Durham E-Theses - Durham University

4 downloads 146 Views 6MB Size Report
in TroUope grew out of a sixth-form study of Barchester Towers for 'A' level. This interest was developed during the time I was at Durham and after graduating I ...
Durham E-Theses

Trollope in perspective Hamilton, N. D.

How to cite:

Hamilton, N. D. (1980)

Trollope in perspective, Durham theses, Durham University.

Available at Durham

E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/8062/

Use policy

The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: •

a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source



a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses



the full-text is not changed in any way

The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details.

Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk

T R O L L O P E I N PERSPECTIVE

N.D.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged.

Hamilton

TroUope i n Perspective

N , D , Hamilton

ABSTRACT

The Thesis opens w i t h a b r i e f s u m m a r y of the ups and downs of TroUope's l i t e r a r y reputation.

I n the f i r s t chapter the extent of

his range and his a b i l i t y to create characters

convincingly are examined.

This is pursued f u r t h e r i n Chapter Two w i t h an analysis of some of the characters

as m o r a l beings and some c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the w r i t e r ' s

c l a i m to i n t i m a c y w i t h his r e a d e r s . In Chapters representative

T h r e e , F o u r and F i v e , I have looked at a

selection of the novels i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence i n

o r d e r to show the development of his a r t and his ideas together w i t h a steady g r o w t h towards i r o n i c detachment. individual characters

The r e l a t i o n s h i p of

to some of the m a i n institutions of V i c t o r i a n

England is investigated i n Chapter Six, while the w i d e r background of the nineteenth c e n t u r y and the ways i n w h i c h we view i t today are the subject of Chapter Seven, perceptive view of m a n is

I n Chapter E i g h t TroUope's own

discussed.

In the last chapter I have sought to assess TroUope's a r t i s t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n i n the context of a discussion of some c u r r e n t ideas about the value of l i t e r a t u r e .

(i)

Page no.

CONTENTS

Preface

(ii)

Introduction

Viewpoints

1

Chapter One

Naturalism

12

Chapter Two

Character,

Chapter Three

I r e l a n d and B a r set shire

Chapter F o u r

Public and Private L i f e

108

Chapter F i v e

C e r t a i n Assumptions Questioned

136

Chapter Six

Some I n s t i t u t i o n s and Individuals

173

Chapter Seven

Ways of Looking at the Nineteenth Century

198

Chapter E i g h t

The Lessons of Experience

221

Chapter Nine

P e r c e p t i o n and Perspective

236

Bibliography

Author and Reader

46 78

254

(ii) PREFACE No one becomes a T r o l l o p i a n overnight and m y own i n t e r e s t i n TroUope grew out of a s i x t h - f o r m study of B a r c h e s t e r for ' A ' level.

Towers

This i n t e r e s t was developed during the t i m e I was

at D u r h a m and a f t e r graduating I decided to pursue r e s e a r c h as a p a r t - t i m e student.

Although the reading and study has bean

spread

over s e v e r a l y e a r s ,

the i n i t i a l w r i t i n g was compressed into the

sximmer holidays of 19V5 and 1976, since when s e v e r a l new books have appeared,

c o n f i r m i n g the r e v i v a l of academic i n t e r e s t i n TroUope,

I would like to r e c o r d m y thanks to the f o l l o w i n g , without whose help t h i s thesis would not have reached i t s present f o r m : Mr,

B , Stokes,

who helped me to appreciate m u c h of the comic

i r o n y i n the e a r l y w r i t i n g ; begin;

D r , A , M o r r i s o n , who encouraged me to

D r , J . W . B l e n c h , who as m y supervisor has m o n i t o r e d the

progress

of the w r i t i n g and given p a r t i c u l a r help and

i n the l a t e r stages;

M r , N , Lee, f o r help i n obtaining books and

some help w i t h the notes; of the s c r i p t ,

encouragement

M r s , M , Dale f o r her painstaking typing

I would also like to thank relations and f r i e n d s without

whose tolerance and encouragement

p a r t - t i m e study would have been

i m p o s s i b l e : i n p a r t i c u l a r , m y , parents and M r , and M r s , R , B , Smyth. Most of a l l , I want to thank Debbie f o r her unfailing i n t e r e s t and support. The footnotes w i l l be found at the end of each chapter and b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l details of texts and c r i t i c a l works r e f e r r e d to or used i n the thesis are given i n the Bibliography on page .254..

Claverham, 1980

Bristol

Nigel Hamilton

INTRODUCTION

Viewpoints

'It is v e r y h a r d to come at the actual b e l i e f of any man, ' 1 TroUope wrote i n 1866 .

The same caution can u s e f u l l y be exercised

by anyone attempting an a p p r a i s a l of the w o r k of Anthony Trollope h i m s e l f , f o r he has received l i t t l e enough serious consideration i n spite of his enduring p o p u l a r i t y .

There has been a r e v i v a l of

c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t over the last few y e a r s , but his novels have not commanded the attention and respect that has been accorded to the w o r k s of other great V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r s .

Much existing c r i t i c i s m

has tended to c o n f i r m the view that f o r a l l his popularity Trollope is not to be taken s e r i o u s l y .

The immense quantity of his output

- he w r o t e f o r t y - s e v e n novels as w e l l as a number of other f u l l length books - and the prosaic manner i n which he approached his art

have tended to make people t h i n k that he was incapable of deep

thought or a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y . considering T r o l l o p e ' s w o r k ,

But whatever c r i t e r i a one adopts i n patience and a degree of h u m i l i t y are

essential before one can hope to perceive the f u l l extent of his achievement. I t w i l l be as w e l l to begin by considering some of the reasons f o r the adverse nature of m u c h of the c r i t i c i s m w r i t t e n about T r o l l o p e , One reason seems t o a r i s e f r o m the expectation that a l l r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t novelists of the nineteenth century were v i t a l l y and v i s i b l y concerned w i t h t a c k l i n g the h y p o c r i s i e s and i n p a r t i c u l a r the s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s of t h e i r age.

Dickens s t i l l occupies a c e n t r a l position

because he shows up i n such a clear light those abuses and ,)''

inequalities w h i c h others subsequently sought to put r i g h t ,

George

E l i o t and Thomas H a r d y have attained c r i t i c a l acceptance because they too challenged the consciences of their r e a d e r s , making them question many of t h e i r basic assumptions about the o r d e r i n g of society.

I t has been generally held that T r o l l o p e had no such

message f o r his f e l l o w - m e n and ever since F r e d e r i c k H a r r i s o n likened his a r t to that of photography^, a recorder

of m i d d l e - c l a s s ,

he has had a reputation as

m i d - V i c t o r i a n society,

capable of

d e s c r i b i n g the o r d i n a r y lives of o r d i n a r y Englishmen and making a readable, i f somewhat v o l u m i n o u s , story out of v e r y l i t t l e i n the way of plot-mate r i a l .

He has generally been considered along w i t h Scott,

D i s r a e l i and Thackeray and his reputation has nnt always f r o m the c o m p a r i s o n .

gained

This general censure of T r o l l o p e as being

out of touch w i t h the m a j o r issues of his age s t i l l has c u r r e n c y today: Raymond Chapman expresses this view of T r o l l o p e ' s s u p e r f i c i a l i t y i n d e s c r i b i n g his w o r k as

'a guide-book to the age'^, and W i l l i a m Myers,

w r i t i n g i n 1971, says that 'the t r e a t m e n t of m a j o r social questions i n T r o l l o p e ' s novels, though impressive at a documentary l e v e l , is f i n a l l y uninteresting The skeletal thinness of his achievem e n t , . , emphasises his f a i l u r e to experience social fact'4. If T r o l l o p e has f a i l e d to a t t r a c t att^ention alongside those novelists who p r i c k e d the consciences of t h e i r readers about the s o c i a l wrongs of the age,

so too has he f a l l e n short of the stature

of another group of n o v e l i s t s ,

centred around Jane Austen and the

BrontS

sisters.

These have been excused the narrowness

of their

backgrounds and the v i r t u a l e x c l u s i o n of the w i d e r s o c i a l problems on the grounds that t h e i r outlooks were r e s t r i c t e d by t h e i r domestic situations.

Yet T r o l l o p e has been adversely c r i t i c i s e d f o r the

l i m i t a t i o n s of his range i n the novels set i n B a r s e t s h i r e ,

Not

even that i m a g i n a r y county is as isolated as H i g h b u r y , f o r example, and although the outside w o r l d of p o l i t i c s , j o u r n a l i s m and r a i l w a y s obtrudes m o r e into the B a r s e t s h i r e or W u t h e r i n g Heights,

f o r example,

scene than i t does into E m m a i t is s t i l l t r u e that i n the e a r l y

part of his w r i t i n g c a r e e r T r o l l o p e f e l t more at home w r i t i n g about a secluded country society than i n p o r t r a y i n g the m u c h m o r e confused existence of m a n i n town society.

I t was a n a t u r a l choice that he

should begin w i t h the s m a l l e r m o r e intimate c i r c l e s of country society and b u i l d steadily towards the more open c o m m u n i t y of m a n k i n d at large as his confidence i n his a r t i s t i c a b i l i t y g r e w . Had he attempted f r o m the beginning to p o r t r a y the heart of changing thought and ideas about society that existed i n London, T r o l l o p e would undoubtedly have been overwhelmed by the mass of humanity and the v a r i e t y of ideas w i t h w h i c h he was c o n f r o n t e d .

It is h a r d l y

s u r p r i s i n g that his f i r s t r e a l l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s came to f r u i t i o n i n the quieter existence that his posting to Ireland brought h i m i n 1841, 5 ' T h i s was the f i r s t good f o r t u n e of m y l i f e , ' he later wrote

and

he based his f i r s t novel on the s m a l l though d i v e r s e society of County L e i t r i m .

Many of his l a t e r novels are set against a

background as r e s t r i c t e d as that of The Macdermots of B a l l y c l o r a n ,

though they do encompass an i n c r e a s i n g l y wide range of ideas and c o n t e m p o r a r y thought i f one considers his entire opus chronologically. Throughout his w r i t i n g c a r e e r , however,

he concerned h i m s e l f

p r i m a r i l y w i t h the way i n d i v i d u a l s think, act,

react and i n t e r a c t ,

and i t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that f o r some of the t i m e he should choose, like Jane A u s t e n before h i m , a s m a l l piece of i v o r y on w h i c h to carve his i n t r i c a t e studies.

'3 or 4 f a m i l i e s i n a country

v i l l a g e is the v e r y thing to w o r k on'^ m i g h t be quoted i n T r o l l o p e ' s defence w i t h equal j u a t i f i c a t i o n . However m u c h of the c r i t i c i s m of T r o l l o p e has begun by c o m p a r i n g h i m w i t h other nineteenth century n o v e l i s t s ,

a great deal

of his i n d i v i d u a l i t y and an a p p r e c i a t i o n of the scope of his a r t i s t i c achievement have been lost i n the comparison.

But f a r f r o m

his w r i t i n g c a r e e r i n pale i m i t a t i o n of his contemporaries,

spending

he helped

to develop the novel as a m e d i u m of a r t i s t i c expression and the enormously wide r e a d e r s h i p w h i c h he enjoyed d u r i n g his own l i f e t i m e encouraged h i m i n t h i s . novels received,

Many of the c r i t i c a l notices w h i c h his

r e f l e c t this immense

success, although they r a r e l y

achieve the perception into his a r t which our twentieth century 7 detachment should make possible

.

I say 'should make

possible',

because m u c h twentieth century c r i t i c i s m has not shown that detachment.

To some extent this may be due to the large

of personal m e m o r i e s

and reminiscences which were kept alive by

those who had some contact w i t h the novelist h i m s e l f , Sadleir's

number

w o r k is of i m m e a s u r a b l e

Michael

value to any student of T r o l l o p e ,

f o r b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l w h i c h sheds light on the w r i t i n g of the novels, g and f o r the detailed w o r k i n s o r t i n g out T r o l l o p e ' s enormous output , but his c r i t i c a l judgement of T r o l l o p e ' s achievement is seriously i n t e r f e r e d w i t h by his personal m e m o r i e s and assumptions what l i t e r a t u r e ought to be.

about

His service to twentieth century

c r i t i c i s m of T r o l l o p e i s s i m i l a r to that p e r f o r m e d by Robert Bridges when he arranged f o r the publication of the verse of G, M . w i t h an apology that r e a l l y was an apology. this d i f f e r e n c e :

There i s ,

Hopkins

however,

Hopkins's poetry soon came to be seen f o r its true

w o r t h and the i n t r o d u c t i o n was soon f o r g o t t e n , while i n the case of T r o l l o p e , the influence of M i c h a e l Sadlexr has been such that most c r i t i c a l opinion has accepted his somewhat f a i n t praise of T r o l l o p e ' s achievement as a n o v e l i s t . Another i m p o r t a n t and i n f l u e n t i a l twentieth century a p p r a i s a l of T r o l l o p e , w h i l e i t has done m u c h to reawaken i n t e r e s t i n the novels w r i t t e n a f t e r 1867, has l e f t us w i t h the i m p r e s s i o n that the e a r l i e r novels are u n i m p o r t a n t but m o r e seriously has put an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on the later novels w h i c h is quite at odds w i t h an o v e r a l l view of T r o l l o p e as w r i t e r and m o r a l i s t .

A , O. J , Cockshut's study considered

f o r the f i r s t t i m e many of the themes which span the novels, ' P r o p e r t y and Rank',

'Father and Son',

such as

'Religion and the C l e r g y ' ,

'Death' and ' P o l i t i c s and L o v e ' (to quote some of the

chapter

headings),

progressed

and showed how T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g career

towards p e s s i m i s m a f t e r the i n i t i a l sparkle of the B a r s e t s h i r e was over;

series

'The o r d e r (of the chapters) is c h r o n o l o g i c a l , and each chapter reveals a f u r t h e r stage i n the steepening curve of the author's pessimism Anyone who reads s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e l y i n T r o l l o p e ' s w o r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y outside the novels themselves,

can become aware of his own i r o n i c

detachment f r o m the w o r k i n g s of the minds of his c h a r a c t e r s

and

the m i s t a k e that has so f r e q u e n t l y been made is the assumption that T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s of t h e i r author.

are unconscious r e f l e c t i o n s of the m i n d

We are only j u s t beginning now to perceive the

extent to w h i c h T r o l l o p e was the detached m a s t e r of a l l his characters.

As I hope to show subsequently T r o l l o p e developed

a detachment and a u n i v e r s a l pity of the proportions we have grown to expect f r o m only the great f i g u r e s of l i t e r a t u r e .

N o r do I think

that the l a t e r novels r e f l e c t a less o p t i m i s t i c outlook as c l e a r l y as Cockshut suggested,

but even so, t h i s defence of the novels w r i t t e n

a f t e r 1867 leaves the i m p r e s s i o n that the e a r l i e r w o r k s were m a i n l y a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the m o r e i m p o r t a n t w o r k of his l a t e r y e a r s .

If

T r o l l o p e was f i n d i n g his feet as a novelist when he chose to w r i t e about the secluded w o r l d of I r e l a n d and B a r s e t s h i r e ,

he was not

doing so m e r e l y i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the novels i n a broader

social

setting, although that is the i m p r e s s i o n w i t h which we are l e f t f r o m reading Cockshut's attempt to r e a d j u s t the balance between the e a r l y and late w o r k . The l a t e r novels are j u s t as selective i n the number of c h a r a c t e r s introduced as were the e a r l y ones.

The

characters

of p o l i t i c a l London, f o r example, are s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d i n number and T r o l l o p e creates the e f f e c t of a broad s o c i a l background by concentrating on the d a y - t o - d a y lives of a few m e n and women, w i t h o u t the necessity of i n t r o d u c i n g an oppressively large number of m i n o r c h a r a c t e r s . of c h a r a c t e r s

We are never overwhelmed by the number

who appear i n the later novels and one of the reasons

f o r this is that they n e a r l y a l l belong to about 'three or f o u r families'.

I n The Way We L i v e Now, there are the C a r b u r y ,

L o n g s t a f f e and M e k n o t t e f a m i l i e s ;

i n addition, there is the ' f a m i l y '

of the Beargarden Club, and the B o a r d of the S. C, P, and M . R a i l w a y Company;

and that, apart f r o m Paul Montague and M r s .

H u r t l e , i s j u s t about the sum t o t a l .

Considering that the novel

f i l l s r a t h e r m o r e than eight hundred pages, the number of characters involved i s quite s m a l l . A p a r t f r o m the c r i t i c a l w o r k s of M i c h a e l Sadleir and A . O . J . Cockshut, t h e r e have been many c r i t i c a l appraisals published. I n the m a i n these f a l l into two groups:

the short c r i t i c a l essay,

based on j u s t one book or a few of the novels together; longer c r i t i c a l assessment.

and the

The f i r s t of these groups s u f f e r s

because the concern w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r book or few books makes i t d i f f i c u l t to achieve the perspective needed f o r an understanding of T r o l l o p e ' s achievement (and i t i s impossible to reconsider a f r e s h the entire output of a m a n as p r o l i f i c as T r o l l o p e i n a short essay). has,

The second group, attempting a longer c r i t i c a l assessment,

u n t i l r e c e n t l y , f o l l o w e d the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Sadleir and there

8 i s so m u c h to cover i n b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and i n the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n of the novels (the reader who has only dabbled i n T r o l l o p e needs an extended guided tour of his l i f e and his entire oeuvre i f he is to stand any chance of seeing the wood f o r the t r e e s ) that there i s l i t t l e t i m e or space f o r serious r e f l e c t i o n on the nature of T r o l l o p e ' s achievement. I t would be w r o n g , however, to give the i m p r e s s i o n that the entire range of c r i t i c i s m about T r o l l o p e has been m i s l e a d i n g and u n i n f o r m a t i v e : many aspects of his w o r k have been enriched by perceptive w r i t i n g and T r o l l o p e has received due attention f o r his c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n and f o r his naturalism. I t is only n o w , though, that we are beginning to question the c r i t e r i a of m e r i t by w h i c h we judge the novel and as a r e s u l t the qualities w h i c h have been obscured f o r the best part of a century are coming into focus at last.

Of c r i t i c s who have contributed s i g n i f i c a n t l y to this process of r e t h i n k i n g about T r o l l o p e , one stands out i n p a r t i c u l a r , apRoberts has published a number

Ruth

of essays about and introductions

to T r o l l o p e , but her m a j o r w o r k on Trollope'''^ o f f e r s a new assessment of h i m as a m a n and as a novelist, by b r i n g i n g to light aspects of his i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s and i n p a r t i c u l a r his preference f o r the c a s u i s t r y of C i c e r o over the dogmatism w h i c h was so common i n his own age''''''.

By b r i n g i n g various n o n - f i c t i o n a l w o r k s by

T r o l l o p e to our attention and by questioning the established of c r i t i c i s m ,

modes

Ruth apRoberts has done a great service to the w o r k s

of T r o l l o p e and to m o d e r n c r i t i c i s m of the novel i n general.

There is s t i l l m u c h to be done i n f o r g i n g a new c r i t i c i s m , however, f o r the established patterns by which we have been accustomed to evaluate the novel have deep roots : attention to style,

s y m b o l i s m and technique and the tendency to compare

h i s t o r i c a l l y or even, like E , M .

Forster,

authors

out of the context of the

l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n which they w e r e w r i t t e n ;

a l l these things have

been p a r t and p a r c e l of a l i t e r a r y education and i t is not always easy to see that these c r i t e r i a m a y be hindering our t r u e judgement of the n o v e l .

C e r t a i n l y many m o d e r n novels do not lend themselves

to t h i s kind of analysis, but i t r e q u i r e s much m o r e detachment to consider the established t r a d i t i o n of the novel a f r e s h .

Yet the

v e r y f a c t that T r o l l o p e ' s p o p u l a r i t y has endured and the unsatisfactory way i n w h i c h he has been c r i t i c a l l y assessed make i t essential that we should constantly question the assumptions w h i c h underlie any f o r m of established c r i t i c i s m . P r e s s i n g as the reasons f o r thinking anew about T r o l l o p e are,

there should be no m i s t a k e about the d i f f i c u l t y of the task.

F o r a s t a r t , there is the magnitude of his output : how many people, realistically,

have the t i m e to read a l l of T r o l l o p e ' s novels and

his other w o r k s as w e l l , not always the case?

even i f they can obtain t h e m , which is Whatever the j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the length of

his books, no one would c r e d i t h i m w i t h s t r i c t economy i n use of words.

Y e t i f one is to perceive the i r o n i c detachment which is

so f u n d a m e n t a l to understanding T r o l l o p e ' s a r t , one has to read extensively and i n depth, a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g business^

I t is indeed

10

f o r t u n a t e that T r o l l o p e possessed qualities f o r which he has been duly praised over the years : his r e a d a b i l i t y , his s k i l f u l handling of plot and his outstanding c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n . Without these things the t a s k of reading w i d e l y would be a tedious, u p h i l l one and few indeed would be the number i n t e r e s t e d i n reassessing his detachment or anything else about h i m . Yet the r e a d a b i l i t y is there and a l l the evidence is that T r o l l o p e is as widely read today as ever. N o r i s i t only those who seek to escape f r o m the uncertainties of m o d e r n l i f e to the c l o i s t e r e d s e c u r i t y of B a r s e t s h i r e who read his books. T r o l l o p e is w e l l w o r t h reading, as many people know, and i t i s high t i m e that we looked a f r e s h at the r e m a r k a b l e achievement of t h i s n o t - s o - e m i n e n t V i c t o r i a n ,

11 NOTES - I n t r o d u c t i o n

1

C l e r g y m e n of the C h u r c h of England,

p.

124 (Ch. X ) ,

2

Harrison, Frederick, Victorian Literature,

3

Chapman, Raymond,

4

M y e r s , W i l l i a m , 'George E l i o t : P o l i t i c s and P e r s o n a l i t y ' , L i t e r a t u r e and P o l i t i c s i n the Nineteenth Century, ed. John Lucas, pp, 106-107,

5

A n Autobiography,

6

I n a l e t t e r to Anna Austen, 9th September 1814, Jane Austen's L e t t e r s to her Sister Cassandra and Others, ed, Raymond Chapman, p, 4 0 1 ,

7

Many of these are now accessible i n T r o l l o p e : The C r i t i c a l Heritage, ed, Donald Smalley.

8

The two m o s t i m p o r t a n t books are T r o l l o p e : A Commentary and T r o l l o p e : A B i b l i o g r a p h y . Most c r i t i c s have acknowledged t h e i r debt to the f o r m e r since i t s appearance i n 1927, while the l e t t e r provides a s t a r t i n g point f o r any enquiry about what Trollope wrote,

9

Cockshut,

'Antony T r o l l o p e ' , Studies i n E a r l y p, 212, The V i c t o r i a n Debate, pp.

187-188,

p. 67 (Ch. I l l ) ,

A . O . J , , Anthony Trollope : A C r i t i c a l Study,

10

apRoberts, Ruth,

11

Ibid.,

Ch. I l l ,

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t ,

p, 11,

12 Chapter One Naturalism A l t h o u g h the s o c i a l range f r o m which T r o l l o p e d r e w many of his c h a r a c t e r s may have been rather r e s t r i c t e d , he has, theless,

never-

succeeded i n p o r t r a y i n g a very large number of i n t e r e s t i n g

individual characters.

They may nearly a l l belong to roughly the

same class i n society, but among them they cover most of the strengths and weaknesses of human nature i n one guise or

another,

T r o l l o p e f r e q u e n t l y c l a i m e d that he lived w i t h the c h a r a c t e r s he w r o t e about,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the P a l l i s e r s e r i e s , and knew them

i n t i m a t e l y as f r i e n d s .

They do not strike the reader w i t h a strong

i m p r e s s i o n on f i r s t acquaintance

as do those of Dickens, ( i m m e d i a t e l y

recognisable as p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of one t r a i t of human nature or another), but the m o r e we read about them, the m o r e t h e i r natures grow apparent to us.

The c h a r a c t e r s i n Dickens's novels

are

entertaining to meet and make a strong i m p r e s s i o n on us, but f o r the m o s t part they lack the depth of personality which makes T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s so r e a l i s t i c a l l y a l i v e .

In Dickens's w o r l d

and i n the w o r l d of Vanity F a i r the characters are

'flat' in

Forster's

t e r m , though there are the obvious exceptions like Becky

Sharp,

' F l a t ' c h a r a c t e r s are often entertaining, but they r a r e l y

stand up as live human beings : T r o l l o p e succeeds, by d i f f e r e n t means, i n m a k i n g many of his characters stand up and because they are capable of s u r p r i s i n g the reader, many of them are ' r o u n d ' by the same c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

13 F o r example,

the d e c i s i o n of Plantagenet

P a l l i s e r to

abandon p o l i t i c s at the t i m e least appropriate i n his single-minded c a r e e r and take Lady Glencora on a European tour is a clear example of t h i s s u r p r i s e element i n T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , M e l m o t t e ' s suicide, i n The Way We Live Now, like that of F e r d i n a n d Lopez i n The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , succeeds i n s u r p r i s i n g the r e a d e r , but there are an i n f i n i t e number of s m a l l e r instances when a character

does .n.ot p e r f o r m to type : M r s , Proudie, i n the

m i d s t of her i n t r i g u e s over H i r a m ' s Hospital, is genuinely moved by the plight of M r s , Q u i v e r f u l and her f o u r t e e n c h i l d r e n and i n an i n t e r v i e w at the bishop's

palace:

' M r s , Proudie proved herself a w o m a n . , . There was a heart inside that s t i f f - r i b b e d bodice, though not, perhaps, of large dimensions, and c e r t a i n l y not easily accessible! . Thus is she moved to help the Q u i v e r f u l s , not by anger w i t h her husband o r M r , Slope, but by a h e a r t f e l t sympathy f o r t h e i r plight. So T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s have an a b i l i t y to s u r p r i s e us i n a way that those of Dickens lack, but there is another way too i n w h i c h T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s are nearer to being r e a l - l i f e people : they cannot be c l e a r l y labelled as good or e v i l f o r the m o s t p a r t : none of them i s c o m p l e t e l y angel or d e v i l . H a r d i n g , f o r example,

The p o r t r a i t of M r ,

may approach adulation on the part of the

author, but his f a u l t s are t h e r e ,

however v e n i a l they may seem

to us: 'Doubting h i m s e l f was M r , H a r d i n g ' s weakness',2 .

14

and later i n the same book, when he could have found out the f u l l nature of his daughter's

association w i t h M r , Slope, he avoids the

confrontation: ' A h , t h o u weak man: most c h a r i t a b l e , m o s t C h r i s t i a n , but weakest of m e n . M a r y Thorne, i n the next B a r s e t s h i r e n o v e l , may be a l l that is r e q u i r e d of a heroine i n E n g l i s h f i c t i o n ;

she may f i t into a type

as defined by Henry James: 'They are so a f f e c t i o n a t e , , , they have a kind of clinging tenderness, a passive sweetness, w h i c h is quite i n the old English tradition'^; but she is nevertheless the Gresham

v e r y proud, especially i n her dealings w i t h

family.

S i m i l a r l y the e v i l natures of some characters exhibited i n these e a r l y novels do not go unmitigated by good q u a l i t i e s . E v e n M r , Slope i s : 'not i n a l l things a bad man. His m o t i v e s , like those of most m e n , were m i x e d ; and though his conduct was g e n e r a l l y v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that w h i c h one would w i s h to p r a i s e , i t was actuated perhaps as o f t e n as that of the m a j o r i t y of the w o r l d by a desire to do his duty. He believed i n the r e l i g i o n which he taught.,. But M r , Slope had never been an i m m o r a l m a n . Indeed he had resisted temptations to i m m o r a l i t y w i t h a strengt^ of purpose which was creditable to h i m ' . S i m i l a r l y i n D o c t o r Thorne T r o l l o p e was c a r e f u l to c o r r e c t the one-sided p i c t u r e we m a y have of F r a n k Gresham's Lady A r a b e l l a de Courcy:

mother.

15

' B e f o r e we go on, we must say one w o r d f u r t h e r as to Lady A r a b e l l a ' s c h a r a c t e r . It w i l l probably be said that she was a consummate h y p o c r i t e ; but at the present m o m e n t she was not h y p o c r i t i c a l . She d i d love her son; she was anxious - v e r y , v e r y anxious f o r h i m ; was proud of h i m , and almost a d m i r e d the v e r y obstinacy w h i c h so vexed her to her i n n e r m o s t soul ,,, She was as genuinely m o t h e r l y , i n w i s h i n g that he should m a r r y money as another woman m|^ght be i n wishing to see her son a bishop' , I n the novels w r i t t e n a f t e r 1867, the t u r n i n g point a f t e r w h i c h , according to Cockshut, steadily g r o w i n g p e s s i m i s m ,

T r o l l o p e ' s o p t i m i s m turns into a

one f i n d s that good and e v i l are fused

together i n e v e r y human being w i t h greater novels.

s k i l l than i n the e a r l i e r

I n The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , f o r example,

is d e s c r i b e d w i t h redeeming f e a t u r e s ,

Ferdinand Lopez

i n spite of the d i a b o l i c a l

selfishness of e v e r y t h i n g he does: ' F e r d i n a n d Lopez was not an honest or a good m a n . He was a self-seeking i n t r i g u i n g adventurer, who d i d not know honesty f r o m dishonesty when he saw them together. But he had at any rate t h i s good about h i m , that he did love the g i r l whom he was about to m a r r y . He was w i l l i n g to cheat a l l the w o r l d , so that he m i g h t succeed, and make a f o r t u n e , and become a b i g and r i c h man; but he d i d not w i s h to cheat h e r , Lopez's a m b i t i o n to get into P a r l i a m e n t ,

despicable as may be the

means by w h i c h he hopes to do i t , is portrayed as a noble

endeavour,

as i t i s i n a l l T r o l l o p e ' s p o l i t i c a l novels, and the attempt c o n f e r s some esteem upon the candidate,

no matter what his intentions.

The same d e s i r e to succeed i n P a r l i a m e n t and 'obtain u n i v e r s a l

16

credit'

b y l a v i s h e n t e r t a i n i n g makes the reader of The Way We

L i v e Now accept the deviousness of Augustus M e l m o t t e as being at least recognisably human;

and f o r a l l his inhumanity i n the

way he t r e a t s his f a m i l y , one has to admit that m u c h of what he does is m o t i v a t e d by a d e s i r e

to secure his daughter's

happiness,

T r o l l o p e ' s e v i l c h a r a c t e r s do not belong to the genre of Victorian melodrama;

they are not v i l l a i n s i n that sense and we

recognise t h e m as people and not m e r e l y c a r i c a t u r e s vices.

of p a r t i c u l a r

Just as there are no v i l l a i n s , nor are there any saints

i n these novels:

high as may be the ideals which i n s p i r e P a l l i s e r ,

as Duke of O m n i u m , to serve his country as best he can and noble as m a y be his motives i n consenting to be p r i m e m i n i s t e r ,

his

b e l i e f i n the i m p o r t a n c e of his own position of rank is quite inconsistent w i t h his l i b e r a l creed;

and the deeply i n g r a i n e d

snobbishness w h i c h r e s u l t s i n his intolerant attitude towards the matches proposed by his own c h i l d r e n , together w i t h his almost Pauline d o m i n i o n over Glencora, f l a w l e s s hero i n any sense,

are signs that he is not a

Phineas F i n n , another i d e a l i s t ,

not f r e e of human f a i l i n g s e i t h e r ,

is

and he comes to l i f e a l l the

m o r e as a r e s u l t , Trollope's characters, categories

then, do not f i t easily into

of good and e v i l and are not, t h e r e f o r e ,

caricatures,

though we r e m e m b e r many of the less i m p o r t a n t ones only by t h e i r m o s t apparent f e a t u r e s . course,

This is the case i n r e a l l i f e of

since those we see only occasionally are best

remembered

17 by t h e i r m o s t obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , w h i l e those we know better s t r i k e us by t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y and by the f a c t that they are never entirely predictable. M o s t of T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s are neither saints nor v i l l a i n s and are capable of s u r p r i s i n g us without becoming i n c r e d i b l e : i n fact they live and t h i n k and act and speak as do human beings i n r e a l l i f e ^ I n A n Autobiography T r o l l o p e explains how they lived f o r h i m as he w r o t e :

'the n o v e l i s t d e s i r e s to make his readers so i n t i m a t e l y acquainted w i t h his c h a r a c t e r s that the c r e a t u r e s of his b r a i n should be to them speaking, m o v i n g , l i v i n g human creatures. This he can never do unless he knows those f i c t i t i o u s personages h i m s e l f , and he can never know them unless he can l i v e w i t h them i n the f u l l r e a l i t y of established intimacy. They m u s t be w i t h h i m as he lies down to sleep and as he wakes f r o m his dreams. He m u s t l e a r n to hate them and to love t h e m . He m u s t argue w i t h t h e m , q u a r r e l w i t h t h e m , f o r g i v e them and even submit to t h e m . He must know of them whether they be cold-blooded or passionate, whether t r u e or f a l s e , and how f a r t r u e , and how f a r f a l s e . The depth and the breadth, and the n a r r o w n e s s and the shallowness of each should be c l e a r to h i m . , , '^ I f T r o l l o p e ' s own c r i t e r i o n f o r good

characterisation

outlined here is a sound basis f o r judging his own success, he has done what he set out to do a d m i r a b l y : the reader of T r o l l o p e ' s novels finds i t easy to recognise the characters as human beings i n t h e i r own r i g h t . There a r e ,

however,

m o r e objective standards by w h i c h

T r o l l o p e ' s a b i l i t y to create c h a r a c t e r s may be assessed. is one such test:

Here

18 'Roughly, the action of a c h a r a c t e r should be unpredictable before i t has been shown, inevitable when i t has been shown. In the f i r s t h a l f , the u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y should be the m o r e stri^king; i n the second half, the i n e v i t a b i l i t y , It is perhaps f a i r to say that T r o l l o p e has m a s t e r e d this balance of f o r e s i g h t and hindsight defined by Elizabeth Bowen ;

we are

encouraged to read on j u s t because we cannot predict how the c h a r a c t e r s w i l l r e a c t to a new situation and our enjoyment is r e i n f o r c e d by the s a t i s f a c t i o n of finding that the c h a r a c t e r s always acted i n r a t h e r than out of c h a r a c t e r .

I t is this balance that makes

T r o l l o p e so readable, because i t is n a t u r a l i s t i c : people

are

unpredictable i n r e a l l i f e , yet t h e i r actions seem inevitable afterwards. L o r d D a v i d C e c i l a d m i r e d T r o l l o p e ' s faithfulness to r e a l l i f e i n the c r e a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r s , but his a d m i r a t i o n is only a q u a l i f i e d one: 'a large number of his c h a r a c t e r s , f o r a l l t h e i r t r u t h to f a c t , are not l i v i n g creations i n the f u l l e s t sense, , , (because they are lacking in) t ^ ^ t indefinable spark of individuality' » One example he discusses is S i r Roger Scatcherd i n Doctor

Thorne,

but i t is d i f f i c u l t to see how Sir Roger lacks that 'spark of individuality'.

His is the s t o r y of a self-made man who has no

f r i e n d i n the w o r l d , loneliness

save Doctor Thorne h i m s e l f , and i n his

he d r i n k s h i m s e l f to death.

Thorne is r e m a r k a b l e

since D r ,

Thome's

His f r i e n d s h i p w i t h D r , own brother was k i l l e d

19

by Roger Scatcherd at the t i m e of M a r y T h o m e ' s b i r t h . Roger's

success i n business, i n securing part of the

Sir

Gresham

estate and i n getting into P a r l i a m e n t are a l l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y described, but

i t i s his f a l l , his e v i c t i o n f r o m Parliament on account of the

disclosed f r a u d i n his election and his f i n a l illness f o l l o w i n g his excessive

d r i n k i n g bout that give h i m his 'spark of i n d i v i d u a l i t y ' .

The p r o t r a c t e d s u f f e r i n g , the f a c t that he can i n no way r e s i s t the bottle under his p i l l o w , the i n t e r v i e w s w i t h Doctor Thorne, the late change i n his w i l l when he knows who M a r y is and most of a l l his own

confession that d r i n k has been his d o w n f a l l , a l l contribute to

the i m p r e s s i o n we have t h a t he has life and that he is as close any f i c t i o n a l c r e a t i o n can be to a l i v i n g human being.

as

It is,

perhaps, his a b i l i t y to see h i m s e l f f o r what he is that constitutes his 'indefinable s p a r k ' .

Just b e f o r e his death,

speaking to Doctor Thorne about his son,

Scatcherd is

Louis:

' " Y o u ' l l be w i t h h i m as much as possible, w o n ' t y o u ? " again asked the baronet^ a f t e r l y i n g quite silent f o r a quarter of an hour, " W i t h w h o m ? " said the doctor, who was then a l l but asleep, " W i t h m y poor boy; w i t h L o u i s , " " I f he w i l l let m e , I w i l l , " said the doctor. "And, doctor, when you see a glass at his m o u t h , dash i t down; thrust i t down, though you t h r u s t out the teeth w i t h i t . When you see that, Thorne, t e l l him of his father t e l l h i m how his father died like a beast, because he could not keep h i m s e l f f r o m drinkl"^'2.' L o r d David C e c i l compares Sir Roger w i t h a character

i n a histoUy

book and says that T r o l l o p e ' s power of p o r t r a y i n g emotion is

rather

20 weak

13

, but i t is h a r d to agree w i t h this assessment of Sir Roger, T r o l l o p e ' s a b i l i t y to p o r t r a y l i v i n g c h a r a c t e r s grew m o r e

m a t u r e i n the books a f t e r Doctor Thorne. perhaps one of his greatest creations,

Lady Glencora is

especially as the reader

knows her i n t i m a t e l y throughout most of her adult l i f e .

The

struggle w h i c h she has between following the demands of heart and m i n d before her m a r r i a g e to Plantagenet

P a l l i s e r culminating i n

B u r g o F i t z g e r a l d ' s attempt to entice her away at Lady Monk's b a l l gives her a l i f e that i t a l l her own.

Her devoted services

to

P a l l i s e r ' s i n t e r e s t s as Chancellor of the Exchequer and l a t e r as P r i m e M i n i s t e r of the C o a l i t i o n Government is always i n c o n f l i c t w i t h her own h a l f - r e a l i s e d d e s i r e s to act as f i r s t lady i n the realm.

This c o n f l i c t i n her personality, brought to light i n the

v a r i o u s ' i n t e r v i e w s ' she has w i t h her husband at Matching, makes her as r e a l a c r e a t i o n as any one could expect to f i n d i n f i c t i o n . Her astuteness and her g u l l i b i l i t y are nowhere better shown than i n her attempts to secure the f a m i l y P a r l i a m e n t a r y seat of S i l v e r b r i d g e f o r F e r d i n a n d Lopez, a move w h i c h among other things contributes to her husband's f a l l f r o m power.

She i s a woman to be a d m i r e d

and l i k e d , not least f o r her human f a i l i n g s , so that along w i t h her husband we f e e l a r e a l loss at her death.

N o r is i t only the m a i n

c h a r a c t e r s who r e f l e c t T r o l l o p e ' s a b i l i t y to draw and create n a t u r a l i s t i c m e n and women to f i l l the pages of his books. M u c h of T r o U o p i a n c r i t i c i s m w r i t t e n towards the beginning of t h i s century tended to judge c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n i n t e r m s of the new

21 science of psychology and T r o l l o p e ' s achievement may w e l l have been m a r r e d by the v i e w taken then that his c h a r a c t e r s lacked psychological depth. T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f was not a psychologist : he made no systematic attempt to explain human behaviour; but that does not prevent us f r o m recognising, now that we are thoroughly used to the science of psychology, that T r o l l o p e was unusually observant i n his characterisations and accurate i n his analysis of these c h a r a c t e r s . The fact that they ' r i n g t r u e ' to the m o d e r n r e a d e r is ample proof of t h i s . The character of M r , Scarborough i n M r Scarborough's F a m i l y is a study of a m a n obsessed w i t h p r o p e r t y ; the book is i n many ways f a n t a s t i c a l and i m p r o b a b l e , but the detailed study of M r . Scarborough h i m s e l f explores i n t e r e s t i n g areas of human psychology without m a k i n g us doubt his c r e d i b i l i t y :

' I f y o u can imagine f o r y o u r s e l f a state of things i n w h i c h neither t r u t h nor m o r a l i t y s h a l l be thought essential, then old M r , Scarborough would be your hero'''''^, T r o l l o p e ' s created c h a r a c t e r s are as accurate i n t h e i r

psychology

and deep i n t h e i r analysis as those of Jane Austen, George E l i o t and Henry (James, though they l a c k the j a r g o n of systematic, twentieth c e n t u r y psychological explanation. T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f was w e l l aware that few people would read the entire series of his P a l l i s e r novels i n sequence: 'Who w i l l r e a d Can Y o u F o r g i v e Her?, Phineas F i n n , Phineas Redux and The P r i m e M i n i s t e r consecutively, i n o r d e r

22 that he may understand the c h a r a c t e r s of the Duke of O m n i u m , of Plantagenet P a l l i s e r , and Lady Glencora? Who w i l l even know that they should be so r e a d ? ' 1 5 It is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g i f some of the characters who appear t i m e and again i n the f u l l P a l l i s e r s e r i e s sometimes

seem less

i m p r e s s i v e to the reader who, as i t w e r e , m e r e l y dips

into

the w o r l d i n w h i c h they l i v e , m o v e , love, hate and t h i n k by reading the novels i n anything other than s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d sequence. It is no s m a l l t a s k to read a l l s i x books i n o r d e r ,

some 4, 500

pages i n t o t a l , but we can only expect the c h a r a c t e r s to come to l i f e as f u l l y as they d i d f o r t h e i r author i f we do so. The c h a r a c t e r s throughout T r o l l o p e ' s novels are

more

r e a l i s t i c creations than has been recognised u n t i l c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y and there is s t i l l m u c h support f o r L o r d David C e c i l ' s view t h a t although T r o l l o p e was accurate i n r e c o r d i n g the of a c h a r a c t e r , the surface,

surface

his i m a g i n a t i o n was never f i r e d to search beneath

'to discover its guiding p r i n c i p l e ' H e imagined 17

t r u l y , but he i m a g i n e d f a i n t l y , ' Trollope's characterisations.

is s t i l l a w i d e l y held view of I n fact his c h a r a c t e r s are i n the 18

m a i n ' r o u n d ' and 'capable of s u r p r i s i n g i n a convincing w a y ' they are not types, or

'bad' c a t e g o r i e s ,

they cannot be c l a s s i f i e d into e n t i r e l y 'good' they are painted i n shades r a t h e r than i n

b l a c k and white and they have l i f e and v i t a l i t y of t h e i r own. If at f i r s t they do not s t r i k e the reader w i t h t h e i r personal characteristics,

;

i n the way that many of Dickens's

caricatures

23 make an i m m e d i a t e i m p r e s s i o n , subtle,

i t is because they are

more

n a t u r a l i s t i c and t r u e to l i f e : the reader grows to know them

as he grows to know his f e l l o w human-beings

- gradually;

and the

m o r e he learns of t h e m , the m o r e interested he becomes i n getting to know them b e t t e r .

I f the reader were presented w i t h a

c o l l e c t i o n of v i v i d l y d r a w n p e n - p o r t r a i t s on the scale of those i n V a n i t y F a i r or O l i v e r T w i s t

the effect would be e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t

and the f i c t i o n a l stage would be f i l l e d w i t h c a r i c a t u r e s l i v i n g people.

rather than

I t is the way that characters are introduced to

the reader g r a d u a l l y that makes T r o l l o p e such a successful w r i t e r i n his p o r t r a i t s of people.

A s Henry James said when w r i t i n g

of the n o v e l i s t ' s a r t : 'A c h a r a c t e r i s i n t e r e s t i n g as i t comes out, and by the process of duration of that emergence; j u s t as a procession is e f f e c t i v e by the way i n w h i c h i t u n r o l l s , t u r n i n g to a m e r e mob i f i t a l l passes at once''^^ Even L o r d David C e c i l ,

f o r a l l the adverse c r i t i c i s m he

makes of T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n ,

admits that 'at t h e i r w o r s t ,

20 T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s are

'probable'

, but there i s one other

aspect of his c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n w h i c h has f o r the m o s t part escaped c r i t i c a l attention,

A great novelist, according to 21

A r n o l d Bennett,

'has a C h r i s t - l i k e ,

a l l - e m b r a c i n g compassion'

It i s a feature of T r o l l o p e , as i t was of Webster and Tolstoy, that he i n s p i r e s a kind o f u n i v e r s a l pity i n the r e a d e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the books of his w r i t i n g m a t u r i t y .

Characters

do not escape

r e p r i m a n d f r o m t h e i r c r e a t o r ( M r , Slope's 'conduct was generally

24 22 v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that w h i c h we would w i s h to p r a i s e ' and to F e r d i n a n d Lopez,

;

'that w h i c h we c a l l cheating was not

23 dishonesty'

) but he invokes our sympathy f o r a l l of t h e m .

That is the reason why there are no v i l l a i n s or saints i n his novels : they a l l have good and bad qualities i n v a r y i n g degrees and we are helped to understand how they came to possess those qualities.

I n this respect

his w r i t i n g c a r e e r .

T r o l l o p e grew i n m a t u r i t y through

There i s no doubt that the

author's

sympathies are not e n t i r e l y engaged f o r M r , Slope any m o r e than they are f o r M r s , Proudie i n Barchester

Towers:

' M r s , Proudie has not been p o r t r a y e d i n these pages as an agreeable or an amiable lady. There has been no intention to i m p r e s s the reader much i n her f a v o u r . It is ordained that a l l novels should have a male and a f em ale angel and a male and female devil. I f i t be considered that t h i s r u l e i s obeyed i n these pages, the l a t t e r character m u s t be supposed to have f a l l e n to the lot of M r s , Proudie, But she was not a l l d e v i l ' ^ ^ , M o r e w i l l be said about the nature of such i n t r u s i o n s by the author l a t e r on.

Ten y e a r s a f t e r Barchester

T o w e r s , when

T r o l l o p e came to w r i t e of her again i n The Last Chronicle of Barset,

he evidently had a great ' p i t y ' f o r her i n spite of her

faults: 'It cannot be said t h a t she was a bad woman, though she had i n her time done an indescribable amount of e v i l . She had endeavoured to do good, f a i l i n g p a r t l y by ignorance and p a r t l y f r o m the e f f e c t s of an u n b r i d l e d , ambitious temper.'^^*

25 What a d i f f e r e n c e there is here : the most hated woman i n B a r s e t s h i r e is defended by her c r e a t o r , not out of any sudden r e a l i s a t i o n of the need to r e d r e s s the balance, but because the author f e e l s some sympathy f o r h e r .

The l a t e r books exhibit a greater u n i v e r s a l p i t y , L i z z i e Eustace i n The Eustace Diamonds, f o r a l l her vanity, h y p o c r i s y and selfishness,

i s p o r t r a y e d i n such a way that the

reader cannot but f e e l some sympathy fo^r her,

p a r t l y because

T r o l l o p e repeatedly emphasises the i s o l a t i o n i n which she l i v e s , even when she has the f r i e n d s h i p of L o r d George C a r r u t h e r s to support h e r .

I n The Way We L i v e Now. T r o l l o p e openly

c r i t i c i s e s society and the changes that have come over i t i n the t h i r d q u a r t e r of the nineteenth century : the old established o r d e r i n g of society based upon honour and i n h e r i t e d t i t l e s ,

has

been r e p l a c e d by a s e l f - s e e k i n g c u t - t h r o a t society i n w h i c h money and influence are the only e f f e c t i v e weapons by which a m a n can survive and p r o s p e r . w h i c h T r o l l o p e deplores,

Yet i n spite of these debased values, the characters

f o r them as human beings,

demand, our sympathy

a l m o s t without exception.

The m e m b e r s

of the B e a r g a r d e n Club, useless parasites upon t h e i r parents and the country as they a r e ,

are a l l por tr ayed as amiable fools f r o m

whom nothing m o r e could be expected,

and are the complete

opposite of T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f , whose P o s t - O f f i c e and w r i t i n g c a r e e r s are as fine an example of i n d u s t r y and devotion to w o r k as any i n d u s t r i a l i s t could hope to f i n d .

Even the Jewish banker,

Mr.

26

B r e g h e r t , wins the r e a d e r ' s sympathy because of his devoted s e r v i c e to Georgiana L o n g e s t a f f e , unsuitable as he i s f o r her hand i n a l l except money. The press, that group which Trollope m i s t r u s t e d f r o m his e a r l y days as a w r i t e r , are sympathetically p o r t r a y e d i n the personages of Messrs^ A l f , Broune and Booker, who feature so f r e q u e n t l y at Lady C a r b u r y ' s somewhat decadent . soirees. I n f a c t , everyone and everything is decadent i n The Way We L i v e Now, but Trollops!s p o r t r a y a l of each i n d i v i d u a l character i s sympathetic,

M e l m o t t e h i m s e l f , monstrous as he i s i n his a e l f i s h greed and i n the deceits he p r a c t i s e s ,

unscrupulous i n his

methods and almost i n h u m a n i n his treatment of w i f e and daughter, emerges nevertheless

i n a sympathetic l i g h t .

He f u l l y deserves

the end that b e f a l l s h i m , yet even he commands a kind of pity f r o m the r e a d e r .

He cannot be dismissed as a v i l l a i n ,

perhaps because he i s too f u l l y human being f o r such c l a s s i f i cation.

He l i v e s f o r the r e a d e r , because we see h i m f r o m

so many angles : we observe h i m not only i n the c h a i r at the meetings of the S, C . P .

& M , Railway B o a r d and entertaining

the E m p e r o r of China i n his own London house, conference w i t h his aide, H e r r C r o l l ,

but also i n

i n the p r i v a c y of his

c i t y o f f i c e s i n A b c h u r c h Lane and most i m p o r t a n t l y i n his own domestic setting, w i t h M r s , Melmotte and w i t h his daughter Marie.

I t is not j u s t because i t is easier to make e v i l m o r e

a t t r a c t i v e than good i n f i c t i o n - as seen most notably i n

27 M i l t o n ' s Paradise L o s t - that makes M e l m o t t e a m a n who f o r a l l his monstrous qualities has to be pitied r a t h e r than despised T r o l l o p e ' s t r e a t m e n t of h i m shows that insight and understanding of hiiman nature w h i c h makes h i m a great n o v e l i s t . I t is this u n i v e r s a l pity which f o r m e d the b a s i s of T r o l l o p e ' s outlook on l i f e and w h i c h lay behind most of his characterisations;

and i t is t h i s same u n i v e r s a l p i t y , coupled

w i t h his a b i l i t y to b r i n g c h a r a c t e r s to l i f e as people, that made T r o l l o p e the c r a f t s m a n and a r t i s t that he was. observed,

As already

one e a r l y c r i t i c of Trollope likened his a r t to that 26

of the photographer

, i m p l y i n g that although Trollope was an

excellent r e c o r d e r of e v e r y t h i n g he saw i n l i f e , he never delved below the surface and consequently his p o r t r a i t s were, sometimes m i s l e a d i n g and l a c k i n g i n i n s i g h t . criticism,

As i f he foresaw this

T r o l l o p e expressed his views on photography and

the a r t of c r e a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i n Barchester

T o w e r s , at the

beginning of the chapter i n w h i c h he introduces M r , A r a b i n : 'The Rev, F r a n c i s A r a b i n , f e l l o w of L a z a r u s , late p r o f e s s o r of p o e t r y at O x f o r d , and present v i c a r of St, E w o l d ' s , i n the diocese of B a r c h e s t e r , m u s t now be introduced p e r s o n a l l y to the reader. He i s w o r t h y of a new v o l u m e , and as he w i l l f i l l a conspicuous place i n the b o o k , i t is d e s i r a b l e that he should be made to stand b e f o r e the r e a d e r ' s eye by the aid of such p o r t r a i t u r e as the author i s able to produce, ' I t is to be r e g r e t t e d that no m e n t a l method of daguerreotype or photography has yet been d i s c o v e r e d by w h i c h the characters of men can be reduced to w r i t i n g and put into

28

g r a m m a t i c a l language with an u n e r r i n g p r e c i s i o n of t r u t h f u l d e s c r i p t i o n . How o f t e n does the n o v e l i s t f e e l , ay, and the h i s t o r i a n also and the biographer, that he has conceived w i t h i n his m i n d and a c c u r a t e l y depicted on the tablet of his b r a i n the f u l l character and personage of a m a n , and that, nevertheless,, when he f l i e s to pen and i n k to perpetrate the p o r t r a i t , his words f o r s a k e , elude, disappoint, and play the deuce w i t h h i m , t i l l at the end of a dozen pages, the m a n d e s c r i b e d has no m o r e resemblance to the m a n conceived than the sign-board at the c o r n e r of the street has to the Duke of Cambridge ? 'And yet such m e c h a n i c a l d e s c r i p t i v e s k i l l would h a r d l y give m o r e satisfaction to the reader than the s k i l l of the photographer does to the anxious mother desirous to possess an absolute duplicate of her beloved c h i l d . The likeness is indeed t r u e ; but i t is a dead, d u l l , unfeeling, inauspicious likeness. The face is indeed t h e r e , and those looking at i t w i l l know at once whose image i t is; but the osmer of the face w i l l not be proud of the resemblance. 'There i s no r o y a l road to learning; no s h o r t cut to the acquirement of any valuable art. L e t photographers and daguerrotypers do what they w i l l , and i m p r o v e as they may w i t h f u r t h e r s k i l l on that w h i c h s k i l l has already done, they w i l l never achieve a p o r t r a i t of the human face divine. Let b i o g r a p h e r s , n o v e l i s t s , and the rest of us groan as we m a y under the burden which we so o f t e n f e e l too heavy f o r our shoulders, we m u s t either bear them up like men, or own ourselves too weak f o r the w o r k we have undertaken. There i s no way of w r i t i n g w e l l and also w r i t i n g easily, ' L a b o r omnia v i n c i t i m p r o b u s ' . Such should be the chosen motto of every labourer, and i t m a y be that labour, i f adequately end u r i n g , m a y s u f f i c e at last to produce even some not untrue resemblance to the Rev, 27 Francis Arabin.' .

29

T r o l l o p e was w e l l aware of the d i f f i c u l t i e s which he as a novelist,

a c r e a t o r of human likeness, faced;

and i t may be

that his v e r b o s i t y has been his greatest bar to c r i t i c a l acceptance. respect:

The last paragraph here betrays h i m i n this

' i t may be that labour, i f adequately enduring,

may s u f f i c e , , , '

Perhaps i n his p o r t r a i t u r e he has

endured

too adequately f o r the taste of some of his r e a d e r s , but that should not deter us f r o m recognising that his c h a r a c t e r s

are

m o r e a l i v e and m o r e f u l l y created human beings than any ' d u l l , dead,

unfeeling, inauspicious, (photographic) l i k e n e s s ' .

His a r t of p o r t r a i t u r e , unwieldy as i t may have been, m a s t e r l y and the c h a r a c t e r s produced bear m o r e

is

likeness

to r e a l human beings than many of the c h a r a c t e r s i n the best of f i c t i o n .

So f a r as the c r e a t i o n of character

the closer the resemblance

to human nature,

is

concerned

the greater

will

be the a r t w h i c h produces i t : 'It is v e r y easy to depict a hero, - a m a n absolutely stainless, p e r f e c t as an A r t h u r , - a m a n honest i n a l l his dealings, equal to a l l t r i a l s , true i n a l l his speech, i n d i f f e r e n t to his own p r o s p e r i t y , struggling f o r the general good, and, above a l l , f a i t h f u l i n love. A t any r a t e , i t is as easy to do that as to t e t l of the man who is one hour good and the next bad, who aspires g r e a t l y , but f a i l s i n p r a c t i c e , who sees the higher, but too o f t e n follows the lower course. There arose at one time a school of a r t , w h i c h delighted to paint the human face as p e r f e c t i n beauty; and f r o m that t i m e to this we were discontented unless every woman is d r a w n f o r us as a Venus, o r , at least, a Madonna, I do not know that we have gained m u c h by t h i s untrue p o r t r a i t u r e , either i n

30 beauty o r i n a r t . There may be made f o r us a p r e t t y thing to look at, no doubt; - but we know that that p r e t t y thing i s not r e a l l y visaged as the m i s t r e s s whom we serve, and who lineaments we d e s i r e to perpetuate on the canvas. The winds of heaven, or the fleshpots of Egypt, or the m i d n i g h t gas, - passions, pains, and, perhaps, rouge and powder, have made her something d i f f e r e n t . But s t i l l there i s the f i r e of her eye, and the eager eloquence of her m o u t h , and something, too, perhaps, l e f t of the departing innocence of youth, w h i c h the painter might give us without the Venus or the Madonna touches. But the painter does not dare to do i t . Indeed, he has painted so long a f t e r the other f a s h i o n that he would hate the canvas before h i m , were he to give way to the r o u g e begotten roughness or to the fleshpots, or even to the w i n d s . And how, m y l o r d , would y o u , who are giving hundreds, m o r e than hundreds, f o r this p o r t r a i t of your dear one, l i k e t o see i t i n p r i n t f r o m the a r t c r i t i c of the day, that she is a b r a z e n faced hoyden who seems to have had a glass of wine too m u c h , or to have been making hay? 'And so also has the reading w o r l d taught i t s e l f to l i k e best the characters of a l l but divine m e n and women. Let the m a n who paints w i t h pen and i n k give the g a s l i g h t , and the f l e s h p o t s , the passions and pains, the p r u r i e n t prudence and the rouge-pots and pounce-boxes of the w o r l d as i t i s , and he w i l l be t o l d that no one can care a straw f o r his c r e a t i o n s . W i t h whom are we to sympathise? says the reader, who not u n n a t u r a l l y imagines that a hero should be heroic. Oh, thou, m y r e a d e r , whose sympathies are i n t r u t h the great and only a i m of m y w o r k , when y o u have called the dearest of y o u r f r i e n d s round you to your hospitable table, how many heroes are there s i t t i n g at the board? Your bosom f r i e n d , even i f he be a knight without f e a r , is he a knight without reproach? The Ivanhoe that you know, d i d he not press Rebecca's hand?

31

Your l o r d Evandale, - d i d he not b r i n g h i s coronet into play when he strove to w i n his E d i t h Bellenden? "Was your T r e s i l i a n s t i l l t r u e and s t i l l f o r b e a r i n g when t r u t h and forbearance could a v a i l h i m nothing? A n d those sweet g i r l s whom you know, do they never doubt between the poor m a n they think they love, and the r i c h man whose riches they know they c o v e t ? , , , , , , 'The persons whom you cannot care f o r i n a novel, because they are so bad, are the v e r y same that you so d e a r l y love i n your l i f e , because they are so good. To make them and ourselves somewhat better, - not by one s p r i n g heavenwards to p e r f e c t i o n , because we cannot so use our legs, - but by slow c l i m b i n g , i s , we may p r e s u m e , the object of a l l teachers, leaders, l e g i s l a t o r s , s p i r i t u a l pastors, and m a s t e r s . He who w r i t e s tales such as t h i s , probably also has, v e r y humbly, some such object distantly before h i m , A picture of surpassing godlike nobleness, - a picture of King A r t h u r among men, may perhaps do m u c h . But such p i c t u r e s cannot do all. When such, a picture is painted, as intending t o show what a m a n should be, i t is t r u e . I f painted to show what m e n a r e , i t is f a l s e . The t r u e picture of l i f e as i t i s , i f i t could be adequately painted, would show m e n what they a r e , and how they m i g h t r i s e , not, indeed, to p e r f e c t i o n , but one step f i r s t , and then another on the ladderl^^.' 'Oh thou, m y r e a d e r , whose sympathies are i n t r u t h the great and only a i m of m y w o r k . , , '

Beneath the m o c k - h e r o i c tone

can be seen the basis of T r o l l o p e ' s u n i v e r s a l pity : 'the author and reader should move along i n f u l l confidence w i t h each 29 other, ' he stated elsewhere

, and his object is to engender

sympathetic understanding f o r a l l his c h a r a c t e r s ,

i n the m i n d

32

of the r e a d e r . I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that i n the same paragraph, T r o l l o p e goes on to consider the unheroic acts of 'the h e r o e s ' of Scott's novels, Ivanhoe, Old M o r t a l i t y and Kenilworth : how m u c h m o r e n a t u r a l i s t i c a l l y could T r o l l o p e have p o r t r a y e d the inconsistencies of these characters had he been w i i i t i n g i n Scott's placei

In the passage quoted, his

T r o l l o p e d e l i b e r a t e l y confuses

r e a d e r by constant r e f e r e n c e to the characters

while discussing the characters

of f i c t i o n .

of r e a l l i f e

He does this to

expose the false c r i t e r i a by w h i c h the reading public evaluate the c h a r a c t e r s are, his

of f i c t i o n : i f they resemble m e n as they r e a l l y

the author ' w i l l be told that no one can care a straw f o r creations, '

The r e a d e r , he says, expects to f i n d a hero,

'a m a n absolutely stainless,

p e r f e c t as an A r t h u r , ' i n spite of

the f a c t that such a p o r t r a i t can bear l i t t l e resemblance r e a l human being.

to any

Such personifications of heroic goodness

'may perhaps do m u c h ' to i m p r o v e the reader, but 'such pictures cannot do a l l ' .

I f the n o v e l i s t ' s purpose i s to edify his readers

(which T r o l l o p e hints here that i t is) he w i l l do m u c h better to 'show m e n what they are,

and how they m i g h t r i s e , not,

to p e r f e c t i o n , but one step f i r s t ,

indeed,

and then another on the ladder',

T r o l l o p e has c e r t a i n l y m a s t e r e d the a r t of showing people what they r e a l l y are and quite i r r e s p e c t i v e of any didactic role he m a y assume, the a r t of showing people what is the highest to which the a r t i s t can a s p i r e .

they r e a l l y are

33 It has already been said that T r o l l o p e d e l i b e r a t e l y confuses r e a l and f i c t i t i o u s personages i n this passage.

In

f a c t he goes f u r t h e r than t h i s by equating the bad people i n books w i t h the good people i n r e a l life*

'The persons who you cannot

c a r e f o r i n a n o v e l , because they are so bad,

are the v e r y same

that you so d e a r l y love i n y o u r l i f e , because they are so good. ' B y apparently t u r n i n g the whole m o r a l universe inside out here, T r o l l o p e means to show us that there i s no such thing as a complete hero or absolute v i l l a i n i n r e a l l i f e and so the attempts to p o r t r a y these pure qualities i n f i c t i o n are always misleading: 'We cannot have heroes to dine w i t h us. There are n o n e , , . But neither are our f r i e n d s v i l l a i n s - whose every a s p i r a t i o n is f o r e v i l , and whose every moment i s a struggle f o r some achievement w o r t h y of the d e v i l , ' T r o l l o p e ' s view of hviman nature i s essentially a r e a l i s t i c one; ,3Q • 'Men as I see them are not o f t e n h e r o i c • • Such a n t i - h e r o i s m i s nothing new i n E n g l i s h f i c t i o n : indeed there is almost a t r a d i t i o n of a n t i - h e r o i s m i n the E n g l i s h novel, going back to Henry F i e l d i n g .

But T r o l l o p e portrayed

his characters w i t h that balance of what we label good and bad that makes them as close to r e a l life as one could expect to find in fiction. I t has been c l a i m e d that i n spite of the m u l t i p l i c i t y of c h a r a c t e r s i n T r o l l o p e ' s novels,

his range i s i n general too

n a r r o w and hence his v i s i o n is l i m i t e d .

Compared w i t h Dickens,

34

c e r t a i n l y , the class of society f r o m w h i c h he draws m o s t of his c h a r a c t e r s is v e r y r e s t r i c t e d .

His attempts to p o r t r a y

w o r k i n g - c l a s s m e n and women, c r i m i n a l s and even servants are generally unsuccessful, The Eustace D i a m o n d s .

witness the b u r g l a r s at C a r l i s l e i n The beadsmen of H i r a m ' s H o s p i t a l

i n The Warden have no m o r e l i f e than the lesser m o r t a l s who f i l l up the b a c k c l o t h i n the s o c i a l settings of B a r s e t s h i r e ,

and

the b r i c k l a y e r f r o m Hoggle End i n The L a s t Chronicle does not s t r i k e us as v i t a l l y a l i v e , i n spite of his philosophical t u r n of mind.

The few c h a r a c t e r s f r o m low l i f e who f i n d t h e i r way

into the pages of the P a l l i s e r series s i m i l a r l y make only a momentary impression.

The beggar g i r l who addresses Burgo

F i t z g e r a l d i n O x f o r d Street,

f o r example,

serves to t e l l us

m o r e about B u r g o h i m s e l f and T r o l l o p e ' s only comment, 31 repeated t w i c e ,

'Poor B u r g o i "

shows just how m u c h interest

T r o l l o p e had i n the fate of this pretty, sixteen year old f o r c e d to beg f o r g i n - m o n e y on the streets at m i d n i g h t j

In the same

manner George V a v a s o r ' s unexpected encounter w i t h Jane, sometime m i s t r e s s ,

on the eve of his departure

his

for America,

is of passing i n t e r e s t only, though Trollope describes her 32 appearance at some length and the dialogue i s good

,

T r o l l o p e was not i n t e r e s t e d as a w r i t e r i n the plight of the p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n masses i n V i c t o r i a n England. does not mean that he had no social conscience,

This

but he did not

show that r e f o r m i n g zeal w h i c h made many of his

contemporaries

35

so r e m a r k a b l e .

The c i r c l e s i n which he h i m s e l f moved and

his n a t u r a l reticence,

coupled w i t h the acute s e n s i t i v i t y to the

o r d i n a r y human i n t e r a c t i o n s w h i c h are so subtly p o r t r a y e d i n his novels,

m a y have made h i m shy away f r o m the f a r greater

s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s to which he must have been exposed his c a r e e r w i t h the Post O f f i c e ,

throughout

He was not insensitive to

people's needs and the i n j u s t i c e s w i t h w h i c h they had to contend; indeed he may have been r a t h e r too sensitive to be able to w r i t e about them p o w e r f u l l y enough to avoid sentimentality. B u t although T r o l l o p e exhibited l i t t l e or no i n t e r e s t i n w o r k i n g class c h a r a c t e r s ,

his range is nevertheless w i d e .

Throughout the novels there i s a scattering of outsiders who b r i n g to the E n g l i s h s o c i a l scene v a r i e t y and a f r e s h outlook, Signora N e r o n i i n B a r c h e s t e r

Towers is quite d i f f e r e n t f r o m

the other women, b r i n g i n g w i t h her something of the I t a l i a n temperament

f r o m the Stanhope v i l l a at, Lake Como,

Her

open f l i r t a t i o n s w h i c h so upset M r s . Proudie and her t o t a l r e j e c t i o n of the E n g l i s h class system at the Ullathorne Sports Party,

when she outstares la grande dame of the

occasion,

Lady A r a b e l l a de Courcy and then asks M r , Slope 'who on 33 e a r t h is that w o m a n ? ' was,

only to laugh when hearing who i t

b r i n g s a freshness to the society of B a r s e t s h i r e ,

as w e l l

as p r o v i d i n g a y a r d s t i c k by w h i c h its values can be judged. S i m i l a r l y I s a b e l Boncassen and her parents have about them a v e r y d i f f e r e n t set of values and their part i n The Duke's

36 C h i l d r e n helps to i l l u s t r a t e the extent of T r o l l o p e ' s range. Isabel is as d i f f e r e n t f r o m Silverbridge as that other A m e r i c a n heroine,

Isabel A r c h e r , is f r o m L o r d W a r b u r t o n , i n Henry

James's P o r t r a i t of a Lady. lady, M r s , H u r t l e ,

Another T r o l l o p i a n A m e r i c a n

i n The Way We Live Now, contributes to

the v a r i e t y of c h a r a c t e r s ,

and like the other two already

mentioned she helps to i l l u m i n a t e the c e n t r a l characters

by her

v e r y r e j e c t i o n of E n g l i s h v a l u e s . But A m e r i c a n and I t a l i a n women are not the l i m i t of T r o l l o p e ' s range.

His wide t r a v e l and the v a r i e t y of duties

that he undertook while w o r k i n g f o r the Post O f f i c e gave T r o l l o p e ample experience of human l i f e and he used this to the f u l l i n his novels.

His t r a v e l s led h i m to w r i t e

stories

and novels about m o r e than f i f t e e n countries, as v a r i e d as Jamaica,

Costa R i c a and B e l g i u m , and his novels about I r e l a n d

show a r e a l l y sympathetic understanding of the I r i s h

character,

something not shared by a l l his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . But the novels centred on E n g l i s h l i f e display a wide range of understanding i n the d i v e r s i t y of t h e i r

characters.

I t is t r u e that m u c h of the action in the B a r s e t s h i r e novels takes pjace i n or around a s m a l l cathedral c i t y and the p o l i t i c a l novels centre on the private studies and d r a w i n g - r o o m s of statesmen and the r e s t r i c t e d w o r l d of London clubs. Nevertheless the range of characters

who feature i n these novels

i s exceptionally w i d e , m o r e so i n the later than i n the e a r l i e r

37 novels. Even i n the B a r s e t s h i r e series, however, we have a country doctor ( D r . Thorne), a self-made business-man turned M , P. (Scatcherd), a r i s i n g government o f f i c i a l (Adolphus Grosbie), a humble government c l e r k (Johnny Eames), an unscrupulous land-owner ( M r , Sowerby) and a r e t i r e d m a j o r (Henry G r a n t l y ) , as w e l l as the whole c o l l e c t i o n of scheming grandes dames and a complete c r o s s - s e c t i o n of the c l e r g y i n the Ghurch of England,

I n the p o l i t i c a l novels the range is even w i d e r .

The

cabinet i t s e l f m a y be somewhat l i m i t e d , but i t represents only a s m a l l p o r t i o n of the society of which T r o l l o p e w r i t e s : the hunting scenes, the f o r e i g n t r a v e l , the d r a w i n g - r o o m p o l i t i c s , Mr,

Kennedy i s o l a t e d i n his madness at L o u g h l i n t e r , the

Scottish castle of the Eustace f a m i l y at P o r t r a y w i t h i t s unique keeper Andy Gowran - any attempt to show the d i v e r s i t y of c h a r a c t e r and setting i n the P a l l i s e r novels soon turns into a l i s t so disconnected and v a r i e d that i t becomes as

meaningless

as a tour of England by coach must be f o r many f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s to this country : i m p r e s s i v e , but memorable only f o r the confusion i t creates i n the t r a v e l l e r ' s m i n d ,

Reading T r o l l o p e ' s

novels leaves no such s u p e r f i c i a l i m p r e s s i o n of human existence - i t is only an attempt to s u m m a r i s e the d i v e r s i t y of situation that creates this i m p r e s s i o n , T r o l l o p e ' s range is i n f a c t as wide as his output was immense.

He d i d not choose to w r i t e about those

sections

of nineteenth c e n t u r y England of which i t was fashionable to

38

w r i t e , but he should not be condemned f o r that alone. the B r o n t e s censured f o r not w r i t i n g about London?

Are Is Jane

Austen censured f o r not w r i t i n g about European t r a v e l or the F r e n c h Revolution?

Is Dickens h i m s e l f censured f o r f a i l i n g

to w r i t e about the households of cabinet m i n i s t e r s

where

i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l issues were debated? The E n g l i s h c r i t i c a l bias in the f i r s t half of this century has tended to favour the w r i t e r s of the mid-nineteenth century who d r e w attention d i r e c t l y to the social i n j u s t i c e s of the age and the effects of the I n d u s t r i a l Revolution, Anything outside the scope of this is at t i m e s regarded 'narrow'.

as

Some novelists were w r i t i n g i n a n a r r o w range

i n this sense, as Jane Austen had done a l i t t l e e a r l i e r : f o r example Thackeray and Gosse were perhaps l i m i t e d by t h e i r lack of immediate concern w i t h s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e and w i t h the I n d u s t r i a l Revolution and even Scott, f o r a l l the v a r i e t y of his subject m a t t e r ,

is r e s t r i c t e d by his lack of involvement

i n the s o c i a l problems of his day. not ' n a r r o w ' i n this sense.

T r o l l o p e was c e r t a i n l y

The scope of his w r i t i n g

embraced

most aspects of the l i f e of the middle classes i n London and the country as w e l l as many places abroad.

Had he w r i t t e n

less i t m i g h t be said that even i f his range was wide, his perception m u s t have been shallow. and his c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , a n a l y t i c a l and

However, this is not so

as has been shown, was n a t u r a l i s t i c ,

sympathetic.

39 I t has already been said that one of T r o l l o p e ' s m a i n achievements was the c r e a t i o n of characters so n a t u r a l i s t i c that they seem to r e s e m b l e people i n r e a l l i f e as closely as any f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s can.

Many people who accept this

a b i l i t y to p o r t r a y c h a r a c t e r s w e l l point out f r o m a l i m i t e d knowledge of T r o l l o p e ' s range that a large p r o p o r t i o n of his c h a r a c t e r s i s made up of c l e r g y m e n , politicians.

False as t h i s c l a i m i s , i t a f f o r d s the opportunity

of showing that, likenesses,

or i n the later novels,

f a r f r o m being a reproducer

of photographic

T r o l l o p e was a r e a l student of human nature,

saw beneath the outward appearance and understood nature w i t h some perception. are a l l c l e r i c s , yes, calling requires

who

human

The c l e r g y of B a r s e t s h i r e

and the day-to-day duties which t h e i r

of them are basically s i m i l a r as are

p r o f e s s e d b e l i e f s and t h e i r outer garments.

their

Trollope

concerned

h i m s e l f v e r y l i t t l e w i t h these aspects of his c l e r g y m e n and i t i s only r a r e l y that he gives serious consideration to t h e i r b e l i e f s o r to t h e i r doctrines

: he was not a theologian i n the

t r a d i t i o n a l sense and he was interested f a r m o r e i n how his c l e r g y m e n live and behave towards t h e i r f e l l o w m e n . evident that he d i d not sympathise w i t h the extreme

I t was evangelical

outlook, as is shown i n the p o r t r a i t of c l e r i c s like M r , Slope, but his judgement of the wide v a r i e t y of c h u r c h outlooks presented t h r o u g h the c h a r a c t e r s of his c l e r g y m e n is based upon what they do r a t h e r than what they believe.

Hypocrisy

40

i s the weakness that T r o l l o p e exposes m o s t c l e a r l y , i n c l e r g y m e n as i n other characters,..

C l e r g y m e n of the Ghurch

of England is a s e r i e s of p o r t r a i t s of how c e r t a i n c l e r i c s behave, not of what they believe. of step w i t h his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

T r o l l o p e was perhaps out

i n that r e l i g i o n was f o r h i m

p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h how m e n t r e a t one another and less w i t h soul-searching

attempts to achieve personal salvation

t h r o u g h a b s t r a c t systematic

theology,

James K i n c a i d ,

recent study of the novels i s the most comprehensive

whose

so far'^^,

pinpoints T r o l l o p e ' s i n t e r e s t i n c l e r i c s neatly when he says of the B a r s e t s h i r e

novels:

' " C l e r g y m e n are only m e n " runs a dominant m o t i f throughout. But what i s i n the f i r s t novels a c o m f o r t i n g doctrine of u n i f i c a t i o n becomes by the f i n a l novel a f r i g h t e n i n g one, " A l l c l e r g y m e n are m e n " i n B a r c h e s t e r Towers means to the reader " a l l m e n are c l e r g y m e n " , possessing i n t h e i r c o m m o n h u m i l i t y the source of a l l s p i r i t u a l i t y ; i n The Last C h r o n i c l e , " a l l m e n are c l e r g y m e n " seems to translate into " a l l m e n are thieves"!'^^« It has been thought thought that T r o l l o p e regarded s p i r i t u a l aspects of the priesthood as p r i v a t e and

'outside,,,

36 a n o v e l i s t ' s p e r m i s s i b l e scope'

but this view f a i l s to

recognise that f o r T r o l l o p e r e l i g i o n was how people l i v e d 37 r a t h e r than what they believed I t was human nature w h i c h interested T r o l l o p e and his studies of v a r i o u s c l e r i c s show r e m a r k a b l e insight into the d i v e r s i t y of that nature,

M r , Proudie's

the

g r i e f at the

41 death of his awesome w i f e has nothing whatever to do w i t h the fact that he was a bishop; being a curate only makes M r , C r a w l e y ' s m e n t a l t o r t u r e a l l the w o r s e , when he is accused of stealing M r . Soames's £ 2 0 cheque; M r , Quiverful has f o u r t e e n c h i l d r e n and a w i f e to support whether he i s a c l e r g y m a n o r not; M r , Slope was .no doubt as s e l f i s h and ambitious i n the sugar company he went to w o r k f o r when his stay i n the Bishop's palace came to an end; Archdeacon G r a n t l y would have been as q u i c k - t e m p e r e d , as w a r m and as fond of defending his own peace of m i n d against a l l i n t r u d e r s , whether he had been i n holy orders or not. The l i s t could be much f u l l e r , but the f a c t is clear : although many of T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s i n the B a r s e t s h i r e series are c l e r i c s , they are f i r s t and f o r e m o s t human beings.

S i m i l a r l y , many of the c h a r a c t e r s i n the l a t e r novels are p o l i t i c i a n s , but Plantagenet

P a l l i s e r is as d i f f e r e n t f r o m

Sir Orlando Drought as he is f r o m M r , A b e l Wharton, whose steady devotion to the law has taught h i m never to t r u s t p o l i t i c s or would-be p o l i t i c i a n s .

It would be a v e r y shallow

judgement to say that T r o l l o p e ' s novels are f i l l e d w i t h c l e r i c s or p o l i t i c i a n s and t h e r e f o r e his range is n a r r o w .

I t would

be about as m i s l e a d i n g as saying that Checkov's plays are of no i n t e r e s t to us because a l l the characters are

Russian.

T r o l l o p e ' s range of characters i s , then, wide and v a r i e d , and his reproductions of hiiman l i f e , f a r f r o m being

42

m e r e l y photographic, show sympathetic i n s i g h t and clear understanding.

I n this study of his f e l l o w m e n , T r o l l o p e

'is p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n people in t h e i r r e l a t i o n to the ,38 social structure

,

and p a r t of his c l a i m to excellence

springs

f r o m the p o r t r a i t s he gives us of living man i n his s o c i a l relations.

43

NOTES - Chapter One 1

Barchester Towers,

p. 222 (Ch, X X V I I ) .

2

Ibid.,

p. 49 (Ch. V I I ) ,

3

Ibid.,

p, 239 (Gh. X X V I I I ) .

4

James, Henry, p. 130.

5

Barchester Towers,

6

Doctor Thorne,

7

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , I , p, 227 (Ch,

8

The Way We L i v e Now. I I , p. 326 (Ch,

9

A n Autobiography,

'Anthony T r o l l o p e ' , P a r t i a l

pp.

Portraits,

115-116 (Gh, X V ) .

pp. 502-503 (Ch, X L I V ) , XXIV), LXXXIV),

p, 209 (Ch, X I I ) .

10

Bowen, E l i z a b e t h , 'Notes on W r i t i n g a N o v e l ' , O r i o n I I , quoted i n W a l t e r A l l e n , W r i t e r s on W r i t i n g , p, 180,

11

C e c i l , L o r d D a v i d , E a r l y V i c t o r i a n Novelists : Essays i n Revaluation, p, 257.

12

D o c t o r Thorne.

13

E a r l y Victorian Novelists,

14

M r , Scarborough's F a m i l y , p, 568 (Ch,

15

A n Autobiography,

16

Early Victorian Novelists,

17

Ibid,,

18

F o r s t e r , E , M , , Aspects of the N o v e l , p,

19

James, H e n r y , The Spoils of Poynton. A l l e n , W r i t e r s on W r i t i n g , p, 199.

20

Early Victorian Novelists,

21

Bennett, A r n o l d , J o u r n a l s . (15th October 1896), i n W a l t e r A l l e n , W r i t e r s on W r i t i n g , p, 140,

p,

p. 307 (Ch, X X V ) ,

p,

pp,

257-258, LVIII),

169 (Gh, X ) , p,

260,

255.

p.

85.

quoted i n Walter

253, quoted

44

22

Barchester

23

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r . I , p, 227 (Ch, X X I V ) .

24

Barchester

25

The Last C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t .

26

H a r r i s o n , F r e d e r i c k , 'Anthony T r o l l o p e ' , Studies i n E a r l y V i c t o r i a n L i t e r a t u r e , p, 212.

27

Barchester

28

The Eustace Diamonds,

29

Barchester

30

The Clave r i n g s , p, 297 (Ch, X X V I I I ) ,

31

You Can F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

p, 329 (Ch. X X I X ) .

32

Ibid.,

LXXI),

33

Barchester

34

pp.

T o w e r s , p,

Towers,

Towers,

Towers,

121 (Ch. X V ) .

p, 222 (Ch, X X V I ) .

pp,

p, 700 (Ch,

LXVI).

156-157 (ch, X X ) . pp, 355-357 (Ch.

XXXV).

p, 122 (Ch. X V ) ,

739-744 (Ch,

T o w e r s , p . 327 (Ch. X X X V I I ) ,

James K i n c a i d has done m u c h , along w i t h Ruth apRoberts, to reawaken academic i n t e r e s t i n T r o l l o p e ' s novels. The appearance of his s c h o l a r l y book, The Novels of Anthony T r o l l o p e , i n 1977, i s an indication of the serious attention now being a f f o r d e d to T r o l l o p e , but i t was preceded by a number of a r t i c l e s w h i c h appeared i n Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n and other Journals over a number of y e a r s . The need to m a i n t a i n a c r i t i c a l awareness of the changing i n t e r e s t i n T r o l l o p e was c l e a r l y expressed i n his a r t i c l e ' B r i n g B a c k The T r o l l o p i a n ' , i n 1976, The T r o l l o p i a n had been started w i t h the r e v i v a l of i n t e r e s t i n the novels d u r i n g the Second W o r l d War (see Gordon Ray's T r o l l o p e . at F u l l Length), and r a n f r o m 1945 to 1949, when i t became Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n .

35

The Novels of Anthony T r o l l o p e , pp,

93-94.

36

Sadleir, M i c h a e l , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n to Barchester 1956, p, x i i ,

37

It is i n t e r e s t i n g to see how c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t i n T r o l l o p e ' s c l e r g y m e n has changed over the last f o r t y y e a r s . In 1944, R, Edwards w r o t e about T r o l l o p e ' s inaccuracies i n m a t t e r s of e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p r e f e r m e n t and p r a c t i c e , i n ' T r o l l o p e on C h u r c h A f f a i r s ' , Times L i t e r a r y Supplement,

Towers',

45

21st October, and i n 1962 an a r t i c l e by S. Hawkins on ' M r . H a r d i n g ' s C h u r c h M u s i c ' was published i n J o u r n a l of E n g l i s h L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y , x x i x , seeking to establish B i b l i c a l significance i n the fact that there are twelve beadsmen at H i r a m ' s H o s p i t a l . I t was not u n t i l the end of that decade that i n t e r e s t focused on the c l e r g y m e n themselves, w i t h 'TroHope's C l e r i c a l Concerns : The Low C h u r c h C l e r g y m e n ' and 'The P r o f e s s i o n a l C l e r g y m a n i n Some Novels by Anthony T r o U o p e ' , by J , W, Lee and F , F , T i l l s o n r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n H a r t f o r d Studies i n L i t e r a t u r e , i , (1969-70) pp. 198-208 and pp. 185-197,, I n 1973, Helen C o r s ' s study of the 'Paranoid P e r s o n a l i t y ' of M r , Crawley (in v o l . V of the same J o u r n a l ) showed the i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n T r o l l o p e ' s c l e r i c s as m e n . Most recently, Peter P a c k e r ' s The P o r t r a y a l of the A n g l i c a n C l e r g y m e n i n some Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n c o n f i r m s m y view that T r o l l o p e ' s concern was w i t h how his c l e r g y m e n l i v e d t h e i r lives r a t h e r than w i t h t h e i r f o r m a l i s e d role i n V i c t o r i a n society. 38

E a r l y V i c t o r i a n N o v e l i s t s , p, 270,

46 Chapter Two Character.

A u t h o r and Reader

' L e t i t be clear f r o m the outset that T r o l l o p e ' s expression of the m i d - V i c t o r i a n s p i r i t has always the l i m i t a t i o n of class and background congenial to his t a s t e . He is the c h r o n i c l e r , the o b s e r v e r and the i n t e r p r e t e r of the w e l l - t o do, c o m f o r t a b l e England of London and the E n g l i s h shires'"''* Sadleir's view lies behind m u c h of the available c r i t i c i s m of T r o l l o p e .

I n p a r t i c u l a r , the n a t u r a l i s m of his

character

p o r t r a y a l has been construed as a f a i l u r e to be aware of the h y p o c r i s y of the m i d - V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , when d i f f e r e n t scales of public and p r i v a t e m o r a l i t y existed side by side, yet unopposed. The voice of Dickens exposing this hypocrisy stands unchallenged ( w e l l supported by names like B u t l e r , Gissing, Gosse, Hardy and George M o o r e ) i n the v i e w of the twentieth c e n t u r y .

Beside t h e m ,

T r o l l o p e appears to shed no l i g h t on the m o r a l i t y of the age of w h i c h he was the c h r o n i c l e r .

Even A , 0 , J ,

Cockshut said that

T r o l l o p e ' d i d not l i k e to consider things too s e r i o u s l y ' , T r o l l o p e ' s novels have f o r too long been accepted as popular entertainments by a m a n who could invent plausible c h a r a c t e r s and place them i n plausible situations and l i t t l e m o r e . Recent r e s e a r c h has begun to undermine this prevalent attitude,

however.

M o s t notably, i n her study T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t

and M o r a l i s t , Ruth apRoberts Trollope's morality seriously.

has argued the case f o r taking She has helped considerably to

47

place T r o l l o p e i n his proper perspective a m a n of considerable

i n the V i c t o r i a n age,

as

and self-taught learning, a man w i t h ideas

and a philosophy based upon close observation of human

experience,

a m a n w i t h a conscious m o r a l i t y of his own devising and exposition. Ruth apRoberts, by d r a w i n g attention to his l i t t l e noticed L i f e of C i c e r o and by questioning the v a l i d i t y of the usual tools of c r i t i c a l appraisal,

has helped to d i s p e l the older theories

about T r o l l o p e

and has f o r g e d the way f o r some new c r i t i c a l approaches to the novel as a g e n r e . M i s l e a d i n g as m u c h of the c r i t i c i s m been i n the ninety years since his death, blunder has as yet been h a r d l y noticed. b l i n d e d by his eminent r e a d a b i l i t y ; has prevented

about T r o l l o p e has

the most serious c r i t i c a l Perhaps people have been

maybe Sadleir's

Commentary

subsequent c r i t i c s f r o m reappraising his novels.

Whatever the reason, the fundamental i r o n y w i t h w h i c h T r o l l o p e w r o t e and the s k i l l w i t h w h i c h he used i t to achieve his e f f e c t s , has passed v i r t u a l l y unnoticed. It has been shown p r e v i o u s l y that T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s have a l i f e of t h e i r own and are t h e r e f o r e r e a l i s t i c i n a way that has not escaped c r i t i c a l notice;

some c r i t i c s have gone so f a r as

to say that T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s are so alive that once he has c r e a t e d them they take on a l i f e of t h e i r own and govern the d i r e c t i o n and outcome of the plot i n a way quite beyond the control.

novelist's

In A n Autobiography T r o l l o p e stated that he 'never

3 t r o u b l e d ( h i m s e l f ) m u c h about the construction of plot^,

and this

48

could be said to i m p l y that the c h a r a c t e r s are m o r e p o w e r f u l i n giving the plot i t s d i r e c t i o n than the author h i m s e l f . g e n e r a l l y accepted,

however, that T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s

I t is are

n a t u r a l i s t i c and s e v e r a l reasons f o r t h i s have been put f o r w a r d . Another reason may w e l l be that as they are a l l thinking beings, whose actions appear to the reader to be governed not by the dictates of the author or by the influence of other c h a r a c t e r s i n the book, but by t h e i r own guiding m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s : one way i n w h i c h T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s are so endowed w i t h l i f e and r e a l i t y is that they a l l have t h e i r own m o r a l sense, t h e i r own 'philosophy of l i f e ' .

The reader i s aware not only of how the character

thinks

and behaves, but also of why he thinks and behaves i n this way. Many authors have managed to convey understanding of one or m o r e of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s ' characters),

rationale (these are by and large the ' r o u n d '

but f e w , i f any,

with this quality.

endow the m a j o r i t y of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s

The c h a r a c t e r s do not appear f o r what they show

us about the c e n t r a l f i g u r e s , as m o s t characters do i n King Lear or D o c t o r Faustus f o r example;

they have,

each and every one,

their

own philosophy, t h e i r own m o r a l i t y - the p r i n c i p l e s on which they base t h e i r s e v e r a l l i v e s . w i l l illustrate this,

B r i e f consideration of any of the novels

M r , Sextus Parker i n The P r i m e M i n i s t e r is

not t h e r e m e r e l y to draw out one side of Lopez's character;

he

has a d e f i n i t e p h y s i c a l appearance and a w i f e and f a m i l y to keep as M r . A b e l Wharton finds out. of c i r c u m s t a n c e s

Although such clear d e s c r i p t i o n

and appearances m i g h t be found i n many nineteenth

49

c e n t u r y novels,

nevertheless Sextus Parker has his own philosophy

too : pliable and c o r r u p t i b l e he m a y be, but he believes that f r o m conscientious

w o r k and a degree of r i s k - t a k i n g he i s entitled to

d r a w his l e g i t i m a t e share of the proceeds - enough to s a t i s f y the needs of the f a m i l y .

I t is p r e c i s e l y because he has t h i s m o r a l i t y

of his own, so c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that of Lopez, that t h e i r i n t e r v i e w s i n Sextus P a r k e r ' s o f f i c e s i n L i t t l e Tankard Y a r d i n the c i t y have such i n t e r e s t and entertainment

value.

This possession of an independent philosophy or m o r a l scheme of values c h a r a c t e r i s e s m o s t of T r o l l o p e ' s people and gives t h e m something of t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y , making them almost of t h e i r author.

independent

Even those c h a r a c t e r s f r o m low l i f e who feature

so r a r e l y i n the novels have t h e i r own philosophy of l i f e , own ' r a i s o n d ' e t r e ' .

The b r i c k l a y e r f r o m Hoggle E n d ,

their mentioned

i n the last chapter, expresses an idea that is c l e a r l y the governing f o r c e of his own c h a r a c t e r and l i f e when he says,

' I t ' s dogged

as

4 does i t ' «

His advice i s u s e f u l and i m p o r t a n t to the Rev,

Josiah

C r a w l e y , but he is m o r e than j u s t one aspect of another man's c h a r a c t e r : he exists because he has his own ethical code,

just 5

as the Rev, J o s i a h C r a w l e y l i v e s i n a w o r l d of his own making . When George Vavasor r e c e i v e s a v i s i t f r o m Jane at the end of Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? we are aware f i r s t of her poverty : ' I have come here because I am s t a r v i n g ' ;

but then, when George threatens

to blow his brains out, we are aware that her philosophy, unlike G e o r g e ' s , is G o d - f e a r i n g at root and hence the dialogue at t h e i r

50

m e e t i n g has some l i f e of i t s own. l e f t this encounter,

and numerous

A n author could easily have others besides, as a way of

expressing George's selfishness and near-madness at the f i n a l r e j e c t i o n he has had f r o m A l i c e : ' " I am s t a r v i n g , the w o r l d , ''

I have not a s h i l l i n g i n

"Perhaps i t may be a c o m f o r t to you i n your troubles to know that I am at any rate, as badly o f f as you a r e ? I won't say that I am s t a r v i n g , because I could get food to eat at t h i s m o m e n t i f I wanted i t ; but I am u t t e r l y ruined. M y p r o p e r t y - what should have been m i n e , - has been left away f r o m m e . I have lost the t r u m p e r y seat i n P a r l i a m e n t f o r w h i c h I have paid so much. A l l my r e l a t i o n s have t u r n e d their backs upon me - " "Are you not going to be m a r r i e d ? ' she said, r i s i n g quickly f r o m her chair and coming close to h i m , 'Marriedj No; - but I am going to blow m y b r a i n s out. Look at that p i s t o l , m y g i r l . Of course you w o n ' t t h i n k that I am i n earnest, - but I a m , " She looked up into his face piteously, "Ohi George," she said, 'you won't do that?" "But I s h a l l do that. There is nothing else l e f t f o r me to do. You talk to me about starving. I t e l l you that I should have no o b j e c t i o n to be starved, and so be put an end to i n that way. I t ' s not so bad as some other ways when i t comes g r a d u a l l y . You and I , Jane, have not played our cards v e r y well. We have staked a l l that we had, and we've been beaten. I t ' s no good w h i m p e r i n g a f t e r what's l o s t , We^d better go somewhere else and begin a new game," *Go where ? '* said

she,

"Ahj - that's j u s t what I can't t e l l y o u , "

51

"George," she said, ' I ' l l go anywhere w i t h you. I f what you say is t r u e , - i f y o u ' r e not going to be m a r r i e d , and w i l l let me come to you, I w i l l w o r k f o r you like a slave, I w i l l indeed, I know I ' m poorly looking now - ' ' "My g i r l , where I ' m going, I s h a l l not want a slave; and as f o r y o u r looks - when you go there too, - t h e y ' l l be of no m a t t e r , as f a r as I am able to judge." •'But George,

where are you going?*'

^'Wherever people do go when t h e i r brains are knocked out of t h e m ; o r , r a t h e r , when they have knocked out t h e i r own b r a i n s , - i f that makes any d i f f e r e n c e , " "George," hold of h i m the moment you f r i g h t e n you w i l l not "But

she came up to h i m now, and took by the f r o n t of his coat, and f o r he allowed her to do so, - "George, me. Do not say that. Say that do that?"

I am j u s t saying that I s h a l l , "

*'Are you not a f r a i d of God's anger? I have been v e r y w i c k e d , "

You and

" I have, m y poor g i r l , I don't know m u c h about your wickedness, I've been like Topsy; - indeed I am a kind of second Topsy m y s e l f . But what's the good of w h i m p e r i n g when i t ' s over ?" "It i s n ' t over; for you,"

i t i s n ' t over,

- at any rate

" I w i s h I knew how I could begin again. But a l l this is nonsense, Jane, and you must go." "You must t e l l me, f i r s t , that you are not going to - k i l l y o u r s e l f , ' ' ' ' I don't suppose that I shall do i t tonight, - or perhaps, not t o m o r r o w . V e r y probably I may allow m y s e l f a week, so that your staying here can do no good, I m e r e l y wanted to make you

52

understand that you are not the only person who has come to g r i e f , " *'And you are not going to be m a r r i e d ? " *'No; I ' m not going to be m a r r i e d , certainly," ""And I m u s t go now?" "Yes; I think y o u ' d better go n o w , ' Then she rose and went, and he let her leave the r o o m without giving her a shilling,'' ^. The whole of the i n t e r v i e w (of w h i c h this is j u s t a part) comes to l i f e because T r o l l o p e shows us not m e r e l y a meeting of two personalities,

but because there is a confrontation between two

f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r i n g outlooks on l i f e , two d i f f e r e n t m o r a l i t i e s . The f a c t that t h e i r 'philosophies' are d i f f e r e n t receives no comment f r o m T r o l l o p e and the essence of the conflict i s communicated to us t h r o u g h the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of ideas i n the dialogue.

To read

t h i s i n t e r v i e w at surface l e v e l only, without p e r c e i v i n g the i r o n i e s involved:, is as serious an e r r o r of judgement as i t would be to 7 say that Jane Austen's novels are composed

of tea-table chatter ,

Recently, however, there has been a more perceptive awareness of the i m p o r t a n c e of speech patterns and of the changes i n the manner of address caused by s h i f t s i n personal relationships, i n studies of g T r o l l o p e ' s dialogue , But we have strayed a

l i t t l e f r o m the argument,

perhaps

because when two people are brought together i n T r o l l o p e ' s novels, the w r i t i n g i s ao m u c h m o r e perceptive than is generally acknowledged, that one is tempted i n v o l u n t a r i l y to expound the

53

passage,

Trollope's characterisation

in fact i s m a r k e d by an

a b i l i t y to endow each of his c h a r a c t e r s w i t h t h e i r oivn ethical system.

In a l l cases the c h a r a c t e r creates the system and not

the system the c h a r a c t e r ,

f o r T r o l l o p e was no d o c t r i n a i r e w r i t e r

c r e a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s to f i t his d i f f e r e n t philosophical conceptions; he w o r k e d f r o m the c h a r a c t e r outwards, believing i n a pragmatic approach,

using human experience as his s t a r t i n g point i n each

case. A l l T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s (who show r e m a r k a b l e

ingenuity

when one r e m e m b e r s that L o r d D a v i d C e c i l censured T r o l l o p e f o r his ' r e l a t i v e l y low power o f imagination''^) a r e guided by t h e i r own m o r a l sense i n t h e i r actions;

some of t h e i r actions may seem

i m m o r a l or a m o r a l , but to l a b e l them as such without c a r e f u l consideration would be m i s l e a d i n g ;

and since he was

m o s t of a l l w i t h the s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n of man,

concerned

T r o l l o p e was

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the interactions of these various moralities. So intense was T r o l l o p e ' s fascination w i t h the ideas of each of his c h a r a c t e r s and i n what happened when two c h a r a c t e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t outlooks c o n f r o n t e d one another, that many of the novels can be described as a Pantheon or arena i n w h i c h the d i v e r s i t y of the m o r a l ideas presented are being debated by the v e r y f a c t that they are

juxtaposed.

There i s c e r t a i n l y strong precedent f o r this—kind- of m o r a l debate being presented i n l i t e r a r y f o r m and i t is s u r p r i s i n g

54

that T r o l l o p e ' s novels have not been considered i n the t r a d i t i o n before.

Chaucer's

P a r l i a m e n t of Fowles and The Nun's

Priest's

Tale are t y p i c a l of the f o r m a l i s e d manner i n which such debates were presented b e f o r e m e d i e v a l audiences'''^. digestible f o r m , however, presented i n Chaucer's

In a m o r e

subjects of t o p i c a l i n t e r e s t were

The F r a n k l i n ' s Tale or the anonymous Sir

Gawain and the Green Knight.

M o s t of Middle E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e

was w r i t t e n w i t h the a i m of p r o v i d i n g audiences and readers alike w i t h , m a t e r i a l f o r d i s c u s s i o n or debate about m o r a l issues of one kind or another.

The convention by which both sides of an

argument w e r e f o r m a l l y presented m a y have been eclipsed i n Tudor t i m e s by the d e s i r e to create situations of human d r a m a i n m o r e n a t u r a l i s t i c and digestible t e r m s , but there is s t i l l an i n t e r e s t i n subjects of t o p i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . f o r example, nature,

The

Tempest,

exhibits c o n t e m p o r a r y concern ,with ideas of a r t and

j u s t as Measure f o r Measure

explores d i f f e r e n t levels of

morality. The t r a d i t i o n r e f e r r e d to here is only one aspect of the easily recognisable f a c t that a l l l i t e r a t u r e , i f i t is to capture the i n t e r e s t and i m a g i n a t i o n of r e a d e r s , must provoke thought, r e f l e c t i o n and some kind of m e n t a l debate,

A play w h i c h evokes

no active m e n t a l response o r provides no m a t e r i a l f o r discussion w i l l not r u n long, no m a t t e r how b r i l l i a n t the production i n other ways.

S i m i l a r l y a poem m u s t create an e f f e c t w h i c h arouses

responses i f i t i s to be w o r t h h e a r i n g again.

The novel, m o s t of

55

all,

needs t o f o r c e the reader to t h i n k and evaluate i f i t is to be

successful.

M e r e escapism f r o m the r e a l i t y of everyday l i f e ,

without demanding a m e n t a l response, is no 'touchstone' f o r greatness i n l i t e r a t u r e .

The f a c t that T r o l l o p e ' s p o p u l a r i t y has

been accounted f o r by the escapism which i t engenders is yet another sign of the f a i l u r e to appreciate t h i s quality''' T r o l l o p e ' s novels present i n dramatic f o r m debates on n u m e r o u s issues that are u l t i m a t e l y almost a l l m o r a l ones. Influenced by the strong t r a d i t i o n of the E n g l i s h novel'''^, he was aware that a n o v e l i s t ' s p r i m e task was to amuse his readers and since he could only w r i t e i f the public bought his books he could not present the m o r a l issues of w h i c h he was constantly thinking i n any other way than as the situations arose i n his There a r e ,

stories.

i n f a c t , debates of f o r m a l m e d i e v a l

p r o p o r t i o n s i n some of his books,

notably when he is handling p o l i t i c a l

subjects i n the P a l l i s e r

Such a debate can be seen i n

series.

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r and one can see i m m e d i a t e l y that T r o l l o p e is presenting Palliser,

two sides of an i m p o r t a n t t o p i c a l issue.

by this t i m e

Plantagenet

Duke of O m n i u m , is walking w i t h Phineas

F i n n i n the grounds at Matching: '"But we put a l l that aside when we r e a l l y t h i n k , " (continued the Duke) "and can give the Conservative c r e d i t f o r philanthropy and p a t r i o t i s m as r e a d i l y as the L i b e r a l . The Conservative who has had any idea of the meaning of the name which he c a r r i e s , wishes, I suppose, to maintain the d i f f e r e n c e s and the distances w h i c h separate the highly placed f r o m t h e i r lower b r e t h r e n . He thinks that God has d i v i d e d the w o r l d as he finds i t

56

d i v i d e d , and that he m a y best do his duty by m a k i n g the i n f e r i o r man happy and contented i n his p o s i t i o n , teaching h i m that the place w h i c h he holds is his by God's o r d i n a n c e . " "And i t is

so."

" H a r d l y i n the sense that I mean. But that i s the g r e a t Conservative lesson. That lesson seems to me to be h a r d l y compatible w i t h continual improvement i n the c o n d i t i o n of the lower m a n . But w i t h the Conservative, a l l such i m p r o v e m e n t i s to be based on the idea of the maintenance of those distances. I as a Duke am to be kept as f a r apart f r o m the m a n who d r i v e s m y horses as was m y ancestor f r o m the m a n who drove h i s , or who rode a f t e r h i m to the w a r s , - and that i s to go on f o r ever. There is m u c h to be said f o r such a scheme. Let the lords be, a l l of them, m e n w i t h loving h e a r t s , and clear i n t e l l e c t , and noble i n s t i n c t s , and i t is possible that they should use t h e i r powers so b e n e f i c i a l l y as to spread happiness over the e a r t h . I t is one of the m i l l e n n i u m s which the m i n d of m a n can conceive, and seems to be that w h i c h the Conservative m i n d does conceive," "But the other m e n who are not lords don't want that kind of happiness.'' " I f such happiness were attainable i t m i g h t be w e l l to c o n s t r a i n m e n to accept i t . But the l o r d s of this w o r l d are f a l l i b l e men; and though as units they ought to be, and perhaps a r e , better than those who have f e w e r advantages, they are m u c h m o r e l i k e l y as units to go a s t r a y i n opinion than the bodies of m e n whom they would seek to govern. We know that power does c o r r u p t , and that we cannot t r u s t kings to have loving h e a r t s , and c l e a r i n t e l l e c t s and noble instincts. Men as they come to think about i t and to look f o r w a r d , and to look back, w i l l not believe i n such a m i l l e n n i u m as that.''

57

*Do they believe i n any m i l l e n n i u m ? " " I think they do a f t e r a fashion, and I t h i n k that I do m y s e l f . That is m y idea of C o n s e r v a t i s m , The doctrine of L i b e r a l i s m i s , of course, the r e v e r s e . The L i b e r a l , i f he have any f i x e d idea at a l l , m u s t , I think, have conceived the idea of lessening distances, - of b r i n g i n g the coachman and the duke nearer together, - n e a r e r and nearer, t i l l a m i l l e n n i u m s h a l l be reached by "By equality?" asked Phineas, eagerly i n t e r r u p t i n g the P r i m e M i n i s t e r , and showing his dissent by the tone of his voice, " I d i d not use the w o r d , which is open to many o b j e c t i o n s . I n the f i r s t place the m i l l e n n i u m , w h i c h I have perhaps r a s h l y named, is so distant that we need not even t h i n k of i t as possible. Men's i n t e l l e c t s are at present so various that we cannot even r e a l i s e the idea of equality, and here i n England we have been taught to hate the w o r d by the e v i l e f f e c t s of those attempts which have been made elsewhere to p r o c l a i m i t as a f a c t accomplished by the scratch of a pen or by a c h i s e l on a stone. We have been i n j u r e d i n that, because a good w o r d s i g n i f y i n g a grand idea has been d r i v e n out of the vocabulary of good m e n . E q u a l i t y would be a heaven, i f we could attain i t . How can we to whom so m u c h has been given dare to think otherwise ? How can you look at the bowed back and bent legs and abject face of that poor ploughman, who w i n t e r and summer has to drag his rheumatic l i m b s to his w o r k , w h i l e y o u go a-hunting o r s i t i n pride of place among the f o r e m o s t few of your covmtry, and say that i t a l l i s as i t ought to be? Y o u are a L i b e r a l because you know that i t i s not a l l as i t ought to be, and because you would s t i l l m a r c h on to some n e a r e r approach to equality; though

58

the thing i t s e l f is so great, so g l o r i o u s , so godlike, - nay so absolutely divine, that you have been disgusted by the v e r y p r o m i s e of i t , because its p e r f e c t i o n i s unattainable. Men have asserted a m o c k equality t i l l the v e r y idea of equality stinks i n m e n ' s n o s t r i l s , , , , ! hope y o u a i n ' t cold" '•^•^» In t h i s passage i t is c l e a r that T r o l l o p e was presenting ideas f o r his r e a d e r s to t h i n k about and debate i n t h e i r own m i n d s . not o f t e n , however, statement

I t is

that T r o l l o p e presents issues i n as overt a

as this : his g r e a t e r

s k i l l lies i n the passages of

dialogue, where by the use of i r o n y ,

he makes the reader aware of

the broader m o r a l issues involved i n the c o n f r o n t a t i o n of two characters, Xrollope the m o r a l i s t r a r e l y m o r a l i s e s .

There is plenty

of a u t h o r i a l comment and he o f t e n takes the reader into his confidence about one o r other of his c h a r a c t e r s ,

but concentration

on these passages of comment obscures his a b i l i t y to w r i t e w i t h irony.

C r i t i c s have tended to take a l l such d i r e c t c o m m e n t a r y

at face value and assume that the r e s t of each novel is providing the s t o r y to amuse the reader and endorse the c o m m e n t a r y .

His

own statement that the good n o v e l teaches lessons of v i r t u e and at 14 the same t i m e delights i t s readers

, can be understood to mean

that there are two constituent parts to each of his novels : the e n t e r t a i n m e n t p a r t (the s t o r y , the characters), p a r t (the passages of c o m m e n t ) .

and the didactic

It is because undue importance

has been attached to the passages; of a u t h o r i a l comment that m u c h of the i r o n y of T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g has bean m i s s e d .

59

T r o l l o p e o f t e n w r o t e or spoke i n what we would now c a l l a facetious m a n n e r .

His own account of how, as an author,

he

disposed of M r s , Proudie is m a r k e d by a tone of facetiousness, w h i c h i n a less apparent way characterises

m u c h of his a u t h o r i a l

comment: • " I was s i t t i n g one m o r n i n g at w o r k upon the n o v e l , , . A s I was there, two c l e r g y m e n , each w i t h a magazine i n his hand, seated themselves, one on one side of the f i r e and one on the other, close to me. They soon began to abuse what they w e r e reading, and each was reading some p a r t of some novel of m i n e . The gravamen of t h e i r c o m p l a i n t lay i n the f a c t that I r e i n t r o d u c e d the same characters so o f t e n j ' " H e r e , " said one, "is that archdeacon whom we have had i n every novel he has ever written," "And h e r e , " said the other, "is the old duke whom he has talked about t i l l everybody i s t i r e d of h i m . I f I could not have invented new c h a r a c t e r s , I would not w r i t e novels at a l l . " Then one of them f e l l f o u l of M r s , P r o u d i e , I t was impossible f o r me not to hear t h e i r w o r d s , and almost i m p o s s i b l e to hear them and be quiet, I got up and standing between t h e m , I acknowledged m y s e l f to be the c u l p r i t , "As to M r s , P r o u d i e , " I said, " I w i l l go home and k i l l her before the week i s o v e r , " A n d so I d i d . The two gentlemen were u t t e r l y confeunded, and one of them begged me. to f o r g e t his f r i v o l o u s observations' , In an a r t i c l e on this p a r t i c u l a r incident, 'The Death of M r s , Proudie : F r i v o l o u s Slaughter or Calculated D i s p a t c h ? '

Anthony

A r t h u r has taken some p r e l i m i n a r y steps towards evaluating A n Autobiography m o r e critically.-"'^^o

Nevertheless f o r a long t i m e

T r o l l o p e ' s comments upon his c r a f t , his w o r k i n g methods and the reasons f o r w h i c h he w r o t e have been taken as unquestioned

60

statements. J,W,

Even some m o r e recent c r i t i c i s m , f o r example

C l a r k ' s study of T r o l l o p e ' s preaching about m a r r i a g e ,

p o l i t i c s and s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s r e f e r s

to A n Autobiography w i t h

a l m o s t unquestioning seriousness''''^.

'Only i n the secret auto-

18 biography could he c o n f i d e , , , '

, w r o t e A , O, J , Cockshut and

A n A u t o b i o g r a p h y has often been regarded as the ' c l e f f o r a l l his ' r o m a n s ' ,

the explanation of anything puzzling i n his novels.

This approach has prevented many readers f r o m searching the novels themselves

and many of T r o l l o p e ' s r e a l qualities as an

a r t i s t have escaped notice as a r e s u l t . may have been,

Secret the autobiography

but T r o l l o p e knew f u l l w e l l that i t would be

published a f t e r his death and a w r i t e r as aware of his reading public as T r o l l o p e was would h a r d l y forget them i n w r i t i n g the autobiography of his w r i t i n g c a r e e r .

It i s , t h e r e f o r e , a mistake

to v i e w T r o l l o p e ' s own statements about his a r t as f i n a l c r i t i c a l judgements i n t h e m s e l v e s .

As R o b e r t T r a c y observes i n his

recent book on the l a t e r novels, 19

'But to take T r o l l o p e too much

at h i s own w o r d is unwise'

No man w r i t e s as candidly and

.

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y about his a r t i f he intends i t to be read by those v e r y m e n who condemn or praise his books i n his own l i f e t i m e . Few people read the l e t t e r s of a w r i t e r such as D . H , Lawrence today without bearing i n m i n d that some thoughts of eventual publication m u s t have been passing through the m i n d of t h e i r author at the t i m e of w r i t i n g .

They are too polished and r i c h

61

i n 'purple passages' to r e p r e s e n t a completely spontaneous expression

of the a u t h o r ' s thoughts.

The same is true i n

T r o l l o p e ' s case : he was f a r too intelligent and sensitive a human being to put his r e f l e c t i o n s about his l i f e on paper without some awareness of the e f f e c t they would have on those who eventually read t h e m .

I t is reassuring to f i n d that some m a t e r i a l

published i n the last f o u r y e a r s has begun to show a m o r e objective 20 awareness of T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g s k i l l s The trouble has been that a d m i r e r s

of T r o l l o p e and others

have a j l b w e d t h e i r c r i t i c a l f a c u l t i e s to be blinded by T r o l l o p e ' s own documentation of his a r t and achievement.

This may be

because of the sheer quantity of his w r i t i n g s : i n a s t o r m any p o r t w i l l do f o r shelter and s e c u r i t y , b e w i l d e r i n g l y numerous and lengthy.

and the novels alone are 'He who recounts

these

d e t a i l s has scorned to have a s e c r e t between h i m s e l f and his 21 readers,

T r o l l o p e w r i t e s when t e l l i n g us that L i z z i e Eustace

has the diamonds

safely locked away i n her desk shortly a f t e r the

' r o b b e r y ' at C a r l i s l e ;

and when the mysterious

circumstances

surrounding M r , Bonteen's m u r d e r near B e r k e l e y Square lead to the a r r e s t and prosecution of Phineas Finn, T r o l l o p e is quick to enlighten us as to his innocence: that,

'The reader need h a r d l y be told

as regards this great offence, Phineas F i n n was as white as 22

anow '



T r o l l o p e c l a i m s i n both these dramatic episodes that

the reader should be as m u c h i n possession of the facts as the author.

As he said elsewhere,

'The author and the reader should

62

move along i n f u l l confidence w i t h each other', 23 and c r i t i c s have, f o r the most p a r t , taken this as a c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e of T r o l l o p e ' s writing.

But can anyone s e r i o u s l y suppose that TroUope moves along ' i n f u l l confidence' w i t h his r e a d e r s ?

F o r a start there would be

no s t o r y and no plot since these depend u l t i m a t e l y on the suspense 24 of 'what happens next'

and as the author cannot but know the

d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h things w i l l w o r k out, i n outline at least,

he

w i l l have nothing to say i f he i s already ' i n f u l l confidence' w i t h h i s readers,

T r o l l o p e ' s c l a i m to share everything w i t h his readers,

like his c l a i m that he o f t e n started w r i t i n g w i t h no idea of the story 25 i n m i n d , m u s t be treated w i t h m o r e scepticism

.

T r o l l o p e was

f a r too m u c h of an a r t i s t to expound his methods and motives as s i m p l y and e x p l i c i t l y as he appears to do i n his autobiographical statements and i n his a u t h o r i a l i n t r u s i o n s .

Even i n the way i n

w h i c h T r o l l o p e handles his s t o r y m a t e r i a l t h e r e i s a need f o r a m o r e detached approach.

This has also been observed by A n d r e w

W r i g h t who has argued that the nineteenth century n a r r a t i v e method was a conspiracy r e f i n e d out of the eighteenth century open 26 connection between author and reader

.

A n understanding of

this gives the m o d e r n reader an a l t e r e d v i s i o n of T r o l l o p e , As

G e o f f r e y T i l l o t s o n has accurately w r i t t e n of the novels, 27

T r o l l o p e always ' m a s t e r s c o m p l e x i t y '

by the way he presents us

w i t h the most d i f f i c u l t m o r a l problems in such a way that we are h a r d l y aware of the c o m p l e x i t y of the situation that has been put

63

b e f o r e us. But i f T r o l l o p e ' s explanations of his own a r t make i t s i m p l e , those explanations succeed only i n glossing over the r e a l c o m p l e x i t y of his a r t i s t i c t a l e n t s , Ruth apRoberts, w r i t i n g about the B a r s e t s h i r e novels, says that T r o l l o p e 'has found i n B a r s e t s h i r e that single situation w h i c h demonstrates the c o m p l e x i t i e s of m o r a l problems.., T r o l l o p e is everywhere a c o m p l i c a t o r . , , His

28 r e c u r r e n t theme i n the novels is that motives are never s i m p l e ' , When w r i t i n g about his own a r t i s t i c qualities, T r o l l o p e is the reverse : he i s everywhere a s i m p l i f i e r , « ,

His r e c u r r e n t theme is that the

a r t of w r i t i n g is always s i m p l e .

Some recent c r i t i c i s m has shown

m o r e awareness of the c a r e and c o m p l e x i t y w i t h w h i c h T r o l l o p e 29 revealed his c h a r a c t e r s The school of T r o U o p i a n c r i t i c i s m which follows Sadleir has set great store by the author's explique of his own a r t , yet has a l m o s t f a i l e d to see the c o m p l e x i t y of his m o r a l perception. Perhaps t h e r e i s a connection between these two c r i t i c a l judgements : look at the immense output of this m a n and one i n s t i n c t i v e l y looks to his autobiography and to the passages of i n t r u s i o n i n the novels as m i l e s t o n e s , and confusing country;

as signposts i n a large

take away these guides and one is f o r c e d

to look at the countryside i t s e l f , to f i n d one's way. r a t h e r awesome task,

I t is a

but i t is l i k e l y to provide a m o r e

accurate

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the countryside than unquestioning obedience to the signposts,

w h i c h are m i s l e a d i n g i n t h e i r v e r y s i m p l i c i t y .

64

If one reads the novels themselves m o r e c r i t i c a l l y ,

one

e a s i l y becomes aware of the achievement of T r o l l o p e as an 30 artist

.

But he is a m o r a l i s t too;

not because he m o r a l i s e s ,

but i n the way he shows: "us the nature of the human situation by p o r t r a y i n g m e n not as they ought to be, nor as they appear, but as they a r e .

Few a r t i s t s achieve a degree of perception which

r a i s e s m e n to a m o r e profound understanding of 'la condition h u m a i n e ' , but those who do are m o r a l i s t s i n the sense that they have something to say about m a n as he i s ,

Chaucer

and

Shakespeare are m o r a l i s t s i n this sense f o r they both e n r i c h man's understanding of h i m s e l f , by i n c r e a s i n g his perception. authors,

Other

including T r o l l o p e , achieve this too and T r o l l o p e is

d e f i n i t e l y a m o r a l i s t r a t h e r than an author who m o r a l i s e s . In this semantic analysis of t e r m i n o l o g y can be seen something of the c o m p l e x i t y w h i c h surrounds c r i t i c i s m at the present t i m e .

Our constant questioning of the c r i t e r i a by which

we endeavour to evaluate leads inevitably to the analysis of the w o r d s we use,

w i t h the eventual r e s u l t that our c r i t i c a l

procedures

are a l l u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d by the f o r m of the words i n which we express o u r s e l v e s . In the case of T r o l l o p e our d i f f i c u l t i e s are increased by the f a c t that T r o l l o p e does m o r a l i s e ,

s u p e r f i c i a l l y at any rate,

i n c r e a t i n g that a i r of i n t i m a c y between reader and author mentioned above.

These F i e l d i n g - l i k e a u t h o r i a l i n t r u s i o n s , albeit less f o r m a l

65

than those i n T o m Jones, f o r example, have obscured the i r o n y and perception of m o s t of T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g and have blinded many c r i t i c s to the essential m o r a l i s t i n T r o l l o p e ,

Strangely enough,

the v e r y parts of T r o l l o p e ' s output that have attracted attention f r o m c r i t i c s have obscured the r e a l qualities of his w r i t i n g .

If

T r o l l o p e was m e r e l y an author who m o r a l i s e d about what he w r o t e , he would have been unable to express the u n i v e r s a l pity w h i c h is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of h i m .

A s A , O, J ,

Cockshut has

observed:

'In one respect, T r o l l o p e occupies the place among novelists which Webster holds among d r a m a t i s t s - he has a u n i v e r s a l pity'•^•'•. The i n t e n t i o n of t h i s d i g r e s s i o n has been to show the false i m p r e s s i o n that is created i f T r o l l o p e ' s m o r a l i t y is taken at a dangerously s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l .

A u t h o r i a l comment and the so-

called i n t i m a c y between T r o l l o p e and his readers has been w e l l documented i n T r o l l o p i a n c r i t i c i s m ; pronouncements

but the acceptance of these

as being au grand serieux has made i t d i f f i c u l t

to appreciate the m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t i r o n y through which T r o l l o p e expresses h i m s e l f .

Needless to say the passages where T r o l l o p e

takes his reader by the a r m are not to be ignored any m o r e than A n Autobiography :

they provide valuable insight so long as they

are viewed w i t h caution.

W r i t t e n f o r issue i n p e r i o d i c a l f o r m

as m o s t of the novels w e r e ,

T r o l l o p e was constantly aware of

his reading public an d the need to supply them w i t h what they wanted.

The wide readership w h i c h Trollope commanded expected

66

a chatty atmosphere i n w h i c h the author took his readers into his confidence.

Such i n t i m a c y was as much a convention of m i d -

V i c t o r i a n f i c t i o n as w r i t i n g about speaking b i r d s was i n Chaucer's time.

T r o l l o p e ' s assvimption of i n t i m a c y was conscious and

deliberate,

f o r he was used to w r i t i n g f r o m an assumed position :

f o r example,

i n 1865,

T r o l l o p e published f o r 'The P a l l M a l l

Gazette' an account of an E v a n g e l i c a l 'May m e e t i n g ' held i n Exeter Hall,

and he chose to do this i n the f o r m of an a r t i c l e

submitted 32

by 'A Z u l u i n London', thereby achieving an objective

standpoint

His i n t i m a c y w i t h the reader i n m o s t of his novels is as conscious as t h i s .

He gave his r e a d e r s what they wanted - i t was his

f o r t u n e that he achieved the r i g h t balance between s t o r y , and comment

character

- but the passages of comment were w r i t t e n w i t h the

same e f f o r t to create i l l u s i o n i n the m i n d of the r e a d e r . as conscious a part of his a r t as his use of a m o c k - h e r o i c 33 i n B a r c h e s t e r Towers

I t was style

.

I n recent years there has been a r e v e r s a l of c r i t i c a l opinion on the subject of T r o l l o p e ' s style.

Lord David Cecil 34

expressed the view that T r o l l o p e had no style

, because he does

not use any of the conventional s t y l i s t i c devices like s y m b o l i s m and i m a g e r y ;

m o r e recent c r i t i c a l opinion shows that T r o l l o p e ' s

style has excellence because i t serves as the unobtrusive vehicle f o r the p e r f e c t expression of the author's ideas. his own j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r an unpretentious t r i b u t e to

Thackeray:

T r o l l o p e provided

style at the end of his

67

' I hold that gentleman to be the best dressed whose dress no one observes. I am not sure but that the same may be said of an author's w r i t t e n language,'^^, Whereas

T r o l l o p e ' s style used to be thought of as non-existent and

his w r i t i n g t h e r e f o r e as u n r e m a r k a b l e , i t s plainness and unobtrusiveness have m o r e r e c e n t l y been recognised as a strength r a t h e r than a weakness.

Renewed i n t e r e s t was shown by H , S , 36

D a v i e s , w i t h ' T r o l l o p e and his Style'

, m o r e f u l l y explored by 37 G e o f f r e y T i l l o t s o n i n his essay on ' T r o l l o p e ' s Style' and developed f u l l y by R u t h apRoberts i n an a r t i c l e called 'Anthony 38 T r o l l o p e or the M a n w i t h No Style at A H '

.

The qualities of

T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t t e n style had been discounted f r o m the t i m e of his death,

perhaps because he had d i s c l a i m e d a r t i s t i c genius i n his

own accounts of his mundane approach to w r i t i n g ,

in An

39 Autobiography

,

and t h i s was something w h i c h the reading public

and the c r i t i c a l w o r l d of the ' f i n de siecle' could not a d m i r e . This d i s c r e d i t stuck a l m o s t unchallenged, although P , E ,

More,

i n a r e m a r k a b l y profound essay w h i c h was almost completely overshadowed by S a d l e i r ' s T r o l l o p e : A Commentary, w h i c h had appeared the year b e f o r e , hinted at the t r u e value of T r o l l o p e ' s style: 'But i n the long r u n , I wonder whether his c l e a r , m a n l y , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d style is not the m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y medium a f t e r a l l This same essay contains, i n embryo, a number of our m o r e recent ideas about T r o l l o p e , and about the r e l a t i o n s h i p

68

between a r t and m o r a l i t y w h i c h T r o l l o p e understood so w e l l . It is almost alone i n not f o l l o w i n g the apologetic views about Trollope,

so f u l l y developed by Sadleir;

indeed,

P,E,

More

is almost alone i n c r i t i c i s i n g Sadleir's approach at a l l .

He

hints at an awareness of qualities i n T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g which have r e m a i n e d unrecognised u n t i l recently;

of the novels,

he

says: 'Indeed, I question whether anyone has f u l l y r e l i s h e d t h e i r w i t and i r o n y and t h e i r delicacy of insinuation',^'''. We are s t i l l at the l e v e l of d i s c o v e r y in our reading of T r o l l o p e ' s novels today, though at least they are no longer d i s m i s s e d

as

inartistic. P, E , M o r e ' s essay points towards the r e a l nature of T r o l l o p e ' s achievement,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n his understanding of the

highly m o r a l approach w h i c h T r o l l o p e had towards w r i t i n g : ' I f any novelist ever wove his plots w i t h a d e f i n i t e idea before him about the meaning of l i f e i n general, i t was this same 'unideaed' T r o l l o p e ; he is as clear i n his conception of hviman destinies as George E l i o t , and i f anything t r u e r to the facts''^^. N o r is his philosophy about 'the meaning of l i f e i n g e n e r a l ' a c y n i c a l l y p e s s i m i s t i c or ' f u t i l i t a r i a n ' one: 'To T r o l l o p e preeminently i i f e presented i t s e l f as a game w o r t h the candles''^"^.

P, E . M o r e ' s a s s e r t i o n that T r o l l o p e had a v e r y definite

69

idea about 'the meaning of l i f e i n general' is a key to understanding him.

F a r f r o m being the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a r y hack dedicated to

nothing but earning his b r e a d by w r i t i n g f o r p e r i o d i c a l s , was a highly perceptive,

Trollope

sensitive and intelligent observer of

h u m a n i t y , whose r e f l e c t i o n s on the meaning of ' l i f e i n general' led

h i m to some f a r - s i g h t e d conclusions about the nature of man

i n his s o c i a l and u n i v e r s a l setting. There i s no simple d e f i n i t i o n of T r o l l o p e ' s philosophy and even the m o s t assiduous student w i l l find no easy resume i n his writings.

As w i t h many w o r t h w h i l e t r u t h s , i t is not easily come

by and the v e r y e m p i r i c a l nature of T r o l l o p e ' s philosophy makes i t even harder to state i t s u c c i n c t l y .

B r o a d l y .humanitarian,

b r o a d l y C h r i s t i a n , his acceptance of every human viewpoint as f i n a l l y r e c o n c i l a b l e , because we a l l live i n one universe,

teaches

that a l l i n c o n g r u i t i e s merge u l t i m a t e l y intd a harmony at which we can only grasp, through an appreciation of those v e r y i n c o n g r u i t i e s , V i c t o r i a n society i t s e l f was f u l l of incongruities and T r o l l o p e ' s deliberate juxtapositioning of these incongruities is the means by w h i c h he expresses his philosophy.

This outlook on

l i f e would have made near nonsense i f it had been expressed i n b a l d a b s t r a c t t e r m s and this is why Trollope didn't draw p h i l o s o p h i c a l generalisations was evidently m o r a l ,

i n the way that George E l i o t ' s w r i t i n g

T r o l l o p e was an e m p i r i c i s t who never

went beyond the expression of f i r s t hand observation, seldom i t i s ' , he stated i n Thackeray,

'that theories

'How stand the

70

wear and t e a r of p r a c t i c e S t e p h e n

W a l l has

observed:

' T r o l l o p e was, as usual, m u c h m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the p a r t i c u l a r case than i n the g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e ' ' ^ ^ , It would not be t r u e to say that T r o l l o p e never makes generalisations.

He does, but his attention is always focused

on the point i n the s t o r y r a t h e r than on the general conclusion w h i c h can be d r a w n f r o m i t .

The generalisations

he does make,

however, tend towards the same theme : a deliberate placing together of apparently i r r e c o n c i l a b l e opposites. w o r k s he is t e n t a t i v e .

In the e a r l y

A s he puts i t in The Warden:

'the f a c t that i n t h i s w o r l d no good i s unalloyed and that there is but l i t t l e e v i l that does not have some seed i n i t of what is goodly' But his s e l f - a s s u r a n c e was greater when he w r o t e the P a l l i s e r s e r i e s and he could a s s e r t w i t h bluntness: 'the persons whom you cannot care f o r i n a n o v e l , because they are so bad, are the v e r y same that you so d e a r l y love i n your l i f e , because they are so good,"^^, Ruth apRoberts

says of T r o l l o p e ' s m o r a l i t y :

'He takes us to the centre of l i f e , obliging us to recognise i n c o n g r u i t i e s , f o r c i n g on us the a p p r e c i a t i o n of the d i l e m m a '^8^ and elsewhere

she says that both T r o l l o p e and C i c e r o 'knew the

i r o n y of the good w i t h i n the evil'"^*^.

Trollope presents us w i t h

the i n c o n g r u i t i e s but r a r e l y expresses them as such i n so many words.

He consistently r e j e c t s a systematic approach and his

own e m p i r i c a l methods are m u c h closer than is i m m e d i a t e l y

71 obvious to the e x i s t e n t i a l i s t ' s p r i m e concern w i t h immediate events r a t h e r than any theories by w h i c h they may be i n t e r p r e t e d , Mergault,

i n Camus's L ' E t r a n g e r .

records his m o t h e r ' s

death

and the events leading to the beach m u r d e r w i t h almost no e l a b o r a t i o n o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : i t i s the b a l d presentation of each f a c t that leads to the cumulative awareness of the absurdity of M e r g a u l t ' s existence,

T r o l l o p e ' s style is quite d i f f e r e n t f r o m

that of A l b e r t Camus and his philosophy cannot be c a l l e d ' e x i s t e n t i a l i s t ' , but his method of r e c o r d i n g and observation achieves i t s e f f e c t i n something of the same way, T r o l l o p e constantly puts before his r e a d e r s , then, situations w h i c h contain i n c o n g r u i t i e s because the c h a r a c t e r s brought together have d i f f e r e n t codes of m o r a l i t y ; c o n f r o n t a t i o n w h i c h ensues,

and i n the

T r o l l o p e shows us the d i l e m m a , by

w h i c h he can lead us to a deeper perception of the u n i v e r s e . T h e r e is no short cut to the philosophical t r u t h that exists i n the p o s s i b i l i t y of entertaining two apparently incongruous notions at the same t i m e .

Indeed, i t is v e r y d i f f i c u l t to persuade people

t o hold two apparently c o n t r a d i c t o r y ideas at the same t i m e . A class I once taught were c o n s i d e r i n g the m o t i o n , 'This house believes i n A d a m and E v e ' , the m o t i o n was,

Unsatisfactory as the w o r d i n g of

i t gave r i s e to some interesting discussion and

m o s t students f a v o u r e d the D a r w i n i a n r e j e c t i o n of any such p r o p o s i t i o n , though a few took the opposite view. person,

Only one

however, could see that i t is possible to hold that m a n

72

descended f r o m the apes and that m a n descended f r o m A d a m and E v e , at the same t i m e .

In the West the belief that a l l t r u t h is

encompassed i n a rationale w h i c h logically excludes the p o s s i b i l i t y of entertaining two opposing views at once seems i n v i o l a b l e ,

A

s i m i l a r experiment conducted w i t h students i n the Indian subcontinent would have g i v e n r i s e t o no d i f f i c u l t y i n entertaining apparently c o n t r a d i c t o r y ideas at the same t i m e . Schumacher

As F r i t z

has expressed i t : ' F o r his d i f f e r e n t purposes m a n needs many d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s , both s m a l l ones and large ones, some exclusive and some c o m prehensive. Yet people f i n d i t most d i f f i c u l t to hold two seemingly opposite necessities of t r u t h i n their minds as the same t r u t h . They tend to clamour f o r a f i n a l s o l u t i o n , as i f i n actual l i f e there could ever be a f i n a l solution other than death

T r o l l o p e d i d n ' t w r i t e s p e c i f i c a l l y on this t o p i c , though The O r i g i n of Species was published i n 1859 w i t h the ensuing debate dominating the i n t e l l e c t u a l scene f o r some t i m e , and he must have been d r a w n into discussions fundamentalism.

about theories of evolution and B i b l i c a l

I t i s w o r t h noting, however, that the n a t u r a l i s t i c

q u a l i t i e s of his c h a r a c t e r s are to some extent due to the way i n w h i c h he observed and r e c o r d e d human nature and this way of w r i t i n g was not unlike the g r o w i n g s c i e n t i f i c methodology of the 51 mid-nineteenth century f e a t u r e i n the novels,

.

Though D a r w i n and ' e v o l u t i o n ' do not

T r o l l o p e perhaps has m o r e i n common w i t h

them than m i g h t at f i r s t be r e a l i s e d ,

G e o f f r e y T i l l o t s o n has d r a w n

73

another p a r a l l e l between these two, i n w r i t i n g about The Warden: ' T r o l l o p e must have had no d i f f i c u l t y i n accepting D a r w i n ' s conception of the s u r v i v a l of the f i t t e s t , and i t i s part of the c o m e d y , , , that he sees the f i t t e s t as sometimes the people who lack the m o s t obvious sorts of strength'^^.' F r o m his w r i t i n g s T r o l l o p e ' s f a i t h i n the C h r i s t i a n God appears to have provoked no m o r a l d i l e m m a f o r h i m over this debate : perhaps he saw the r e a l i t y i n the apparent i n c o n g r u i t y of these ideas. It is w e l l w o r t h looking at some of these incongruous situations i n the novels i n m o r e depth;

and i n doing so the

development f r o m s i m p l e plot situation to complex awareness that a l l l i f e is composed of such juxtapositioning w i l l become

apparent.

74

NOTES - Chapter Two 1

Sadleir,

Michael,

T r o l l o p e : A Commentary,

p.

15.

2

Cockshut, A . O . J . ,

3

A n Autobiography, p. 209 (Ch, X I I ) , In the same passage, T r o l l o p e explains the i m p o r t a n c e of learning to live w i t h created c h a r a c t e r s ' i n the f u l l r e a l i t y of established i n t i m a c y ' ,

4

The L a s t C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t ,

5

A f u l l e r study of this p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r ' s psychology has been made by Helen S, C o r s a , i n "The Cross-grainedness of M e n " : the Rev, Josiah C r a w l e y - T r o l l o p e ' s Study of a Paranoid Personality'^ H a r t f o r d Studies i n L i t e r a t u r e , v (1973) pp. 160-172.

6

Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

7

There is a short examination of speech patterns i n T r o l l o p e ' s novels by N o r m a n Page i n ' T r o l l o p e ' s Conversational M o d e ' , E n g l i s h Studies i n A f r i c a . x v : i ( M a r c h 1972) pp. 33-37.

8

I n his a r t i c l e on ' T r o l l o p e ' s F o r m s of A d d r e s s ' , George Watson shows how T r o l l o p e c h r o n i c l e d the changes i n modes of address i n the m i d - V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d , and indicates how sensitive T r o l l o p e was to the subtleties of i n t e r - p e r s o n a l exchanges. C r i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . x v : i i i (Autumn 1973) pp. 219-230.

9

Cecil,

Anthony T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l Study, p, 22,

p, 652 (Ch. L X I ) ,

pp. 743-744 (Ch.

LXXX),

L o r d D a v i d , E a r l y V i c t o r i a n N o v e l i s t s , p. 255,

10

This point i s developed i n a general way i n N e v i l l e C o g h i l l ' s The Poet Chaucer,

11

Gordon Ray makes this point i n accounting f o r his own e a r l y reading of T r o l l o p e ' s novels i n his lecture ' T r o l l o p e at F u l l Length'^ Huntington L i b r a r y Q u a r t e r l y , x x x i (1967-8; no. iv) pp. 313-339.

12

F o r a survey of this t r a d i t i o n and T r o l l o p e ' s place i n i t , see W a l t e r A l l e n ' s The E n g l i s h N o v e l : A Short C r i t i c a l H i s t o r y ,

13

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , I I , pp. 263-266 (Ch.

14

A n Autobiography, p. 200 (Ch. X I I ) ,

15

Ibid,,

pp, 244-245 (Ch, X I V ) .

LXVIII).

75

16

Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n , x x v i (1971) pp.

17

The Language and Style of Anthony T r o l l o p e , I t is interesting to note that J , W, C l a r k chooses a quotation f r o m A n Autobiography, Chapter V I I I as a basis f o r examining T r o l l o p e ' s 'preaching' on these subjects : ' I have ever thought of m y s e l f as a preacher of sermons and m y pulpit as one which I could make both salutary and agreeable to m y audience'.

18

Anthony T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l Study, p, pointed out i n A n Autobiography (p, 317, not, I t r u s t , be supposed by any reader i n this s o - c a l l e d autobiography to give a life',

19

T r o l l o p e ' s L a t e r N o v e l s , p,

20

F o r example, R , C , T e r r y , Anthony T r o l l o p e : The A r t i s t i n Hiding and A , P o l l a r d , Anthony T r o l l o p e . The F i r s t of these i n p a r t i c u l a r i n c o r p o r a t e d new approaches pioneered by Ruth apRoberts,

21

The Eustace Diamonds,

22

Phineas F i n n . I I , p . 77 (Ch. X L I X ) .

23

Barchester Towers,

24

Forster,

25

M u c h of the advice given to a s p i r i n g novelists i n Chapter X I I of A n Autobiography is at variance w i t h T r o l l o p e ' s own stated p r a c t i c e , and this is a f u r t h e r indication of the need f o r caution i n accepting T r o l l o p e ' s intimate confidences w i t h the reader at surface l e v e l ,

26

'The N o v e l as a C o n s p i r a c y ' i n Essays by D i v e r s Hands, x x x v i i (1972) pp, 122-133.

27

Tillotson,

28

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , p, 4 1 ,

29

F o r example, W i l l i a m Overton i n 'Self and Society i n T r o l l o p e ' , J o u r n a l of E n g l i s h L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y , x l i v , pp. 286-302,

30

The j u s t i f i c a t i o n of T r o l l o p e f o r his f o r m a l w r i t i n g a b i l i t i e s r a t h e r than f o r his accurate psychology, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the l a t e r novels, i s made by Robert T r a c y i n T r o l l o p e ' s L a t e r Novels.

E, M , ,

p.

Aspects

477-484.

25. But as T r o l l o p e Ch, X X ) : ' I t w i l l that I have intended r e c o r d of m y inner

8,

p. 476 (Ch. X L V I I I ) ,

122 (Ch, X V ) . of the Novel, p,

35.

G e o f f r e y and Kathleen, M i d - V i c t o r i a n Studies,

p, 60.

76

31

Anthony T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l Study,

32

P a l l M a l l Gazette. (10th May 1865) pp. 3-4, r e p r i n t e d i n the cited e d i t i o n of T r o l l o p e ' s C l e r g y m e n of the C h u r c h of England, pp. 50-60,

33

F o r example, B a r c h e s t e r T o w e r s , p, 37 (Ch. V ) , (See also W i l l i a m Cadbury's 'Character and M o c k - H e r o i c i n .Barchester Towers'^ Texas Studies i n L i t e r a t u r e and Language, v (1963-4) pp. 509-519).

34

'Now of s t y l e , i n t h i s sense (the w r i t e r ' s power to incarnate his c r e a t i v e conceptions i n a sensible f o r m ) , T r o l l o p e has none at a l l ^ ' E a r l y V i c t o r i a n N o v e l i s t s , p . 262,

35

Thackeray,

36

Review of E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , i , no. 4 (October 1960) pp. 73-85,

37

Tillotson, 56-61.

38

Victorian Newsletter,

39

i n Chapter X I I and elsewhere,

40

M o r e , Paul E . , ' M y Debt to T r o l l o p e ' . The Demon of the Absolute^ V o l u m e One of New Shelburne Essays, p, 9 1 .

41

Ibid.,

p,

89.

42

Ibid,,

p,

117.

43

Ibid,,

p.

119.

44

Thackeray,

45

I n his i n t r o d u c t i o n to Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

46

The Warden,

47

The Eustace Diamonds,

48

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , p, 54.

49

Ibid,,

50

S m a l l is B e a u t i f u l , pp.

p.

p.

195.

200.

G e o f f r e y and Kathleen, M i d - V i c t o r i a n Studies,

p.

no, 35 (September 1969) PP.

10-13.

52,

p.

140 (Ch. X L ) . p. 357 (Ch, X X X V ) .

p, 64, 59-60,

pp.

p, 1 1 ,

77

51

This point i s developed to

a l i m i t e d extent i n Chapter Six.

52

' A f t e r w o r d ' i n cited edition o f The Warden,

p.

212.

78

Chapter

Three I r e l a n d and B a r s e t s h i r e

TroUope's f i r s t novel, The Macdermots of B a l l y c l o r a n , centres on the presentation of one m o r a l issue, Macdermot,

the t r i a l of Thady

Thady's f a m i l y were w e l l on the path to poverty

because Thady's f a t h e r had allowed the p r o p e r t y to become entailed to an attorney i n the neighbouring town, M r , Keegan. sister,

Thady's

Feemy M a c d e r m o t , is w i t h child by a callous and

a r r o g a n t m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r , M y l e s tfssher.

Unintentionally,

Thady

k i l l s Captain Myles Ussher i n a fight outside the house and the ensuing events and t r i a l take up w e l l over half the book.

The

m o r a l question on w h i c h the book centres is Thady's guilt or innocence.

In m o r a l t e r m s he seems to be innocent but as the

outcome of the t r i a l shows he i s legally guilty and i s eventually executed,

TroUope seems to be w r i t i n g about the adverse effects

of an i m p o r t e d l e g a l system and his sympathetic presentation of the discontent i n I r e l a n d and County Connaught i n p a r t i c u l a r makes the book w o r t h reading today.

I n parts the s t o r y flags and

T r o l l o p e lacked the confidence i n his style to give i t polish, but there are some i n t e r e s t i n g characterisations priest,

(notably of the p a r i s h

Father John M c G r a t h , whose general benevolence and

education i n France made h i m as d i f f e r e n t i n outlook f r o m his curate,

Father CuUen, as Archdeacon Grantly was to be f r o m

Obediah Slope : they were unlike i n everything except zeal f o r the church);

and the account of the t r i a l ,

which lasts f o r f i v e

79

long chapters,

keeps the r e a d e r ' s i n t e r e s t w e l l .

aware of Thady's r n o r a l innocence, extenuating c i r c u m s t a n c e s

One is constantly-

because T r o l l o p e stresses the

of the m u r d e r , but at the same t i m e

one suspects that the E n g l i s h l e g a l system w i l l f i n d h i m guilty as i t eventually does, T r o l l o p e was u n c e r t a i n of his medium i n his f i r s t novel, as one would expect,

but The Maddermots of B a l l v c l o r a n deserves 1

m o r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n than i t has generally received ,

First

published i n 1847 and only reissued once apparently (by John Lane i n 1906) i t is t i m e this l i t t l e - k n o w n and inaccessible novel was republished : i t i s of i n t e r e s t as an unusually sympathetic account of I r e l a n d and the I r i s h by an E n g l i s h postal inspector,

and because

i t sheds light on the h i s t o r i c a l nature of A n g l o - I r i s h c o n f l i c t , I t also shows T r o l l o p e ' s e a r l y i n t e r e s t i n m o r a l issues, the law and the c h u r c h , and the s t o r y is an entertaining one, even i f the handling of i t lacks the confidence and polish of the later novels, T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f was c l e a r l y u n c e r t a i n of his medivim as some 3 recent r e s e a r c h has shown ,

His only defence f o r i t at a later

date was that i t was: ' W o r t h reading by anyone who wishes to understand what I r i s h l i f e was before the potato disease, the famine and the Encumbered Estates B i l l ' ^ . We to

can a t t r i b u t e the f a c t that i t has remained l a r g e l y unnoticed T r o l l o p e ' s own d i s m i s s a l of i t and M i c h a e l Sadleir's condemnation

of i t along w i t h The K e l l y s and the O ' K e l l y s ,

T r o l l o p e ' s other

80

e a r l y novel o f I r i s h l i f e , as

'pamphlets i n f i c t i o n a l guise

Sadleir w r i t e s : 'The two chief blemishes of The Macdermots of B a l l y c l o r a n are lack of i m a g i n a t i o n and excess of i n s t r u c t i o n a l zeal.'^; and as i f that were i n s u f f i c i e n t : ' I r e l a n d produced the man, but i t was l e f t to England to inspire the n o v e l i s t . Indeed one m a y go f u r t h e r , Ireland, having by f r i e n d l i n e s s , sport and open a i r saved T r o l l o p e f r o m h i m s e l f , a l l but choked the v e r y genius that she had v i t a l i s e d by her insane absorption y , i n her own wrongs and thwarted hopes-''. Understanding

something of T r o l l o p e ' s serious intent as a novelist

and his concern w i t h apparent contradictions, Sadleir's

i t seems that

d i s m i s s a l of these I r i s h novels may i n i t s e l f have a

c e r t a i n unintentional i r o n y , not least when he says: ' I f , as they say, I r e l a n d takes p r i d e i n contradictidusness, she may f i n d s a t i s f a c t i o n i n her influence on T r l l o p e , than w h i c h none could be more paradoxical'.^. Just so,

f o r we can see here i n embryo T r o l l o p e ' s l i f e - l o n g

concern with

antithesis]

In spite of T r o l l o p e ' s own subsequent r e j e c t i o n of The M a c d e r m o t s of B a l l y c l o r a n i t was i n fact quite w e l l reviewed by the c r i t i c s , who found g r e a t e r s k i l l and a r t i s t i c a b i l i t y than had ever been displayed by T r o l l o p e ' s mother i n her w r i t i n g c a r e e r . I n A n Autobiography, T r o l l o p e declared that:

81

' i f there was any notice of i t taken by any c r i t i c of the day, I d i d not see i t .«« I t h i n k I m a y say that a f t e r the publication I never said a w o r d about the book, even to m y w i f e ) • C l e a r l y T r o l l o p e was to some extent influenced by h i s m o t h e r ' s rather

strange r e a c t i o n to her son's f i r s t venture into novel

writing'''•''j

but i t seems u n l i k e l y that none of the press notices came to T r o l l o p e ' s attention, considering the l i t e r a r y interests

of the whole 12

f a m i l y (as both James Pope Hennessy and C. P» Snow observe

)

and this seems to be another example of the u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f A n Autobiography as an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e guide to T r o l l o p e ' s w o r k . The M a c d e r m o t s o f B a l l y c l o r a n deserves r e a p p r a i s a l then, but i t s interest f o r us lies here i n the nature of the plot which presents an apparently a n t i t h e t i c a l situation i n that the c e n t r a l f i g u r e i s both innocent and guilty o f the m u r d e r of his s i s t e r ' s seducer,

T r o l l o p e o f f e r s no easy solution to this inconsistency.

Indeed the book ends v e r y s h o r t l y ' a f t e r sentence has been passed, and the reader i s l e f t w i t h the c o u r t decision and the knowledge of Thady's m o r a l innocence u n r e s o l v e d . i s f a r f r o m unique.

Such a n ending i n a novel

H a r d y ' s Tess i s legally guilty of m u r d e r

though the reader knows that she i s m o r a l l y innocent when she goes to execution, but H a r d y leaves no doubt o r questioning i n the reader's mind: ' ' J u s t i c e " was done, and the' President of the I m m o r t a l s , i n AEschylean phrase, had ended his sport w i t h Tess!'^-^,' No f u r t h e r explanation need by sought,

T r o l l o p e ' s story

82

i n v o l v e s the reader i n m o r a l judgement and leaves no such

ready-

made explanation. The f i r s t of the B a r s e t s h i r e

novels.

The Warden,

enjoyed

a m o r e prosperous reputation a f t e r i t s appearance i n 1853.

We

should 'respect i t f o r the sake of the admirable books i t heralded', 14 a c c o r d i n g to Sadleir

, but i t has probably been m o r e widely read

than any of T r o l l o p e ' s other books, on account of i t s . i j r e v i t y .

not least,

some would say,

The short and simple story presents

the r e a d e r w i t h a situation of m o r a l complexity, and T r o l l o p e d e l i b e r a t e l y a l l i e d h i m s e l f to neither the l a i s s e z - f a i r e not the reforming factions. Mr,

He presents both sides of the case regarding

H a r d i n g ' s stipend and p o s i t i o n i n H i r a m ' s H o s p i t a l w i t h

sympathy

and s k i l l e d advocacy so that the reader can appreciate both the need to r e f o r m an out-dated w i l l by w h i c h the incumbent receives a stipend quite out of p r o p o r t i o n to his r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ,

and also

the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among the beadsmen that w i l l be engendered by such r e f o r m i n g zeal,

including the d i s c o m f o r t that w i l l be caused

to M r , Harding h i m s e l f , who is quite innocent of any wrong whatsoever The novel centres on the conscience of M r , Harding : as H e n r y James observed,

' i t is s i m p l y the h i s t o r y of an old man's

conscience''''^, but the m o r a l d i l e m m a is f a r f r o m s i m p l e .

As

Ruth apRoberts puts i t : 'The situation T r o l l o p e chooses is i n 17 i t s e l f a concrete d i a g r a m of a m o r a l c o m p l e x i t y ' suggesting,

.

I f , as I am

t h i s is the essence of The Warden, a concrete

diagram

83

of a m o r a l c o m p l e x i t y , the v a r i o u s apparently i r r e l e v a n t parts of the book f i t into place.

I n p a r t i c u l a r the contemporary satire on

C a r l y l e and Dickens (as D r , A n t i c a n t and M r , Popular Sentiment) and The T i m e s

(appearing as The Jupiter) a l l assxame a m e a n i n g f u l 18

place r a t h e r than being 'a disastrous

attempt at satire or a l l e g o r y ' 19 w h i c h otherwise spoils the 'classic roundness' of the s t o r y . A s H e n r y James also observed,

the subject of the novel is indeed

'the oppozition of the two natures of Archdeacon Grantly and M r , 20 Harding'

, but i t is m o r e than that.

I t is a presentation of a

m o r a l c o m p l e x i t y w h i c h i n i t s e l f d i r e c t s the reader to a deeper m o r a l perception. A , O, J ,

Cockshut sees The Warden as an i m m a t u r e study

of psychological obsession,

i n which Trollope compares unfavourably

w i t h Scott, who had: 'Sympathetic understanding of f a n a t i c i s m , delusion and violence i n his b o n e s . , . It i s t r u e , , , that f r o m the f i r s t ( T r o l l o p e ) was apt to d w e l l on o b s e s s i o n s . , , his keenest psychological penetration was confined, t i l l he was over f i f t y , to n o r m a l characters,,. But f o r Scott f r o m the f i r s t , the a b n o r m a l mind was as easy to decipher as the n o r m a l , , . I n The Warden the c o n f l i c t i n g ideas exist m a i n l y to exercise an old m a n ' s conscience, which i s the m a i n subject of the s t o r y . And as he shows us the innocence of the m a n who is so c r u e l l y tormented, satire against the two extremes and r i g i d ideas becomes v e r y m a r k e d . Compared w i t h Scott, T r o l l o p e i n 1855 seems l i m i t e d i n his sympathies, not because he condemns e x t r e m i s m , but because he does not s u f f i c i e n t l y comprehend before he condemns'



84

T r o l l o p e does not pass judgement on the issues r a i s e d i n The Warden i n the way that Cockshut says he does. I t is t r u e that he d i d not show the ' u n i v e r s a l p i t y ' w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i s e d his l a t e r books, but the c o m p a r i s o n w i t h Scott is not wholly just, T r o l l o p e was i n t e r e s t e d i n p o r t r a y i n g o r d i n a r y characters as they are i n o r d i n a r y l i f e and i n p a r t i c u l a r he was concerned w i t h the i n c o n g r u i t i e s that a r i s e when r e a l people meet and their d i f f e r i n g m o r a l w o r l d s engage i n c o n f l i c t . He was not s u f f e r i n g f r o m the m e n t a l i l l n e s s a t t r i b u t e d to h i m by J , H , Hagan, who thought that d i l e m m a s like that i n The Warden were a sign of helpless indecision^^. T r o l l o p e was a good psychologist i n that he understood the workings of the minds of o r d i n a r y people i n r e a l l i f e and i n f i c t i o n , but he d i d not have the psychologist's i n t e r e s t i n abnormal behaviour and obsession w h i c h Cockshut attributes to h i m . A . O . J . Cockshut was the f i r s t among s e v e r a l c r i t i c s to arouse new academic i n t e r e s t i n the novels w r i t t e n a f t e r 1868, but his analysis of the books under the heading ' P r o g r e s s to P e s s i m i s m ' rests too f i r m l y on the assumption that T r o l l o p e ' s concern was m a i n l y a psychological one, concentrating m o r e and m o r e on studies of obsession and unhappiness, u n t i l the f i n a l s a t i r i c a l statement of a pathetically misunderstood p r o p e r t y owner i n M r , Scarborough's Family,

However, i n obsession

The Warden is not an

e a r l y psychological study

: i t presents the reader w i t h a m o r a l d i l e m m a to

w h i c h there is no ready-made

or easy solution,

T r o l l o p e is not

85

t r y i n g to promote a neat t h e o r y .

He m e r e l y points to the

c o m p l e x i t i e s of the s i t u a t i o n i n describing the day to day lives of o r d i n a r y people,

w i t h unmistakable

skill.

There may be

something

of T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f , as Cockshut suggests, i n the p o r t r a i t of H a r d i n g , but that i s p u r e l y i n c i d e n t a l to the m o r a l issues presented. The Warden stands as a novel about a m o r a l d i l e m m a i n its own r i g h t and not just as a f o r e - r u n n e r of the later

novels.

The next novel, B a r c h e s t e r Towers, was T r o l l o p e ' s f i r s t attempt to p o r t r a y the i n t e r a c t i o n that exists i n a community made up of a number of i n d i v i d u a l s .

His range is altogether w i d e r and

t h e r e i s no single c h a r a c t e r around whom the story is b u i l t . T r o l l o p e centres his attention here not on one situation of m o r a l i n c o n g r u i t y , as i n the case of Thady's guilt or innocence, a number.

The c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n

but on

is more f u l l y developed and as

a r e s u l t the c o n f l i c t s a r i s e m o r e frequently, i n d i f f e r e n t surroundings

each t i m e .

I t was possible f o r T r o l l o p e to be m u c h

n e a r e r to the r e a l l i f e situation, because the c o n f l i c t s a r i s e i n a l l kinds of ways,

often when least expected.

In B a r c h e s t e r

Towers

there are d i f f e r e n t shades of c l e r i c a l opinion, f r o m high church to low c h u r c h ,

f r o m D r , Gwynne to M r , Slope i n t h e i r extremes;

and t h e i r d i f f e r i n g codes of t h e o l o g i c a l practice are brought into sharp focus whenever

they m e e t .

There are,

of course, those

who do not appear to have any p a r t i c u l a r d o c t r i n a l stance, Dr,

like

Stanhope and to some extent the Bishop h i m s e l f , whose low

86

c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n s helped to secure his appointment as the L i b e r a l nominee;

but even t h e i r lack of c o m m i t m e n t exhibits i n i t s e l f a

d i f f e r e n t m o r a l outlook.

The laymen too b r i n g t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l

m o r a l w o r l d s to the n o v e l ,

M r s , Proudie has something of low

c h u r c h zeal about her, but i t is her strong desire to be the ' p r i m a donna' of the B i s h o p ' s palace w h i c h leads to c o n f l i c t w i t h a l l and sundry.

M r , Thorne and his s i s t e r , M o n i c a , w i t h t h e i r i n t e r e s t

in pre-Christian ritual,

provide a r e f r e s h i n g contrast to the m o r a l

codes of B a r c h e s t e r Close,

These d i f f e r e n t m o r a l outlooks are

brought into sharp contrast at the Ullathorne Sports and this is the basis f o r some of T r o l l o p e ' s best comic w r i t i n g .

The e f f e c t of

m o r a l c o n f u s i o n is such that M r , Slope, albeit under the influence of champagne,

proposes to Eleanor Bold : such are the amazing

e f f e c t s of b r i n g i n g together e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t m o r a l codesj

Trollope

seems to have been fascinated by the results of such c o n f l i c t s though here he is perhaps m o r e concerned w i t h the comedy that i t gives r i s e to than w i t h m o r a l perception. nevertheless,

Barchester

Towers does,

centre on i n c o n g r u i t y .

The U l l a t h o r n e Sports is only one of the occasions conflict arises.

where

Whenever the Signora N e r o n i appears, the effect

she has is devastating and she does not l i m i t her influence to the m e n who gather round her sofa : both M r s , Proudie and Eleanor B o l d are m u c h a f f e c t e d by t h e i r meetings w i t h her.

I t is because

her values are so d i f f e r e n t f r o m those w i t h whom she converses that c o n f l i c t r e s u l t s .

I n some cases, as w i t h M r s , Proudie,

87

t h i s leads to a hardening of l i n e , but elsewhere i t leads to a rearrangement

of values,

as i n the case of M r . A r a b i n whose

outlook is considerably m o d i f i e d by his meeting w i t h the Signora, The Signora is a y a r d s t i c k against whom we evaluate the m o r a l codes of the c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s ,

so that her value i n the novel is

not only that of i n t r o d u c i n g an ultramontane atmosphere into the 23 confines of B a r s e t s h i r e this

.

The newspaper called The J u p i t e r i n

book is another such y a r d s t i c k , w i t h i t s c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t

i n upholding what i t believes to be r i g h t , i n this case M r . Slope, Besides the Ullathorne Sports and the effect of the Signora, however, t h e r e i s one other scene i n the novel where d i f f e r i n g m o r a l codes are brought together w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e c o m i c r e s u l t and that scene i s M r s , Proudie's famous r e c e p t i o n . Here the comedy does not a r i s e so m u c h f r o m the s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f (though i t is a d e l i g h t f u l l y entertaining one to read w i t h B e r t i e ' s m a s t e r f u l m o v i n g of the sofa r e s u l t i n g i n M r s ,

Proudie's

m a g n i f i c e n t dress being t o r n f r o m h e r ) , but m o r e f r o m the clash of m o r a l values produced by such a gathering,

B e r t i e Stanhope's

c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the Bishop is an excellent example of this and shows that even at this c o m p a r a t i v e l y early stage i n his w r i t i n g career,

T r o l l o p e could produce dialogue w i t h s k i l f u l and subtle

irony: ' " B i s h o p of B a r c h e s t e r , I presume?'* said B e r t i e Stanhope, putting out his hand, f r a n k l y ; ' ' I a m delighted to make your acquaintance. We are i n rather close quarters here, a'nt we?"

88

In t r u t h they w e r e , , , "Do you like Barchester asked B e r t i e ,

on the whole T""

The Bishop, looking d i g n i f i e d , said that he d i d like B a r c h e s t e r , "You've not been here v e r y long, I b e l i e v e , " said B e r t i e , "No - not l o n g , " said the bishop, and t r i e d again to make his way between the back of a sofa and a heavy r e c t o r , who was s t a r i n g over i t at the grimaces of the signora, "You w e r e n ' t a bishop b e f o r e , were you?" D r , Proudie explained that this was the f i r s t diocese he had held, " A h - I thought so," said B e r t i e ; 'but you are changed about sometimes, a'nt you?" " T r a n s l a t i o n s are occasionally made,'' said D r , Proudie; "but not so f r e q u e n t l y as i n f o r m e r days." "They've cut them a l l down to p r e t t y n e a r l y the same f i g u r e , haven't they?" said B e r t i e , To this the Bishop could not b r i n g h i m s e l f to make any answer, but again attempted to move the r e c t o r , "But the w o r k , I suppose, is d i f f e r e n t ? " continued B e r t i e , "Is there much to do here, at B a r c h e s t e r ? " This was said i n exactly the tone that a young A d m i r a l t y c l e r k m i g h t use i n asking the same question of a brother acolyte at the T r e a s u r y , "The w o r k of a bishop of the C h u r c h of England," said D r , Proudie w i t h considerable

89

d i g n i t y , "is not easy. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h i c h he has to bear is v e r y great indeed," *'Is i t ? " said B e r t i e , opening wide his w o n d e r f u l blue eyes. "Well; I never was a f r a i d of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , I once had thoughts of being a bishop m y s e l f . ' ' "Had thoughts of being a bishop^" said D r , Proudie, m u c h amazed. "That i s , a parson - a parson f i r s t , y o u know, and a bishop a f t e r w a r d s . I f I had once begun, I ' d have stuck to it. But on the whole, I like the C h u r c h of Rome the best." The bishop could not discuss the point, so he remained silent. "Now, t h e r e ' s m y f a t h e r , " continued B e r t i e ; "he hasn't stuck to i t , I fancy he d i d n ' t l i k e saying the same thing over so o f t e n . By the bye. B i s h o p , have you seen m y father?" The bishop was m o r e amazed than ever. Had he seen his f a t h e r ? "No,* he r e p l i e d ; "he had not yet had the pleasure: he hoped he might;" and, as he said so, he resolved to bear heavy on that f a t , i m m o v a b l e r e c t o r , i f ever he had the power of doing do. "He's i n the r o o m somewhere," said B e r t i e , "and h e ' l l t u r n up soon. By the bye, do you know m u c h about the Jews?" A t last the bishop saw a way out. " I beg your pardon," said he,; 'but I ' m f o r c e d to go round the room.."' There is m u c h said without being e x p l i c i t l y stated i n this passage. The effectiveness of the comedy and the i r o n y l i e s , however, i n T r o l l o p e ' s a b i l i t y to present the i n c o n g r u i t y of the d i f f e r e n t outlooks

90

of these two m e n so e f f o r t l e s s l y .

Here the i r o n y is m a i n l y

conveyed through d i r e c t speech, though as T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g c a r e e r progressed,

he explained c h a r a c t e r s '

thoughts and

reactions

w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y having r e c o u r s e to d i r e c t speech: 'The was m o r e amazed than e v e r .

bishop

Had he seen his f a t h e r ? ' is an 25

example of a s k i l l that was to be developed f u r t h e r

,

This

passage shows something of the s k i l l of Jane Austen, whose books do not b r i n g together

such d i f f e r i n g m o r a l conceptions of the universe.

H e r c h a r a c t e r s share s i m i l a r values and the i r o n y , i s m o r e l i m i t e d i n i t s range, i n M e t a p h y s i c a l poetry as

i f more refined,

D r , Johnson's d e f i n i t i o n of i m a g e r y

'heterogeneous ideas yoked by violence

26 together'

m i g h t be applied to the kind of c o n f l i c t situation i n

Trollope,

such as that quoted above, where quite d i f f e r e n t

conceptions of the w o r l d are brought into sharp focus i n the way they c o n t r a s t .

The effect i n T r o l l o p e is often c o m i c , but as w i t h

m e t a p h y s i c a l i m a g e r y , i t can lead to a deeper perception, Barchester

Towers is f u l l of such c o n f l i c t s and i t is

s u r p r i s i n g that they have not received m o r e attention to date, 27 H e n r y James noted the ' a l m o s t Thackerayan r i c h n e s s '

of the

book, but thought that M r s , Proudie was not as good as her f a m e , and M r , Slope he d e s c r i b e d as 28 p o r t r a i t is overdone

,

'a l i t t l e too a r r a n t a scamp'

whose

Sadleir recognised the great advance

T r o l l o p e , had made since The Warden, but found i t s m a i n m e r i t i n i t s unity : 'the use of selected m a t e r i a l solely i n the i n t e r e s t s 29 of the novel's p l o t ' , In a m u c h later i n t r o d u c t i o n to Barchester

91

T o w e r s , Sadleir r e m a r k s

upon the i m p r o v e d

characterisations

i n the novel, but bemoans 'his unsureness i n these e a r l y days' and complains that T r o l l o p e ' s c l e r g y lack 'a s p i r i t u a l aspect'. His comment on the Stanhopes r e v e a l s , to understand

I think, a general f a i l u r e

(though not to enjoy) T r o l l o p e ' s a r t .

He says,

' I t was not that T r o l l o p e did not r e a l i s e what a good thing he had invented when he imagined the Stanhopes but that, out of a vaguely f o r m a l i s e d fear of contemporary m o r a l i s m , he funked t h e i r exploitation ( i n l a t e r novels).'3-^, T r o l l o p e was not j u s t the unthinking upholder of V i c t o r i a n m o r a l i t y : on the c o n t r a r y he was acutely aware of i t and d e l i b e r a t e l y focused his r e a d e r s ' attention on i t by introducing c h a r a c t e r s like B e r t i e and the Signora who have completely d i f f e r e n t outlooks. A f a i l u r e to appreciate the i r o n y that underlies

Trollope's

mature

w o r k has done m o r e damage to his l i t e r a r y reputation than any other single f a c t o r .

A , O, J .

Cockshut only sees f i t to mention

B a r c h e s t e r Towers i n passing, (as an example of c h i l d r e n being used to i l l u s t r a t e some facet of adult character, i n the chapter 'Baby W o r s h i p ' ) . ,

It is strange the best known of TroUope's

novels has r e c e i v e d such scant attention f r o m w e l l critics.

W i l l i a m Cadbury comes nearer to

established

understanding

T r o l l o p e ' s m o r a l perception when he says that Barchester

Towers

originates i n a c o n f l i c t over s o c i a l position.

he

The theme,

says, i s a m a t t e r of c o n f l i c t i n g motivations w h i c h are

resolved

i n the course of the book as characters w i t h d i f f e r e n t representative

92

stances adjust themselves to the demands of society 31 . The c h a r a c t e r s do have d i f f e r e n t m o r a l stances, but T r o l l o p e was m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the c o n f l i c t s that ensued f r o m these d i f f e r e n c e s than i n p r o v i d i n g any easy solution as they adjust t h e i r stances. In another a r t i c l e the same w r i t e r comments on T r o l l o p e ' s detachment f r o m his c h a r a c t e r s i n B a r c h e s t e r Towers: 'The f i g u r e s , , , are designed to be seen f r o m the outside'•^^, It is unfortunate that he then goes on to state that none of the characters develops, since he had p r e v i o u s l y said that they a l l adjusted t h e i r stances to f i t i n w i t h the demands of s o c i e t y .

More recently J,R,

K i n c a i d has d r a w n attention to the way

i n w h i c h the comedy is m o r e e f f e c t i v e because our n o r m a l expectations of comedy (of youth fighting against the establishment) 33 are r e v e r s e d as the older ones struggle against t h e i r c h i l d r e n

,

M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , however, R u t h apRoberts has d r a w n attention to the issue w h i c h f o r m s the basis of Barchester Tow.e,:es.

She says:

'He has found i n Barchester that single s i t u a t i o n w h i c h demonstrates the c o m p l e x i t i e s of m o r a l problems''^'^. This comes nearer to i d e n t i f y i n g the r e a l value of the novel and accounting f o r i t s p o p u l a r i t y among educated r e a d e r s .

Trollope

was not yet s u f f i c i e n t l y sure of h i m s e l f to w r i t e about m a n i n a b r o a d s o c i a l setting, and he needed the f a i r l y c l o s e - k n i t c o m m u n i t y of B a r c h e s t e r as a secure f r a m e w o r k at this stage.

Previously

his concern w i t h incongruous value systems had been concentrated i n t o one s i t u a t i o n , as i n the case of Thady's g u i l t or innocence,

93

but i n B a r c h e s t e r

T o w e r s he e x t e n d e d t h i s t o w r i t e a s t u d y o£ the

incongruities which arise meet.

The s t e p f r o m

i n e v e r y situation w h e r e human beings T h e W a r d e n to B a r c h e s t e r

many ways a f a r greater

T o w e r s was i n

one t h a n t h e s t e p f r o m B a r c h e s t e r

to

L o n d o n w i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f C a n Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? i n 1864, A s A l b e r t C o o k has

w r i t t e n i n The Meaning of F i c t i o n ,

' T h e g r e a t e r the r e a l i t y w h i c h the n o v e l i s t d i s c o v e r s , the l a r g e r and m o r e open his plots are l i k e l y to

T r o l l o p e s t i l l f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o b i n d up the l o o s e ends i n Barchester

T o w e r s , b u t h i s p l o t i s l a r g e r and m o r e o p e n ,

because the n o v e l had no single c h a r a c t e r made

as i t s h e r o ,

i t c l e a r t o h i s p u b l i s h e r t h a t he d i d n o t w a n t any

partly

Trollope character

s i n g l e d out f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e t i t l e f o r the b o o k : ' I do n o t l i k e a second t i t l e n o r the one y o u n a m e , I do n o t w i s h the b i s h o p - m a l e o r f e m a l e - t o be c o n s i d e r e d the chief character i n t h e booK.^^'.' T r o l l o p e was w e l l aware

of the d i f f i c u l t i e s posed b y any

a t t e m p t t o t i e u p t h e l o o s e ends o f a b o o k .

He knew,

however,

t h a t h i s r e a d i n g p u b l i c r e q u i r e d a neat a n d t i d y c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e events

of a s t o r y ,

even i f i t meant

c r e d i b i l i t y w h i c h had been book.

so c a r e f u l l y n u r t u r e d i n the r e s t

I n the f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e ,

ending of B a r c h e s t e r the displeasure

s a c r i f i c i n g a l i t t l e of the

Towers,

o f the

T r o l l o p e d e f e n d s the u n n a t u r a l i s t i c

b e c a u s e he does n o t w i s h to i n c u r

o f h i s r e a d e r s (the e a r l i e r n o v e l t o w h i c h he

refers

94

obliquely is very well, to l i f e ,

The M a c d e r m o t s of B a l l y c l o r a n ,

w h i c h d i d not s e l l

a f a c t w h i c h T r o l l o p e p u t d o w n t o the u n t i d y ,

but

true

ending): 'We m u s t n o w t a k e leave o f M r , S l o p e , a n d o f the b i s h o p a l s o , and o f M r s , Proudie, These leave-takings i n novels a r e as d i s a g r e e a b l e as t h e y a r e i n r e a l life; n o t so s a d , i n d e e d , f o r t h e y w a n t t h e r e a l i t y o f s a d n e s s ; b u t q u i t e as p e r p l e x i n g , and g e n e r a l l y less s a t i s f a c t o r y . What n o v e l i s t , what F i e l d i n g , what Scott, w h a t G e o r g e Sand, o r Sue o r D u m a s , c a n i m p a r t a n i n t e r e s t t o the l a s t c h a p t e r o f his fictitious h i s t o r y ? promises of two c h i l d r e n and superhuman happiness are of no a v a i l , n o r a s s u r a n c e o f e x t r e m e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y c a r r i e d t o a n age f a r exceeding that u s u a l l y a l l o t t e d to m o r t a l s . T h e s o r r o w s o f o u r h e r o e s and h e r o i n e s , they are y o u r delight, oh public' their s o r r o w s , or their sins, or their absurdities; n o t t h e i r v i r t u e s , good s e n s e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t rewards. When we begin to tint our f i n a l pages w i t h ' c o u l e u r de r o s e ' , as i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h f i x e d r u l e we m u s t do, we altogether e x t i n g u i s h our own powers of pleasing. W h e n we become d u l l we o f f e n d y o u r i n t e l l e c t ; a n d we m u s t b e c o m e d u l l or we offend y o u r taste, A late w r i t e r , w i s h i n g t o s u s t a i n h i s i n t e r e s t t o the l a s t p a g e , hung h i s h e r o at the end of the t h i r d volume. The c o n s e q u e n c e w a s t h a t n o - o n e would read his novel. A n d who can a p p o r t i o n o u t and d o v e t a i l h i s i n c i d e n t s , d i a l o g u e s , c h a r a c t e r s , and d e s c r i p t i v e m o r s e l s , so as t o f i t t h e m a l l e x a c t l y i n t o 462 p a g e s , w i t h o u t e i t h e r c o m p r e s s i n g t h e m unnaturally, o r extending t h e m a r t i f i c i a l l y at the end o f h i s l a b o u r ? Do I not m y s e l f k n o w t h a t I a m at t h i s m o m e n t i n w a n t o f a d o z e n p a g e s , and t h a t I a m s i c k w i t h c u d g e l l i n g m y b r a i n s to f i n d t h e m ? And t h e n w h e n e v e r y t h i n g i s d o n e , the k i n d e s t h e a r t e d c r i t i c of them a l l i n v a r i a b l y t w i t s us w i t h the i n c o m p e t e n c y and l a m e n e s s of our conclusion. We have e i t h e r b e c o m e

95

i d l e and n e g l e c t e d i t , o r t e d i o u s and over-laboured i t . It is insipid or unnatural, o v e r - s t r a i n e d or i m b e c i l e . It means nothing, o r attempts too m u c h . T h e l a s t scene o f a l l , as a l l l a s t scenes we f e a r m u s t be ' " I f s e c o n d c h i l d h o o d , and m e r e o b l i v i o n . Sans t e e t h , sans e y e s , sans t a s t e , sans e v e r y t h i n g , * ' I c a n o n l y say t h a t i f s o m e c r i t i c , who t h o r o u g h l y k n o w s h i s w o r k , and has l a b o u r e d on i t t i l l e x p e r i e n c e has m a d e h i m p e r f e c t , w i l l w r i t e the l a s t f i f t y pages o f a n o v e l i n t h e w a y t h e y s h o u l d be w r i t t e n , I , f o r one, w i l l i n f u t u r e do m y b e s t t o c o p y t h e e x a m p l e . Guided by m y own iights only, I confess that I d e s p a i r of success,'^^. T h e r e is l i t t l e i n t r i n s i c a r t i s t i c m e r i t i n this passage, T r o l l o p e ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the d i c t a t e s is his

expressed

c l e a r l y enough.

writing career,

I t m a y be

T r o l l o p e was aware

though

of l i t e r a r y convention s a i d t h a t at t h i s stage i n

o f the r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d

by

t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f h i s m e d i u m , b u t as y e t he l a c k e d t h e

to

adapt,

u t i l i s e and m o d i f y t h e m f o r his own a r t i s t i c

Such c o n f i d e n c e was to come

mastery

expression.

s h o r t l y a f t e r the s u c c e s s o f

38 Barchester

Towers

, 39

A l l the B a r s e t s h i r e

novels

the i n d i v i d u a l m o r a l universes i n c o n g r u i t i e s that arise He

show T r o l l o p e ' s i n t e r e s t i n

of his different characters

i n t h e i r m o r a l clashes w i t h each

h a d no s u p e r f i c i a l l y d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e ,

and the other.

and i f he s u c c e e d s i n

d i r e c t i n g h i s r e a d e r s t o a d e e p e r p e r c e p t i o n of the u n i v e r s e , is his

it

b y f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n o n the i n d i v i d u a l s i t u a t i o n as i t a r i s e s i n stories,

Trollope expressed

the nature

of h i s r o l e

accurately

96

w h e n he w r o t e ,

'The w r i t e r

of s t o r i e s , , ,

must teach,

whether

he

40' w i s h to t e a c h o r no'

,

In telling a story,

an a u t h o r

unconsciously

teaches by the v e r y p r o c e s s o f selection and o m i s s i o n . understanding

o f the u n i v e r s e

homiletics,

T r o l l o p e ' s novels

v i v i d and p e r c e p t i v e w i t h a clearcut

c a n n o t e a s i l y be t a u g h t b y d i r e c t l e a v e us w i t h a n i m p r e s s i o n ,

one b e c a u s e he o b s e r v e d

statement.

An

so a c c u r a t e l y

a not

A s Thomas H a r d y wrote a few years

later: ' L e t m e r e p e a t t h a t a n o v e l i s an i m p r e s s i o n and not an argumentJ'^^, O c c a s i o n a l l y one s u s p e c t s t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t w a s i m p r e s s i o n in Hardy's own novels,

stronger

than the

though i t n e v e r was i n T r o l l o p e ' s ,

T r o l l o p e w o u l d have b e e n w h o l e h e a r t e d l y i n

agreement

w i t h Elizabeth Bowen: ' I n the n o v e l , e v e r y t h i n g that h a p p e n s , happens e i t h e r t o o r b e c a u s e o f one o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' ^ ' ^ ^ He w o u l d ,

I think,

have s e e n t h i s as

than just a l i t e r a r y convention, w i t h people,

and so n o v e l s ,

something m o r e

Hiiman existence

b e i n g about l i f e ,

are

c o n c e r n e d w i t h c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s , not

interested

human life,

i n drawing generalisations

so m u c h as

is

fundamental concerned

primarily TroHope

f r o m his observation of

i n c r e a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s to s t r e s s

the

u n i q u e n e s s o f e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g and the events surround his or her l y i n g the a u t h o r ' s

life,

was

which

A f a i l u r e to p e r c e i v e the i r o n y

conventional intrusions into his stories

under-

might

97

l e a d one t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s i s n o t the c a s e ;

and i t i s t h e s e

i n t r u s i o n s t h a t s e e m t o be q u o t e d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y i n criticism,

o f t e n out o f c o n t e x t .

Trollopian

T h e s u p e r f i c i a l i m p r e s s i o n to be

gleaned f r o m reading such c r i t i c i s m is that a large p r o p o r t i o n of T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g is devoted to i n t r u s i v e m o r a l i s i n g linked by the o u t l i n e s of a s t o r y . the a n a l y s i s

of c h a r a c t e r

achievement,

together

B u t i t i s the n a r r a t i v e of e v e n t s and

t h a t f o r m the b a s i s o f T r o l l o p e ' s a r t i s t i c

Ruth apRoberts

s u m s i t up as

follows:

' T h e a r t o f i t m a k e s us see the u n i q u e n e s s o f c h a r a c t e r i n c i r c i x m s t a n c e s , and the end of i t i s m o r a l perception''^"^. I t is by this constant

f o c u s i n g o n i n d i v i d u a l m a n i n h i s xinique

e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t T r o l l o p e l e a d s the r e a d e r to a d e e p e r of the nature

o f the

understanding

universe.

D o c t o r T h o r n e w a s t h e b e s t o f T r o l l o p e ' s n o v e l s i n the o p i n i o n of M i c h a e l S a d l e i r w h o c o n c l u d e d T r o l l o p e : A

Commentary

w i t h the w o r d s : 'at the p r o u d a p e x o f the p y r a m i d o f T r o l l o p e 44 f i c t i o n (stands)

the t a l e o f D o c t o r Thorne.^



B u t w h e n one

a n a l y s e s the r e a s o n s f o r h i s f i n a l c h o i c e o f t h i s n o v e l ,

one

cannot

help t h i n k i n g that his outlook was unduly influenced by a Jamesian affection f o r Trollope's heroines.

H e n r y J a m e s had w r i t t e n :

' T r o l l o p e s e t t l e d d o w n s t e a d i l y to the English g i r l . . , He is evidently m o r e o r l e s s i n l o v e w i t h h e r , , , (as a) paternal l o v e r . , . T h e y a r e so affectionate,,, they have a k i n d of c l i n g i n g t e n d e r n e s s , a p a s s i v e sweetness., w h i c h i s Quite i n t h e o l d E n g l i s h tradition-

98

S a d l e i r w r o t e a t t h e end o f h i s s u r v e y o f T r o l l o p e ' s w o r k : ' A t t i m e s one w o n d e r s w h e t h e r ( T h e W a y We L i v e N o w ) i s n o t the g r e a t e s t n o v e l Trollope ever w r o t e . B u t w h e n the t h o u g h t o f M a r y T h o r n e r e t u r n s , and because beauty i s m o r e permanent than anger and s w e e t n e s s m o r e a b i d i n g t h a n e v e n r i g h t e o u s c r u e l t y , the s a t i r e ( o f The W a y We L i v e N o w ) f a l l s i n t o second p l a c e , l e a v i n g p e r p e t u a l l y e n t h r o n e d a t the p r o u d a p e x o f the p y r a m i d o f T r o l l o p e f i c t i o n , , , the t a l e o f D o c t o r Thorne,"'^'^* G e o r g e E l i o t had a l r e a d y p u t s u c h u t t e r a n c e s

in their proper

w h e n she w r o t e i n a l e t t e r i n 1870 : ' m e n a r e

place

v e r y fond of that

d o g l i k e a f f e c t i o n ( o f the T r o l l o p i a n h e r o i n e ) . ' ' ^ ^ j The n o v e l i s e x c e l l e n t i n the shape o f i t s p l o t a n d i n i t s characterisation;

i t i s a l s o j u s t l y one o f the f a v o u r i t e s a m o n g

r e a d e r s of T r o l l o p e ,

D o c t o r T h o r n e h i m s e l f i s at the c e n t r e of 48

the s t o r y ,

( T r o l l o p e c a l l s h i m the

' h e r o ' at the outset

f u l f i l s a u n i q u e r o l e i n the n o v e l ,

) , a n d he

s i n c e as t h e v i l l a g e d o c t o r he

e n j o y s the d u b i o u s p r i v i l e g e o f b e i n g c o n f i d e d i n b y a l l h i s T r o l l o p e was able t o present

patients,

us w i t h scenes of i n t i m a c y t h a t w o u l d

h a v e b e e n out of p l a c e i n t h e e a r l i e r n o v e l s and as a r e s u l t we c o m e c l o s e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m i n d s o f some This greater

o f the m a i n

protagonists.

i n t i m a c y leads to deeper p s y c h o l o g i c a l analysis

c o n s e q u e n t l y the m o r a l u n i v e r s e o f each c h a r a c t e r defined.

Sir R o g e r Scatcherd his son L o u i s ,

Gresham,

w h o has

cancer,

and her

T h o r n e at one t i m e o r a n o t h e r . these characters

son F r a n k ,

and

is m o r e c l e a r l y

Lady A r a b e l l a a l l confide i n Doctor

B e c a u s e the c o m m o n g r o u n d f o r

i s g e n e r a l l y the d o c t o r h i m s e l f , a n d b e c a u s e d i r e c t

99

confrontations are Barchester

rare,

the b o o k i s less a s o c i a l c o m e d y

T o w e r s and a m o r e

E v e n so,

we a r e

prevails.

because they expose t h e m s e l v e s

t o the c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r who i n s o m e senses

the i n t i m a c y a f f o r d e d to s e v e r a l fiction.

tone

c o n t i n u a l l y a w a r e o f the i n c o n g r u i t i e s of

t h e i r various m o r a l outlooks, unreservedly

sombre

than

servant

Although Doctor Thorne

is

narrators

'more

enjoys

in Victorian

p u r e l y p l o t ' than the

49 novels which preceded inter-personal to the

it

,

relationships

T r o l l o p e ' s s k i l l i n the h a n d l i n g of a n d d i a l o g u e i s e x c e l l e n t and 50. a whole., ,

r i c h n e s s o f the n o v e l as

B y t h e t i m e T r o l l o p e c a m e to w r i t e Barset,

T h e L a s t C h r o n i c l e of

he h a d f o u n d the c o n f i d e n c e t o h a n d l e

c h a r a c t e r s and s e v e r a l

contributes

a number

of

e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t clashes of outlook, without

t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c r e a t i n g t h e k i n d o f c h a r a c t e r s w h o s t a n d on t h e i r o w n f e e t s o l e l y b e c a u s e o f the are

l i v e l y scenes w h i c h ensue w h e n t h e y

'yoked by violence together'.

penetration made possible

The d e e p e r

psychological

i n D o c t o r Thorne helped

c r e a t e c h a r a c t e r s w h o l i v e on t h e i r own as w e l l as situations,

Mr,

L a s t C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t

T r o l l o p e was minds

i n social

P r o u d i e w o u l d n o t have s u r v i v e d l o n g i f h i s w i f e

h a d d i e d i n the c o u r s e o f B a r c h e s t e r i n The

T r o l l o p e to

Towers,

but w i t h her

decease

he t a k e s o n a n e w d i m e n s i o n .

a b l e to e x p l o r e the i n n e r w o r k i n g s o f h i s

characters'

a f t e r the w r i t i n g o f D o c t o r T h o r n e a n d one r e s u l t w a s

t h e c h a r a c t e r s e x i s t as m o r e t h a n s o c i a l b e i n g s o n l y .

The

that

100

R e v e r e n d J o s i a h C r a w l e y i s a n o t h e r f i g u r e w h o has own,

a l i f e of h i s

w a n d e r i n g g l o o m i l y a r o u n d the p a r i s h o f H o g g l e s t o c k ,

obsessed

w i t h h i s p o s s i b l e g u i l t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e m i s s i n g cheque f o r t w e n t y pounds,

and m a i n t a i n i n g h i s s t o i c i s m b y r e p e a t i n g the

brick-

51 layer's

' I t ' s d o g g e d as d o e s i t '

.

N o t e v e n M r , H a r d i n g has

the

52 psychological depth of M r . C r a w l e y

.

T r o l l o p e h a d o u t g r o w n the need f o r the s e c u r i t y o f a n e n c l o s e d w o r l d s e t i n B a r s e t s h i r e b y 1866, w h e n he w r o t e T h e C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t ,

A f t e r Doctor Thorne,

p u b l i s h e d i n 1858,

t h e r e h a d b e e n the t w o o t h e r B a r s e t s h i r e n o v e l s , a n d T h e S m a l l H o u s e at A l l i n g t o n .

F r a m l e y Parsonage

besides O r l e y F a r m ,

A l l C o u n t r i e s and the f i r s t P a l l i s e r s e r i e s .

Last

Tales of

Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

T r o l l o p e w r o t e The L a s t C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t p a r t l y i n response to 53 public demand

, b u t the u n d e r s t a n d i n g he has

of his

characters

a n d t h e i r m o r a l b e i n g s w a s m u c h m o r e s u r e as w a s h i s

control

o v e r the s t o r y .

The n o v e l belongs to the B a r s e t s h i r e

although i n t e r m s

o f a r t i s t i c m e r i t i t s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d

his most mature w o r k .

A , 0 ,J,

, b u t the e n t i r e

p l o t of L i l y D a l e , A d o l p h u s C r o s b i e and J o h n n y F a m e s , w i t h the scenes o f m i d d l e - c l a s s l i f e i n B a y s w a t e r ,

circles

of Barsetshire,

alongside

C o c k s h u t has s a i d t h a t t h i s b o o k 54

is m a r r e d by an excess of i r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l

the range w h i c h extends,

series

a n d p r o v i d e the r e a d e r

together

g i v e the

b e y o n d t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l and

sub-

novel

provincial

with a different

set

o f m o r a l v a l u e s a g a i n s t w h i c h t o a p p r e c i a t e m o r e f u l l y the n a t u r e o f t h e v a l u e s o f the m a i n c h a r a c t e r s

o f the b o o k .

But Trollope

has

101

been censured elsewhere f o r a f a i l u r e to relate

a l l his

sub-plots

t o the m a i n s t o r y i n t h i s n o v e l : ' I n a b o o k l i k e The L a s t C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the B a r s e t p a r t s o f the b o o k a n d i t s L o n d o n scenes i s o n l y o f a t e n u o u s and o f a n o m i n a l k i n d , and a c r i t i c has t o w o r k v e r y h a r d t o c o n n e c t t h e m a t i c a l l y t h e t w o a r e a s o f the b o o k w i t h any plausibility'^^' The r e l a t i o n s h i p of sub-plot to m a i n - p l o t i n Can Y o u F o r g i v e f o r example,

is m u c h m o r e

obvious,

since M r s , Greenow,

Cheeseacre and Captain B e l l f i e l d d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t A l i c e situation,

j u s t as

that of K i n g

i n Shakespeare's play,

Lear,

A l t h o u g h the

Gloucester's plight reflects

sub-plots

i n The L a s t

a y a r d s t i c k a g a i n s t w h i c h we m a y

the e v e n t s a n d the p e o p l e

who are

Mr,

Vavasor's

of B a r s e t b e a r no s u c h o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the s t o r y , s e r v e t h e m a t i c a l l y as

Her?,

Chronicle t h e y do understand

c e n t r a l t o the n o v e l and the

values

which exist within i t . On the face of i t , this seems like a blanket f o r the i n c l u s i o n of any m a t e r i a l , be i n t e r m s o f s t o r y a l o n e , juxtaposition of incongruities, o r denoting the

no m a t t e r

T r o l l o p e was

justification

how i r r e l e v a n t i t m a y fascinated by this

and f a r f r o m p r o v i d i n g l i g h t r e l i e f ,

passing of t i m e ,

the

s u b - p l o t i n The

Last

Chronicle

o f B a r s e t i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the n o v e l f o r the v e r y r e a s o n the w o r l d w h i c h i t r e p r e s e n t s i s such a c o n t r a s t

that

to the w o r l d o f

56 the r e s t of the book p r o v i d e d b y the

.

Thornes

In Barchester Towers o f U l l a t h o r n e was m o r e

the

contrast

closely woven into

the m a i n p l o t , b e c a u s e the S p o r t s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r

the t w o w o r l d s

102

into a direct clash.

Lily Dale's

B r o u g h t o n sequence never Barchester

c l e r i c a l feuds,

a l l the m o r e f o r the events p a t t e r n as achieve

subtle.

adventures

come into d i r e c t contact w i t h

the

and the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n c o n g r u i t y i s

I t is also,

of course,

more like real life,

of r e a l l i f e r a r e l y f i t into such a close j i g - s a w

that of B a r c h e s t e r

Towers,

T h e n o v e l i s t needs t o

a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n an exact

chaotic,

and the w h o l e

r e f l e c t i o n o f l i f e as i t i s ,

i n c o n g r u o u s and d i s j o i n t e d , and a n o r d e r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f one a s p e c t o f l i f e i n t h e t e r m s w h i c h h i s m e d i u m p e r m i t s . T r o l l o p e was ahead of h i s t i m e ,

perhaps,

wrote m o r e naturalistic i n this respect nature has

o f l i f e as

i t i s and p r e s e n t

escaped m a n y .

a unified p e r c e p t i o n of l i f e that revealed

of which life is r e a l l y composed.

s u m m e d u p the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e a l l i f e t o

l i f e i n f i c t i o n w h e n he w r o t e : ' T o m a k e t r u e , t h e n , c o n s i s t s i n g i v i n g the c o m p l e t e i l l u s i o n o f t r u t h , f o l l o w i n g the o r d i n a r y logic o f f a c t s and not s l a v i s h l y t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e m as t h e y happen,'^ T r o l l o p e c a m e q u i t e c l o s e t o g i v i n g t h i s i l l u s i o n o f t r u t h i n the w r i t i n g of his m a t u r i t y .

he

: h i s b o o k s r e f l e c t the

I t i s a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t c a n o n l y be

t h r o u g h the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s G u y de M a u p a s s a n t

i n m a k i n g the n o v e l s

103 NOTES

- Chapter

Three

1

C P , Snow, h o w e v e r , d e s c r i b e s i t as ' a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y good novel', ( T r o l l o p e , p , 6 5 ) , and R , M , P o t h e r m s has d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o i t f o r i t s u n d e r r a t e d q u a l i t i e s i n The C h a n g i n g W o r l d of A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e ,

2

T h i s has b e e n r e c o g n i s e d b y E , W . W i t t i n g w h o d e s c r i b e s i t as the o n l y n o v e l o f the p e r i o d r e v e a l i n g an o p e n n e s s about the I r i s h w h i c h approaches the best o f h i s E n g l i s h w o r k . ' T r o l l o p e ' s I r i s h F i c t i o n ' , I r e l a n d : A J o u r n a l o f I r i s h Studies, i x : i i i ( A u t u m n 1974) p p , 9 7 - 1 1 8 .

3

R . C . T e r r y , ' T h e T h r e e L o s t C h a p t e r s of T r o l l o p e ' s F i r s t N o v e l ' , N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y F i c t i o n , x x v i i (June 1972) pp, 71-80; and E , W, W i t t i n g , 'Significant Revisions i n T r o l l o p e ' s T h e M a c d e r m o t s o f B a l l y c l o r a n ' y N o t e s and Q u e r i e s , x x : i i i ( M a r c h 1973) p p . 9 0 - 9 1 .

4

A n Autobiography, p,

5

Trollope : A Commentary,

6

Ibid,,

p , 141.

7

Ibid.,

pp,

8

I b i d , , p, 142. Sadleir's judgement completely eclipsed that o f S i r H , W a l p o l e (whose b o o k A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e a p p e a r e d o n l y a y e a r l a t e r , i n 1928), I n i t he d e s c r i b e s The M a c d e r m o t s o f B a l l y c l o r a n as ' a l m o s t i n the f i r s t f l i g h t o f T r o l l o p e , , , T h e s t o r y i s o f the s i m p l e s t , b u t b r o a d e n s , as e v e r y s t o r y o u g h t to d o , i n t o the f u l l bounds o f i t s e n v i r o n m e n t ' ( p , 2 5 ) , C , P , Snow has r i g h t l y d e s c r i b e d S a d l e i r ' s d i s m i s s a l o f T r o l l o p e ' s f i r s t n o v e l as a ' c r a s s m i s j u d g e m e n t ' ( T r o l l o p e , p. 65).

9

F a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s w e r e g i v e n i n John B u l l , H o w i t t ' s J o u r n a l a n d T h e S p e c t a t o r , i n 1847, See D o n a l d S m a l l e y , T r o l l o p e : T h e C r i t i c a l H e r i t a g e , p p , 549, 550 and 5 4 7 . A wider d i s c u s s i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n T r o l l o p e and h i s r e a d i n g p u b l i c t h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r c a n be f o u n d i n D a v i d S k i l t o n ' s T r o l l o p e a n d Itis C o n t e m p o r a r i e s : A Study i n the T h e o r y and Conventions of M i d - V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n .

10

77 ( C h , I V ) . p,

145,

142-143,

A n A u t o b i o g r a p h y , pp,

80-81 (Ch,

W).

104

11

T h e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e t w e e n A n t h o n y and h i s m o t h e r , F r a n c e s T r o l l o p e , w h o w r o t e n o v e l s t o k e e p the f a m i l y s o l v e n t a f t e r t h e f a i l u r e o f the E m p o r i u m v e n t u r e i n C i n c i n n a t t i , w h i l e A n t h o n y w a s s t i l l at s c h o o l , a r e e x a m i n e d i n T h e T r o l l o p e s : T h e C h r o n i c l e o f a W r i t i n g F a m i l y , by L , P , and R . P , S t e b b i n s .

12

J a m e s Pope H e n n e s s y , A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e , p p , C . P , Snow, T r o l l o p e . p , 66,

13

T e s s o f the D ' U r b e r v i l l e s . p ,

446.

14

Trollope : A Commentary,

374,

15

The s t r u c t u r e o f T h e W a r d e n has a l s o b e e n e x a m i n e d b y M , C , H o u s t o n , i n ' S t r u c t u r e and P l o t i n The W a r d e n ' , U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , x x x i v (1955) p p , 107-113.

16

Partial Portraits,

17

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , p ,

18

Partial Portraits,

19

Ibid.,

p,

110.

20

Ibid.,

p.

109.

21

A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l Study,

22

'The D i v i d e d M i n d of Anthony T r o l l o p e ' , Nineteenth F i c t i o n , x i v ( 1 9 5 9 - 6 0 ) p p . 1-26.

23

T r o l l o p e ' s novels contain a wide v a r i e t y of c h a r a c t e r s f r o m other c o u n t r i e s , some of whom are discussed f u r t h e r i n subsequent c h a p t e r s . T h e r e i s an a r t i c l e i n The T r o l l o p i a n , i i , n o , 1 (1947) p p . 3 - 1 0 , b y D . M , A l e x a n d e r , e n t i t l e d 'Trollope's Cosmopolitanism',

24

Barchester

25

P a r t i c u l a r l y i n The L a s t C h r o n i c l e of B a r s e t , W , J , Overton e x a m i n e s t h i s i n a s s e s s i n g the i m p o r t a n c e o f the e v o l u t i o n o f the unspoken m o n o l o g u e , i n ' T r o l l o p e : A n I n t e r i o r V i e w ' , M o d e r n L a n g u a g e s R e v i e w , I x x i (1976) p p , 4 8 9 - 4 9 9 , See a l s o D , A i t k e n , 'A Kind of F e l i c i t y ' , Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n , x x (1966) p p , 3 3 7 - 3 5 3 ,

Towers,

p.

p.

p,

106-107;

and

108, 42,

111,

pp,

pp,

36-37. Century

81-82 (Ch, X I )

105

26

L i v e s o f the E n g l i s h Poets,

27

Partial Portraits,

28

Ibid.,

29

Trollope : A Commentary,

p.

30

C i t e d e d i t i o n of B a r c h e s t e r

Towers,

31

'Shape a n d T h e m e : D e t e r m i n a n t s of T r o l l o p e ' s F o r m s ' , P r o c e e d i n g s of the M o d e r n Languages A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , I x x v i i i (1963), pp. 326-332.

32

' C h a r a c t e r and M o c k - H e r o i c i n B a r c h e s t e r T o w e r s ' . Texas Studies i n L i t e r a t u r e and Language, v (1963-4) p , 510.

33

I n i t i a l l y i n ' B a r c h e s t e r T o w e r s and the N a t u r e o f C o n s e r v a t i v e C o m e d y ' , J o u r n a l o f E n g l i s h L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y , x x x v i i (1970) pp. 595-612.

34

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , m a d e , h o w e v e r , o f W . D . Shaw, i n B a r c h e s t e r T o w e r s ' , showed w h i c h p r o v i d e b o t h the s t r u c t u r e Nineteenth Century Fiction, x i x

35

Q u o t e d b y R u t h a p R o b e r t s i n T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , p. 28. O n t h i s a s p e c t o f T r o l l o p e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , see a l s o R.H. P o l h e m u s , The C h a n g i n g W o r l d o f A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e , t h o u g h t h i s s h o u l d be v i e w e d w i t h s u s p i c i o n as r e g a r d s i t s a c c u r a d y o n c h u r c h a f f a i r s (see R u t h a p R o b e r t ' s r e v i e w i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y F i c t i o n , x x i i i (1968) p . 355) a n d a dangerous tendency to seek s i g n i f i c a n c e i n e v e r y t h i n g , as, f o r e x a m p l e , w h e n he notes ( p , 730) the p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f p h a l l i c s y m b o l i s m s u r r o u n d i n g V i o l e t E f f i n g h a m and L o r d C h i l t e r n i n Phineas F i n n . I t i s s t r a n g e t h a t C . P . Snow puts P o l h e m i n s a l o n g s i d e R u t h a p R o b e r t s as ' t w o of the a b l e s t c r i t i c s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n on T r o l l o p e ' . ( T r o l l o p e , p , 180).

36

I n a l e t t e r t o J o h n B l a c k w o o d , 3 r d M a r c h 1967, N o t i n the c o l l e c t e d l e t t e r s ( e d . B . A . Booth),, b u t q u o t e d i n M i c h a e l S a d l e i r ' s T r o l l o p e : A C o m m e n t a r y , p . 174.

37

Barchester

p.

p.

p.

31.

116.

118.

Towers,

pp.

374. p.

viii.

p. 4 1 . M e n t i o n s h o u l d be whose a r t i c l e , ' M o r a l D r a m a i n s i g h t i n t o the r e a l t e n s i o n s and the c o m e d y o f the n o v e l . (1965) p p . 4 5 - 5 4 .

446-447 (Ch. L I ) .

106

38

On the r e s t r i c t i o n s o f the m e d i u m i n w h i c h T r o l l o p e and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w e r e w r i t i n g , see J , H , M i l l e r ' s The F o r m of V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n : Thackeray. Dickens. T r o l l o p e . George E l i o t , M e r e d i t h and H a r d y . A l s o R . Stang, The T h e o r y o f the N o v e l i n E n g l a n d 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 7 0 , and R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s , The E n g l i s h N o v e l : F r o m Dickens to Lawrence.

39

T h e s e a r e : The W a r d e n ( 1 8 5 5 ) , B a r c h e s t e r T o w e r s (1857), D o c t o r Thorne (1858), F r a m l e y Parsonage (1861), The S m a l l H o u s e a t A U i n g t o n (1864) and The L a s t C h r o n i c l e o f B a r s e t ( 1 8 6 7 ) , f o l l o w i n g the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n W . G . and J , T , G e r o u l d ' s A Guide to Anthony T r o l l o p e . p . x v i i i . D a t e s g i v e n a r e o f f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n and a r e t a k e n f r o m J a m e s Pope H e n n e s s y ' s A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e , p. 389.

40

A n Autobiography,

41

Author's (1893).

42

'Notes on W r i t i n g a N o v e l ' , O r i o n I I . quoted i n W a l t e r W r i t e r s o n W r i t i n g , p , 189.

43

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t ,

44

p.

45

Partial Portraits,

46

Trollope : A Commentary,

47

Q u o t e d b y J o h n S u t h e r l a n d , i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to P h i n e a s F i n n , p. 23. I have b e e n unable to t r a c e the r e f e r e n c e i n G.S. H a i g h t ' s e d i t i o n o f The G e o r g e E l i o t L e t t e r s .

48

Doctor

49

B.C.

50

The case f o r g i v i n g f u r t h e r attention to T r o l l o p e ' s

p.

200 ( C h . X I I ) .

P r e f a c e t o the f i f t h e d i t i o n o f T e s s o f the Cited edition, p. v i i .

p,

D'Urbervilles

Allen,

52,

401.

Thorne.

p.

p.

119. p.

401.

35 ( C h . I I ) .

Brown, Anthony Trollope,

p.

53. dialogue

i s m a d e b y C , P , Snow, w h o has c h o s e n t w o e x t r a c t s f r o m t h i s n o v e l as e x a m p l e s . T r o l l o p e , pp. 1 5 6 - 1 5 9 . 51

The

Last Chronicle

of B a r s e t ,

p.

664 ( C h , L X I ) .

52

I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n The L a s t C h r o n i c l e o f B a r s e t , L a u r e n c e L e r n e r t h i n k s that M r . C r a w l e y i s the c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r of the n o v e l , who i s ' p r o b a b l y the f i n e s t T r o l l o p e ever c r e a t e d ' (pp. 20-24). A n o t h e r study of h i m is that by Helen C o r s a ,

107

i n the a r t i c l e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d to i n C h a p t e r T w o , n o t e 5, M r . C r a w l e y i s a l s o one o f t h e c l e r i c s s t u d i e d i n P e t e r P a c k e r ' s T h e P o r t r a y a l o f t h e A n g l i c a n C l e r g y m e n i n Some N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y F i c t i o n , and his m a s o c h i s t i c tendency i s d i s c u s s e d i n M a r i o P r a z The Hero i n E c l i p s e i n V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n , pp. 302-304. 53

T h e r e has b e e n s o m e s p e c u l a t i o n as t o w h y T r o l l o p e r e t u r n e d to B a r s e t s h i r e f o r the l a s t t i m e . See J a m e s Pope H e n n e s s y ' s A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e . p . 227 and M i c h a e l H a r d w i c k ' s The O s p r e y G u i d e t o A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e . p . 78.

54

A n t h o n y T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l Study,

p.

169,

55

I n Stephen W a l l ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n to Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

56

T h e s t o r y o f t h e D o b b s B r o u g h t o n s , M a d a l i n a D e s m o l i n e s and C l a r a V a n S i e v e r has i t s p l a c e i n ' j u x t a p o s i n g the i n c o n g r u o u s ' i n the n o v e l ( L a u r e n c e L e r n e r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o The L a s t C h r o n i c l e o f B a r s e t . p , 16), See a l s o J , T h a l e , ' T h e P r o b l e m of S t r u c t u r e i n T r o l l o p e ' , N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y F i c t i o n , x i v (1960) p p , 1 4 7 - 1 5 7 .

57

I n ' P r e f a c e t o P i e r r e et J e a n ' quoted i n M i r i a m N o v e l i s t s on the N o v e l , p. 7 1 .

Allott

p,

17,

108

Chapter

Four P u b l i c and P r i v a t e

Life

' I t i s t r u e t h a t the f u l l h i o m a n i t y of t h e s e novels o n l y e m e r g e s w h e n they are c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r , f o r only t h e n t o the e f f e c t s of t i m e on c h a r a c t e r s become f u l l y apparent! , T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t a l l the n o v e l s i n the s e r i e s should be r e a d t o g e t h e r , to appreciate

them,

f o r , as

i n sequence,

i f the

Palliser

reader wished

he w r o t e :

' I t w a s m y s t u d y t h a t t h e s e people s h o u l d e n c o u n t e r the c h a n g e s t h a t c o m e u p o n us all'^^ The achievement

of this i m m e n s l y v a r i e d tapestry

covered over a quarter Trollope spread from

of l i f e w h i c h

o f a c e n t u r y i n t i m e i s the g r e a t e r

the w r i t i n g o f i t o v e r sixteen y e a r s of his

1863 t o 1879,

a n d he w a s a b l e t o d e v e l o p the

because life,i

relationships

a n d c h a r a c t e r s i n a w a y t h a t w o u l d have b e e n i m p o s s i b l e i n a shorter

span.

T h e c h a r a c t e r s f o r m e d a p a r t of h i s l i f e t h r o u g h -

o u t the p e r i o d i n w h i c h he w r o t e about t h e m : ' B y no a m o u n t o f d e s c r i p t i o n or a s s e v e r a t i o n could I succeed i n m a k i n g any t e a d e r understand h o w m u c h t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r b e l o n g i n g s have b e e n t o m e i n m y l a t t e r l i f e ' , ' ^ . B u t no m a t t e r

how m u c h t h e y m a y have b e e n t o t h e i r

author,

these s i x novels p r e s e n t the m o d e r n r e a d e r w i t h a c h r o n i c l e of w h i c h t h e m o s t i m m e d i a t e q u a l i t y i s the q u a n t i t y of m a t e r i a l . T h e s i x n o v e l s c o n t a i n about 4 , 5 0 0 p a g e s , words i n a l l (approximately three

o r about

1,350,000

t i m e s the length of W a r

and

109

Peace) so i t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g that the reading of the entire P a l l i s e r s e r i e s has been r e s t r i c t e d to the d i e - h a r d T r o l l o p i a n s and those w i t h plenty of t i m e on t h e i r hands. Thus the m o d e r n r e a d e r ,

faced w i t h the enormous

output

that made T r o l l o p e m o r e p r o l i f i c than any V i c t o r i a n novelist, and i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n f r o n t e d by the extent of the P a l l i s e r s e r i e s , may w e l l be i n c l i n e d to ask what i t is that T r o l l o p e has to o f f e r that takes so long to e x p r e s s . Barsetshire

The novels, p a r t i c u l a r l y the

ones, have long enjoyed popularity among those who

would escape f r o m the uncertainties of the twentieth century to the w a r m t h and s e c u r i t y of T r o l l o p i a n England, but the m o r e c r i t i c a l r e a d e r m a y j u s t i f i a b l y ask what i t is that makes the P a l l i s e r s e r i e s w o r t h the t i m e i t w i l l take to read these books. Y e t i n spite of the g e n e r a l t r e n d of c r i t i c i s m concerning these p o l i t i c a l l y based novels throughout the f i r s t half of this c e n t u r y , they have continued to enjoy a wide readership,

and the

1974 t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n of Simon Raven's v e r s i o n . The P a l l i s e r s , has made them available to a m u c h wider audience, however, that the lavishness

I suspect,

of the v i s u a l presentation f o r

t e l e v i s i o n has obscured the r e a l achievement of the P a l l i s e r

series.

T r o l l o p e r a r e l y emphasises the v i s u a l aspects of his scenes and only occasionally does one f i n d scenic descriptions i n the P a l l i s e r novels.

Landscapes and settings are not imbued w i t h a r i c h

4 sensory atmosphere, F o r instance,

as f o r example are those of Thomas Hardy .

i t i s t r u e that the r i v e r i n Basle,

seen f r o m the

no b r i d g e , may have a symbolic significance f o r A l i c e

Vavasor^,

but there is no p i c t o r i a l d e s c r i p t i o n of the town, the r i v e r or the hotel, any m o r e than there i s a d e s c r i p t i o n of the dresses w o r n at Lady M o n k ' s B a l l ,

or the effects that Lady Glencora's

schemes of i m p r o v e m e n t have upon the grounds at Gatherum Castle.

V i s u a l d e s c r i p t i o n is included when i t has a d i r e c t

e f f e c t on the c h a r a c t e r s , as when M r s , Boncassen's R i v e r Party is brought to a close by a sudden s t o r m ^ .

Trollope's descriptive

passages are isolated and generally serve to b r i n g i n a b r e a t h of f r e s h a i r at a moment when the s t o r y needs one, hunting scenes.

as w i t h the

Many of these hunting scenes, i t i s t r u e ,

are

f u l l of excitement and atmosphere, but t h i s i s usually on account of the n a r r a t i v e r a t h e r than because of a d e s c r i p t i o n of the v i s u a l appearance of things.

When TroUope does employ d e s c r i p t i o n ,

i t is m o s t o f t e n of people - t h e i r features,

t h e i r clothes and their

demeanour, but even then he i s uncertain of his a b i l i t y to convey a visual impression well.

I n w r i t i n g of Isabel Boncassen's beauty,

he says: ' I doubt even whether any d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l procure f o r me f r o m the reader that amount of f a i t h which I d e s i r e to achieve,'''. Our v i s u a l i m p r e s s i o n s

of scenes i n TroUope probably owe m o r e

to the i l l u s t r a t i o n s of the e a r l y editions, p a r t i c u l a r l y those by Sir John M i l l a i s , than to the words used to evoke the scenes i n the writing itself.

I t is by means of the dialogue, the

personalities

and the n a r r a t i v e that T r o l l o p e generally achieves his e f f e c t s .

Ill

There are,

i t is t r u e ,

some passages of d e s c r i p t i o n which are

v e r y e f f e c t i v e i n the course of the P a l l i s e r novels.

The best of

these tend to be the ones d e s c r i b i n g residences i n the N o r t h - W e s t of England (like Vavasor H a l l i n the Lake D i s t r i c t and G r e x 'Castle' i n Y o r k s h i r e ) or Scotland ( w i t h L i z z i e Eustace's castle at P o r t r a y and M r . Kennedy's home at L o u g h l i n t e r ) ,

Many, however,

stand

out as u n - T r o l l o p i a n i n s t y l e , l i k e this one f r o m The Duke's Children: 'But the place i t s e l f was v e r y l o v e l y . May of a l l months of the year is i n England the m o s t insidious, the m o s t dangerous, and the most i n c l e m e n t . A greatcoat cannot be endured, and without a greatcoat who can endure a May w i n d and live ? But of a l l months i t i s the p r e t t i e s t . The grasses are then the greenest, and the young foliage of the t r e e s , while i t has a l l the g l o r y and a l l the colour of spring vegetation, does not hide the f o r m of the branches as do the heavy masses of the l a r g e r leaves which come i n the advancing s u m m e r . And of a l l v i l l a s near London The Horns was the sweetest. The broad green lawn swept down to the v e r y m a r g i n of the Thames, w h i c h absolutely washed the f r i n g e of grass when the tide was h i g h . A n d h e r e , along the bank was a r o w of f l o w e r i n g ashes, the drooping boughs of w h i c h i n places touched the w a t e r . I t was one of those spots w h i c h when they are f i r s t seen make the beholder f e e l that to be able to live there and look at i t always would be happiness enough f o r l i f e ' ' ' . ' This does not come across to the reader as n a t u r a l i n the way that T r o l l o p e ' s w r i t i n g n o r m a l l y does, and i t i s somewhat s e l f conscious and a f f e c t e d l y r h e t o r i c a l .

It m a y be, of course,

that

he was m o r e at home d e s c r i b i n g places to which his readers probably had not been,

f o r one imagines that his books were sold

m o r e i n London than elsewhere.

Of the importance of d e s c r i p t i v e

112

w r i t i n g he makes no m e n t i o n i n his advice t o a s p i r i n g novelists in A n Autobiography.

He was a c h r o n i c l e r of human l i f e and

a c r e a t o r of c h a r a c t e r r a t h e r than a w r i t e r of moving v i s u a l descriptions. Yet these v i s u a l effects have been the most i m p r e s s i v e part of the t e l e v i s i o n s e r i a l i s a t i o n . The P a l l i s e r s , of the costumes,

The

extravagance

the magnitude of the settings, the munificence

of the dinner p a r t i e s ; these are the qualities f o r which televised T r o l l o p e is r e m a r k a b l e .

Lady Glencora's alterations to the

grounds at Gatherum Castle to receive her guests i n a style b e f i t t i n g the w i f e of the P r i m e M i n i s t e r , necessitate,, i n the t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n , considerable f i l m i n g of an apparently i n f i n i t e number of gardeners at w o r k , the spectacle

and the v i e w e r is even treated to

of a r e a l V i c t o r i a n steam engine at w o r k .

Metro-

G o l d w y n - M e y e r could h a r d l y have done m o r e i n the heyday of Hollywood m o v i e s i

But how m u c h is there of a l l these preparations

at Gatherum Castle i n the novels? r e f e r r e d to i n The P r i m e M i n i s t e r , 'Vulgarity',

The reader w i l l f i n d them Chapter X I X , entitled

T h e r e , the whole emphasis is on P a l l i s e r ' s

disgust

at his w i f e ' s extravagance and the domestic row which ensues. The row is t h e r e i n the t e l e v i s i o n production, but i t is almost t o t a l l y eclipsed by the expense and the display of the

preparations.

There is another way i n w h i c h the series has been d i s t o r t e d , i n m a k i n g Lady Glencora m u c h m o r e the c e n t r a l than she actually

113 is.

I t i s t r u e that she spans the novels u n t i l her death (which

is u n n a t u r a l l y delayed i n the t e l e v i s i o n v e r s i o n ) but she does not dominate t h e m .

Simon Raven's j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c e n t r a l i s i n g Lady

Gleiicora i n his v e r s i o n , i n The Listener^^, Roy H a t t e r s ley's a r t i c l e ,

has been rebuffed by

'How the essential T r o l l o p e was l o s t ' , i n

11 the same p e r i o d i c a l

.

T e l e v i s e d Trollope seems quite d i f f e r e n t

f r o m the r e a l T r o l l o p e , yet the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n given to h i m is the one to w h i c h m o s t people probably subscribe.

A s the guide

accompanying the t e l e v i s i o n s e r i a l i s a t i o n puts i t : ' T r o l l o p e (and Simon Raven) r e f l e c t a kind of u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s or a r i s t o c r a t i c view of British liie'}^; This v i e w , c o n f i r m e d by the ' b o n - v i v e u r ' production of The P a l l i s e r s , has not helped to achieve a genuine and widespread appreciation of T r o l l o p e ' s r e a l qualities as a novelist, though i t has undoubtedly encouraged people to read the books f o r themselves. m a y not be the r i g h t m e d i u m f o r T r o l l o p e ,

Television

He was not the

complacent c h r o n i c l e r of m i d - V i c t o r i a n opulence that many take h i m f o r : as a novelist he showed insight into human nature and the way people behave towards each other.

His appreciation of human

nature and his understanding of m a n as a s o c i a l being may be m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g than has generally been acknowledged. achievement is i n evidence throughout the P a l l i s e r novels.

This I t is

unfortunate, perhaps, that the relationship between T r o l l o p e and his r e a d e r s ,

and the extent of his influence over t h e m , was not

b e t t e r understood b y those concerned w i t h the t e l e v i s i o n adaptation.

114

A s R . M . Polhemus had w r i t t e n about the V i c t o r i a n novel and the reading public, i n 1968: 'The novel f o r thousands became an i m p o r t a n t way of knowing, and a w r i t e r like T r o l l o p e extended the consciousness of his public. The closest analogy we make today to the impact of the novel i n the last century is the effect of t e l e v i s i o n on our w o r l d , and when we have said that, we can begin to appreciate what a humane and noble e n t e r p r i s e the V i c t o r i a n novel was'•'•2, One cannot help wondering whether the aspirations behind the t e l e v i s i o n s e r i a l i s a t i o n were as high as those a t t r i b u t e d ,

rightly,

to T r o l l o p e , by the same author: 'He changed the w o r l d by making i t know i t s e l f better and by teaching his public the habits of sympathetic i m a g i n a t i o n ' In spite of the recent awakening of m o r e serious interest,

however,

critical

T r o l l o p e ' s a r t i s t i c qualities:

'continue to evade d e f i n i t i o n , perhaps m o r e so . than w i t h any other V i c t o r i a n novelist of note-'-*-^. I n the nadir of his reputation, the works of the second half of his w r i t i n g c a r e e r had been openly dismissed: ' F o r the m o s t p a r t , he should be judged by the productions of the f i r s t half of his c a r e e r ; later the strong wine is r a t h e r too copiously watered!'''^, 'The p o l i t i c a l novels are d i s t i n c t l y duU.'-'-'^, This r e j e c t i o n of the P a l l i s e r series and other novels remained a l m o s t unchallenged u n t i l A . O . J ,

Cockshut's Anthony T r o l l o p e :

A C r i t i c a l Study appeared i n 1955,

M i c h a e l Sadleir had l i t t l e

t i m e f o r them : 'a r e t u r n to episodic bulk' is how he described 18 Can You F o r g i v e H e r ?

, although that d i d not prevent h i m f r o m

115

editing the P a l l i s e r s e r i e s f o r the O x f o r d T r o l l o p e e d i t i o n of the nineteen-fifties.

But even A . O . J .

Cockshut's book gives Trollope

faint praise as an a r t i s t : 'He d i d not l i k e to consider things too s e r i o u s l y . He d i d not know why he d i d the things he d i d . ..''''^ 'He was not g i f t e d w i t h the power of analysing ideas.., ' D i s r a e l i , the p o l i t i c a l idealist looks f o r w a r d , T r o l l o p e the r e c o r d e r of t r a d i t i o n , looks back.' » A.O,J,

Cockshut's analysis of T r o l l o p e ' s 'Progress to P e s s i m i s m '

m a r k s a l l the P a l l i s e r novels except Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? as novels of i n t r o s p e c t i o n leading to eventual despair about human nature.

Yet as one r e v i e w e r of Anthony T r o l l o p e : A C r i t i c a l

Study r e m a r k e d : 'It is so emiuently readable^ that one may'be ,In danger of. swallowing M r , Cockshut's argument, hook, line and s i n k e r , without due reflection.!^-^. I n the wake of A . O . J ,

Cockshut's book, m u c h m o r e notice has

been taken of the P a l l i s e r novels, and this has given r i s e to a number of a r t i c l e s about the i n d i v i d u a l novels and several books on the c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l relevance of the s e r i e s , w h i c h are discussed i n the next few chapters. advent of J . R .

some of

It is only w i t h the

K i n c a i d ' s The Novels of Anthony T r o l l o p e i n 1977

and R o b e r t T r a c y ' s T r o l l o p e ' s L a t e r Novels i n 1978 that f u l l attention has been given to the a r t i s t i c qualities of the whole Palliser

series.

Because of the magnitude of the series i t is easy to without looking w i t h s u f f i c i e n t care at i n d i v i d u a l passages,

generalise and

116

consequently

the i r o n y w h i c h T r o l l o p e employed has escaped many.

It is p a r t i c u l a r l y easy to he m i s l e d into t h i n k i n g that T r o l l o p e ' s understanding

extends only as f a r as his m o r a l i n t r u s i o n s ,

just

as t h e r e is a tendency to t u r n to A n Autobiography when looking for

safe i n t e r p r e t a t i v e statements about the novels : one needs

something secure to hold on to to guide one through the series as a w h o l e .

But the m o r a l i n t r u s i o n s ,

like A n Autobiography,

are not to be taken at face value only,

T r o l l o p e was too m u c h

of an a r t i s t to expose h i m s e l f as c l u m s i l y as t h i s .

The

' m o r a l i s a t i o n s ' i n T r o l l o p e were part of the 'intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p ' w h i c h he knew his reading public wanted;

they were a convention

w h i c h he u t i l i s e d to the f u l l , though they are l i k e l y to lead the unwary m o d e r n reader into hazardous waters.

I t is w o r t h

c o n s i d e r i n g one such i n t r u s i o n i n Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? . T r o l l o p e asks us to t h i n k about his heroine,

A l i c e Vavasor:

'But can y o u f o r g i v e her, delicate r e a d e r ? Or am I asking the question too e a r l y i n m y story? For m y s e l f I have f o r g i v e n h e r . The s t o r y of her struggle has been present to m y m i n d f o r many y e a r s , - and I have learned to t h i n k that even this offence against womanhood may, w i t h deep repentance, be f o r g i v e n . And you also must f o r g i v e her b e f o r e we close the book, or else m y s t o r y w i l l have been told amiss'^"^.^ It has been doubted,

on the basis of this quotation, whether

Trollope's

question poses enough m a t e r i a l f o r the eight hundred odd pages i t takes to t e l l of A l i c e V a v a s o r ' s

indecision:

'To a present-day audience, of course, A l i c e ' s "offence against womanhood" is not l i k e l y to seem v e r y d r e a d f u l , and even some of the f i r s t r e v i e w e r s f e l t that T r o l l o p e was fussing r a t h e r ' ^ ^ i '

117

But the question w h i c h T r o l l o p e puts here i s not a c e n t r a l one i n the novel, even though i t is the title T r o l l o p e gives to the book.

The question demands a response f r o m the reader on

a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , but we should not let that b l i n d us to the deeper levels of the n o v e l .

On its own, this question could

^ h a j c d l y L ^ a i n t a i n the i n t e r e s t of readers f o r eighty chapters. M o r a l judgement does not have the involvement that a stolen necklace or the quest f o r a m u r d e r e r does, i n t e r m s of n a r r a t i v e and suspense,

T r o l l o p e was a conscious a r t i s t , aware of his

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h his r e a d e r s , using his s k i l l i n taking them into his confidence as m u c h as i n t e l l i n g the s t o r y .

The lines which

precede the passage quoted, r e m i n d one c l e a r l y that T r o l l o p e ' s m o r a l i s i n g i s the conscious conventional m o r a l i t y which his readers expected: 'She had done v e r y wrong. She knew that she had done w r o n g . She knew that she had sinned w i t h that sin which specially disgraces a woman. She had said that she would become the w i f e of a m a n to whom she could not cleave w i t h a w i f e ' s love; and, m a d w i t h a v i l e ambition, she had given up the m a n f o r whose modest love her heart was longing. She had t h r o w n off f r o m her that wonderous a r o m a of precious d e l i c a c y , which is the greatest t r e a s u r e of womanhood. She had sinned against her sex; and in agony of despair, as she crouched down upon the f l o o r w i t h her head against her c h a i r , she told h e r s e l f that there was no pardon f o r her. She understood i t now, and knew that she could not f o r g i v e h e r s e l f . ' . ' B u t can y o u f o r g i v e her, delicate r e a d e r ? I 26

118

Here is as good a parody as one is l i k e l y to f i n d of m i d - V i c t o r i a n melodramai

Yet such passages are often seen as keys to

understanding the book. If T r o l l o p e ' s a r t consisted i n concealing his a r t ,

he

c e r t a i n l y succeeds here : i t would be quite wrong to suppose that the i n t r u s i o n s T r o l l o p e makes contain a l l the reader needs to appreciate his a r t .

A s Stephen W a l l says i n his i n t r o d u c t i o n

to Can you F o r g i v e

Her?:

'It is the c h a r a c t e r s ' utterances rather than the author's comments that t e l l us the m o s t i m p o r t a n t truths E.M.

Forster

likened taking

the reader aside to standing a man

a d r i n k , so that he m a y not c r i t i c i s e your opinions: ' I n t i m a c y is gained, but at the expense of i l l u s i o n and nobility,' . In the case of T r o l l o p e the i n t i m a c y is gained at the expense of obscuring the r e a l issues about w h i c h he w r o t e . There i s , then,

no simple key to understanding

the

Palliser

s e r i e s , but the reader who approaches them without preconceived ideas as to the n o v e l i s t ' s viewpoint w i l l f i n d i t easier to appreciate Torbllope's a r t .

The c h a r a c t e r s a l l come to l i f e i n the pages,

not least because they t h i n k , act and behave according to t h e i r respective

m o r a l codes.

I n t h e i r relations w i t h each other T r o l l o p e

shows us how these codes d i f f e r , and the incongruities of t h e i r outlooks f o r c e us to t h i n k about t h e i r natures and perhaps even about our own.

119

A t the r i s k of o v e r s i m p l i f y i n g , T r o l l o p e ' s m o r a l i t y i n the l a t e r novels is not a preaching m o r a l i t y : r a t h e r , us to increase

i t encourages

our knowledge of ourselves by searching deeply

into the m i n d s o f characters

whom we can recognise as

living.

A s one r e v i e w e r of The Way We L i v e Now w r o t e , when the book first

appeared: 'It should make us look into our own lives and habits of thought, and see how ugly and m e a n and s o r d i d they appear, when T r u t h , the p o l i c e m a n , t u r n s his d a r k l a n t e r n suddenly upon t h e m , and finds such a pen as T r o l l o p e ' s to w r i t e a r e p o r t of what he sees.'^^ T r o l l o p e ' s concern w i t h human nature is a highly m o r a l

one, but i n d i r e c t l y so. moralising,

Behind the fagade of s u p e r f i c i a l

T r o l l o p e presents us w i t h human nature as i t i s and

f o r c e s us to examine i t i n depth.

The response T r o l l o p e evokes

i s a m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g one than the t i t l e of the f i r s t of the P a l l i s e r s leads us to suppose.

Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? is not

the r e a l subject of that book at a l l .

Ruth apRoberts

expresses

our response as f o l l o w s : 'The novels a r e , i n a way, m o r e demanding than l i f e i t s e l f generally i s , and i n reading t h e m , one as i t w e r e flexes one's m o r a l entity and exercises one's humanity.'"^^. The means by w h i c h T r o l l o p e most f r e q u e n t l y persuades his r e a d e r s to f l e x t h e i r m o r a l entities and exercise humanity i s the use of i r o n y .

This is m o s t r e a d i l y identified i n situations

of dialogue and where better to look f o r examples than i n the

120 conferences that L i z z i e Eustace has w i t h her various f r o m t i m e to t i m e ?

Lizzie,

suitors

as her aunt Lady L i n l i t h g o w aptly

r e m a r k s elsewhere i n The Eustace Diamonds, is 'about as bad as anybody ever was. She's f a l s e , dishonest, h e a r t l e s s , c r u e l , i r r e l i g i o u s , u n g r a t e f u l , mean, ignorant, greedy and v i l e f - ^ l , (This i n i t s e l f is a l i s t of a t t r i b u t e s which t e l l s us something of Lady L i n l i t h g o w herself^)

A c c u r a t e as this strong condemnation

of L i z z i e m a y be, i t is d o u b t f u l whether she i s even m i l d l y aware of her own d u p l i c i t y i n the i n t e r v i e w with L o r d Fawn, M , P. , who comes to seek her hand i n m a r r i a g e .

L o r d Fawn i s d e f i n i t e l y

unaware of the stupidity of his' own behaviour as he asks f o r her hand o f f e r i n g to r e t u r n l a t e r i n the week to hear her

answer:

'Was he to come again on Monday, or Tuesday, or Wednesday? Let her t e l l h i m that and he would go. He doubtless r e f l e c t e d that Wednesday would suit h i m best, because there would be no House, But L i z z i e was too magnanimous f o r t h i s . " L o r d F a w n , " she said, r i s i n g , "you have paid me the greatest compliment that a m a n can pay a w o m a n . Coming f r o m you i t is doubly p r e c i o u s ; f i r s t because of y o u r c h a r a c t e r and secondly - " "Why secondly? " "Secondly, because I can love y o u . " This was said i n her lowest whisper, and then she m o v e d towards h i m gently, and almost l a i d her head upon his b r e a s t . Of course he put his a r m around her waist - but i t was f i r s t necessary that he should once m o r e d i s e m b a r r a s s h i m s e l f of his hat - and then her head was upon his breast.

121

"•Dearest L i z z i e i " he said, k i s s i n g her forehead, "Dearest

F r e d e r i c k " she m u r m u r e d .

• ' I s h a l l w r i t e to m y mother tonight**, he said. ''Do,

do - dear Frederic."'

"And she w i l l come to you at once, I am s u r e , " ' ' I w i l l receive her and love her as a m o t h e r , " said L i z z i e w i t h a l l her energy. Than he kissed her again her f o r e h e a d and her lips - and took his leave, p r o m i s i n g to be w i t h her at any rate on Wednesday. "Lady Fawnj^' she said to h e r s e l f . The name d i d not sound so w e l l as that of Lady Eustace, But i t i s m u c h to be a w i f e ; and m o r e to be a peeressf*"^^. The m o c k - h e r o i c tone of L i z z i e ' s avowal of love and her assessment of the s i t u a t i o n a f t e r L o r d F a w n had departed

tell

us m o r e than any comment an author could make d i r e c t l y and the numerous touches by w h i c h L o r d Fawn is deflated (his prosaic decision to come on Wednesday when there would be no p a r l i a m e n t a r y duties to attend t o , the r e p e t i t i o n of his C h r i s t i a n name and his i n s t i n c t i v e response to consult his m o t h e r ) t e l l us everything we could want to know about L o r d Fawn, without the slightest hint that the author is i n t e r f e r i n g .

The handling is

m o r e c e r t a i n than i n the e a r l i e r novels and T r o l l o p e makes m o r e use o f i m p l i e d ,

rather than actual,

speech.

The m a s t e r l y touch

122

i n this i n t e r v i e w , however,

i s the i n t r u s i o n of L o r d

Fawn's

hat at a moment of what should be sublime romance.

There

is a s i m i l a r moment i n E . M . F o r s t e r ' s A Room w i t h a V i e w . when C e c i l Vyse eventually summons the courage to c l a i m a f i r s t kiss f r o m the heroine to whom he has been engaged f o r some t i m e : the r a p t u r e is b r o k e n by the author's

simple comment

that C e c i l ' s pince-nez became dislodged by the k i s s , and C e c i l 3.3 Vyse as an e f f e c t i v e l o v e r i s deflated beyond measure, Trollope, of

like F o r s t e r ,



achieves his effects by the most delicate

touches. It is not only i n dialogue that T r o l l o p e exercises his

m a s t e r f u l c o n t r o l of i r o n y .

A few chapters a f t e r the i n t e r v i e w

between the newly engaged couple. 'high and p e r i l o u s destiny':

L o r d Fawn meditates

on his

' " A peasant can m a r r y whom he pleases, " said L o r d F a w n , pressing his hand to his brow and dropping one^ f l a p of his coat, as he thought of his own high and perilous destiny, standing w i t h his back to the f i r e place, w h i l e a huge pile of l e t t e r s lay there before h i m w a i t i n g to be signed'•^^» The mundane nature of L o r d Fawn's immediate task as a m i n o r government o f f i c i a l contrasts w e l l w i t h the h i g h - f a l l u t i n quality of his thoughts.

A n o t h e r example of T r o l l o p e ' s ironic:

presentation of L o r d Fawn is the letter which he w r i t e s to L i z z i e a l m o s t a year a f t e r t h e i r engagement.

I t is o f f e r e d to the reader

without any i n t e r p r e t a t i v e comment by the author,

but i t reads

123

exactly l i k e a r e p o r t w r i t t e n by a m i n o r government o f f i c i a l : ' " M y dear Lady Eustace, In accordance w i t h the promise w h i c h I made to you when I did m y s e l f the honour of w a i t i n g upon y o u i n H e r t f o r d Street, I take up m y pen w i t h the view of communicating to y o u the r e s u l t of m y deliberations respecting the engagement of m a r r i a g e which, no doubt, d i d exist between us last s i u n m e r , , ,''"35, Needless to say the l e t t e r was w r i t t e n on a Wednesday,

'which

w i t h h i m had something of the c o m f o r t of a h a l f - h o l i d a y , as on that day he was not r e q u i r e d to attend p a r l i a m e n T r o l l o p e ' s use of i r o n y is p a r t i c u l a r l y good i n his treatment of L i z z i e Eustace, because, l i k e Catherine M o r l a n d i n Northanger Abbey, she confuses r e a l l i f e w i t h l i f e i n books. A u s t e n was s a t i r i s i n g M r s , R a d c l i f f e ' s novels,

Whereas Jane L i z z i e f a l l s under

the s p e l l of a m u c h w i d e r v a r i e t y of books, both consciously and unconsciously,

and each one a f f o r d s Trollope ample scope f o r

i r o n i c comment.

A t one t i m e o r another,

she affects to read 37

38

Tennyson, f o r the benefit of F r a n k Greystock or Lady Glencora 39 B y r o n when i n m o r e d a r i n g mood w i t h F r a n k and always when w i t h her C o r s a i r ,

L o r d George,

who answers her imagination's

40 d r e a m of B y r o n ' s Conrad

;

Shelley, when she is on her own

or eager to i m p r e s s her i n t e l l e c t u a l aspirations on any female 41 staying at P o r t r a y Emilius

42

or when f i n a l l y angling f o r the hand of M r .

, f o r whom she also a f f e c t s an i n t e r e s t i n The Bible

H e r choice of books i s always delibereate and premeditated,

43

but

she unconsciously f a l l s into the t r a p of believing that l i f e r e a l l y

,

124

is l i k e the book she i s r e a d i n g .

I n her eyes, the view of the

estuary of Clyde^ w h i c h her castle a f f o r d s becomes a 'dear ocean 44 wide, with its glittering smile' which i s , i n reality, 'sombre, cold...

, and P o r t r a y castle i t s e l f , exposed,

and, i n w i n t e r , v e r y

(having) no great c l a i m to praise on the score of scenery'^^j

is t r a n s f o r m e d i n L i z z i e ' s m i n d into a romantic

castle:

'a stone e d i f i c e w i t h battlements and a round t o w e r , . , a p o r t c u l l i s . . . a cannon . . . a moat. . , standing on a b l u f f land, w i t h a f i n e prospect of the F i r t h of Clyde, and withua distant view of the Isle of A r r a n ' 4 6 , L i z z i e persuades h e r s e l f ,

where there is doubt, that the castle is

a l l she believes i t to be: 'In t r u t h . . . the battlements, and the round t o w e r , and the a w e - i n s p i r i n g gateway had a l l been added by one of the late Sir F l o r i a n s . But the castle 47' and was interesting'. • . 48 L i z z i e Eustace, heartless as she i s , bases m u c h of looked l i k e a castle,

her l i f e on what she reads, as she displays when composing h e r l a s t l e t t e r t o L o r d Fawn: 'Nobody ever heard of anything so mean, either i n novels or i n r e a l l i f e ''^^. It is the fact that L i z z i e half believes h e r s e l f to be sincere i n e v e r y t h i n g she does that b r i n g s her to l i f e and enables T r o l l o p e to deploy his i r o n y and at t i m e s enlist our sympathy f o r her. A s w e l l as using L i z z i e f o r i r o n i c comment throughout the book, the subtle changes w h i c h gradually come over her emphasise T r o l l o p e ' s a r t i s t r y i n creating l i v i n g characters who

125

'encounter the changes that come upon us a l l

Prepared

to f o l l o w her B y r o n i c instincts at the beginning, she grows aware of other f a c t o r s to be considered as a l l her

attempts

meet w i t h f a i l u r e : 'We are old enough now, F r a n k , to know that something more than what you c a l l heart is wanted to make us happy when we marry'^•'•,she says i n the light of e a r l i e r experience.

By the t i m e that

her disastrous m a r r i a g e w i t h the b i g a m i s t , M r , E m i l i u s ,

has

b r o k e n up, she no longer puts any f a i t h at a l l i n l i t e r a t u r e as a guide to r e a l l i f e :

j u s t imagine how d i f f e r e n t would have been

her response to M r , Lopez's proposal i n The P r i m e M i n i s t e r i f i t had o c c u r r e d two books e a r l i e r ,

i n The Eustace Diamonds,

on the rocks beneath P o r t r a y Castle,

Here is what actually

happens: '"To h w i t h t h e i r purient l a w s , " said Lopez, r i s i n g suddenly f r o m his. c h a i r . " I w i l l neither appeal to t h e m , nor w i l l I obey t h e m . A n d I expect f r o m you as l i t t l e subservience as I m y s e l f am p r e p a r e d to pay. L i z z i e Eustance, w i l l you go w i t h me to that land of the sun, "Where the rage of the v u l t u r e , the love of the t u r t l e . Now m e l t into s o r r o w , now madden to c r i m e " ? W i l l y o u dare to escape w i t h me f r o m the cold conventionalities, f r o m the m i s e r a b l e t h r a l d o m of this country bound i n swaddling cloths? L i z z i e Eustace, i f you w i l l say the w o r d I w i l l take you to that land of g l o r i o u s happiness,''

126

But L i z z i e Eustace had £ 4 , 0 0 0 a year and a balance at her b a n k e r ' s . " M r , Lopez, " she said. "What answer have you to make

me?"

" M r , Lopez, I t h i n k you must be a fool. " He did at last succeed i n getting h i m s e l f into the street, and at any rate she had not eaten h i m ' The i r o n y denied to those who have not read The Eustace Diamonds b e f o r e reading The P r i m e M i n i s t e r is the fact that Lopez a c c i d e n t a l l y quotes f r o m L i z z i e ' s f o r m e r f a v o u r i t e w r i t e r , 53 George B y r o n

.

m i g h t have been,

No m a t t e r how insulting the o f f e r f r o m Lopez L i z z i e would not have d i s m i s s e d h i m as

she

does here i f he had approached her i n The Eustace Diamonds. So m u c h f o r the i r o n y w h i c h pervades everything associated w i t h L i z z i e Eustace.

I t is to be found, however,

p e r m e a t i n g the entire P a l l i s e r s e r i e s .

When c h a r a c t e r s appear

the author t e l l s us m o r e about them by i n d i r e c t means and by c a r e f u l j u x t a p o s i t i o n than by any amount of a u t h o r i a l comment or d e s c r i p t i o n .

I t is this awareness of the c o m p l e x i t y of the

i n d i v i d u a l human situation that makes T r o l l o p e ' s c h a r a c t e r s a l i v e and gives t h e i r personalities the depth w h i c h has

so

f r e q u e n t l y been discarded as photographic observation. 54 'masters compexity'

TroUope

and he produced an e f f t c t of such

s i m p l i c i t y that we are l u l l e d into thinking that there is no c o m p l e x i t y t h e r e at a l l .

T r o l l o p e was w e l l aware that no

127

amount of a n a l y t i c a l w r i t i n g could i n i t s e l f probe the f u l l extent of a human personality: 'How am I to analyse her kind and make her thoughts and feelings i n t e l l i g i b l e ? ' 55 he asks h i m s e l f about A l i c e V a v a s o r , and i t is f r o m what she says and what she does that we l e a r n m a s t . The g r e a t e r a r t i s t r y that TroUope shows i n these books stems f r o m his i n c r e a s i n g l y s k i l f u l and subtle use of i r o n y . I n m a n y of the novels published before Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? (1864), a u t h o r i a l comment does tend to be used m o r e often and w i t h less subtlety.

F u r t h e r m o r e , the c h a r a c t e r s have m o r e

evidently w o r k e d out t h e i r own codes of m o r a l values i n the novels w i t h a p o l i t i c a l setting and the m a t e r i a l f o r T r o l l o p e ' s s t o r i e s comes f r o m the occasions when the 'codes' of various c h a r a c t e r s are brought into c o n f l i c t w i t h one another.

I t is

the jvtxtapositioning of these d i f f e r i n g codes that enables the r e a d e r to develop a new and deeper perception of human nature. A n example of such a c o n f l i c t can be found i n Phineas Finn,

concerning L o r d C h i l t e r n and Phineas F i n n h i m s e l f , both

s u i t o r s f o r the hand of V i o l e t E f f i n g h a m ,

The two men belong

to the same London c i r c l e s , and Phineas's one-time to L o r d C h i l t e r n ' s s i s t e r . f r o m t i m e to t i m e .

attachment

Lady Laura, b r i n g s t h e m together

Phineas subsequently wins the f a m i l y

p a r l i a m e n t a r y seat f o r the Borough of T a n k e r v i l l e (because he is nominated by L o r d C h i l t e r n ' s f a t h e r . L o r d B r e n t f o r d ) and he

128

is later c l e a r l y involved i n an attempt to reunite L o r d C h i l t e r n w i t h his f a t h e r .

I n spite of t h e i r frequent meetings, they are

quite d i f f e r e n t i n temperament and outlook and t h e i r argument over who w i l l have V i o l e t E f f i n g h a m ' s hand i n m a r r i a g e

comes

to a c l i m a x when a l e t t e r which Phineas wrote and posted i n Loughton, takes s i x and a half months to reach L o r d C h i l t e r n at M a u r e g y ' s H o t e l i n London^^,

When L o r d C h i l t e r n eventually

m e e t s Phineas at his lodgings i n M r s . Bunce's house,

the

argument that takes place i s not over the f a c t s , but because of t h e i r d i f f e r e n t m o r a l codes of what is acceptable

conduct:

' " Y o u have Cabinet M i n i s t e r s f o r your f r i e n d s , " (Lord C h i l t e r n complains when they meet) "while I have h a r d l y a decent associate l e f t to me i n the w o r l d . You have been chosen by m y f a t h e r to sit f o r our f a m i l y borough, while I am an o u t cast f r o m his house. But I can say of m y s e l f that I have never done anything unworthy of a gentleman, while this thing that you are doing is unworthy of the lowest m a n . " " I have done nothing unworthy, " said Phineas' 57^ Phineas had a l r e a d y w r i t t e n to explain his actions i n the l e t t e r that got delayed; ' " I am endeavouring to t r e a t you w e l l , and I ask you to do the same by m e . I cannot address m y s e l f to M i s s E f f i n g h a m without t e l l i n g you. I should f e e l m y s e l f to be false were I to do so"«58.This is m o r e than j u s t 'A Rough Encounter',

as the chapter is

called (though i t is the prelude to a dual at which blood is shed).

129

The two m e n have d i f f e r e n t notions of unworthy behaviour and each considers that his behaviour has been quite c o r r e c t . course.

L o r d C h i l t e r n ' s character

Of

i s a f i e r y , w i l d one (though

TroUope m o d i f i e d his i n i t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n of h i m considerably^^), but i n t h i s encounter T r o l l o p e makes both sides appear to have about equal r i g h t .

L o r d C h i l t e r n would probably t r e a t a w i f e

as w e l l as he t r e a t s his beloved horses, as Phineas had unwittingly said to V i o l e t E f f i n g h a m h e r s e l f before he knew of 60 t h e i r attachment

, but then Phineas's own behaviour towards

V i o l e t and C h i l t e r n shows that his own conscience was not e n t i r e l y clear^^*" The f a c t that T r o l l o p e was f a r m o r e interested i n the m o r a l c o n f l i c t over codes of conduct than i n any p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of an argument is supported by the way T r o l l o p e plays down the duel at Blankenberg,

This would have provided

an excellent opportunity f o r a number of s p i n e - c h i l l i n g chapters of the events leading up to the duel, keeping the reader i n suspense as to the outcome u n t i l the last possible moment (as happened i n the 1974 t e l e v i s i o n production), but that was not apparently T r o l l o p e ' s a i m .

The outcome of the duel is

stated

b e f o r e the manner i n w h i c h i t took place is described> and the account of the incident is given only in the tone of necessary background i n f o r m a t i o n .

( T r o l l o p e makes use of the p l u p e r f e c t

tense i n t h i s passage, thereby playing down the d r a m a of the episode as m u c h as possible).

130

'The manner of the meeting had been i n this w i s e . Captain Cole pepper and Lawrence F i t z g i b b o n had held t h e i r meeting, and at t h i s meeting Lawrance had taken c e r t a i n standing-ground on behalf of his f r i e n d , and i n obedience to his f r i e n d ' s positive i n s t r u c t i o n ; w h i c h was t h i s , that his f r i e n d could not abandon his r i g h t of addressing the young lady, should he h e r e a f t e r ever t h i n k f i t to do so. . . '^^ This is h a r d l y a racy n a r r a t i v e ,

the more so as the reader

already been t o l d the outcome of the duelj

has

The emphasis is

altogether d i f f e r e n t f r o m that i n the e a r l i e r novels.

One

such

i n c i d e n t , i n The S m a l l House at AUington, a f t e r Adolphus C r o s b i e had j i l t e d L i l y Dale, gave Trollope the opportunity to d e s c r i b e a scene of p h y s i c a l violence, as Johnny Eames gave C r o s b i e a t h r a s h i n g at the r a i l w a y station. excitement the d e s c r i p t i o n conveys, significance i n that n o v e l . Finn,

Beyond the p h y s i c a l

i t has l i t t l e f u r t h e r

But by the t i m e he w r o t e Phineas

the m o r a l issues were of f a r more use to T r o l l o p e than

any p h y s i c a l excitement he could extract f r o m such a situation. Indeed,

i f one thinks of the dramatic incidents i n the

P a l l i s e r s e r i e s (the g a r r o t t i n g of M r . Kennedy, the Eustace Diamonds,

the m u r d e r

the stealing of

of M r . Bonteen,

on E v e r e t t Wharton i n St, James's Park),

the

attack

one is aware that

T r o l l o p e could have made f a r m o r e of the physical drama i n them.

This is not to say that he never relates a story

p r i m a r i l y f o r i t s excitement or suspense, (John Grey's e v i c t i o n of George Vavasor f r o m his r o o m s i n Suffolk Street,

Kennedy's

131

potshot at Phineas i n Macpherson's H o t e l ,

Tregear's

riding

accident at H a r r i n g t o n H a l l and Lopez's suicide at Ten Way Junction are some examples that he can do j u s t that).

But

r i g h t across the extensive range of the P a l l i s e r novels T r o l l o p e ' s f o r e m o s t i n t e r e s t seems to have been i n the m o r a l outlooks of his characters

and i n how they adjust to each other.

132

NOTES - Chapter

Four

1

Stephen W a l l ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n to cited edition of Can Y o u Forgive H e r ? , 'The P a l l i s e r s e r i e s ' r e f e r s to the s i x novels w h i c h have been c a l l e d 'The Novels of P a r l i a m e n t a r y L i f e ' ( M . Sadleir) and ' P o l i t i c a l Novels' ( W , G . and J , T . Gerould). They are as f o l l o w s (with dates of f i r s t publication taken f r o m James Pope Hennessy's Anthony T r o l l o p e ) : Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? (1864); Phineas F i n n (1869); The Eustace Diamonds (1873); Phineas Eedux (1874); The P r i m e M i n i s t e r (1876); and The Duke's C h i l d r e n (1880).

2

A n A u t o b i o g r a p h y , p,

3

Ibid.,

4

T h i s is not to say that T r o l l o p e ' s descriptions never evoke a strong atmosphere, w h i c h pervades the action. The d e s c r i p t i o n of ' B a l l y c l o r a n ' , the h a l f - r u i n e d home of L a r r y M a c d e r m o t w i t h w h i c h The Macdermots of B a l l y c l o r a n opens is one such example. P . E , M o r e defends T r o l l o p e ' s a b i l i t y to w r i t e e f f e c t i v e , relevant descriptions on pp. 109110 of The Demon of the Absolute.

5

Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

6

The Duke's C h i l d r e n , pp. 257-258 (Ch. X X X H ) .

7

Ibid,,

8

T r o l l o p e ' s w o r k s were also i l l u s t r a t e d by H , K , Browne ( ' P h i z ' ) , Luke F i l d e s , H . L . Shindler, M a r c u s Stone, W. H . Thomas and F , C. T i l n e y . It is a pity that they are not m o r e f r e q u e n t l y reproduced i n r e p r i n t s of T r o l l o p e ' s novels now, even i f T r o l l o p e occassionally found them i r r i t a t i n g , especially those by ' P h i z ' . James Pope Hennessy's Anthony T r o l l o p e contains a good selection.

9

The Duke's C h i l d r e n , p, 95 (Ch, X I I ) .

169 (Ch. X ) .

p . 166 ( C h . X ) .

p. 91 (Ch, V I ) ,

p, 218 (Ch. X X V I I I ) ,

10

'The W r i t i n g of The P a l l i s e r s ' . (17th January 1974) pp. 65-68.

The

L i s t e n e r . 91 : 2338

11

The L i s t e n e r . 92 : 2365 (25th July 1974) pp, 105-107. See also ' T r o l l o p e , The P a l l i s e r s and the Way We View N o w ' by S h i r l e y L e t w i n , i n The Times L i t e r a r y Supplement (5th J u l y 1974) pp. 727-728.

133

12

Lacey, R o b e r t ,

The P a l l i s e r s

: Radio Times Special,

p. 8.

13

The Changing W o r l d of Anthonv T r o l l o p e , p. 244,

14

Ibid.,

15

Smalley, Donald, 'Anthony T r o l l o p e ' i n V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n : A Guide to R e s e a r c h , ed. L i o n e l Stevenson, p. 213. Anyone i n t e r e s t e d i n the development of recent c r i t i c a l trends about T r o l l o p e w i l l f i n d Ruth apRoberts's entry c o v e r i n g the p e r i o d 1963-74 i n V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n : A Second Guide to R e s e a r c h , ed, G, H , F o r d , pp. 143-171, and Hugh Kennedy's ' T r o l l o p e Studies', 1963-73 i n B r i t i s h Studies M o n i t o r , v i : i (1975) pp. 3-27, u s e f u l . See also R a f a e l H e l l i n g , A Century of Trollope C r i t i c i s m (1956), w h i c h contains many extracts f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y sources and subsequent c r i t i c i s m , and I . G, Jones's unpublished thesis A Study of the L i t e r a r y Reputation of Anthony

p. 255.

to. 16

Partial Portraits,

17

I b i d . , p. 131.

18

Trollope : A Commentary,

19

I b i d . , p. 22,

20

Ibid,,

21

I b i d . , p. 110.

22

This is the t i t l e of the Commentary.

23

B u r n , W, L , , ' V i c t o r i a n D i v e r i Ixv (1956) p, 1,

24

Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

25

Wall,

26

Can You F o r g i v e Her?^^ p, 398 (Ch. X X X V H ) .

27

p. 2 1 .

28

Aspects of the N o v e l ,

p.

113.

p.

p. 79.

second

p, 398 (Ch. X X X V I I ) .

Stephen, i n t r o d u c t i o n to Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? , p, 1 1 ,

p,

35.

134

29

Unsigned notice i n The Times (24th August 1875) r e p r i n t e d i n Donald Smalley, T r o l l o p e : The C r i t i c a l Heritage, p. 409.

30

T r o l l o p e : A r t i s t and M o r a l i s t , p. 52,

31

The Eustace Diamonds,

32

Ibid.,

33

A Room w i t h a V i e w ,

34

The Eustace Diamonds,

35

Ibid.,

p. 647 (Ch.

LXVII).

36

Ibid.,

p. 647 (Ch.

LXVII).

37

Ibid.,

p. 209 (Ch. X I X ) ,

38

Ibid.,

p. 534 (Ch, L I V ) .

39

Ibid,,

p. 271 (Ch.

40

I b i d , , pp. 81-82 (Ch, V ) , L o r d George is subsequently r e f e r r e d to as The C o r s a i r (Ch, L X I I I ) ,

41

Ibid,,

pp. 232-235 (Ch. X X I ) w i t h M i s s M a c n u l t y .

42

Ibid.,

p. 759 (Ch.

43

I b i d , , , p . 763 (Ch. L X X I X ) and e a r l i e r p. 419 (Ch. X L E ) when L i z z i e is c a r e f u l to equip herself w i t h a B i b l e before going to hear M r , E m i l i u s preach.

44

Ibid.,

p. 231 (Ch. X X I ) .

45

Ibid,,

p. 228 (Ch. X X I ) ,

46

Ibid,,

pp, 227-228 (Ch. X X I ) .

47

Ibid,,

p. 227 (Ch. X X I ) .

48

'She had not a heart to g i v e ' .

49

Ibid.,

50

A n Autobiography, p,

51

The Eustace Diamonds,

p.

p. 349 (Ch.

XXXIV).

112 (Ch. V I I I ) .

p. 704 (Ch.

p.

115. p.

140 (Ch. X I ) .

XXVI),

LXXIX),

Ibid.,

p, 230 (Ch. X X I ) .

LXXIII). 169 (Ch. X ) . p. 610 (Ch,

LXII),

135

52

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r . I I , pp.

140-141 (Ch. LEV),

53

M r , Lopez's quote comes f r o m The B r i d e of Abydos I . i . 3, (a r e f e r e n c e f o r w h i c h I am indebted to R, W. Chapman's notes i n the c i t e d e d i t i o n of The P r i m e M i n i s t e r ) .

54

T i l l o t s o n , G e o f f r e y , i n his essay on ' T r o l l o p e ' s Style' i n M i d - V i c t o r i a n Studies by G, and K . T i l l o t s o n , p. 60.

55

Can Y o u F o r g i v e H e r ? ,

56

This is a r a r e a d m i s s i o n i n T r o l l o p e ' s f i c t i o n of i n e f f i c i e n c y i n the G. P, O, , and m u s t have been w r i t t e n i n the months j u s t before his r e s i g n a t i o n . I t is also an example of the i n t e r v e n t i o n of fate i n the a f f a i r s of m e n , since neither Phineas nor L o r d C h i l t e r n was to blame f o r the m i s u n d e r standing that a r o s e . Who can say what would have happened i f Thomas Hardy had picked up the w r i t e r ' s pen

p, 397 (Ch.

XXXVU).

at t h i s point? 57

Phineas Finn^

58

Ibid,,

59

A note by John Sutherland on T r o l l o p e ' s textual changes here can be found i n the cited edition of Phineas F i n n , p. Phineas F i n n , p. 155 (Ch. X I I I ) .

60

p. 374 (Ch. X X X V I I ) .

p. 348 (Ch.

XXXIV),

61

The l e t t e r w r i t t e n at Loughton betrays an anxiousness on Phineas's f>art. I b i d . , p. 367 (Ch. X X X V I ) .

62

Ibid.,

p. 382 (Ch. X X X V I I I ) .

727.

136

Chapter F i v e C e r t a i n A s s u m p t i o n s Questioned

T r o l l o p e ' s concern w i t h d i f f e r e n t m o r a l codes led h i m , i n the course of w r i t i n g the P a l l i s e r novels, to examine a n\imber of concepts w h i c h by and large V i c t o r i a n s never questioned and w h i c h T r o l l o p e h i m s e l f would not have stopped to t h i n k about at an e a r l i e r stage i n his w r i t i n g c a r e e r .

I n the argument

between L o r d C h i l t e r n and Phineas Finn discussed i n Chapter Four,

T r o l l o p e was concerned w i t h worthy conduct and honesty :

'Was he h o n e s t ? ' is the t i t l e of the chapter i n which Phineas w r o t e his f i r s t l e t t e r .

The i m p l i c a t i o n of L o r d C h i l t e r n ' s

accusation that Phineas had acted unworthily, however, Phineas is not 'a gentleman', constitutes

is that

and the exact d e f i n i t i o n of what

'a gentleman' was one concept to which T r o l l o p e

frequently returned. I n The Eustace Diamonds,

L o r d Fawn makes a statement

about

t h i s concept a f t e r being e m b a r r a s s e d i n P a r l i a m e n t by F r a n k G r e y stock's question to do w i t h the Sawab of Mygawb: '"Gentlemanlike conduct i s the same e v e r y w h e r e . There are things w h i c h may be said and things w h i c h m a y not, Mr» Greystock has altogether gone beyond the usual l i m i t s , and I s h a l l take c a r e that he knows m y opinion" ' ^ L o r d Fawn's l i m i t e d p e r c e p t i o n elsewhere makes i t unlikely that T r o l l o p e would have agreed w i t h his c l a i m that conduct is the same e v e r y w h e r e ' .

'gentlemanlike

137

A r e f r e s h i n g l y d i f f e r e n t concept of gentlemanly behaviour is that which gives j u s t i f i c a t i o n to Laurence F i t z g i b b o n f o r t e l l i n g downright l i e s , i n Phineas F i n n : 'Laurence F i t z g i b b o n c e r t a i n l y possessed the r a r e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of t e l l i n g a l i e w i t h a good g r a c e . Had any m a n called h i m a l i a r he would have considered h i m s e l f to be not only i n s u l t e d , but i n j u r e d also. He believed h i m s e l f to be a m a n of t r u t h . There w e r e , however, i n his e s t i m a t i o n c e r t a i n subjects on w h i c h a man m i g h t depart as wide as the poles are asunder f r o m t r u t h without subjecting h i m s e l f to any ignominy f o r falsehood. I n dealing w i t h a t r a d e s m a n as to his debts, or w i t h a r i v a l as t o a lady, or w i t h any m a n o r woman i n defence of a lady's c h a r a c t e r , , , Laurence believed that a gentleman was bound to l i e and that he would be no gentleman i f he hesitated to do so! • I t i s by such means as t h i s that Trollope turned commonly accepted m o r a l concepts inside out, leading the reader into a deeper understanding of t h e m . Only i n The Duke's C h i l d r e n , the last of the P a l l i s e r novels to. appear, does T r o l l o p e entrust any r e a l understanding of the a c t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s of such a t e r m as

'gentleman',

to the Duke of

Omni-um, the e r s t w h i l e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , r e c e n t l y made widower by the death of Lady Glencora,

When his daughter,

protests that her s u i t o r , F r a n k Tregear,

i s 'a gentleman',

Duke r e p l i e s : I

II

Mary,

So is m y p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y . There is not a c l e r k i n one of our public offices who does not consider h i m s e l f to be a gentleman. The curate of the p a r i s h is a gentleman, and the m e d i c a l m a n who comes here f r o m Bradstock,

the

138

The w o r d is too vague to c a r r y w i t h i t any meaning that ought to be serviceable t o y o u i n thinking of such a matter" ' ^ . Yet f o r a l l his p o l i t i c a l w i s d o m the Duke is no judge of character, f o r , as he is eventually f o r c e d to recognise,

F r a n k Tregear

qualities that make h i m v e r y w o r t h y of M a r y ' s hand, he had no money to r e c o m m e n d h i m ,

has

even though

T r o l l o p e is interested i n

delving into the d i f f e r e n t concepts that people hold of what i t is to be a gentleman, similarly.

and he encourages his reader to question

The f i n a l judgement seems to be that the w o r d

'gentleman' conveys no defined concept i n i t s e l f , but depends upon i t s u s e r s f o r the meanings i t can convey a strangely m o d e r n view of l i n g u i s t i c s i I t m i g h t be thought that concepts like 'gentleman' and 'duty' do not have i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t or appeal f o r the twentieth century r e a d e r .

As one i n t r o d u c t i o n to The Eustace Diamonds,

w r i t t e n i n 1969, puts i t : 'The question "Was she being u n m a i d e n l y ? " the t e r m ' m a n l y ' , the concept of the 'gentleman', o r the duty i m p l i c i t i n " Y o u w i l l be true won't you F r a n k ? " a l l resound to positives which the m o d e r n :^eader o f t e n f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t to perceive' . Although the t e r m s (like m a i d e n l y , manly, gentleman and duty) m a y not be m u c h i n c u r r e n t usage, the concepts are ones which are m o r e openly the subject of debate today than they were i n the m i d d l e of the nineteenth c e n t u r y . of acceptable

Meaningful definitions

concepts of behaviour are m u c h sought a f t e r today.

139

The questions T r o l l o p e was asking m i g h t be wrapped i n d i f f e r e n t t e r m s now, but they s t i l l seek to define the same ideas : 'What are acceptable

standards of behaviour?

What are the rules

w h i c h society expects its m e m b e r s to observe?

What

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s does m a n have to his own f r i e n d s and to society at l a r g e ?

What i s j u s t i c e ? '

This i n t e r r o g a t i v e

atmosphere

and uncertainty pervades m o s t aspects of w e s t e r n l i f e today and there are,

of c o u r s e ,

no easy answers to such questions.

T r o l l o p e was ahead of his t i m e i n exploring some of the p o s s i b i l i t i e s and he questions o f t e n made,

some of the suppositions m o s t

w h i l e entertaining us at the same t i m e .

m o r e aware of the l i m i t a t i o n s of language, define our concepts,

He was

i n which we seek to

than has generally been recognised.

In

an essay w r i t t e n i n 1867, he said: 'It is good t o be honest and t r u e . Yes, indeed. There is no doubt of that. But what is t r u t h and goodness?'^ (To w h i c h question no m o r a l i s i n g instant solution is o f f e r e d j ) Questions like this are f a r f r o m new. ones, rephrased

They are the

and presented a f r e s h i n every age.

recurrent There is

l i t t l e m e r i t i n m e r e l y asking t h e m , but the r e a l a r t i s t has a c o n t r i b u t i o n to make to the answer.

He can,

as i t w e r e ,

us a few steps f u r t h e r on the road to Parnassus,

lead

Trollope's

c o n t r i b u t i o n m i g h t be b r i e f l y put like this : he helps us to look at human situations as they r e a l l y are,

encourages us to t h i n k

about the m o r a l i t y of human behaviour;, and by juxtaposing the

140

i n c o n g r u i t i e s of human m o r a l i t y forces us into a deeper perception of the u n i v e r s e . In his i n t r o d u c t i o n to Can You F o r g i v e H e r ? Stephen W a l l has recognised that T r o l l o p e posed questions i n his novels, but he sees t h i s as no m o r e thaii 'deep m o r a l uncertainty': ' T r o l l o p i a n m a n lives i n a perpetual q u a n d a r y . , . Whom should he m a r r y ? And underlying these i s a l a y e r of deep m o r a l uncertainty : what is honesty, t r u t h , g o o d n e s s ? , . . The mood of Trollope's fiction is, typically, i n t e r r o g a t i v e , . , L i f e i n its m o d e r n f o r m has become intractable to t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l t h e o r y ' • B u t T r o l l o p e went f u r t h e r than j u s t posing the questions, was conscious,

moreover,

f o r m i n g our ideas. concepts

and he

of the part that language plays i n

As w e l l as asking questions about p a r t i c u l a r

like 'goodness', he chose words w i t h considerable

i n t e l l i n g his s t o r i e s .

care

L i z z i e Eustace's downright lies about

her necklace are to her only ' s e c r e t s ' and 'cleverness', T r o l l o p e i r o n i c a l l y r e f e r s to the.m as 'shams',

'fictions',

and 'schemes' 7

and ' w i l e s ' , knowing a l l along that they are no better than lies . Mr,

Chaffenbrass,

the eloquent and f o r m i d a b l e b a r r i s t e r i n

Phineas F i n n ' s t r i a l , of M r , Bonteen; of the evidence.

has no i n t e r e s t i n the ' t r u t h ' of the m u r d e r

he.is only interested i n establishing the

'truth'

T r o l l o p e was p a r t i c u l a r l y aware of the m i s -

leading i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of what constitutes t r u t h i n legal cases, and the books w h i c h centre on legal quibbles a l l show his concern w i t h divergent and m i s l e a d i n g interpretations of t r u t h .

In the

141

case of L i z z i e Eustace's 'missing' diamonds, the law concerns itself with the precise distinction between 'heirlooms' and 'paraphernalia', when the reader knows that the issue is clearly and simply one of theft or rightful ownership.

None of the

five lawyers i n the e a r l i e r novel, Orley F a r m : 'gave to the course of justice the credit that it would a s c e r t a i n the truth, and not one of (them) wished that the truth should be ascertained'^. In Cousin Henry, written in 1878, the story hinges on the precise whereabouts and dating of a w i l l , though the issue is presented to the reader as the broader and more straightforward one of deciding who is the rightful owner of the estate at Llanfeare. The law, it seems,

fails to execute justice at times because it

emphasises the insignificant and misleading aspects of a case. Whereas Dickens had satirised the B r i t i s h legal system for its time and money-wasting abuses to great effect in Bleak House, TroUope concerned himself with the values of justice which that legal system upheld as distinct from its inefficiency. little,

if any, open corruption in Trollope's law c a s e s .

There is It is

the decisions which the courts come to that are so often in direct opposition to the situation, as the reader is made to see it.

The

verdict of the court in The Macdermots of Ballycloran is quite at odds with what really happened, and at the other end of Trollope's writing c a r e e r , M r , Scarborough manipulates the law to his own

142

ends in defeating the entail which exists on his property, Trollope's f i r s t concern was with the concepts and values on which Victorian society was ordered. solutions,

He had no ready-made

but he hoped, by making his readers aware of the

complexities

surrounding m o r a l issues, to educate them into a

deeper perception of their situation in the universe, 'It is this honesty, this clarity of vision that places Trollope with the greatest novelists of the nineteenth century, with Dickens, Thackeray and George Eliot'^, Trollope's own 'honesty' consisted in close and accurate observations (of human nature, but for his characters in the P a l l i s e r novels,

the interpretation of 'honesty' formed another concept

which he examined in detail. The question,

'Was he honest?', had already been asked about

Phineas Finn's dealings with Lord Chiltern, and the reader was given no c l e a r - c u t answer.

It seems that Trollope was attempting

to offer a definition of 'honesty' which could be used in discussing c h a r a c t e r s , for whenever the question a r i s e s about the honesty of one character or another, some c a r e .

Trollope expounds his meaning with

What is interesting is that to Trollope's mind the

man who is dishonest has no understanding of the concept of honesty.

The implication is that one cannot be honest

unless

one understands what honesty i s : hence the need for men to think carefully about such concepts as honesty. Trollope's m o r a l purpose.

Herein lies

143

An example of a man almost totally void of personal integrity in the P a l l i s e r novels is Ferdinand Lopez, and it is significant that Trollope says of him: 'He did not know that there was such a quality as honesty, nor did he understand what the word meant' Another c h a r a c t e r , F r a n k Greystock, whose conduct is otherwise faultless,

falls under suspicion as a result of his relationship

with his cousin,

L i z z i e E u s t a c e , because 'honesty' in his terms i s

simply maintaining his integrity and his faithfulness to the girl to whom he is secretly betrothed,

Lucy M o r r i s ,

He is aware of

the difficulties of remaining 'honest' when he explains himself to Lizzie: ' "And then there is a cringing and almost contemptible littleness about honesty which hardly allows it to a s s e r t itself. The really honest man can never say a word to make those who don't know of his honesty believe that it is there. He has one foot in the grave before his neighbours have learned that he i s possessed of an article f o r the use of which they would so willingly have paid, could they have been made to see that it was there. The dishonest man almost doubts whether in him dishonesty is dishonest, let i t be practised ever so widely. The honest man almost doubts whether his honesty be honest, unless it be kept hidden. Let two unknown men be competitors for any place, with nothing to guide the judges .but their own words and their own looks, and who can doubt but the dishonest man would be chosen rather than the honest? Honesty goes with a hang-dog look about him, as though knowing that he cannot be trusted till he be proved. Dishonesty c a r r i e s

144

his eyes high, and assumes that any question respecting him must be considered to be unnecessary." "Oh F r a n k , " (responds L i z z i e ) , "what a philosopher you are" '^•^, L i z z i e ' s comment .reveals, of course, that she is incapable of understanding what r e a l honesty i s . This passage might be said to indicate that Trollope was becoming increasingly cynical about life in the second half of his writing c a r e e r , but he was not a prophet of gloom«

Rather, he

was aware of the complexities that surround any attempt to get to grips with the rteal nature of human existence,

Frank

Greystock here shows that 'honesty' in itself defeats any attempt to spread any more honesty in the world : 'honesty' has become a self-defeating

concept.

The bext example of self-defeating honesty in the P a l l i s e r novels i s , of course,

Plantagenet Palliser himsel;^ P r i m e Minister

and later Duke of Omnium.

Yet Trollope's treatment of this

unusually self-effacing man, whose integrity is the cause of his downfall, analyses in depth the concept of 'honesty' which is the b a s i s of a l l his behaviour.

The Duke of St, Bungay, the elder

statesman of the s e r i e s , discusses the nature of P a l l i s e r ' s 'honesty' with Lady Glencora in The P r i m e Minister: 'The old Duke patted her on the head as though she were a little girl, and was more comforting to her than her other counsellors. He would say nothing to her husband n o w ; , . , "This husband of yours is a very peculiar man, " he said,

145

smiling, "his honesty is not like the honesty of other men. It is more downright; - more absolutely honest; less capable of bearing even the shadow which the stain from another's dishonesty might throw upon it. Give him credit for a l l that, and remember that you cannot find everything combined in the same person. He is very practical in some things, but the question i s , whether he is not too scrupulous to be practical in a l l things'" The Duke of St, Bungay accurately foresees P a l l i s e r ' s f a l l from office^ because his honesty is too absolute to bear the attack of any 'dishonest' man. Ferdinand Lopez,

In his case, the attack comes from Trollope wants us to understand the character

13 of P a l l i s e r

and it comes to life because he shows us the basis

of his m o r a l code and encourages us to think about its concepts, its strengths and its weaknesses*

It is in just such a way that

we think about people in r e a l life and the novel can tell us more while we are less immediately involved than in real life situations, Trollope's naturalistic observation brings us closer to reality than we may have been aware,

Henry James's observation that 'Mr,

Trollope is a good observer, but he is literally nothing else'''''^, might unwittingly be drawing attention to Trollope's most important quality, for to see c l e a r l y is to perceive truthfully and few people question Trollope's naturalism.

The ideas considered so far (like 'gentleman',

'truth',

'goodness' and 'honesty') are easily recognisable as behavioural

146

concepts.

A s such it is easy for the modern reader to understand

Trollope's attempts to define them though the terms in which we discuss them might be different today. One more particular concept which seems to have p r e occupied Trollope throughout his writing career is the idea of 'duty'.

Most of Trollope's characters act according to a sense

of duty, though each interprets his duty in a very different way. At the outset, like most of his contemporaries,

Trollope did not

question the concept at a l l , yet in the last two novels of the P a l l i s e r series.

The P r i m e Minister and The Duke's Children, he seems

to be examining the whole concept of 'duty' in depth. The term 'duty' does not evoke immediate sympathy in the modern reader and it is worth looking at the current usage to understand it better in Trollope.

Apart from common usage

such as 'customs duty' and 'heavy duty c a r battery', the word 'duty' is now frequently used in defining professional responsibilities, A doctor or a policeman w i l l say he is 'on duty', meaning that he has professional obligations to fulfil,

A member of the armed

forces knows that he has to 'do his duty' and in almost every profession an employee has certain 'duties' to perform. the sphere of professional employment,

however,

Outside

few people will

speak openly of doing their duty, to God, to the Queen, to society as a whole,

or to their families.

It is true that people speak of

visiting an aged relative, for example, out of a 'sense of duty',

147

but the phrase c a r r i e s with it a certain reluctance. 'duty' , i n social and general ethical senses,

In fact,

seems to c a r r y a

hint of obligatiion which is unpleasant to the person who has the duty.

Of course an older usage of the word survives in some

instances of traditional ritualistic language:

'I promise to do

my duty to God, and the Queen, to help other people at a l l t i m e s , , , ' the boy scout s ays, and we may s t i l l be reminded in church that 'it is our bounden duty that we should at a l l times and in a l l places, give thanks unto Thee, O L o r d , It does seem,

Holy F a t h e r , , , '

therefore, that the sense of obedience

implicit in the traditional meaning of 'duty' is alien to modern ideas of 'freedom'.

In a professional sphere, duties are in

many instances undertaken because there is a direct reward for those duties.

Any duties outside this sphere are different and

little m o r a l obligation or pressure bears upon the individual to c a r r y them out.

The notion of 'duty' to an ethical code is no

longer a common concept to which an individual can appeal, knowing that he w i l l meet with general sympathetic concordance. Duty in Victorian England was quite different.

It was

a governing force in every educated man's dec is ion-making processes,

and it was, perhaps, one of the distinguishing features

of man as a civilised being, that his actions were motivated not by instincts of self-preservation alone, but by an understanding of his duty as well.

The divergence of behavioural patterns,

148

of course, indicates that not a l l hums-n beings were obedient to the same m o r a l codes, and herein lies the strength of Trollope's characters as r e a l beings. Directed by different m o r a l codes, they a l l have different notions of 'duty', and, as often as not, their notions of duty bring them into direct conflict with one another. Duty i s , in sum, the connecting link between a man or woma,n and his or her m o r a l code.

F o r over half of his writing c a r e e r , Trollope accepted that his characters had their 'duty' to perform, as he observed people in r e a l life having their 'duty' to follow, led to conflict.

even though this often

The early novels record such conflict faithfully,

but Trollope never questioned the reasons for the conflict : he m e r e l y observed,

accurately.

It is worth reminding ourselves

of one or two instances of this briefly, before examining the change in his approach in the later novels.

In the Barsetshire

s e r i e s a l l the characters have clear notions of what their duty involves : M r , Harding, M r , Slope, Archdeacon Grantly, M r s , Proudie and the rest a l l know what they ought to do and they c a r r y out their duties accordingly, both good and bad. P a l l i s e r novels,

In the early

Trollope seems to make more use of the word

'duty', as the explanation which his characters have for their s e v e r a l courses of action.

F o r example, in Phineas F i n n , M r ,

Kennedy absoluely insists that his wife return to her conjugal home,

and Phineas r e m a r k s that M r . Kennedy 'means to do his

duty' in ensuring her return, when he is alone with Lady Laura

149

before she leaves for Dresden''"^.

Phineas himself uses a sense

of duty to justify making overtures to Violet Effingham when he had already promised to m a r r y the girl back home in Ireland, Mary Flood-Jones : he 'resolved sternly that it was his duty to be constant to Miss Effingham'•^^,

In The Eustace Diamonds,

Lady Linlithgow, whose wicked and selfish nature i s her most obvious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , takes in L i z z i e Greystock out of a sense of family duty: 'Why should such a countess have troubled herself with the custody of such a niece? Simply because the countess regarded it as a d u t y . , , she went to c h u r c h . , , because she thought it was right. And she took in L i z z i e Greystock, whom she hated almost as much as she did sermons, because the admiral's wife had be^n her sister, and she recognised a duty' ' , By the time that Trollope came to write Phineas Redux, in 1873-4, he was clearly much more concerned with the notion of duty.

The same M r , Kennedy, writing to Phineas,

about his estranged wife.

says

Lady L a u r a ,

"•'Her duty demands her presence here (at Loughlinter) and my duty calls upon me to receive her"'"''?. And in the same letter,

Kennedy asks Phineas to visit him before

he goes to Dresden to see Lady L a u r a and her father L o r d Brentford,

'not as a pleasure, but as a Christian duty'.

Phineas goes to Dresden, son.

L o r d Chiltern,

When

Lord Brentford is pleased to hear his

praised by Phineas and 'felt that now, as ever, 19

he had done his duty by his family'

.

Another character in the

150

same book, the editor of 'The People's Banner', Quintus Slide, has quite a different concept of duty : as he asserts to Phineas with pride,

'We've got our duty to do, and we mean to do it, '

by which duty he means to proclaim 'purity of m o r a l s , throughout the nation.

'You've no notion, Finn, in your mind of what will

soon be the extent of the duties, privileges and influences of the 20 daily press'



F o r some characters, a notion of 'duty' permits

them unquestioningly to accept lines of thought which a r e , by any standards,

strange : the death of the old Duke of Omnium produces

some odd judgements on his life, but none more strange than from M r , Maule Senior: 'A great fortune had been entrusted to him and he knew that it was his duty to spend it '^•'•, Such indeed might be the only m o r a l defence that could be made for 22 that 'worn-out, old debauchee'

, the old Duke of OmniumJ

In the next P a l l i s e r novel. between 1874 and 1876,

The Prime Minister, written

Trollope's interest in the concept of 'duty'

led him to give it much fuller treatment, not only in the private lives of his characters but in their public roles as well,

Palliser,

or the Duke of Omniiam as he has become by the beginning of The P r i m e Minister, is adamant that he will not interfere in the Silverbridge borough elections:

'I must do my duty', he states 23

categorically to Lady Glencora

, and his duty, unlike other Dukes

of Omnium before him, is to remain quite uninvolved in the borough's nominations,

Trollope summed up P a l l i s e r ' s notion

151

of his wife's duty, later on when he wrote about the P a l l i s e r novels in A n Autobiography: ' '7. should not choose that my wife should have any duties unconnected with our joint family and home" '?'^, Unfortunately for P a l l i s e r , Lady Glencora sees her duty as something more than this, and the resulting interference with the nominations for the borough has disastrous consequences P a l l i s e r ' s political c a r e e r .

for

In the same book E m i l y Wharton

has a concept of duty which does not allow her any escape from the marriage she has made to Ferdinand Lopez, a marriage as disastrous as that between Lady L a u r a and M r , Kennedy: am bound to do as he tells me',

'I

she says, , and her anti-feminist

outlook is wrapped up in terms of duty when she says to Lopez himself later on,

'It is not my duty to have any purpose, as what

I do must depend on your commands'^^.

But when her former

suitor, Arthur F l e t c h e r , renews his suit after Lopez's suicide at Tenway Junction, he earnestly reminds her that she now has a very definite duty: ' "No man ever had a right to say more positively to a woman that it was her duty to m a r r y him, than I have to you. And I do say it, I say it on behalf of a l l of us, that it is your duty," It is in the last of the P a l l i s e r novels,

however,

that

Trollope developed and examined the concept of 'duty' most fully, and it is manifestly c l e a r from the different tone of this book

152

that the questions he r a i s e d and the situations he presented for the characters took him and his readers to a new and deeper understanding of the nature of 'duty'.

The Duke's Children

was in fact written immediately after An Autobiography was completed in A p r i l 1876, though The Duke_'s Children appeared f i r s t (in 1879-80), 1883,

while A n Autobiography was not pizblished until

shortly after his death.

Consequently The Duke's ChiMren

was not part of Trollope's output when he wrote A n Autobiography, and to some extent this may explain why it has perhaps been less popular than the other P a l l i s e r hovels, in spite of its more domestic,

less political setting.

Other reasons may be because

Trollope's reputation was waning at the end of a long run of popularity and success,

or because Lady Glencora does not enliven

the page of its story, dying as she does before the narrative begins, 28 the second female protagonist to be disposed of in this way However, the novel deserves more attention, because of its more perceptive analysis of concepts, artistic appeal.

quite apart from its immediate

The constant return to ideas of duty and the

study of how it becomes necessary to reform those ideas as circvunstances dictate give the novel a depth and perception that is easily m i s s e d if one sees the novel as merely 'a work of reparation'^^ in an attempt to defend the character of P a l l i s e r himself. In the Duke's Children itself,

we find interest and perception

quite different from the books which preceded it, and the concept

153

of 'duty' is central to this.

A s elsewhere,

his own notion of what his duty it.

each character has

The electors of Silverbridge

prefer to do their duty in returning a castle candidate, rather than enjoying the new freedom of choice which had become

theirs:

'the f i r s t and only strong feeling in the borough was the one of duty. The borovigh did no|^altogether enjoy being enfranchised' . Reginald Dobbes, the organiser of shooting parties at CrximmieToddie, on the other hand, ha.s a very different notion of his obligations,

for he regarded it 'as a great duty to keep his body 31

in the finest possible condition'

And something of his

enthusiasm for the sporting life has rubbed off on another devotee of shooting,

the Duke's elder son, Lord Silverbridge,

The Duke

does not share his son's craving for such pastimes, but tolerates in his son what he would not permit for himself: ' '!But as (shooting) is so manifestly a duty, go and perform it like a man " '•^'^. A s w e l l as shooting the covers of Barsetshire, L o r d Silverbridge comes to realise that he has another duty to perform, that of ridding himself of the parasitic Major Tifto.

It was unfortunate

for him that he procrastinated, in the belief that: 'that duty could not be performed t i l l after this race (the disastrous one at Doncaster, which cost his father over £ 7 0 , 000) had been run'^^^' A more seasoned sportsman than Silverbridge is L o r d Chiltern whose only occupation in life besides pursuing the Trumpington

154

Wood question seems to be hunting. Effingham of e a r l i e r books,

A s his wife, Violet

puts it succinctly:

' 'Lord Chiltern has taken up hunting as his duty in life,, and he does it with his might and main" '^^^ These examples of 'duty' in The Duke's Children only serve to illustrate the author's frequent return to that term as a means of expressing people's reasons for behaving in a particular way. The dispute between the Duke of Omnium and his son over the choice of a suitable wife presents us with a clash of duties which heightens our perception of the characters and the situation. After acknowledging that Silverbridge has a justifiable duty to perform his shooting,

the Duke proceeds to outline another duty for him:

' "You have explained to me that it is your duty to have the Barsetshire coverts properly shot, and I have acceeded to your views. Surely it must be equally your duty to see your B a r s e t s h i r e neighbours. And you are a young man every feature of whose character would be improved by matrimony , . , I could never bring myself to dictate to a son in regard to his choice of a w i f e , , , s t i l l I would wish you to bea.r in mind what is my idea as to your dut^' ' " ^ ^ i The contradiction in the Duke's advice is quite clear : he will not impose on his son as regards a choice, but he expects his son to comply with his own concept of his duty.

This 'duty'

is at odds with the Duke's naturally sensitive outlook,

and it

does subsequently lead him to dictate to his son in regard to his choice of a wife.

155

It is significant that the interviews in which the Duke seeks to impose his conception of 'duty' on his sons take place within the confines of his study at Matching,

When Silverbridge tells

his father that he has proposed to Lady Mabel Grex, he does so on his own territory, namely,

after dinner, in the library at the

Beargarden Club, and his father accepts the news though he does 36not really approve of the match.

,

The Duke never doubts that

he is in the right when he is within the four walls of his own study,

and he would have been unlikely to agree to a connection

with the impoverished G r e x family if the interview had taken place there. In the third interview between Silverbridge and his father, back on the Duke's home ground, in the study at Matching, the conflict between them comes to a head,

Silverbridge informs his

father that he wishes to m a r r y Miss Isabel Boncassen,

the

daughter of an A m e r i c a n , descended from a Dutch wharf worker, and not the 'approved' candidate.

Lady Mabel Grex.

To the

r e a d e r , Isabel is a much more attractive personality than Lady Mabel, but Trollope exposes the flaws in the Duke's sense of duty by making him stand out against Isabel as a suitable wife and as the future Duchess of Omnium: "I thought you liked her, sir,," (said Silverbridge), "Liked heri I did like her. I do like her. What has that to do with it? Do you think I like none but those with whom I should think it fitting to ally myself in m a r r i a g e ? Is there to be no duty in such matters, no restraint, no

156

feeling of what is due to your own name, and to others who bear it? The lad out there who is sweeping the walks can m a r r y the f i r s t g i r l that pleases his eye if she w i l l take him. Perhaps his lot is the happier because he owns such liberty. Have you the same freedom?" '^"^ The Duke gives open vent to his anger in expounding his idea as to his son's matrimonial duty,

Silverbridge's defence of

his choice is equally valid, if less eloquently expressed. he completed his Cambridge education,

Had

instead of being sent

down (for a prank of which Kingsley A m i s ' s undergraduates would have been proudi), he would no doubt have responded to the Duke's arguments in a more logical way.

But then, of

course, the readers' sympathies would not have been so much in his favour: ' "Have you the same freedom?" (continued the Duke). I suppose I have,

- by law • "

"Do you recognise no duty but what the laws impose upon you? Should you be disposed to eat and drink in bestial excess, because the laws would not hinder you? Should you lie and sleep a l l the day, the law would say nothing] Should you neglect every duty which your position imposes on you, the law could not interfere.] To such a one as you, the law can be no guide. You should so live as not to come near the law, - or to have the law come near to you. F r o m a l l evil against which the law bars you, you should be barred, at an infinite distance, by honour and conscience and nobility. Does the law require patriotism, philanthropy, self-abnegation, public s e r v i c e , devotion to the needs of others who have been placed in the world below you?

157

The law is a great thing, - because m e n a r e poor, and w e a k , and bad. A n d it i s g r e a t , b e c a u s e w h e r e it e x i s t s i n i t s s t r e n g t h , no t y r a n t c a n be a b o v e i t . But b e t w e e n y o u a n d m e t h e r e s h o u l d be no m e n t i o n o f l a w a s the g u i d e to c o n d u c t . S p e a k to m e of h o n o u r , of d u t y , a n d o f nobility: and t e l l m e what they r e q u i r e of y o u . " Silverbridge something

listened

his

point h e r e , the

strong

colour

necessity

own convictions

at once,

conversation.

to t h e

and w i t h

of t r u e a d m i r a t i o n i n h i s

B u t he felt the declaring

in silence

on one

Dean's

lodge had

he w a s

unable

put h i s

proper

shape;

to

put i n h i s

point,

into

w h i c h told

r e j o i n d e r at

what you m e a n ,

*'And,

him in

Miss if 1 understand

by nobility just as

"Because you have

a

this

"'I t h i n k I a m b o u n d said,

that

b e l o n g e d to h i m

a n d i n d u t y to m a r r y

B o n c a s s e n , * * he

stood

^ so

argument

but t h e r e

certain natural astuteness

honour

of

That accident in r e g a r d

of the

logical studies,

particular

special

i n this new c r i s i s

i n the w a y of h i s

t h a t he m u s t

heart.

of

much,"

promised,

"Not o n l y f o r t h a t , I have p r o m i s e d and therefore I a m bound. She h a s - w e l l , she h a s s a i d that she loves m e , and t h e r e f o r e of c o u r s e I a m b o u n d . B u t i t i s not o n l y that," "What do y o u m e a n ? "

he It i s his

interesting father's

the

the

to n o t e t h a t S i l v e r b r i d g e d o e s

concept

it r a t h e r by his to m a r r y

s u p p o s e a m a n o u g h t to m a r r y l o v e s , - i f he c a n get hei''

of

'duty' i n a m a t t e r

own interpretation,

w o m a n he

loves'

is

as

not m e r e l y

of l o v e .

'I suppose much a

woman

He a man

repudiate

replaces ought

'duty' f o r S i l v e r b r i d g e

158

as

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to

Lord

his

class

is

f o r the

Duke,

o r hunting

for

Chiltern. A t the

Silverbridge

e n d of t h e is

able

Boncassen accepts

s t o r y w h e n the D u k e c a p i t u l a t e s

to m a r r y

Isabel,

S i l v e r b r i d g e as

the w a y

and

in w h i c h M r ,

a son-in-law

is

significantly

different^ ••I s h a l l r e j o i c e to "Mro

Boncassen

you are of y o u r

Lord

Silverbridge,

- the

as

a judgement

a prospective

but

because because I

hand"

from English class

to m a k e

because not

i n d i v i d u a l being whom

now h o l d b y the

able

h e r to y o u , * '

^ "not

rank and wealth;

you are

Free

give

says,

prejudices,

o n the

Mr.

Boncassen

individual m e r i t s

s o n - i n - l a w A m e r i c a n s a r e not

is

of S i l v e r b r i d g e

o n the

whole

treated 40

generously

i n the

books

of e i t h e r

but at the

e n d of

with more

c r e d i t t h a n the

their

The Duke's

open-mindedness

brought reader

sphere

knows

the

come

in this

liberal politics

h i s p e r s o n a l position i n the

to m a k e

Duke's

concepts

because

of

of

'duty'

b o o k i s t h a t of p o l i t i c s . i n the

one

will

dichotomy

between

h a n d a n d h i s d e s i r e to

M o n k and M r .

are The

Palliser series

n a t i o n o n the o t h e r .

quizzing M r ,

away

perceptual rather

w e l l a w a r e o f the

on the

,

situations^

e a r l i e r novels

the

had been

Boncassens

of new

Lady Glencora was

Glencora

C h i l d r e n the

D u k e of O m n i u m h i m s e l f ,

r e c a l l that Duke's

Trollope

i n w h i c h the

s h a r p l y into focus who

or Anthony

and w i l l i n g n e s s

than preceptual judgements Another

Frances

preserve

In Phineas Bonteen

on

the

Finn

159

s u b j e c t of e q u a l i t y a n d h a v i n g c o n f u s e d t h e m equally-muddled M r ,

Kennedy,

she

o n the w a y i n t o

explains

to

the

dinner:

' "You will understand m e , I a m not s a y i n g that people a r e equal; but that t h e t e n d e n c y of a l l l a w - m a k i n g a n d of a l l g o v e r n i n g s h o u l d b e to r e d u c e t h e inequalities" . The Duke's

own lengthy

the

at M a t c h i n g ,

grounds

explanation

of h i s

in The P r i m e

politics

to

Minister,

Phineas

reveals

in

the

42 distaste

he

has

f o r w h a t he c a l l s

is

in The D u k e ' s

is

more

aid

C h i l d r e n t h a t the

c l e a r l y expounded,

compromise

states

o u r p e r c e p t i o n of the

issues

i n the

account

of the

conflict in his

Trollope offers

: he m e r e l y

given

'a m o c k e q u a l i t y '

and restates involved.

Duke's

no the

.

sense

for

of

solution,

'duty' no

incongruity,

The explanation

p r i v a t e thoughts a s

i n h i s s t u d y a f t e r w r i t i n g the c h e q u e s o n , G e r a l d , of a g a m b l i n g d e b t :

B u t it

he

c o n f l i c t i n the

Duke's is

ideas

expressed

: if there

perception

and understanding

of h i s

£ 3 , 400 to c l e a r h i s

a solution,

'duty' i s

it lies

of t h i s

here

o n l y i n the

dichotomy.

clearly full

to is

sits

' A n x i o u s a s he w a s that both h i s sons should be p e r m e a t e d by L i b e r a l p o l i t i c s , studious a s h e h a d e v e r b e e n to t e a c h t h e m t h a t t h e h i g h e s t d u t y of t h o s e i n h i g h r a n k w a s to u s e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y to e l e v a t e t h o s e b e n e a t h t h e m , still h e w a s h a r d l y l e s s a n x i o u s to m a k e t h e m u n d e r s t a n d that t h e i r s e c o n d duty r e q u i r e d t h e m to m a i n t a i n t h e i r o w n p o s i t i o n . It w a s by f e e l i n g this s e c o n d duty, - by feeling it and p e r f o r m i n g i t , - thal^^they w o u l d be e n a b l e d to p e r f o r m t h e r e s t ! . The

easy

other

160

As

far as

his

their

political duties

It i s

strange,

the

pays

the

two.

men's

ignores

his

as

to t h e close

ideas

and his is

diffidence,

couched

a p p e a l to d u t y .

the

is

duty-bound

D u k e of S t ,

he

political any

D u k e of O m n i u m

The letter

himself might

formed, of

the

a p p e a l f o r a r e t u r n to he

to

Bungay as

Duke a few home-truths

such as

unsuccessful.

political adviser,

His sense

completely.

but the

in terms

quite

b u t on t h i s o c c a s i o n

friend's advice

i n r e g a r d to

L i b e r a l M i n i s t r y be

to t h a t o f the

tells

sons

the D u k e i s

r e m i n d s h i m that he

could be,

of B u n g a y w r i t e s

influence his

that w h e n his lifelong

should another

no a t t e n t i o n be

to

concerned,

Bungay,

country

duty m u s t

is

however,

D u k e of S t ,

serve

attempts

that the about

Duke

his

pride

political ministry

have

used

to

his

own children:

There

are,

consider first is

I think,

in this

two things

matter,

your capacity, As

have

difficulty in carrying

less

you,

to t h a t m a t t e r

should

be

T h e D u k e d o e s not responsibility.

be

The

is

your

yau with

me.

personally

your

country country,,,

shown

himself

cannot r e c e d e

without

duty'' this

[^^,

a p p e a l to

his

sense

h a s w e a r i e d a little of

rigid an observance

of w h a t he

of

governing conceives

to

'duty'. Nevertheless,

he

r e s p o n d to

P e r h a p s he

o w n l i f e b y too is

of m a n i f e s t

serve

y o u has

n e c e s s a r y . , , he

breach

to

of d u t y I s h a l l

to y o u . . , s t i l l i f y o u r you

when a m a n such as to

only.

other

r e n e w e d t a s k m a y be

disagreeable wants

his

and two a n d the

duty,..

Though this

for you

conceives

he

for t h e m ,

expects a n d the

his

c h i l d r e n to f u l f i l the

c l a s h over

Mary's

r i g h t to

duties marry

161

the p e n n i l e s s F r a n k T r e g e a r i n p r e f e r e n c e to the s u i t a b l e c a n d i d a t e , L o r d P o p p l e c o u r t , p r o d u c e s the f u l l e s t s e l f - a n a l y s i s i n the D u k e himself. T h e a g e n t i n t h i s s e a r c h i n g a n a l y s i s of ' d u t y ' i s the o l d f r i e n d of t h e D u c h e s s , M a d a m e M a x G r o e s l e r , n o w t h e w i f e of P h i n e a s F i n n , It i s a m a r k of the c o l d n e s s of the D u k e ' s h u m a n n a t u r e that h i s long a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h i s l a d y , w h o s e i n t e g r i t y i s w e l l - k n o w n to h i m , d o e s not p r e v e n t h i m f r o m c u t t i n g h e r o f f o n the s l i g h t e s t s u s p i c i o n t h a t s h e d o e s not a g r e e w i t h h i m o v e r M a r y ' s r i g h t to m a r r y F r a n k , I t w a s the s a m e w i t h t h e D u k e o f St, B u n g a y : t h e i r l i f e - l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n i s swept a s i d e upon r e c e i p t of the l e t t e r r e f e r r e d to a b o v e , i n s p i t e of the a p p e a l 'to o u r o l d friendship','^^»

In his Mary, is

the

f i r s t m a j o r i n t e r v i e w w i t h M a d a m e M a x about

Duke admits

i n a n a f f a i r of t h i s ' "It i s

so

t h a t he

Had

h a r d that

to

he

the

a m a n s h o u l d be

of w h i c h f r o m i t s

cannot u n d e r s t a n d the

Lady G l e n c o r a been

resolved

still alive

the d i f f i c u l t y w i t h e a s e ,

emotional

i t h a r d to k n o w w h a t h i s

guidance

left

very duties"

she would doubtless

t r u s t i n g not to

of h e r h e a r t ,

her

is

quite

absolute

it m a y

cost,

"But then, "one

has

'duty',

- duty; duty

- and whatever

s h o u l d be

Duke," (says to b e

this

is

pang

Madame Max), easy

requires. enough,

'mistake'

and

the

performed:

performed,,,"

s u r e w h a t duty

In m a n y m a t t e r s

but

However,

i n h i s b e l i e f t h a t d u t y m u s t be

' "But duty i s

have

m i n d f u l of h e r o w n

i n m a r r y i n g P a l l i s e r i n s t e a d , of B u r g o F i t z g e r a l d J Duke

'duty'

kind:

" with a charge nature

finds

Lady

162

the only d i f f i c u l t y c o m e s f r o m t e m p t a t i o n . T h e r e a r e c a s e s i n w h i c h i t i s s o h a r d to k n o w , , , I only s a i d that this w a s a c a s e i n w h i c h i t m i g h t b e d i f f i c u l t f o r y o u to s e e y o u r duty plainly".'47^ B u t the him

image

i n the

of h i s d a u g h t e r

c o n v i c t i o n that

'breaking her heart' m e r e l y

'duty' m u s t be done:

confirms

'The higher

the

48 duties from

the

keener

the

Madam Max's

m u s t be

deceitful

pangs',

,

reasoned

tricks

were

i n the

of F r a n k

story,

the

duty i s

D u k e ' s duty i n this Duke's

wiles,

to

-

have the

guard

n a t u r e ''^^. some

t h o u g h t to

is on

the

his

different from F r a n k ' s ,

matter

argument

and m a s t e r s ?

different f r o m his.

as

Frank's

First,

Frank:

a m a n without a shilling,

w h o s e m a n i f e s t duty it w a s so

that h e r

and it is i n t e r e s t i n g that as

himself

woman:

l e a r n to

Duke gives

reflections

' ''Here was work,

a

on h i s

of t h i s

Tregear,

of F r a n k ' s

a r e the

is

lords

h i m to b e

against attacks

there

she

not f e m i n i n e

of t h e i r

(It b e c a m e )

of t h e

suspecting

own w a y in opposition

judgement

conception

by

by w h i c h w o m e n

their

character

case

simply because

'And if there

Later

A n d he f u r t h e r p r o t e c t s

that he m i g h t of d o i n g

to go

to

earn his

so,

bread,

who,

instead

had hoped

to

raise

h i m s e l f to w e a l t h a n d p o s i t i o n

by 50

e n t r a p p i n g t h e h e a r t of a n u n w a r y g i r l " " Then there to

a r e the

Duke's

reflections

on t h e

g i s t of F r a n k ' s

him: '"Whether would

I am

like

such a son-in-law

o r not,

accept me,

if by

as

it is y o u r duty r e f u s i n g to do

so

you

to you

w i l l r e n d e r your daughter m i s e r a b l e , " That was

Mr,

Tregear's

argument.

letter

idea

163

He

himself might

argue to

be

prepared

i n a n s w e r that it was

reject such a son-in-law,

t h o u g h b y r e j e c t i n g h i m he make

his

daughter

of

'duty' a r e

C o n f l i c t i n g notions case

there

is

a resolution

to

c l i m b down f r o m his

as

a

to

his

duty

even might

miserable! here

o f the

position

clearly presented

conflict.

and in this

The Duke i s

by Madame M a x ' s appeal

forced to

him

father: ' " I n t h u s p e r f o r m i n g y o u r d u t y to your o r d e r , would you feel satisfied that y o u h a d p e r f o r m e d that to y o u r child?"

This

together with another m i s s i v e

about the

collapse

of the

Duke's

from F r a n k

Tregear,

brings

defence:

' H e h a d e n d e a v o u r e d to s t r e n g t h e n h i s own w i l l by a r g u i n g w i t h h i m s e l f that w h e n he .saw a duty p l a i n l y b e f o r e h i m , h e s h o u l d c l e a v e to t h a t , l e t the r e s u l t s be w h a t t h e y m i g h t . B u t that picture of h e r f a c e w i t h e r e d and w a n a f t e r t w e n t y y e a r s of s o r r c ^ i n g h a d h a d i t s e f f e c t upon h i s heart! • He

even

admits

to b e i n g

'half-conquered' and there

is

a warmth

and h u m a n i t y about h i s

affection for Mary which has been

in h i m for m o s t

life:

of h i s

'It w a s

s w e e t to h i m to

caress. as

Now

years

were

i n the

it w a s

who would

love

by the

of h i s

on h i m ,

t h a t he

him.

should have

debarred from

necessity

of

been words

his to

d u t y to be his

how someone

stern.

daughter

by a c o n v i c t i o n that he

had

these

showing

a n t a , o n i s m to h e r d e a r e s t w i s h e s .

to

years,

he f e l t

Since his wife

left h i m he had been caresses

something

solitude

coming

necessary

have

his It had

In a l l his

he had b e e n ought n e v e r

governed to

allow

repressed

164

the

d u t y of

lover

to b e

He w a s

separating her from absent

not p r e p a r e d to

acknowledge

that that duty had c e a s e d ; there

had crept

that a s

s h o u l d he in his

It i s years the

been

easy

not

to

see

considered

seek

has

feeling

some

why

recompense

The Duke's C h i l d r e n has s u c c e s s f u l than the

There

l a c k of one

him a

yet

love.?'*^'^

why

less

- but

half-conquered,

daughter's

Palliser series.

and the

over

he w a s

her

f r o m his m i n d .

is

no h e r o

led s o m e

other

over

the

novels

in

o f the t r a d i t i o n a l k i n d

c r i t i c s to m i s c o n s t r u e

the

whole

in

terms

book: 'In any c a s e , hero

of t h e

the

Duke

story,

boyish Silverbridge is

quite

of a s s u m i n g , , .

neither

sons so

c o u l d be

the

Since

daughter.

Isabel the i n spite

they

cannot

always

the

hero,

Mary Palliser,

role

of

heroine.,,

easily

of h e r o i n e '

slips

into