 140 5962 678 23 30

21386 12497 31538 140 5962 678 23 30

21386 12497 31538 140 5962 678 23 30


ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

33882 31538

33882 31538

33882 31538

33882 31538

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products

Disposed HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Steel, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Reinforcing steel {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Polypropylene, granulate {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Waste concrete {CH}| treatment of, inert material landfill | Alloc Rec, U Waste polyethylene {CH}| treatment of, sanitary landfill | Alloc Rec, U Scrap steel {CH}| treatment of, inert material landfill | Alloc Rec, U Waste plastic, mixture | treatment of waste plastic, mixture, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U, miow Scrap steel {CH}| treatment of, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U Waste cement-fibre slab, dismantled {CH}| treatment of waste cement-fibre slab, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U Waste reinforcement steel {CH}| treatment of, recycling | Alloc Rec, U Waste concrete gravel {CH}| treatment of, recycling | Alloc Rec, U

S14

Table S25. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilotscale plant. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

47048 27493

47048 27493

47048 27493

47048 27493

31538

31538

31538

31538

307

307

307

307

5962

5962

5962

5962

1491 50

1491 50

1491 50

1491 50



65 0

65 0

65 0

65 0

0

0

0

0

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

74541

74541

74541

74541

31538

31538

31538

31538

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products



Table S26. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilotscale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

94097 54985 31538 615 5962 2981 100

94097 54985 31538 615 5962 2981 100

94097 54985 31538 615 5962 2981 100

94097 54985 31538 615 5962 2981 100



130 0 0

130 0 0

130 0 0

130 0 0

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

149082 31538

149082 31538

149082 31538

149082 31538

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products



Table S27. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Res, U, MIOW” at pilot-scale. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

30899 12615 21 2385 0 0

30899 12615 21 2385 0 0

30899 12615 21 2385 0 0

30899 12615 21 2385 0 0

kg kg kg kg kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent ecoinvent

30899 12615

30899 12615

30899 12615

30899 12615

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products

Disposed HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Res, U, MIOW Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Reinforcing steel {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U Concrete block {DE}| production | Alloc Rec, U Scrap steel {CH}| treatment of, inert material landfill | Alloc Rec, U Waste concrete {CH}| treatment of, inert material landfill | Alloc Rec, U Scrap steel {CH}| treatment of, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U Waste cement-fibre slab, dismantled {CH}| treatment of waste cement-fibre slab, municipal incineration | Alloc Rec, U Waste reinforcement steel {CH}| treatment of, recycling | Alloc Rec, U Waste concrete gravel {CH}| treatment of, recycling | Alloc Rec, U

S15

Table S28. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Res, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 2 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

52529

52529

52529

52529

12615

12615

12615

12615

35.3

35.3

35.3

35.3

2385

2385

2385

2385

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

kg kg kg kg kg kg


52529

52529

52529

52529

12615

12615

12615

12615

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products



Table S29. Inventory for the unit process “Disposed HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Res, U, MIOW” at full commercial-scale with 4 reactors. Values and in italics represent change compared to the pilot-scale plant. Underlined values represent change compared to the full-scale plant with 2 reactors. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

89299

89299

89299

89299

12615

12615

12615

12615

59.9

59.9

59.9

59.9

2385

2385

2385

2385

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

kg kg kg kg kg kg


89299

89299

89299

89299

12615

12615

12615

12615

kg kg

ecoinvent ecoinvent

Products



Table S30. Inventory for the unit process “Process water, treatment with nutrient recovery, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

m3

see Table S3

2.494 0.229 0.457

2.494 0.229 0.976

2.036 0.010 1.178

2.494 0.229 1.346

kg kg kg


0.0011

0.0011

0.0011

0.0011

m2

ecoinvent

1.2 1.2

1.2 1.2

1.2 1.2

1.2 1.2

kWh kWh

ecoinvent; ES ecoinvent; DE

7.2E-01 2.1E+00 5.5E-01 1.3E+00 4.3E-03 1.2E-01 0.0E+00 5.0E-03 1.9E-02 1.0E-01 1.0E-04 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 1.0E-04 1.0E-04


1.5E+00 1.7E+00 2.9E-01 3.0E+00 7.5E-03 9.6E-02 1.0E-04 5.3E-03 5.0E-02 4.3E-03 3.0E-04 2.0E-04 4.0E-04 4.0E-04 3.0E-04 2.0E-04 5.0E-04 1.1E-03 3.0E-04


kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

Products

Process water, treatment with nutrient recovery, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known outputs to technosphere. Avoided products

Potassium chloride, as K2O {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Phosphate fertiliser, as P2O5 {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Nitrogen fertiliser, as N {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

Seawater reverse osmosis module {GLO}| seawater reverse osmosis module production, 8-inch spiral wound, baseline | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, medium voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, medium voltage {DE}| market for | Alloc Rec, U Emissions to soil (agricultural)

Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Aluminium Silicon Titanium Manganese Iron Phosphate Arsenic Cadmium Chromium VI Cobalt Copper Lead Molybdenum Nickel Selenium

S16

Zinc Boron

1.3E-03 3.1E-03

1.3E-03 3.1E-03

1.4E-02 5.6E-03

1.3E-03 3.1E-03

kg kg


Table S31. Inventory for the unit process “Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow”. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

kg

see Table S3

Residual material landfill {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U

2.1E-09

2.1E-09

2.1E-09

2.1E-09

p

ecoinvent

Process-specific burdens, residual material landfill {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U

1

1

1

1

kg

ecoinvent

2.2E-05 1.1E-06 6.2E-08 7.8E-10 6.2E-08 4.0E-06 3.6E-07 5.5E-09 4.4E-07 2.1E-09 8.5E-06 6.3E-09 1.4E-05 7.1E-08 3.0E-07 4.3E-03 1.3E-05 2.5E-03 2.9E-03 1.8E-05 6.8E-09




kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

1.3E-02 1.1E-15 7.8E-06 4.7E-07 3.7E-05 1.3E-05 2.1E-04 3.3E-06 2.7E-04 1.3E-06 5.1E-03 3.8E-06 6.5E-08 4.2E-05 2.0E-04 1.1E-02 2.4E-05 1.1E+00 4.8E-03 1.1E-02 4.1E-06




kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3 see Table S3

Products

Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow Known inputs from technosphere (materials/fuels/electricity/heat)

Emissions to water (river)

Aluminium Arsenic Boron Cadmium Calcium Chromium VI Cobalt Copper Iron Lead Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphate Potassium Selenium Silicon Sodium Titanium Zinc Emissions to water (groundwater, river)

Aluminium Arsenic Boron Cadmium Calcium Chromium VI Cobalt Copper Iron Lead Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphate Potassium Selenium Silicon Sodium Titanium Zinc

Table S32. Inventory for the unit process “Wet biomass waste streams {ES, miow}| treatment, Spain | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. Activity

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

1

1

1

0

kg

see Table S3

0

0

0

1

kg

see Table S3

Products

Wet biomass waste streams {ES, miow}| treatment, Spanish mix | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Wet biomass waste streams treatment {ES, DE, miow}| composting with fertilizer recovery | Alloc Rec, U, miow Wet biomass waste digestate treatment {ES, DE, miow}| municipal incineration with energy recovery | Alloc Def, U, miow

S17

Table S33. Inventory for the unit process “Wet biomass waste streams {DE, miow}| treatment, Germany | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. Activity Products Wet biomass waste streams {DE, miow}| treatment, German mix | Alloc Rec, U, MIOW Known outputs to technosphere. Waste and emissions to treatment

Wet biomass waste streams treatment {ES, DE, miow}| municipal incineration with energy recovery | Alloc Rec, U, miow Wet biomass waste digestate treatment {ES, DE, miow}| municipal incineration with energy recovery | Alloc Def, U, miow

green waste

food waste

OFMSW

digestate

Unit

Source/note

1

1

1

1

p

see Table S3

1

1

1

0

kg

see Table S3

0

0

0

1

kg

see Table S3

S5. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations Uncertainty factors were estimated from characteristics of the flows, emissions and the respective processes using a Pedigree matrix approach that takes into account quality. Each uncertain data point is assessed using five criteria and combined with the basic uncertainty factor based on the type of data. Next, these uncertainty factors are used to calculate squared geometric standard deviation (eq S1). The Pedigree approach is valid for log-normally distributed data only. We used the Pedigree matrix and basic uncertainty factors attached to the ecoinvent database, version 3.0, as presented in the manual to SimaPro, version 8.0.4.30.

σ g2 = exp [ln(U1 )]2 + [ln(U 2 )]2 + [ln(U 3 )]2 + [ln(U 4 )]2 + [ln(U 5 )]2 + [ln(U b )]2 

eq S1  where σ g2 is the squared geometric standard deviation (variance, 95% interval); U1 − U 51 are the uncertainty factors of reliability, completeness, temporal correlation, geographic correlation, and future technological correlation; and U b is the basic uncertainty factor. 

Table S34. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations for the foreground process “Output of heat through firing of hydrochar pellets in a domestic 5-15 kW stove, {ES, DE, miow}| hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) with energy recovery, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. Ub U3 U5 σ g2 Flows and emissions U1 U2 U4 Thermal energy, electricity, semi-finished products, working material, waste treatment services Heat, central or small-scale, other than natural gas {Europe without 1 1 1 Switzerland}| heat production, hard coal briquette, stove 5-15kW | Alloc Rec, U Wet biomass waste streams {ES, miow}| treatment, Spanish mix | Alloc 1 1 1 Rec, U, MIOW Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 Coal stove, 5-15kW {RER}| production | Alloc Rec, U 1 1 1 Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow 1 1 1 Transport services (tkm) Transport, freight, lorry 7.5-16 metric ton, EURO6 {RER}| transport, 1 1 1 freight, lorry 7.5-16 metric ton, EURO6 | Alloc Rec, U Municipal waste collection service by 21 metric ton lorry {ES, miow}| 1 1 1 market for | Alloc Rec, U, miow Emissions to air CO 2 and SO 2 1 1.1 1 NO x and N 2 O 1 1.1 1 PM 10 1 1.1 1 PM 2.5 1 1.1 1 CO, heavy metals 1 1.1 1 Inorganic emissions, others 1 1.1 1 NMVOC 1 1.1 1 CH 4 and NH 3 1 1.1 1 Individual hydrocarbons 1 1.1 1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 1 1.1 1

1

1

1.05

1.0500

1

1

1.05

1.0500

1 1 1

1 1 1

1.05 1.05 1.05

1.0500 1.0500 1.0500

1

1

2

2.0000

1

1

2

2.0000

1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

1.05 1.5 1.5 3 5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3

1.5253 1.7920 1.7920 3.2412 5.2760 1.7920 1.7920 1.7920 1.7920 3.2412

S18

Table S35. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations for the foreground process “Hydrochar, deashed and dried, pellets, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. σ g2 U3 U5 Ub Flows and emissions U1 U2 U4 Thermal energy, electricity, semi-finished products, working material, waste treatment services Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 HTC post-treatment plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U 1 1 1 Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

1.0500 1.0500 1.0500 1.0500

Table S367. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations for the foreground process “Hydrochar, raw, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. σ g2 U3 U5 Ub Flows and emissions U1 U2 U4 Thermal energy, electricity, semi-finished products, working material, waste treatment services HTC prototype plant, all scales, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 Electricity, low voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U 1 1 1 Heat, hydrochar combustion, at boiler 600kW, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 Process water, treatment with nutrient recovery, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW 1 1 1 Emissions to air CO, heavy metals 1 1 1 CO 2 and SO 2 1 1 1 Individual hydrocarbons 1.05 1.2 1 Inorganic emissions, others 1.05 1.2 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

1.0500 1.0500 1.0500 1.0500

1 1 1.1 1.1

1 1 1 1

5 1.05 1.5 1.5

5.0000 1.0500 1.5798 1.5798

Table S37. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations for the foreground process “Process water, treatment with nutrient recovery, Alloc Rec, U, MIOW”. σ g2 U5 Ub U3 Flows and emissions U1 U2 U4 Thermal energy, electricity, semi-finished products, working material, waste treatment services Potassium chloride, as K2O {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U 1.2 1.2 1 Seawater reverse osmosis module {GLO}| seawater reverse osmosis 1.5 1.2 1 module production, 8-inch spiral wound, enhanced | Alloc Rec, U Electricity, medium voltage {ES}| market for | Alloc Rec, U 1 1.2 1 Pollutants emitted to soil Heavy metals 1.2 1.2 1

1 1.05

1 1.5

1.05 1.05

1.3001 1.8324

1

1

1.05

1.2077

1

1.2

1.5

1.6719

Table S38. Uncertainty factors and squared geometric standard deviations for the foreground process “Ash HTC | treatment of, residual material landfill | Alloc Rec, U, miow”. U3 U5 Ub σ g2 Flows and emissions U1 U2 U4 Thermal energy, electricity, semi-finished products, working material, waste treatment services Residual material landfill {GLO}| market for | Alloc Rec, U 1.2 1.2 1 Process-specific burdens, residual material landfill {GLO}| market for | 1.2 1.2 1 Alloc Rec, U Emissions to water Heavy metals 1.2 1.2 1 NO 3 , PO 4 1.2 1.2 1

1 1

1 1

1.05 1.05

1.3001 1.3001

1 1

1.2 1.2

1.5 1.5

1.6719 1.6719

S19

S6. Additional LCIA results Recall, that differences between impact scores were considered statistically significant if 95% of 1000 Monte Carlo iterations were favourable for one scenario and that statistical comparison could be made with long-term emissions only. S6.1. Characterized impacts at pilot scale a) with long-term emissions Table S39. Characterized impact scores in category-specific units including long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot-scale. Increasing shade of red represents increasing impact scores without considering statistical significance of the differences. Note that the red-coding is done per impact category, across all biowaste streams. Please see Table S40 for details of the statistical comparison between impact scores. Impact category

Unit

Characterized impact with long-term emissions green waste

Climate change

kg CO2 eq

-1.6E-01

food waste -1.3E-01

organic fraction of MSW digestate -1.7E-01

-1.2E-01

Ozone depletion

kg CFC-11 eq

3.5E-09

7.6E-09

2.6E-09

2.4E-08

Human toxicity, cancer effects

CTUh

4.9E-10

-1.2E-09

2.3E-08

-1.6E-10

Human toxicity, non-cancer effects

CTUh

-1.6E-08

-1.4E-08

1.9E-07

-4.3E-08

Particulate matter

kg PM2.5 eq

-8.4E-05

-1.1E-04

-5.9E-05

-6.8E-05

Ionizing radiation, human health

kBq U235 eq

9.5E-03

1.3E-02

3.8E-03

1.3E-02

Photochemical ozone formation

kg NMVOC eq

4.4E-06

2.4E-04

1.2E-05

2.1E-04

Acidification

molc H+ eq

-1.1E-03

-9.7E-04

-1.1E-03

-5.1E-04

Terrestrial eutrophication

molc N eq

-1.4E-03

-9.8E-04

-1.2E-03

1.3E-03

Freshwater eutrophication

kg P eq

6.8E-05

1.3E-05

7.5E-05

3.7E-05

Marine eutrophication

kg N eq

5.0E-05

1.1E-04

4.8E-05

1.2E-04

Freshwater ecotoxicity

CTUe

3.6E-01

4.3E-01

7.6E-01

-7.8E-01

Land use

kg C deficit

4.9E-02

3.3E-02

7.3E-02

1.1E-01

Water resource depletion

m3 water eq

5.9E-05

6.9E-05

3.9E-05

1.4E-04

Resource depletion

kg Sb eq

3.1E-06

3.3E-06

3.0E-06

2.1E-06

S20

Table S40. Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations where characterized impact scores are larger for one biowaste stream compared to the other. Impact scores without considering uncertainty are presented in Table S39.Values below 5% (in italics and with green background) indicate impact scores significantly smaller for first stream compared to the other. Values above 95% (with yellow background) indicate impact scores significantly larger or first stream compared to the other. Impact category

Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations with long-term emissions green waste ≥ green waste ≥ o.f. MSW food waste

Climate change Ozone depletion Human toxicity, cancer effects Human toxicity, non-cancer effects Particulate matter Ionizing radiation, human health

green waste ≥ digestate

food waste ≥ o.f. MSW

food waste ≥ digestate

o.f. MSW ≥ digestate

0%

100%

1%

100%

14%

0%

0.10%

100.00%

0.00%

100.00%

0.00%

0.00%

100%

0%

56%

0%

31%

100%

0.90%

0.00%

50.20%

0.00%

53.00%

68.80%

95.50%

0%

9%

0%

0%

73%

0%

100.00%

47.10%

100.00%

75.90%

0.00%


0.10%

18%

4%

100%

62%

5%

Acidification

1.90%

81.90%

0.20%

98.00%

1.20%

0.50%


2.40%

1%

0%

85%

1%

1%


100%

0.00%

36.90%

0.00%

10.70%

73.80%


0.10%

68%

5%

100%

37%

5%


0%

0.00%

91.00%

0.00%

93.60%

98.00%

Land use Water resource depletion Resource depletion

98.70%

0%

9%

0%

4%

24%

0%

100.00%

48.20%

100.00%

51.10%

49.00%

5.20%

99%

90%

98%

92%

90%

b) without long-term emissions Table S41. Characterized impact scores in category-specific units excluding long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot-scale. Increasing shade of red represents increasing impact scores without considering statistical significance of the differences. Note that the red-coding is done per impact category, across all biowaste streams. Statistical comparison between impact scores could not be done (please see main part, Section 2.4 Uncertainty analysis). Impact category

Unit

Characterized impact without long-term emissions green waste

food waste

organic fraction of MSW digestate

Climate change

kg CO2 eq

-1.6E-01

-1.3E-01

-1.7E-01

Ozone depletion

kg CFC-11 eq

2.8E-09

6.8E-09

2.0E-09

-1.2E-01 2.1E-08


CTUh

8.8E-10

5.0E-10

8.3E-09

1.2E-09


CTUh

-1.4E-08

-1.3E-08

1.9E-07

-2.0E-08

Particulate matter

kg PM2.5 eq

-8.5E-05

-1.1E-04

-5.9E-05

-6.8E-05


kBq U235 eq

2.7E-03

4.6E-03

1.3E-03

3.6E-03


kg NMVOC eq

4.4E-06

2.4E-04

1.2E-05

2.1E-04

Acidification

molc H+ eq

-1.1E-03

-9.7E-04

-1.1E-03

-5.1E-04


molc N eq

-1.4E-03

-9.8E-04

-1.2E-03

1.3E-03


kg P eq

1.7E-06

9.0E-07

1.2E-07

-8.4E-07


kg N eq

5.6E-05

1.2E-04

5.5E-05

1.1E-04


CTUe

6.7E-03

7.2E-03

3.5E-01

-4.3E-03

Land use

kg C deficit

4.9E-02

3.3E-02

7.3E-02

1.1E-01


m3 water eq

5.9E-05

6.9E-05

3.9E-05

1.4E-04

Resource depletion

kg Sb eq

3.1E-06

3.3E-06

3.0E-06

2.1E-06

S21

S6.2. Normalized impacts at pilot scale a) with long-term emissions Normalized impact (mpe)

0.75 0.50

green waste food waste organic fraction of MSW digestate

0.25 0.00

-0.25 n n lth se ge ion cer cer tter tion tion ication ication ication oxicity letio letio du han ma an hea ormat ple can can t fica Lan ce dep ce dep f te c ne de onate oph utroph utroph ity, cidi eco l r a m e n c t i u r A u n , u r r m x c e o h e ti to at Cli ozo Oz icity al e sou Resou er e Par iation, an rine reshw tox stri r re ical wat Ma F Hum man ate em erre Fresh rad h T W g c u n H to izi Pho Ion

Fig. S1. Impact scores in normalized form in milli-Person Equivalents, mPE, including long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot-scale.

a) without long-term emissions Normalized impact (mpe)

0.75 0.50

green waste food waste organic fraction of MSW digestate

0.25 0.00

-0.25 r n n n n n n n th ity se ge cer cer tion atte atio ificatio hicatio hicatio hicatio eal letio letio du han oxic ple can can te m man h e form p p p Lan ce dep ce dep cot id te c ne de ona o o o ity, c e l r r r a n c t t t i u r A u n , u u u r r m x o h e tic to ate Cli ozo Oz icity al e sou Resou er e Par iation, an rine reshw tox stri r re ical wat Ma F Hum man ate em erre Fresh rad h T W g c u H izin Photo Ion

Fig. S2. Impact scores in normalized form in milli-Person Equivalents, mPE, excluding long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot-scale.

S22

S6.3. Sensitivity to transportation distance of the biowaste to the plant (with long-term emissions) Table S42. Characterized impact scores in category-specific units including long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot-scale as influenced by the transportation distance of the biowaste to the plant. Increasing shade of red represents increasing impact scores without considering statistical significance of the differences. Note that the redcoding is done per impact category, across all biowaste streams. Please see Table S43 for details of the statistical comparison between impact scores. Impact category

Unit

Characterized impact with long-term emissions

green waste

food waste

organic fraction of MSW

digestate

Climate change

kg CO2 eq

-1.6E-01

-1.6E-01

-1.8E-01

Ozone depletion

kg CFC-11 eq

3.5E-09

3.5E-09

1.5E-09

-1.4E-01 2.0E-08


CTUh

4.9E-10

-1.4E-09

2.3E-08

-3.6E-10


CTUh

-1.6E-08

-1.6E-08

1.8E-07

-4.5E-08

Particulate matter

kg PM2.5 eq

-8.4E-05

-1.5E-04

-7.0E-05

-1.1E-04


kBq U235 eq

9.5E-03

1.2E-02

3.4E-03

1.2E-02


kg NMVOC eq

4.4E-06

7.2E-07

-5.0E-05

-3.0E-05 -6.6E-04

Acidification

molc H+ eq

-1.1E-03

-1.1E-03

-1.1E-03


molc N eq

-1.4E-03

-1.7E-03

-1.4E-03

5.9E-04


kg P eq

6.8E-05

1.2E-05

7.5E-05

3.7E-05


kg N eq

5.0E-05

5.1E-05

3.2E-05

5.9E-05


CTUe

3.6E-01

4.1E-01

7.5E-01

-8.1E-01

Land use

kg C deficit

4.9E-02

-2.3E-02

5.8E-02

5.1E-02


m3 water eq

5.9E-05

7.0E-05

3.9E-05

1.4E-04

Resource depletion

kg Sb eq

3.1E-06

2.8E-06

2.9E-06

1.7E-06

Table S43. Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations where characterized impact scores are larger for one biowaste stream compared to the other. Impact scores without considering uncertainty are presented in Table S42.Values below 5% (in italics and with green background) indicate impact scores significantly smaller for first stream compared to the other. Values above 95% (with yellow background) indicate impact scores significantly larger or first stream compared to the other. Impact category

Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations with long-term emissions green waste ≥ green waste ≥ green waste ≥ food waste ≥ food waste ≥ o.f. MSW ≥ digestate digestate food waste o.f. MSW digestate o.f. MSW

Climate change Ozone depletion Human toxicity, cancer effects Human toxicity, non-cancer effects Particulate matter Ionizing radiation, human health

11%

100%

7%

98%

20%

1%

40.00%

100.00%

0.00%

96.00%

0.00%

0.00%

100%

0%

64%

0%

23%

100%

22.00%

0.00%

45.00%

0.00%

57.00%

72.00%

100.00%

0%

96%

0%

0%

100%

0%

100.00%

60.00%

100.00%

73.00%

0.00%


38.00%

100%

61%

80%

65%

37%

Acidification

99.00%

99.00%

3.00%

43.00%

1.00%

0.00%


99.00%

55%

3%

10%

1%

0%

100%

0.00%

45.00%

0.00%

9.00%

79.00%

Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication

36.00%

100%

27%

86%

33%

17%


0%

0.00%

89.00%

0.00%

94.00%

98.00%


100.00%

0%

51%

0%

6%

61%

0%

100.00%

42.00%

100.00%

53.00%

50.00%

100.00%

100%

95%

4%

97%

88%

S23

S6.4. Sensitivity to plant scale (with long term emissions) Table S44. Characterized impact scores in category-specific units including long-term emissions for each wet biomass waste stream treated hydrothermally at pilot- and full commercialscale. Increasing shade of red represents increasing impact scores without considering statistical significance of the differences. Note that the red-coding is done per impact category and per biowaste stream, across all scales. Please see Table S45 for details of the statistical comparison between impact scores. Unit

Impact category

Characterized impact with long-term emissions Green waste Food waste

Organic fraction of MSW Digestate

Pilot, 1 Full, 2 Full, 4 Pilot, 1 Full, 2 Full, 4 Pilot, 1 Full, 2 Full, 4 Pilot, 1 Full, 2 Full, 4 reactor reactors reactors reactor reactors reactors reactor reactors reactors reactor reactors reactors Climate change Ozone depletion Human toxicity, cancer Human toxicity, non-cancer Particulate matter Ionizing radiation Photochemical ozone formation Acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Land use Water resource depletion Resource depletion

kg CO2 eq kg CFC-11 eq CTUh CTUh kg PM2.5 eq kBq U235 eq kg NMVOC eq molc H+ eq molc N eq kg P eq kg N eq CTUe kg C deficit m3 water eq kg Sb eq

-1.64E-01

-1.75E-01

3.47E-09

1.92E-09

1.92E-09

7.62E-09

5.79E-09

5.79E-09

2.56E-09

2.49E-09

2.49E-09

2.38E-08

2.37E-08

2.37E-08

4.91E-10

1.15E-10

1.04E-10 -1.17E-09

-1.59E-09

-1.60E-09

2.30E-08

2.30E-08

2.29E-08 -1.58E-10

-2.07E-10

-2.13E-10

-1.64E-08

-2.07E-08

-2.07E-08 -1.42E-08

-1.70E-08

-1.70E-08

1.85E-07

1.81E-07

1.81E-07 -4.30E-08

-4.35E-08

-4.35E-08

-8.45E-05

-1.02E-04

-1.02E-04 -1.09E-04

-1.18E-04

-1.18E-04 -5.88E-05

-7.80E-05

-7.80E-05 -6.80E-05

-6.99E-05

-6.99E-05

9.50E-03

4.31E-03

4.30E-03

1.35E-02

7.26E-03

7.26E-03

3.80E-03

3.71E-03

3.71E-03

1.32E-02

1.28E-02

1.28E-02

4.41E-06

-4.01E-05

-4.02E-05

2.41E-04

2.00E-04

2.00E-04

1.17E-05

-7.83E-06

-7.89E-06

2.08E-04

2.04E-04

2.04E-04

-1.06E-03

-1.15E-03

-1.15E-03 -9.75E-04

-1.07E-03

-1.07E-03 -1.08E-03

-1.09E-03

-1.09E-03 -5.13E-04

-5.19E-04

-5.20E-04

-1.37E-03

-1.53E-03

-1.53E-03 -9.85E-04

-1.13E-03

-1.13E-03 -1.20E-03

-1.28E-03

-1.28E-03

1.27E-03

1.25E-03

1.25E-03

6.75E-05

6.51E-05

6.51E-05

1.25E-05

9.86E-06

9.85E-06

7.55E-05

7.50E-05

7.50E-05

3.71E-05

3.69E-05

3.69E-05

4.97E-05

3.49E-05

3.48E-05

1.13E-04

9.97E-05

9.96E-05

4.78E-05

4.11E-05

4.11E-05

1.21E-04

1.19E-04

1.19E-04

3.59E-01

1.43E-01

1.42E-01

4.35E-01

1.83E-01

1.82E-01

7.56E-01

7.42E-01

7.42E-01 -7.82E-01

-7.98E-01

-7.99E-01

4.94E-02

6.83E-03

6.73E-03

3.27E-02

9.54E-03

9.49E-03

7.25E-02

2.85E-02

2.84E-02

1.06E-01

1.01E-01

1.01E-01

5.91E-05

4.38E-05

4.38E-05

6.85E-05

5.01E-05

5.01E-05

3.85E-05

3.84E-05

3.84E-05

1.39E-04

1.38E-04

1.38E-04

3.11E-06

2.94E-06

2.94E-06

3.27E-06

3.08E-06

3.08E-06

3.04E-06

3.02E-06

3.02E-06

2.12E-06

2.10E-06

2.10E-06

-1.75E-01 -1.35E-01

-1.48E-01

-1.48E-01 -1.69E-01

-1.70E-01

-1.70E-01 -1.17E-01

-1.18E-01

-1.18E-01

Table S45. Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations where characterized impact scores are larger for the one scale compared to the other. Impact scores without considering uncertainty are presented in Table S46.Values below 5% (in italics and with green background) indicate impact scores significantly smaller for first scale compared to the other. Values above 95% (with yellow background) indicate impact scores significantly larger for first scale compared to the other . Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations with long-term emissions pilot-full, 2 reactors

pilot-full, 4 reactors

full, 2 reactors - full, 4 reactors

green waste food waste o.f. MSW digestate green waste food waste o.f. MSW digestate green waste food waste o.f. MSW digestate Climate change

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Ozone depletion

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Human toxicity, cancer

100%

100%

81%

100%

100%

100%

78%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Human toxicity, non-cancer

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Particulate matter

100%

100%

99%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


64%

73%

64%

66%

67%

67%

59%

60%

100%

99%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Acidification

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Land use

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%


100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

56%

53%

62%

47%

54%

57%

55%

55%

55%

50%

43%

56%

Resource depletion

S24

S6.5. Sensitivity to geographic location and replaced waste management system (with long term emissions) Table S46. Impact scores in characterized form as at full-commercial scale with 4 reactors calculated as influenced by geographic location and replaced waste management system (sensitivity scenarios 17-20 in Table 1). Increasing shade of red represents increasing impact scores without considering statistical significance of the differences. Note that the red-coding is done per impact category and per biowaste stream, across all geographic locations and replaced waste management systems. Please see Table S47 for details of the statistical comparison between impact scores. Impact category

Unit

Characterized impact with long-term emissions

Climate change

kg CO2 eq

Ozone depletion

Green waste ES/UK DE/DE

Food waste ES/UK DE/DE

Organic fraction of MSW Digestate ES/UK DE/DE ES/UK

DE/DE

COM

COM

COM

INC

INC

COM

COM

INC

-1.8E-01

-1.1E-01

-1.5E-01

-8.3E-02

-1.7E-01

-1.2E-01

-1.2E-01

kg CFC-11 eq

1.9E-09

3.7E-08

5.8E-09

4.8E-08

2.5E-09

3.1E-08

2.4E-08

-1.2E-01 2.3E-08


CTUh

1.0E-10

5.4E-09

-1.6E-09

6.4E-09

2.3E-08

1.3E-08

-2.1E-10

3.5E-10


CTUh

-2.1E-08

-1.0E-08

-1.7E-08

-9.0E-09

1.8E-07

-3.7E-08

-4.4E-08

-4.2E-08

Particulate matter

kg PM2.5 eq

-1.0E-04

-7.9E-05

-1.2E-04

-8.2E-05

-7.8E-05

-6.3E-05

-7.0E-05

-7.5E-05

Ionizing radiation

kBq U235 eq

4.3E-03

1.9E-02

7.3E-03

2.6E-02

3.7E-03

1.6E-02

1.3E-02

1.2E-02

Photochemical ozone formation kg NMVOC eq

-4.0E-05

-5.1E-06

2.0E-04

2.7E-04

-7.9E-06

7.4E-06

2.0E-04

1.5E-04

Acidification

molc H+ eq

-1.1E-03

-5.8E-04

-1.1E-03

-3.6E-04

-1.1E-03

-6.2E-04

-5.2E-04

-6.2E-04


molc N eq

-1.5E-03

6.5E-04

-1.1E-03

1.5E-03

-1.3E-03

6.4E-04

1.3E-03

1.1E-03


kg P eq

6.5E-05

6.0E-05

9.8E-06

2.1E-05

7.5E-05

6.2E-05

3.7E-05

4.7E-05


kg N eq

3.5E-05

9.0E-05

1.0E-04

1.8E-04

4.1E-05

8.1E-05

1.2E-04

1.0E-04


CTUe

1.4E-01

2.6E-01

1.8E-01

4.6E-01

7.4E-01

-2.5E+00

-8.0E-01

-7.4E-01

Land use

kg C deficit

6.7E-03

1.5E-01

9.5E-03

1.9E-01

2.8E-02

1.4E-01

1.0E-01

8.6E-02


m3 water eq

4.4E-05

1.8E-04

5.0E-05

3.7E-04

3.8E-05

1.5E-04

1.4E-04

1.3E-04

Resource depletion

kg Sb eq

2.9E-06

3.1E-06

3.1E-06

4.0E-06

3.0E-06

2.6E-06

2.1E-06

1.9E-06

Table S47. Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations where characterized impact scores are larger for the ES/UK scenario compared to the DE/DE scenario. Impact scores without considering uncertainty are presented in Table S46.Values below 5% (in italics and with green background) indicate impact scores significantly smaller for the ES/UK scenario compared to the DE/DE scenario. Values above 95% (with yellow background) indicate impact scores significantly larger for the ES/UK scenario compared to the DE/DE scenario. Impact category

Percentage of Monte Carlo iterations with long-term emissions ES/UK - DE/DE green waste

food waste

o.f. MSW

digestate

0%

1%

3%

95%

0%

0%

0%

62%


39%

33%

97%

30%


29%

15%

32%

1%

7%

4%

83%

40%

Climate change Ozone depletion

Particulate matter Ionizing radiation, human health

53%

48%

65%

42%


2%

1%

2%

78%

Acidification

4%

2%

2%

92%


9%

9%

17%

87%


51%

32%

58%

64%


0%

0%

0%

80%


1%

2%

6%

76%

20%

24%

37%

90%

3%

1%

4%

88%

63%

55%

64%

52%


S25