Dynamic Grid Connected And Stand Alone ...

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia

PREFACE Thanks to God Almighty this International Conference Proceeding could be completed. All articles in this proceeding are presented in 2nd Engineering International Conference with topic of Renewable Resource and Intelligent Technology – Concept, Education and Application on November 21st, 2013 at Pandanaran Hotel, Semarang. This Conference is organized by Technical Faculty, Semarang State University supported by Rector of Semarang State University as one of program from Technical Faculty to achieve UNNES’ vision and mission to be one of international campus. Topics in this proceeding cover engineering areas which study concept, education and its application in areas of mechanical, electrical, civil and building, service and production and chemical engineering. We are grateful for all participation and cooperation provided by all parties to make this International Conference happens. Especially to all authors who have trust in our editor to make this conference as media for information exchange, communication and discussion to develop science and technology alongside with improved learning methodology. Some of articles covering energy, natural resource and environmental friendly processes in this proceeding have been approved to be published in International Journal administered by PetroTex Publication. We do hope this proceeding will be beneficial to development of research and study in areas of science and technology as well as its learning methodology. We are expecting feedback and suggestion for improvement related to publication, article admission, conference and related processes to improve proceeding quality in the future. Thank you. Hopefully this publication of proceeding will be profitable for all of us

Regards

Committee of Engineering International Conference

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COMMITTEE Organizing committee

Scientific Committee

Dr. Megawati, S.T., M.T.

Prof. Dr. Fathur Rokhman M.Hum

Dr. Subiyanto, S.T., M.T.

Prof. Azah Mohamed

Sita Nurmasitah, S.S., M.Hum.

Prof. Murk Bottema

Pudji Astuti S.Pd., M.Pd.

Prof. Jason Yu

Arief Arfriandi, S.T., M.Eng.

Drs. Muhammad Harlanu, M.Pd.

Alfa Faridh Suni, S.T., M.T.

Drs. Djoko Adi Widodo, M.T.

Aryo Baskoro Utomo, S.T., M.T.

Ir. Siti Fathonah, M.Kes.

Rizqi Fitri Naryanto S.T., M.Eng.

Drs. Supraptono, M.Pd. Dr. Eko Supraptono, M.Pd. Feddy Setio Pribadi, S.Pd., M.T. Alfa Narendra, S.T., M.T. Budi Sunarko, S.T., M.T. Ratna Dewi kusumaningtyas, S.T., M.T. Agus Nugroho, S.Pd.

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INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATION COLLABORATION Petrotex Society’s committee gives a chance for the selected papers of this conference articles that focus on energy, environmental issues and chemical engineering fields (Air Pollution and Climate Change

Interactions;

Environmental Analyses and Monitoring;

Environmental Change;

Environmental Economics & Politics; Environmental Engineering; Environmental Ethics; Environmental Impact; Environmental Management, Policy & Planning; Environmental Microbiology; Economics of Environmental Management; Environmental Science; Environmental Studies; Aquatic Biology and Ecology; Assessment of Risks and Interactions of Pollutants in the Environment; Atmospheric Chemistry; Climatology; Conservation Biology and Sustainable Agriculture; Earth Science; Indoor/Urban Air Pollution and Control; Pollution and Waste Management; Sustainable Development of Environment and Ecosystem; Air Resources; Agriculture Resources; Conserve Resources and Reduce Pollution; Fishery Resources; Forest Resources; Human Resources; Management of Resources; Non-renewable Resources; Resource Productivity Improvement; Renewable Resources; Resource Extraction and Waste Generation; Soil; Water Resources) to be published in Petrotex journals (http://www.petrotex.us). ISSN (Print Version): 2326-6570; ISSN (Online Version): 2326-6589; DOI Prefix: 10.14266/ajoct; ISSN (Print Version): 2328-1383; DOI Prefix: 10.14266. Petrotex Publication Group is now indexed in most of the world’s valid and precious databases and libraries. The journals are directly under supervision of U.S. Congress Library. Petrotex Publication Group is joining to Thomson Reuter’s evaluation committee. Thomson Reuters is an organization where ISI impact factors are assigned to journals every year.

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CONTENTS Cover Preface Committee Contents International Publication Collaboration Article I Renewable Energy Development In Malaysia And Grid Interconnection Issues Prof. Azah Mohamed

I-1 – I-16

Textons And Predicting Breast Cancer Risk Prof. Murk Bottema

I-17 – I-21

Evolutionary Network Modeling For Efficien Engineering Optimzation Prof. Jyh-Cheng Yu

Article II

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I-21 – I-29

II-1 – II-253


LIST OF ARTICLES II Authors

Title

Mustofa, Yuli Asmi Rahman, Muchsin and Rustan Hatib

A New Copper Tube Configuration of Solar Water Heating Collector: Single and Double Cover Glazing

Sunyoto, Kriswanto and Dwi Ardiyanto Effendy

Boiler Design On Tahu Industries For Steam Heating System Using Catia V5

Page II-1 – II-4

II-5 – II-9

Iron Sand as Renewable Resource for Toto Rusianto, M. Waziz Wildan, Kamsul Abraha and Production Kusmono Magnetic Nano Particles Materials

II-10 – II-14

Wirawan Sumbodo, Joko Widodo, Samsudi and Pardjono

Developing Mechanical Industry by Partnership with Vocational High School

II-15 – II-20

Khairul Muhajir

Effect of The Use of Fuel LPG Gas and Pertamax on Exhaust Gas Emissions of Matic Motorcycle

II-21 – II-25

Kriswanto, Haryadi, Joga Dharma Setiawan and Jamari

Analysis of Radial Force and Rotational Speed Test of Radial Permanent Magnetic Bearing for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Applications

II-26 – II-30

Heri Yudiono

Management Model of Vocational High School Graduate Competency Synchronization Based DUDI for Machining Skill Program

II-31 – II-34

Nur Rohman Arif

IVS-C (Integrated Vehicle Security Concept) as Solution of Vehicle Theft in Indonesia

II-35 – II-38

Abdurrahman, Samsudi and Joko Widodo

Preparing Manpower of Automotive Industry

Kriswanto and Sunyoto

Finite Element Analysis Of Pressure Cooker

II-45 – II-49

Samsudi

The Implementation of Productive Program Learning of Vocational High School for the Development of Graduates Enterpreneurship

II-50 – II-52

Luthfiyah Nurlaela and Choirul Anna Nur Afifah

Analysis of Factors Causing Food Insecurity in Probolinggo District

II-53 – II-56

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by Competency Test

II-39 – II-44


Authors

Title

Page

Sri Susilogati Sumarti

The Training Management of Designing Life Skill and Chemo-Entrepreneurship Based Learning to Chemistry Teachers of Senior High School in Semarang

II-57 – II-61

Sicilia Sawitri

The Utilization of Fabric Wastes as Row Material in the New Small Business

II-62 – II-65

Choirul Anna Nur Afifah, Veni Indrawati and Setya Chendra Wibawa

Development of Reproductive and Nutrition Education Online (Internet-based) for Adolescents

II-66 – II-69

The Effect of Pedagogical and Personality Competences toward the Lecturers' Siti Fathonah, Haris Abdullah and Wahyuningsih Performance in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes

II-70 – II-74

Ratna Sulistyani Purwanita, Pudji Astuti and Asih Kuswardinah

II-75 – II-77

Agus Siswanto and Safrizal

Breadfruit (Artocarpus Altilis) Flour Egg Roll by Adding Different Amount of Tapioca Flour Analysis of Drop Voltage and Losses in 20 kV Distribution System Using Distribution

II-78 – II-81

Generation Biomass Plant Andriana, Zulkarnain and Barmawi

Speech Recognition System Base on Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) and Hidden Markov Model (HMM) Using Matlab for Speaker Identification

II-82 – II-86

Henning Titi Ciptaningtyas and Ilham Kusdi

Plagiarism Detection On Learning Management Systems (LMS) Moodle Using Winnowing Algorithm

II-87 – II-91

Supeno Djanali, FX. Arunanto, Baskoro Adi Pratomo and Hudan Studiawan

Honeypot in Raspberry Pi Cluster for Analyzing Attacker Behaviour

II-92 – II-95

Budi Sunarko, Simon Williams, William R. Prescott, Murk J. Bottema and Scott M. Byker5

Comparative Study of Two Methods for Blood Cell Segmentation

II-96 – II-100

Arif Widiyatmoko and Sita Nurmasitah

Designing Simple Technology as a Science Teaching Aids from Used Materials

II-101 – II-104

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Authors

Title

Page

Farid Arafat Azidin and Mahammad Abdul Hannan

A dSPACE Test Bench Model of Multi-energy Sources for Light Electric Vehicles

II-105 – II-109

M. Andang Novianta, Emy Setyaningsih, Arie Noor Rakhmanand MS. and Hendriyawan A.

Earthquake Datalogger Using Vibration and Local ULF Geomagnetic Field Measurement

II-110 – II-114

Susetyo Bagas Bhaskoro

Cepstrum Parameters for Human Voice Recognition

II-115 – II-119

Subiyanto and Djoko Adi Widodo

Dynamic Grid Connected And Stand Alone Photovoltaic Systems Model Using Matlab

II-120 – II-125

Sarwi

Implementation of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowlegde (TPCK)to Improve the Problem Solving Skill on Waves Physics

II-126 – II-130

Said Sunardiyo, Arief Arfriandi and Ubaidillah Siroj

Implementation of Disaster Mitigation Information System Based Local Wisdom Central Java

II-131 – II-134

Andang Widjaja and Nuroji Bambang Endroyo and Bambang E. Yuwono

External Lips Channel at the Bottom of Concrete Beam Local Materials In Central Java For The Concrete Construction

II-135 – II-140

II-141 – II-144

Edy Sriyono

Water Taking Formula Through Porous Pipe Below Ground Level

II-145 – II-149

Nurmi Frida Dorintan Bertua P.

Perception of Community Based Environmental Settlement Impact of Liquid Waste Processing Industry Tahu on Scale Household with System Constructed Wetland

II-150 – II-153

Yeri Sutopo, Budi Wignyosukarto, Istiarto and Bambang Yulistyanto

Self Air Entrainment in Supercritical Flow in Steep Channels

II-154 – II-158

Yuliarti Kusumawardaningsih and Endah Kanti Pangestuti

Precast Concrete Technology

II-159 – II-162

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Authors Ardiana Rachmi Nafidah, Youngky Reynaldi Yusuf and Wendha Asbet Swandita

Title

Page

Analysis of End-of-life Vehicle Recycle A Case of End-of-life Vehicle due to Accident in Malang

II-163 – II-165

Nurhayati Aritonang

The Right Alternative Cropping Patterns To Overcome Water Shortage in Cangi Irrigation Area - Lepud, Mengwi - Bali

II-166 – II-169

Agus Wiyono

Development of Vocational High School Based On Excellent Regional (Case Study; Gresik Regency)

II-170 – II-173

Megawati, Prima Astuti Handayani and Wahyudi Budi Sediawan

Extraction of P. cubeba Essential Oil by Microwave Assisted Hydrodistillation: Modeling and Process Optimization

II-174 – II-178

Kenny Lischer, I.K.E. Savitri, M. Sahlan, Anondho Wijanarko, Aroem Naroeni and Fera Ibrahim

Analysis of Maluku Phospolipase A2 Acanthaster planci Activity in Human Immunodeficiency Virus by ReverseTranscriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

II-179 – II-182

Prima Astuti Handayani, Wara Dyah Pita Rengga, Megawati and

The Optimation of Synthetic Indigo Dye Using Phospat Acid Catalyst

II-183 – II-186

N. Wijayati, H. D. Pranowo, Jumina and Triyono

Turpentine Oil Hydration Using Trichloroacetic Acid As Catalyst

II-187 – II-189

Pudji Astuti and Asriningtyas Ajeng Erprihana

Antimicrobial Edible Film

Kusdianto

from Banana Peels as Food Packaging

II-190 – II-192

Rif’ah Amalia, Suprapto, Ali Altway and Susianto

Kinetics of Carbon Dioxide Absorption into Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Solution Promoted by N-Methyldiethanolamine and Diethanolamine Mixture

II-193 – II-197

Achmad Wildan, Indah Hartati and Widayat

Process of Extracting Oil From Solid Waste Rubber Seed with Microwave-assisted Extraction

II-198 – II-200

Sukamta, Slamet Hani, Hary Development of Downdraft Biomass Wibowo, Anak Agung Putra Gasification System for Multi Biomass Susastriawan Feedstock eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

II-201 – II-203


Authors

Title

Page

Indah Riwayati, Indah Hartati, Suwardiyono and Helmy Purwanto

Optimization Variables Process of Adsorption Lead and Cadmium Using Xanthated Coffe Pulp

II-204 – II-207

Saidah Altway, Era Restu Finalis, Sholichatun and Kuswandi

CO2 Solubility in Aqueous Solution of Potassium Carbonate Promoted with MDEA and The Correlation Using E-NRTL Model

II-208 – II-213

Supriyono, Argoto Mahayana and Giuliano Dragone Melnikov

Esterification of Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate As a Feedstock of Biodiesel Production

II-214 – II-216

Awang Bono, NurAbidah Ramlan, Norina Yadin, Farm Yan Yan and Chu Chi Ming

Monolayer Interpretation of Adsorption Isotherm of Non Azeotropic Solution onto Porous Adsorbents

II-217 – II-221

Laeli Kurniasari, Indah Hartati and Nur Satik

Acid Demethylation of Banana Peel Pectin to Produce Low Methoxyl Pectin

II-222 – II-225

Indah Hartati, Laeli Kurniasari and Yance Anas

The Application of Response Surface Methology in Hydrotropic Microwave Assisted Extraction of Andrographolide

II-226 – II-230

Maria Ulfa, Wega Trisunaryanti, Bambang Setiaji and Triyono

Effect of Beating on Coir Handsheet Properties

II-231 – II-235

Marcha Zella Syaftiani, Urip wahyuningsih and Rodia Syamwil

Electric Pen Canting Innovation

II-236 – II-239

Sri Endah Wahyuningsih, Muh Fakhrihun Na’am, Urip Wahyuningsih and Trisnani Widowati

Fashion Complementary Product From Furniture Waste in Study of Aesthetics and Conservation

II-240 – II-244

Rodia Syamwil

Recycling Model of Wasted Wax from Batik Liquid Waste

II-245 – II-249

Satriana FMS and Agus Wiyono

Development of Geographic Information System (GIS) for Evaluation Trace New Rail Road (Reinforcement Village Sidoarjo to Pasuruan Digger Mountain Station)

II-250 – II-253

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Article I

PROCEEDING 2nd ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “Renewable Resource and Intelligent Technology” Concept, Education and Application

2013


2nd Engineering International Conference 21st Nov 2013

Presentation Outline —

RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA AND GRID INTERCONNECTION ISSUES

— — — —

Prof Azah Mohamed Department of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Global Energy Scenario Malaysian Policies Related to Sustainable Energy Renewable Energy Development in Malaysia Renewable Energy Grid Interconnection Issues – Distributed Generation Malaysian Guideline On Grid Interconnection PV System To LV & MV Networks

Energy Outlook: World Primary Energy Demand 6 000

Oil 5 000

GLOBAL ENERGY SCENARIO Mtoe

4 000

Natural gas Coal

3 000

Other renewables

2 000

Nuclear power

1 000

Hydro power 0 1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

Global energy demand rises with fossil fuels account for more than 80% of the growth in energy demand between now and 2030

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I-1


Change in Power Generation 2010-2035

Benefits of RE come at a Cost – Global RE Subsidies

Malaysia Green Technology Policy 2009

MALAYSIAN POLICIES RELATED TO SUSTAINABLE RENEWABLE ENERGY

Main Objectives of the Green Technology Policy: — — — —

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Energy – To promote efficient energy utilisation Environment – To conserve and minimise the impact of human activities on the environment Economy – To enhance the national economic development through the use of new technology Social – To improve the quality of life for all

I-2


National Policy on Climate Change 2009 Objectives: §

§

§

Mainstreaming climate change through wise management of resources and enhanced environmental conservation Integrate responses into national policies, plans and programmes to strengthen resilience of development from potential impacts of climate change Strengthening institutional & implementation capacity to harness opportunities to reduce negative impacts of climate change

Malaysian National RE Policy and Action Plan 2010 To enhance the utilisation of renewable energy resources to contribute towards national electricity supply security and sustainable socio-economic development Objectives: Ø To increase RE contribution in the national power generation mix Ø To facilitate the growth of RE Industry Ø To ensure reasonable RE generation costs Ø To conserve the environment for future generation Ø To enhance awareness on the role and importance of RE

Renewable Energy Act 2011 RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

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I-3


RE DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

Annual RE Quota 2011- 2014

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I-4


FiT Implementation in Malaysia

E-FIT Online System is Available for Application To Sell Power

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Feed-In Approval and Feed-in Tariff Rules 2011

No. of Approved Applications for FiT

I-5


Approved Capacities (as of Oct 2012)

Examples of Grid-Connected PV Applications in Malaysia

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I-6


RENEWABLE ENERGY GRID INTERCONNECTION ISSUES – DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Integration of RE into the utility grid present many challenges and issues that must be carefully analysed

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I-7


Evolution of the Distribution System

Distributed Generation Technologies —

— — —

Radial in nature Supplied through a main source Limited number of loads

• Increased loading • Increased distortion: due to

Distributed Generation:

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Reciprocating engines Gas turbines Micro-turbines Fuel cells Photovoltaic panels Wind turbines CHP configuration

non-linear and sensitive loads, and power quality problems arise • More RE based DG near consumers • Local energy storage

§

Batteries Flywheels § Super capacitors §

Energy storage plays an important role in RE based DG and are usually installed with DG to overcome the uncertainty and Intermittency of RE generation

30

29

Benefits of Distributed Generation

• Energy Storage

Power Electronic Dominated Distribution Systems

§ Voltage support § Loss reduction § Deferments of new or upgraded T&D infrastructure § DG units can be used as backup supply to improve utility system reliability

Source: KEMA

In the current distribution systems, power electronic controllers and devices are widely installed.

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32

I-8


Balancing Issue - How Much Local Generation Can A Distribution System Accept ?

Issues Related to Integration of RE Based DG

Distribution system was never built for local power injection, only top-down power delivery Electrical power balance, anytime, in any system: Electricity produced - system losses = electricity consumed – storage

—

Balancing — Power Quality — Voltage Control — Protection — Economic — Safety —

—

—

—

Due to the intermittent output from RE based DG, imbalances may increase. DG % To overcome balancing issue, manage fast reactive local power and procure spinning reserves. t

34

Impact of Wind Turbine on Power Quality

Power Quality Issue SUB SUB

—

—

Power Quality Problems:

◦ Bidirectional power flows in which power flow is no longer unidirectional ◦ Distorted voltage profile ◦ Vanishing stabilizing inertia ◦ More harmonic distortion, harmonic resonance ◦ More voltage unbalance

1

2

101 101

102 102

201 201

202 202

301 301

401 401

103 103

104 104

203 203

302 302

402 402

105 105

204 204

106 106

205 205

303 303

403 403

404 404

107 107

206 206

108 108

207 207

304 304

405 405

406 406

109

111 111

110 110

208 208

305 305

407

408

409

Technological solution:

◦ Power electronics may be configured to enhance PQ using custom power devices ◦ Optimal placement of DG to minimize THD and voltage deviation ◦ Management of power quality by customize quality and reliability level 35

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Interconnection of wind turbine pose many challenges due to intermittent nature of the wind which may cause voltage variation and 36 voltage flicker.

I-9


Voltage Control Issue —

Solutions to Voltage Control Issue

Problem: ◦ Generators are NOT dispatched in principle

—

Solutions: ◦ Higher level of control required to coordinate balancing, grid parameters ? ◦ Advanced control technologies

—

Future technologies, under investigation ◦ Distributed stability control at power electronic front-ends ◦ Scheduling local load and production, by setting up a micro-exchange ◦ Alternative networks, go DC ?

– Weather-driven (many renewables) – Heat-demand driven (CHP)

Low load or high DG production may result in overvoltage - Disconnection of DG during high load can cause undervoltages. - Reconnection of DG under low load may cause overvoltages.

-

37

Protection Issue —

—

38

Impact of DGs on Protection Relays

Problem:

◦ Power system is designed for topdown power flow ◦ Local source contributes to the high fault currents in case of fault ◦ Power flows may be reversed when a DG is connected and this could alter coordination of protection relays. ◦ Unintentional islanding due to unintended opening of autoreclosers during a fault

Solution: ◦ New active protection system necessary ◦ New protection coordination method by determining downstream and upstream paths leading to the DG units

G

Location of Faults

With only DG1

All faults

With only DG2

G

With only DG3

39

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Situation of Network

Effects • Increased in fault currents

Line 1

• Fault in line 1 is not isolated by R1. (DG2 feeds fault current)

Line 2

• If R2 does not trip, R1 cannot provide backup protection for line 2.

Line 3

• If R3 and R2 do not trip, R1 cannot provide backup protection for line 3.

Line 1

• Fault in line 1 is not isolated. (DG3 feeds fault current)

Line 2

• Fault in line 2 is not isolated. (DG3 feeds fault current)

Line 3

• If R3 does not trip, R2 and R1 cannot provide backup protection for line 3.

40

I - 10


Economic issues —

MALAYSIAN GUIDELINE on GRID INTERCONNECTION PV SYSTEM to LV & MV NETWORKS

Problems:

◦ Pay-back uncertain in liberalized market – ‘Chaotic’ green and efficient power production – Reliability or PQ enhancement difficult to quantify

◦ System costs – More complicated system operation – Local units offer ‘ancillary services’

◦ System losses generally increase ◦ Who pays for technological adaptations in the grid ?

• Solution: §

Need some real ‘deregulation’

The main objective is to provide guidance on the requirements of PV interconnection to the utility distribution network, to allow the PV system to perform as expected while not compromising safety or operational issues.

41

CONNECTION of PV SYSTEM to LV & MV NETWORKS – Voltage Levels

Allowable Voltage Operating Range of PV Systems

PV Systems connected to TNB Low Voltage Distribution Network through : i) 230 V - Single Phase ii) 400 V - Three Phase PV Systems connected to TNB Medium Voltage Distribution Network through: i) 11 kV ii) 22 kV iii) 33 kV

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I - 11


Harmonic Limits of PV Systems

DC Injection Limit The PV system shall not inject DC current greater than 1% of the rated inverter output current into the utility interface under any operating condition.

Setting of Plant Power Factor

For LV, Interconnection of PV System is by Direct or Indirect Connection Example of direct connection through a circuit breaker (CB)

Flicker Limit

•Directly through circuit breakers: • Relatively simple and inexpensive • Slow (3 to 6 cycles to achieve a complete disconnection).

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I - 12


Interconnection Methods for MV Network

PV Penetration Level at LV

The interconnection feeder is an important part in the system where the interlocking scheme is performed to control the sequence of operation between TNB and RE side.

PV Penetration Level at MV

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Protection Guidelines – Synchronisation and Normalisation

I - 13


Protection Guidelines – Protection Interfacing Requirements

Requirements for the Design of the Protection Scheme – Islanding Protection

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Protection Interfacing Requirement Interlocking and Synchronization

RE Connection Scheme

I - 14


RE Feeding Methods

PV Direct Connection Scheme for LV

PV Indirect Connection Scheme for LV

PV Connection at PE for MV

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I - 15


PV Connection at PE for MV (11 kV)

IEEE Standard 1547 – Specifying Various

PV Connection at PMU for MV (33 kV)

Conclusion

Aspects Grid Interconnection With DG —

§ IEEE Std 1547.1 “IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.” § EEE Std 1547.2 “IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547™, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.” § IEEE Std 1547.3 “IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power Systems.” § IEEE Std 1547.4 “IEEE Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems.” § IEEE Std 1547.6 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems Distribution Secondary Networks.”

— —

— —

RE has become important for electricity power generation RE development in Malaysia and policies towards RE. Major concerns in interconnection of RE generation systems at the distribution level are balancing, voltage control, power quality and protection. Important to develop guideline for interconnection of RE generation systems. The Malaysian guideline on grid interconnection of PV SYSTEM to LV & MV networks are discussed with respect to operating voltage, harmonic limits, PV protection and PV connection procedures.

64

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I - 16


Textons and Predicting Breast Cancer Risk Murk J. Bottema, Simon Williams and Xizhao Li School of Computer Science, Engineering and Mathematics Flinders University Bedford Park, SA, Australia [email protected]

Abstract—An overview of textons for characterizing image texture is presented. A survey of recent work on extending the idea of textons and using these extensions to estimate the risk of breast cancer from screening mammograms serves to illustrate applications of these methods. Index Terms—textons, texture analysis, breast cancer risk,

I. I NTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the use of automatic texture analysis in addressing a medical problem. More specifically, the method of textons for characterizing texture is presented along with variations such as textons without filterbanks and higher-order textons. Recent results on using textons to estimate the risk of breast cancer from screening mammograms are included to demonstrate an application of these methods. A. Breast Cancer Risk The incidence of breast cancer is very high in many western countries. In Australia, for example, about 1 in 8 women will encounter breast cancer in their lifetime [4]. Incidence in Asia is lower [28] but is increasing. Many countries have implemented breast cancer screening programs based on mammogramography (x-rays). The main use of screening mammograms is to decide if the woman has signs of breast cancer. If so, the woman is called back for further tests to verify the presence of breast cancer. Screening programs are expensive, inconvenient and, since x-rays are involved, carry some risk. Many programs recommend regular screening visits every year and some recommend visits every two years. In fact, the ideal frequency depends on the woman. Women who are at high risk of developing breast cancer should be screened more often and women who are at low risk should be screened less often. Screening strategies based on individuals’ risk are more effective and are less expensive to run. Accordingly, accurate estimates breast cancer risk for individual women is important. Many risk factors are known: age, diet, alcohol consumption, socioeconomic group, age at menarche, age at menopause, etc. [22]. Here we are interested in additional information regarding risk present in screening mammograms. Breast density is a well established risk factor and methods for automatically measuring density from screening mammograms have existed for some time [3]. In addition to density, texture patterns in breast tissue have long been thought to contribute risk information but quantifying texture is more elusive. Here, recent advances in

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characterizing texure patterns associated with breast cancer risk are described. B. Computational Texture Analysis Image analysis refers to the process of automatically extracting information from images. Typical tasks include motion detection, object recognition, object classification, estimating the number of objects and characterizing objects. Applications are in areas such as surveillance - to identify an intruder, for example; defense - to detect enemy aircraft, computer vision for scene understanding; security for face recognition; postal services for handwriting recognition; medicine for screening, diagnostic and disease monitoring tasks and a great many more. Recognition and characterization of objects in images often relies on color, shape, brightness and context. For many classes of images, texture is important too and in some cases, is the only way to distinguish objects (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Texture images: Grass, grass and tree bark. These images provide no context or shape information, but are recognizable by texture.

For this reason, the image analysis community has developed a number of methods for characterizing texture. Examples include run length statistics [6], features based on cooccurrence matrices [8], spectral methods, [13], [17], fractals [18], [12], and wavelets [31],[14]. II. T EXTONS A relatively recent idea is to characterize texture according to patterns of frequently occurring texture primitives, called textons. The idea of textons was introduced by Julesz in 1981 [11] but took on its current form (described below) about 20 years later [5], [15], [30]. A. Basic Textons Let X 0 denote an image or a collection of images (the reason for the superscript will become clear in subsequent

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia sections). Let h1 , h2 , . . . , hn denote a set of filters (a filterbank) and let fj denote the output of applying filter j to X 0 . Thus f j = hj ⋆ X 0 , where ⋆ denotes convolution. Usually the hj are zero-sum filters so that for a pixel p ∈ X, fj (p) may be interpreted as a measure of how much the image X 0 looks like the template hj in the neighborhood of pixel p. The collection of filter outputs at a pixel p ∈ X 0 are arranged as a vector of length n called the feature vector associated with p, vp = (f1 (p), f2 (p), . . . , fn (p)). The vectors vp over all pixels in X 0 are viewed as points in an n-dimensional feature space, F . In the case that X 0 represents a collection of images, the feature vectors associated with the pixels in all the images form a single feature space. The next step is to identify clusters in F . Any clustering method may be used. Popular methods include K-means clustering or ensemble K-means [9],[27] and fuzzy C-means [2] but other methods such as Gaussian mixture models could be used too. In any event, the result of the clustering step is a set of k clusters T1 , T2 , . . . , Tk . These clusters are the textons. If K-means clustering is used, then a texton is specified by the cluster center Tr = (tr,1 , tr,2 , . . . , tr,n ) and so consists of a point in F . If, for example, Gaussian mixtures are used to determine clusters, then each cluster is specified by its center and variances; Tr = (tr,1 , tr,2 , . . . , tr,n , σr,1 , σr,2 , . . . , σr,n ). Once textons are established, every pixel in every image is replaced by the label of one of the textons. In the case of K-means clustering, the pixel p ∈ Xi is labeled according to the texton closest to the feature vector associated with p in F . The resulting image of texton labels is called the texton map, X 1 . Thus X 1 (p) = r if kvp − Tr k ≤ kvp − Ts |, s ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}. In the case of Gaussian mixture clustering, the pixel p is labeled according to the most likely texton. Thus X 1 (p) = r if Prob(Tr |v(p)) ≥ Prob(Ts |v(p)), s ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}. If the proportion of pixels in X 1 associated with texton Ts is denoted by ds , then the distribution of texton labels comprising X 1 is Dist(X 1 ) = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dk ). This distribution is the texton representation of X 0 . Images are classified based on the k components comprising Dist(X 1 ). B. N × N Neighborhood Textons In 2004, Varma and Zisserman developed a notion of textons that avoids filterbanks altogether [29]. The feature vector vp was based solely on the image intensities of the neighboring pixels. Thus if q1 , q2 , . . . , qN 2 −1 are the N 2 − 1 elements in the N × N patch centered at p in X 0 , then vp = (X 0 (q1 ), X 0 (q2 ), . . . , X 0 (qN 2 −1 )). The clustering step and the construction of the texton map and subsequent representation of the image are unchanged. This

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will be called the N × N neighborhood texton. From one point of view, this method for generating the feature vector associated with p is not new at all. If hj is an N × N filter consisting of all zeros except a single value 1 at one location, then fj (p) = hj ⋆X 0 (p) = X 0 (qj ) for the jth neighbor qj of p. So the N ×N texton is really just an ordinary texton. However, Varma and Zisserman showed that using N ×N neighborhood textons results in classification performance as good or better than textons based on standard filterbanks [29]. In addition, several studies have shown that 3 × 3 neighborhoods work as well or better than N × N for larger N [29],[7],[25], [21]. The fact that image intensities over a 3 × 3 neighborhood of a pixel suffice to provide texture information comparable to information provided by outputs of many filterbanks may be surprising. A possible explanation is that a 3×3 neighborhood suffices to estimate all first and second order partial derivatives of the image intensity surface at p. By Taylor’s theorem, this means that the local intensity surface may be approximated by a second order polynomial. Hence 3 × 3 neighborhood textons may be seen as providing a local quadratic characterization of the image. Feature vectors based on 3 × 3 neighborhoods are very easy to obtain (no arithmetic required) and lead to a small dimensional (8-dimensional) features spaces for the clustering step. Hence this method is also attractive from a computational point of view. C. Higher-Order Textons Recently, a notion of higher-order textons was proposed [20]. For an image or collection of images, X 0 , first-order textons are just basic textons (Section II-A). Second-order textons are textons computed on X 1 , the texton map of X 0 , and are used to create the second-order texton map, X 2 . Third order textons are textons computed on second-order texton maps and so on. This is simple, but there is a catch. Texton maps are arrays of labels - each label represents a texton. Arithmetic operations are not valid on labels. For example, if the labels are 1, 2, . . . , 8, then the sum of labels 3 and 6 is not a label and neither is the average. Even if these non-label values are accepted, the results will dependent on the order of the labeling of the textons. Accordingly, higher-order textons are well defined only if neither the method for generating feature vectors nor the method for clustering involve arithmetic of labels. The first of these conditions for avoiding arithmetic is solved by using N × N textons instead of standard filterbanks. One method for satisfying the second condition is as follows. For a pixel p in the first-order texton map X 1 construct the histogram of texton labels in the N × N neighborhood of p. Thus each pixel is represented by a vector of length k, where k is the number of first-order textons. Arithmetic is perfectly valid on the components of these vectors and so any clustering method is valid to determine second-order texons. D. Example Consider the two binary images, both comprising vertical stripes and having the same number of pixels with value 1

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia (Fig. 2 a, b). The two images are specified by patterns of ones and zeros repeated M times along the horizontal direction: X 0 = [0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1] a

Y 0 = [0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0]. c

e

The second-order feature vector at pixel p is taken to be the histogram of first-order textons over the neighborhood of length three centered at p in the first order-texton map. Thus the feature vectors are of the form X fi2 (p), vp = (f12 (p), f22 (p), f32 (p)), 3= i

fi2 (p)

where is the number of times texton Ti1 appears in the neighborhood of p. With three first-order textons, there are 10 possible feature vectors (1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1), (1, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 2), (3, 0, 0), (0, 3, 0), (0, 0, 3). b

d

f

Only four of these actually appear as feature vectors in the two first-order texton maps. These four are taken as the secondorder textons: T12 = (1, 1, 1), T22 = (2, 1, 0), T32 = (2, 0, 1), T42 = (3, 0, 0). The resulting second-order texton maps are repeats of the following patterns (Fig. 2 e, f). X 2 = [1 1 1 2 2 4 3 3 1], X0

Fig. 2. Higher-order texton example. (a) and (b) are two binary images and Y 0 . (c) and (d) are the first-order texton maps X 1 and Y 1 . (e) and (f) are the second-order texton maps X 2 and Y 2 .

To keep the example simple (and because there is no information in the vertical direction) feature vectors will consist of only two components: at pixel p, vp = (f11 (p), f21 (p)) where f11 (p) is the image value to the left of p and f21 (p) is the image value to the right of p. Since the images are binary and very simple, there are only four possible feature vectors, (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1). The features spaces for X 0 and Y 0 are the same: 1 f21 0

2A 0 5A 2A 0 1 f11

Here A = M R where R is the number of rows in the image. The values in the table represent the total number of occurrences, neglecting edge effects. Since the feature space is very simple, clustering does not really make sense, but a reasonable choice is to assign three first-order textons as T11 = (0, 0), T21 = (1, 0), T31 = (0, 1). The resulting first-order texton maps (Fig. 2 c, d) are defined by the horizontal patterns X 1 = [2 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1],

Y 1 = [1 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 2].

The distributions of first-order textons for the two images are the same: T11 T21 T31 1 dist(X ) 5/9 2/9 2/9 dist(Y 1 ) 5/9 2/9 2/9 Thus these first-order textons do not distinguish these two images.

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Y 2 = [2 3 3 1 2 1 3 1 2].

The distributions of second-order textons in the second-order texton maps are T12 T22 T32 T42 Dist(X ) 4/9 2/9 2/9 1/9 Dist(Y 2 ) 1/3 1/3 1/3 0 2

Thus second-order textons do distinguish the two images. III. A PPLICATION

TO BREAST CANCER RISK ASSESSMENT

There are two inherent problems in conducting studies on risk assessment. First, there is no method for knowing the true risk of cancer and so it is not possible to train an algorithm perfectly. In some breast cancer risk studies, BIRADS classes are used to indicate risk [26], [24]. BI-RADS classes are subjective expert judgement of visual appearance of mammograms and are known to correlate to breast cancer risk [1]. Of course, this correlation is not perfect and so using BI-RADS classes to assign the true risk state leads to some mis-training. Other studies have used genetic disposition to breast cancer as the criterion for risk [10], [16] but this correlation is not perfect either. In the studies reviewed below, breast cancer risk is considered high if cancer was verified and risk is considered low if no cancer was found. These criteria are slightly more direct, but are still not the same as knowing actual risk. Some women without cancer during the study period may develop cancer afterwards and some of the cancer cases in the study might be women whose risk was very low. The second difficulty is that any measure of the contribution of texture to assessing risk must be separated from the contribution of density. Although many texture extraction methods automatically subtract local background intensity, this may not be enough to remove density information. This is because most image acquisition systems are not linear: a small anomaly superimposed on dense tissue does not result in the same intensity change as the same anomaly superimposed on

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia fatty tissue. For this reason, a normalization process [19] was used in these studies to remove the local background mean and variation (Fig. 3 b).

a

b

to determine what regions of the breast are most important for estimating risk based on texture [21]. This study used 160 CC (cranial caudal - top view) images of normal breasts of women found to have cancer in the other breast to serve as high risk examples and 160 CC view images of breasts from women found not to have cancer at screening to serve as low risk examples. Half the images in each group were used for training and the other half for testing. The images were further separated into the four BI-RADS classes. Six regions or combinations of breast regions were considered separately. For each region, 5 basic textons (first-order only) based on N × N neighborhood intensities were found using K-means clustering for each BI-RADS class resulting 20 textons per region. The study was repeated with N = 3, N = 5, and N = 7. The results were that of all the individual regions of the breast, the region just behind the nipple provided the best classification performance, Az = 0.702. (Az is the area under the ROC curve [23]. Az = 1 means perfect classification, Az = 0.5 is guessing.) However, textures measured on the full breast provided the best performance overall, Az = 0.763. This is a convenient result because this means that future methods need not include processing steps to identify the optimal local region of the breast. This study also confirmed that using N > 3 has no particular advantage over using N = 3. This is also convenient as computations with N = 3 are the easiest. B. Oriented tissue structure textons In the same study discussed above, a second type of texton was tested. Gabor filters in ten different orientation, were used to identify tissue structures at different orientations. A threshold was used to obtain separate isolated oriented components. The feature vectors comprised characteristics of these components (orientation, area, location) rather than characteristics of local intensity values. Textons found by cluster analysis in the resulting feature space are examples of textons that do not fit the basic filter bank construction described in Section II-A. These textons were included because changes in oriented tissue characteristics were expected to provide better prediction of breast cancer risk than intensities on 3 × 3 neighborhoods. However, this was not the case - for the full breast, the Az was 0.625 compared to 0.763 for the 3 × 3 neighborhood textons.

c

d

Fig. 3. Example of mammogram. (a) Original image with inset showing detail at about 1 cm2 ; (b) the normalized image; (c) the first-order texton map, (d) the second-order texton map.

A. Risk by breast region The region just behind the nipple is often the densest region of the breast and is therefore thought to be the most important for assessing risk based on density. In order to determine if the same holds for texture measures, a study was performed

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C. Risk using higher order textons The data described in Section III-A was used to compare classification performance using higher-order textons to firstorder (basic) textons only [20]. Twenty first-order textons were computed for the full breast as described above and 20 second-order textons were computed based on the first-order texton maps (Fig. 3 c, d). Finally, 20 third order-textons were computed based on the second-order texton maps. On their own, second and third-order textons did not perform as well as first-order textons. However, the combination of first and second-order textons raised the performance from Az = 0.763 to Az = 0.775. Combining first, second and third-order textons

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia did not improve the performance and neither did any other combination of textons. D. A temporal study The studies described above separate high risk and low risk according to mammograms from the current screening round (current risk). This means that the criterion for cancer risk is really that cancer is present in the other breast. A more meaningful criterion for risk would be based on screening mammograms from visits in years prior to the screening round in which cancer is detected. Such a project is much more difficult because a sequence of mammograms over several years must be collected for all women in the study. A database of 200 temporal sequences of mammograms has been obtained from the archives of BreastScreen SA to conduct a study on estimating risk of cancer two and four years in advance. Results of the study have not yet been published, but initial indications are that combining higher-order textons and sequential feature selection results in two- and four-year estimates of risk roughly as accurate as estimates based on current risk. In addition, it seems that estimates of cancer risk do not depend on the measurements made on the breast in which cancer will later appear or the contralateral breast. This implies that biological changes preliminary to cancer are not restricted to the cancer breast. IV. C ONCLUSION The studies described above are the among first to incorporate modern versions of textons in assessing breast cancer risk. Higher-order texton have not been examined in any setting other than the one described here. There are ample opportunities to explore these methods, develop further extensions and try other applications. R EFERENCES [1] American College of Radiology, Reston. American College of Radiology (ACR) Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System Atlas (BI-RADS), third edition, 2003. [2] J. C. Bezdek. Pattern Recognition with Fuzzy Objective Function Algorithms. Plenum Press, New York, 1973. [3] N. F. Boyd, R. A. Jong, E. K. Fishell, L. E. Little, A. B. Miller, G. A. Lockwood, D. L. Tritchler, and M. J. Yaffe. Quatitative classification of mammographic densities and breast cancer risk: Results from the Canadian National Breast Screening Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 87(9):670–675, 1995. [4] Canberra:AIHW. Breast cancer in australia an overview. Technical Report Cancer series no. 71, Australia Institute of Health and Welfare and Cancer Australia, 2012. Cat. no. CAN67. [5] O. G. Cula and K. J. Dana. 3d texture recognition using bidirectional feature histograms. International Journal of Computer Vision, 59:2004, August 2004. [6] M. M. Galloway. Texture analysis using gray level run lengths. Computer Graphics and Image Proceesing, 4:172–179, June 1975. [7] Y-C Gong and S. Petroudi. Texture based mammogram classification and segmentation. In M. Brady S. M. Astley, C. Rose, and R. Zwiggelaar, editors, Digital Mammography 8th International Workshop, IWDM 2006, Manchester, volume 4046 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 616–625. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006. [8] R. M. Haralick, K. Shanmugam, and I. Dinstein. Texture features for image classification. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 3(6):610–621, 1973. [9] T. K. Ho. The random subspace method for constructing decision forests. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE Transactions on, 20(8):832–844, Aug 1998.

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[10] Z-M Huo, M. L. Giger, O. L. Olopade, D. E. Wolverton, B. L. Weber, CE Metz, W. Zhong, and S. A. Cummings. Computerized analysis of digitized mammograms of brca1 and brca2 gene multation carriers. Radiology, 225(2):519–526, Nov 2002. [11] B. Julesz. Textons, the elements of texture perception, and their interactions. Nature, 290(290):91–97, May 1981. [12] J. M. Keller, S. Chen, and R. M. Crownover. Texture description and segmentation through fractal geometry. Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, 45:150–166, Feb 1989. [13] P. Khuwuthyakorn, A. Robles-Kelly, and Jun Zhou. An affine invariant hyperspectral texture descriptor based upon heavy-tailed distributions and fourier analysis. In Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops, 2009. CVPR Workshops 2009. IEEE Computer Society Conference on, pages 112–119, 2009. [14] T. S. Lee. Image representation using 2d gabor wavelets. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 18(10):959– 971, 1996. [15] T. Leung and J. Malik. Representing and recognizing the visual appearance of materials using three-dimensional textons. International Journal of Computer Vision, 43(1):29–44, 2001. [16] H. Li, M. L. Giger, Z-M Huo, O. I. Olopade, L. Lan, B. L. Weber, and L. Bonta. Computerized analysis of mammographic parenchymal patterns for assessing breast cancer risk: Effect of roi size and location. Medical Physics, 31(3):549–555, 2004. [17] H. Li, M. L. Giger, O. I. Olopade, and M. R. Chinander. Power spectral analysis of mammographic parenchymal patterns for breast cancer risk assessment. Journal of Digital Imaging, 21(2):145–152, June 2008. [18] H. Li, K. J. R. Liu, and S-C B. Lo. Fractal modeling and segmentation for the enhancement of microcalcifications in digital mammograms. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, 16(6):785–798, 1997. [19] X-Z Li, S. Williams, and M. J. Bottema. Intensity independent texture analysis in screening mammograms. In A. D. A. Maidment, P. R. Bakic, and S. Gavenonis, editors, Breast Imaging, volume 7361 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 474–481. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. [20] X-Z Li, S. Williams, and M. J. Bottema. Constructing and applying higher-order textons: Estimating breast cancer risk. Pattern Recognition, To appear. [21] X-Z Li, S. Williams, and M. J. Bottema. Texture and region dependent breast cancer risk assessment from screening mammograms. Pattern Recognition Letters, To appear. [22] K. McPherson, C. M. Steel, and J. M. Dixon. ABC of breast diseases: Breast cancer-epidemiology, risk factors, and genetics. British Medical Journal, 321(7261):624–628, 2000. [23] C. E. Metz. Basic principles of roc analysis. Seminars in nuclear medicine, 8(4):283–298, Oct 1978. [24] S. Petroudi and M. Brady. Breast density segmentation using texture. In S. M. Astley, M. Brady, C. Rose, and R. Zwiggelaar, editors, Digital Mammography, volume 4046 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 609–615. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006. [25] S. Petroudi and M. Brady. Breast density characterization using texton distributions. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society,EMBC, 2011 Annual International Conference of the IEEE, pages 5004–5007, 2011. [26] S. Petroudi, T. Kadir, and M. Brady. Automatic classification of mammographic parenchymal patterns: a statistical approach. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE, volume 1, pages 798–801, Sep 2003. [27] R. Polikar. Ensemble based systems in decision making. Circuits Systems Magazine, IEEE, 6(3):21–45, 2006. [28] Cancer Research UK. Breast cancer incidence and mortality statistics worldwide, 2011. [29] M. Varma and A. Zisserman. Texture classification: Are filter banks necessary? In Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2003. Proceedings. 2003 IEEE Computer Society Conference on, volume 2, pages 691–698, Jun 2003. [30] M. Varma and A. Zisserman. A statistical approach to texure classification from single images. Int. Jour. Computer Vision, 62:61–81, 2005. [31] D. Wei, H-P. Chan, M. A. Halvie, B. Sahiner, N. Petrick, D. D. Adler, and M. M. Goodsitt. Classification of mass and normal breast tissue on digital mammograms: Multiresolution texture analysis. Medical Physics, 22(9):1501–1513, 1995.

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Evolutionary Network Modeling for Efficient Engineering Optimization Jyh-Cheng Yu Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan, R.O.C. [email protected]

Abstract—This study presents a soft computing based optimization methodology, the evolutionary regional neural network modeling for engineering applications with sampling constraints. Engineering optimization often involves expensive experiment costs. Intelligent optimization advocates establishing a neural network model using small training samples such as orthogonal array to set up a surrogate model for the engineering system followed by an optimum search in the model to reduce optimization cost. However, scarce training samples might compromise modeling generality for a complex problem. Based on the analysis of the prediction accuracy of a simulated model, reliable predictions are likely restricted to the neighboring space of the training samples, and interpolating designs are more reliable than extrapolating designs. To avoid imperfection of model due to small learning samples, an evolutionary regional network model is set up to confine the search of quasi-optimum using genetic algorithm. The constrained search in the regional network model could provide a reliable quasi-optimum. The verification of the optimum is added to the learning samples to retrain the regional network model while the size and the distribution of reliable space will evolve intelligently during the optimization iteration using a fuzzy inference according to the prediction accuracy. Instead of a dense distribution of training data to increase the global prediction accuracy, the design iteration will provide additional samples in the most probable regions of the design optimum, and thus increase the sampling efficiency. Two engineering case studies: the parameter optimization of the injection molding of light guide plates and the optimal die gap parison programming of extrusion blow molding process for a uniform thickness are presented and compared with conventional approaches to demonstrate the robustness and efficiency of the proposed methodology. Keywords- Neural Network; Genetic Algorithm; Fuzzy Logics; Evolutionary Optimization; Surrogate Model, Light Guide; Injection Molding, Extrusion Blow Molding

I.

INTRODUCTION

Cost constraints in engineering optimization often impose a limit on the number of samples that could be actual experiments or time consuming numerical simulations. Taguchi’s method [1] is well known for its efficiency and simplicity in parameter design. Inspired from statistical factorial experiments, Taguchi’s method features orthogonal arrays (OAs) and analysis of mean (ANOM) to estimate the effects of design variables. Use of orthogonal arrays helps reducing the number of experiments; however, the optimum prediction is sensitive to the selection of parameter ranges and

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possible interaction effects. Also, the restriction of parameter values to factorial levels reduces possibilities of exploring better designs between preset levels. An artificial neural network (ANN)[2] model could be established from a set of training data as a surrogate model to predict system responses. Instead of a direct interaction with the real system, the optimum search is applied to the surrogate model to increase the searching quality and reduce the experimental cost. The combinations of a simulated neural network and evolutionary optimization [3], such as Genetic Algorithms (GA), have thus attracted much research attention [4][5]. The size and the distribution of training data are essential to the prediction accuracy of a simulated network model. The training samples are usually existed field data or planned experiments such as Taguchi’s orthogonal arrays (OA). However, possible bias distribution of field data will decrease the prediction accuracy of simulated models. Though OA experiments provide a smaller and even sample distribution, scarce training data might result in the lack of model generality for a complex problem. Also, because ANN is mainly based on fitting methods to learning data, the prediction reliability will be related to the distance between the point of interest and the nearest learning sample [6] and the estimation error of the learning sample [7]. This study proposes a novel optimization methodology based the iterative constrained search in the evolutionary regional network model that is defined as the union of the neighboring space of the training sample. The regional model will evolve intelligently based on the fuzzy inference of the prediction accuracy. Two engineering case studies are presented to demonstrate the robustness and efficiency of the proposed scheme. II.

REGIONAL NEURAL NETWORK MODEL FROM LIMITED TRAINING SAMPLES

A. Generality of ANN model The number and the distribution of training data are essential to the prediction accuracy of a simulated neural network. If the distribution of training data is biased or the number of samples is not sufficient, the generality of the trained network will be in jeopardy, which affect the prediction accuracy of optimum. Taguchi’s orthogonal array is often used as the initial training samples to reduce the number

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia of experiments. e H However, thee small numb ber of experim ment will also cause low w generality of o trained netw work.

For F the exampple of the Peakks function ass shown in (1)), the theoretical contouur plot is higghly non-lineaar and includdes 3 peak ks and 2 vallleys and flatttens out grad dually outsidee the rang ge shown in Fig.1(a). Fig. 1(b) is a simulated s netw work mod del from 9 ranndom learning samples and 4 testing sam mples. The simulated m model shows a rough profiile of the ori ginal funcction, but siggnificant erroors present especially e forr the pred diction fartherr away from training t samplles. Increasingg the num mber of samplees is a simplee solution, bu ut will raise a cost conccern. z  3(1  x ) 2 e  x

2

 ( y 1) 2

2 2 2 2 1 x  10(  x 3  y 5 )e  x  y  e ( x 1)  y 5 3

(a)

(b)

Fig gure 1. Contour pllots of the Peaks ffunction (a) theorretical plot (b) sample contour plo ot of the ANN moodel from 13 train ning samples

(1)

B. Regional R Neurral Network Model M Empirical E rulees for the preddiction accuraacy of a simuulated mod del from limiteed training sam mples suggest: (1) The predictioon accuracy is worse forr a design faarther away from thhe training sam mples. (2) The predictioon accuracy of an interp polation desiggn is better than ann extrapolationn designs. Here, H the Saampling Disttance, rij, iss proposed aas a neighboring indexx between a predictive deesign, Pi, andd the samp ple Sj, which iis defined as the t mean Eucllid distance: 1 n 2 rij    Pik  S jk  n  k 1 





Fig gure 2. Schematic c reliable regions of a two-dimensional example wiith 5 learningg samples.

0.5

(2)

wherre n represennts the numbeer of variablees. To prevennt the scaliing problem, continuous variables v xk arre first normaalized to zk to transform m all the dimeensional entriies of the traiining samp ples into the space of [-1, +1]. For disccrete variabless, the facto orial values arre assigned eqqually spaced between b -1 annd +1. As A the predicctive errors of the training g samples wiill be conttrolled to an aacceptable level, the neighb boring space oof the train ning samples is likely as reeliable as the training sam mples. The reliable regioon is defined as a hyper-sp phere centeredd at a train ning samplee. To diffferentiate in nterpolating and extraapolating desiigns, the Sam mpling Enclosu ure Space (SE ES) is defin ned as a leaast convex hyper-polyhed h ron enclosingg all train ning samples. Two parameeters: the Reliiable Interpolating Radiius (RI) and the Reliable Extrapolating g Radius (RE) are prop posed to definne the reliablee regions of a simulated m model (Figu ure 2). The reliable reggions outsidee and insidee the Sam mpling Enclosuure Space (SE ES) are defined d by hyper-sphheres with h radius RE annd hyper-spheeres with radiu us RI respectiively. Becaause the interpolating deesigns have better prediiction accu uracy than exttrapolating deesigns, RE is often o smaller than RI. The T determinaation of the reeliable radii will w depend onn the mod del complexityy and prediction accuracy, and is a key issue in th he following sstudy. Howevver the determ mination of RE and RI will w be an impoortant issue.

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Learning saamples Searching samples s Test samplees

Figure F 3. The re eliable regions (R RI = 0.3, RE = 0.2) of a simulate ed networrk model

III.

EVOLU UTIONARY OPT TIMIZATION US SING REGIONA AL NEURAL N ETWORK

Optimization A. Flowchart F of Evolutionary E The T searching flowchart of the proposed optimizzation scheeme, Evolutio onary Regionaal Neural netw work with Geenetic Algo orithm, (ERN NGA), is shoown in Figurre 4. A simuulated netw work model is establishedd from the initial training data. The proposed sch heme confinees the GA seaarch to the relliable regions of the network n moddel for a qu uasi-optimum. The reliaable regions are a the union oof the hyper-sspheres defineed by the RI and the RE surrounnding the trraining data. The verification of thee quasi-optim mum provided by the GA search is in ntroduced to retrain r the neeural network k and to adjusst the

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia reliable radii using a fuzzy inference. The reliable regions of the simulated network will then continue to evolve from the accumulation of training samples and self-learning mechanism of the reliable radii. The optimum search iterates until the convergence of optimum.

Training Samples

Simulation Model

Initial Training Samples

Testing

Verification Experiments

B. Fuzzy Inference for the Reliable Radii The selections of RI and RE depend on the model generality. The verification of the regional optimum will become a feedback mechanism to adjust the Reliable Radii based on the following fuzzy concepts. If the verification result is close to the model prediction, increase the Reliable Radii to expand the reliable regions; otherwise, decrease the Reliable Radii. This section proposes a heuristics based fuzzy inference to intelligently evolve the Regional Neural Network Model as Table 1.

Objective Reliable Radius

Fuzzy Inference

2 3 4 5 6

Verification Experiment No

MEI 

(3) RMSETest where Yj is the model prediction, Tj is the verification result of the quasi-optimum at iteration j, and RMSETest is the root mean squared error of the testing samples. The adjustment factors from the fuzzy inference are used to modify the reliable radii as shown in Eq. (4) and (5) for the next iteration, and dynamically adjust the reliable regions.

(RI)i+1 = AFi × (RI)i (RE)i+1 = AFe × (RE)i

(4) (5) Therefore, the searched result will be less sensitive to the imperfection of the trained model. If the verification result is good, the reliable regions will expand in the next iteration to investigate more possible regions; otherwise, the reliable region will retract for a more conservative search.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Convergence Yes

End

Figure 4.Optimization flowchart of ERNGA. μ 1.0

Small

1

| Yj  Tj |

Regional Neural Network

Model Quasi-Optimum

If Extrapolation and MEI is [Small] then [Slightly Increase] RE and [Increase] RI If Extrapolation and MEI is [Medium] then [Maintain] RE and [Slightly Increase] RI If Extrapolation and MEI is [Large] then [Slightly decrease] RE and [Maintain] RI If Interpolation and MEI is [Small] then [Maintain] RE and [Slightly increase] RI If Interpolation and MEI is [Medium] then [Maintain] RE and [Slightly decrease] RI If Interpolation and MEI is [Large] then [Slightly decrease] RE and [Decrease] RI

Three linguistic levels are defined to describe the condition variable of prediction error: Large, Medium, and Small based on the Modeling Error Index, (MEI) in Eq.(3). Five action levels are defined to describe the Adjustment Factor (AF) for the Reliable Radii: Increase, Slightly Increase, Maintain, Slightly Decrease, and Decrease. Standard triangle membership functions are applied to define the fuzzy variables as illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

Constraints

Genetic Algorithm

Table 1 Fuzzy Inference Rules of Reliable Radii 1

Neural Network

Learning

Medium

3

Large

5

MEI

Figure 5. Membership functions of the condition levels of MEI. μ 1.0

Decrease

0.8

Slightly decrease

Maintain

Slightly increase

0.9

1.0

1.1

Increase

1.2

Adjust Factor

Figure 6. Membership functions of the action levels of the adjusting factor.

C. Optimum Search of the Peaks Function Optimization of the Peaks function in (1) is used to illustrate the applications of ERNGA. L9 OA is selected for the learning samples, and L4 OA is selected for the testing samples in the initial investigating ranges of x, y  [ 2,2] for the Peaks function. Figure 7 show that the iterations converge smoothly to the theoretical optimum with relative error of 0.7% at 24th iteration although the accuracy of the initial NN model is poor due to a bad distribution in the flat region for initial samples. As the addition of the learning samples from the searched optima and the self-learning mechanism of the reliable regions, the accuracy of the simulated model improves, especially in the most probable regions of the global optimum as shown in Figure 8. ERNGA will congregate additional samples in the most probable regions of the design optimum without wasting costly experimental resources in unlikely regions.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia If I the constraaint of the relliable regionss is relieved aas in conv vention intelliigent optimizzation, GA will w assume gllobal accu uracy, and seaarch for the deesign with the best fitness bbased on the t model pprediction in the investigating range. The pred diction accuraccy of the optim mum is poor because b of thee lack of generality for tthe network model. m Althou ugh the best rresult of th he iteration is happened to be close to th he global optim mum with h the relative error of 1.6% %, the iteration n is very unsstable and shows no connvergence tenddency in 45 itterations as shhown in Figure 9. The search result is very sensiitive to the gglobal accu uracy. Also, uunlike ERNGA A, additional samples from m the iteraation of conveentional NN annd GA may sccatter all overr, and are thus t less efficiient.

A continuous discrepancy presents betw ween the preddicted optim mum and the verified resullts for the con nventional NN N and GA iteration duue to the ovver-confidence on the g lobal accu uracy of the simulated moodels. On thee other handd, the fuzzzy inference off reliable radiii in ERNGA constrains thee GA searcch and proovides a reliable r quassi-optimum. The evolutionary regioonal network model expan nds intelligenttly to the most m probablee regions of gllobal optimum m.

Figure 77. ERNGA iteratiion for the Peaks problem Initial learniing samples  Initial testing samples s optima  Iteration of searched 

gure 9. Conventio onal NN and GA iteration using fo or the Peaks probblem Fig

IV. OPTIMIZ ZATION OF EXT TRUSION BLOW W MOLDING A. Parision P Prog graming for Ex Extrusion Blow w Molding Extrusion E blo ow molding is a low co ost manufactturing proccess for comp plex hollow parts [8] wh hich involves four proccesses: parison n extrusion, m mold clamping g, parison inflaation, and part solidificaation. First, th the parison ex xtrusion produuces a molten thermoplaastic tube from m the die. Th he parison shaape is deteermined by th , and he die geomettry, die gap programming p flow w rate. To control the paarison thickn ness over tim me, a man ndrel is moved d in and out to the die as in Figure 10. The parison profile caan be controllled by manipu ulating the diee gap open ning over tim me. The parisoon is clamped and high-preessure air is blown into o it to obtainn the hollow part. The design d objeective of the parison p prograamming is to control c the diee gap open nings to obtain n a uniform thhickness of thee blown part [9]. [ The T programm ming points aare the die gaap openings of o the parison in the exttruder specifieed as a functio on of time. Foor the gas tank made off high density polyethylene (HDPE) show wn in Figu ure 11, the diee gap openinggs at 13 discreete extrusion tiimes: P(t1) ~ P(t13) are identified as the design vaariables. The finite elem ment tool, BlowSim B deveeloped by National N Reseearch Cou uncil of Canad da is applied too simulate parrison extrusionn and blow w molding pro ocesses to obttain the thickn ness distribution of the inflated i part [10]. B. Objective O Fun nction The T design ob bjective is to target a unifo orm part thickkness of 5 mm. Any deviation d from m the on-target thicknesss will impose a quality y loss. To rreach this go oal, the objeective funcction is defineed as the meaan squared dev viation of thee wall thick kness, n

 h  T 

2

i

Figu ure 8. The contouur plot of the simuulated model and the distribution oof the searched optimaa using ERNGA

Ob bjective 

(6)

i 1

n

wheere hi stands for f the thicknness of node i, T for the target t thick kness, and n for the tootal number of nodes off the simu ulation modeel. The param meter design searches forr the optimum with a minimum m objeective.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

I - 25

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia 0% % open

100% op pen Die

Mandrel

Parison Parison prog gramming

% die open in function of time

Figure 10. Control oof the parison thicckness using the parison p programm ming

The fitness function adopts thee negation of th he objective inn (6) pred dicted from the simulated m model. C. Iteration I for Design D Optimuum The T extrusion n blow moldiing using thee parameter of o the prov vided quasi op ptimum is connducted to verrify the repliccation quallity, which is later introduuced to the leearning samplles to retraain the modeel. The self-llearning mecchanism from m this fuzzzy inference of reliable radii dynamically adjustss the reliaable regions. Therefore, thhe searched result r will bee less senssitive to the imperfectionn of the train ned model. If the verification resultt is good, thee reliable regio ons will expaand in the next iteratio on to investtigate more possible reggions; otheerwise, the reliable regiion will retrract for a more consservative search. The evoluution and the optimum o searrch of the Regional Neu ural Network iterate until the convergennce of the optimum. Th he iteration hiistory of ERN NGA is show wn in Figu ure 12. Table 2. L36 oorthogonal array A L36

(aa)

(bb) Fig gure 11. Extrusionn blow molding of o the gas tank ex xample. (a) Exemp mplar programming ppoints of the parisson extrusion (b) the blown part.

The T die gap oopenings at 13 1 discrete ex xtrusion timess are seleccted as the ddesign variablees. The initiaal design adoppts a unifo form die gap oopening of 100% for first four f control ppoints and 20% for the rest. Taguchhi’s L36 ortho ogonal array as in Tablle 2 is selectedd as the initiaal training sam mples to reducce the num mber of experim ments. The L336 experimen nts are dividedd into two smaller orthoogonal arrays as a differentiatted by the shaade in Tablle 2. Eighteenn experimentss are used as learning sam mples and the others aare used as testing t samplles. There arre 15 neurrons in the hiddden layer. The T initial learrning rate is sset to 1.0 and a the initiall momentum term is set to o 0.5. The steeepest desccent method iss combined with learning saamples to trainn the weig ghted matrix among network units, thu us, increasingg the pred diction accuraccy of the neural network. Reall-parameter G Genetic Algoritthm (RGA) [1 11] is applied to searcch for the quaasi optimum of the regional network moddel. The GA parameteers used in thiss study are listted in Table 33.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

B

C

D

E

F

Pt1 Pt2 Ptt3 Pt4 Pt5 Pt6

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

Pt7 Pt8 Pt9 Pt10 0 Pt11 Pt12 Pt13 Obj. O

1

5

5

5

5

30

30

30

30

30

30

30

35

35

4.93

2

5

10

10 0

10

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

0.6 10

3

5

15

15 5

15

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

45

45

18.5

4

5

5

5

5

30

40

40

40

40

50

50

45

45

3.9 13

5

5

10

10 0

10

40

50

50

50

50

30

30

35

35

13 3.1

6

5

15

15 5

15

50

30

30

30

30

40

40

40

40

10 0.2

7

5

5

10 0

15

30

40

50

50

30

40

40

45

40

12 2.1

8

5

10

10 0

15

30

40

50

30

30

40

50

45

35

11.8

9

5

15

15 5

5

40

50

30

40

40

50

30

35

40

9.62

10

5

5

5

15

40

30

50

40

50

40

30

45

40

11.5

11

5

10

10 0

5

50

40

30

50

30

50

40

35

45

11.3

12

5

15

15 5

10

30

50

40

30

40

30

50

40

35

11.5

13

10

5

10 0

15

30

50

40

30

50

50

40

35

40

13 1

14

10

10

15 5

5

40

30

50

40

30

30

50

40

45

10 0.9

15

10

15

5

10

50

40

30

50

40

40

30

45

35

12 2.6

16

10

5

10 0

15

40

30

30

50

40

50

50

40

35

13 3.2

17

10

10

15 5

5

50

40

40

30

50

30

30

45

40

12 2.1

18

10

15

5

10

30

50

50

40

30

40

40

35

45

10 0.8

19

10

5

10 0

5

50

50

50

30

40

40

30

40

45

15 1

20

10

10

15 5

10

30

30

30

40

50

50

40

45

35

11.6

21

10

15

5

15

40

40

40

50

30

30

50

35

40

10 0.4

22

10

5

10 0

10

50

50

30

40

30

30

50

45

40

14 4.9

23

10

10

15 5

15

30

30

40

50

40

40

30

35

45

7.59

24

10

15

5

5

40

40

50

30

50

50

40

40

35

2.4 12

25

15

5

15 5

10

30

40

50

50

30

50

30

40

40

10 0.7

26

15

10

5

15

40

50

30

30

40

30

40

45

45

10 0.3

27

15

15

10 0

5

50

30

40

40

50

40

50

35

35

12 2.6

28

15

5

15 5

10

40

40

30

30

50

40

50

35

45

10 0.7

29

15

10

5

15

50

50

40

40

30

50

30

40

35

15.6

30

15

15

10 0

5

30

30

50

50

40

30

40

45

40

11.4

31

15

5

15 5

15

50

40

50

40

40

30

40

35

35

11.2

32

15

10

5

5

30

50

30

50

50

40

50

40

40

18.6

33

15

15

10 0

10

40

30

40

30

30

50

30

45

45

8.08

34

15

5

15 5

5

40

50

40

50

30

40

40

40

45

2.3 12

35

15

10

5

10

50

30

50

30

40

50

50

35

40

13 3.1

36 Initial I

15 10

15 10

10 0 10 0

15 10

30 40

40 40

30 40

40 40

50 40

30 40

30 40

40 40

45 40

8.63 11.5

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Table 3 Genetic Algorithm Parameters Population Pool selection Scale style Cross Mutation size style Over rate rate 37 Parent and Linear 0.75 0.1 offspring scale

Max iteration 100

14

Objective

12 10

 1 m 1 n  S / N  10  log10     y ij2     m i 1 n j 1     

8 6 4

3.42

2 1

2

3

4 Iteration

5

6

7

Figure 12. Iteration history of the gas tank example using ERNGA

D. Comparison of Results Table 4 Comparison of various optima

Mean Standard Deviation Objective

V.

as illustrated in Table I. The control factors include injection speed, packing pressure, packing time, mold temperature, cooling rate, and mold surface temperature. Five LGP samples are randomly selected from each treatment. The replication errors of feature height are measured at nine positions as indicated in Figure 13 using a KLA-Tencor alpha-step surface profiler. Taguchi’s smaller-the-better signal-to-noise ratio [14] is used as the quality index as (7).

Initial Design 7.40

Taguchi’s 6.17

ERNGA’s 5.63

2.39

2.25

1.74

11.48

6.44

3.42

OPTIMIZATION OF THE REPLICATION OF INJECTION MOLDING LIGHT GUIDE

A. Injection Molding Light Guide Light guide plates (LGPs) are crucial optical components of the back light modules (BLMs) of thin film transistor liquid crystal displays (TFT-LCDs). V-grooves are typical microstructures to convert edge light sources, such as cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) and light emitting diodes (LEDs), into uniform planar light [12]. The replication rate of the injection molding of LGPs with micro features is often an issue due to slim designs of portable electronic devices. The molded LGP is 40×30 mm with the thickness of 0.68 mm. V-cuts of 90° and 10 µm wide are uniformly distributed atop as shown in Figure 13. Due to the complexity of induction heating and multi-scale mold flow simulation, no numerical simulation tool is available and actual molding experiments have to be conducted for parameter design to ensure replication quality. The time and cost involved are directly related to the number of experiments. Experimental design such as Taguchi’s method is often applied for parameter design [13]. However, the prediction of the optimal design is sensitive to the selection of factorial levels and interaction effects. The factorial design neglects the possibility of exploring better designs between preset levels. Though iteration of Taguchi’s experimental design with reduced parameter ranges could refine the optimum, the increased number of experiments posts a cost concern. The replication height of the v-cut is selected as the design objective. The experimental design uses L18 orthogonal array

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

(7)

where yij is the error of replicated height of the micro feature at the jth measurement position of the ith sample; m=5 is the number of samples; n=9 is the number of measurement position at each sample. From the effect plot of the L18, Taguchi’s parameter design identifies A2B1C1D2E2F1 as the optimum. B. Evolutionary Regional Neural Network A simulated network model is first established for the injection molding of LGP. Taguchi’s orthogonal array as in Table I is used as the initial training samples to reduce the number of experiments. A back propagation network (BPN) model consisted of a typical three-layer structure, namely, an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer, is established from the learning samples. Figure 14 shows the iteration results of the searched quasioptimum. Treatment No. 2 in the L18 orthogonal array is assumed to be the initial design. ERNGA reached the convergence criteria at iteration 12 where the predicted S/N also converges with the verified result for the search quasioptimum. The optimum S/N is 7.83 (dB) with the average replication error of 0.4 (μm) that corresponds to a replication ratio of 92%. The iteration result in Figure 14 shows a large discrepancy between the predicted and the verified results for first few searches due to limited learning samples. However, the differences gradually reduce after addition of the verified results to the learning samples and evolving of the regional network model.

10

5

Unit: μm

5 15 30

Figure 13. Microstructures and measurement positions on the LGP

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Table T 6 compaares the experrimental resultts of initial deesign, Tagu uchi’s optimuum and ERN NGA’s optimu um. With totaal 29 expeeriments after 11 iterative evolving e and search, the S//N of ERN NGA’s design is 7.83 (dB) which w outperfforms 4.87 (dB B) of the initial i design and 6.57 (dB B) of Taguch hi’s optimum. The averrage replicatedd feature heigght for ERNG GA’s design i s 4.6 (μm)) with a standdard deviation of 0.07 (μm), while the aveerage repliicated feature height for Taaguchi’s design n is 4.55 (μm)) and a larrger standard deviation of 0.13 0 (μm). Fig gure 15 illustr trated the distributions d oof all three deesigns if norm mal distributionns of repliication ratio are assum med. The scanning elecctron micrroscope (SEM M) photo in Figure 16 demonstratess the repliication qualityy of the optimuum design. Table 55. L18 Experimenntal Design and Response R F Exp. A B D C E g Mold No. Injection Holding Holding Mold Cooling time surface speed preessure temp. time (s) (mm/s) (kgff/cm2) (s) temp. (C) (C) 1 190 7000/400 8/5 80 40 150 2 190 6000/400 6/5 70 35 130 190 5000/400 4/5 3 60 30 110 180 7000/400 8/5 4 70 35 110 180 6000/400 6/5 5 60 30 150 180 5000/400 4/5 6 80 40 130 200 7000/400 6/5 7 80 30 130 200 6000/400 4/5 8 70 40 110 200 5000/400 8/5 9 60 35 150 190 7000/400 4/5 10 60 35 130 190 6000/400 8/5 11 80 30 110 190 5000/400 6/5 12 70 40 150 180 7000/400 6/5 13 60 40 110 180 6000/400 4/5 14 80 35 150 180 5000/400 8/5 15 70 30 130 200 7000/400 4/5 16 70 30 150 200 6000/400 8/5 17 60 40 130 200 5000/400 6/5 18 80 35 110

S/N (dB) 6.45 4.87 -7.89 3.00 4.71 6.18 5.89 -6.79 5.50 2.97 -2.70 5.28 -1.49 6.08 5.90 4.90 -3.33 -9.40

Figgure 14. Iteration result using ERN NGA

Table 6. Compaarison of designs Process parrameter

Initial Tagu uchi ERN NGA

A

B

C

D

E

F

190 180 197

600 700 686

6 8 7.4

70 70 80

35 35 33

130 1 150 1 150 1

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Error of Replicaated heighht Mean S/N (μm) (db) 4.87 0.53 6.57 0.45 7.83 0.40

35 Initial Taguchi ERNGA

Probability density

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 70%

% 75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

Replicated ratioo of feature height

Figu ure 15. Distributio ons of the averagee 9-point replicateed feature height of the LGP P’s from (a) initia al design (b) Taguuchi’s optimum (c) ERNGA’s optiimum

Figure e 16. SEM photoggraph of the mold ded LGP

VI.

CO ONCLUSIONS

The T integratiion of a sim mulated neurral network from sam mpling data folllowing by ann optimum search using geenetic algo orithm has sho own a promisiing tool in reaal life applicattions. How wever, if th he generalityy of predicttion accuraccy is com mpromised du ue to limitedd number orr possible biased b distrribution of traaining samplees, the iteratio on process maay be unsttable and inefficiency. Cer ertainly, a weell-trained nettwork will have better prediction aaccuracy and d thus reducee the num mber of iteration in the he optimum search, butt the optimization of the simulateed model is no guaranteee in engiineering appliications. The proposed evo olutionary reggional neurral network reduces thee sensitivity of the searrched optimum to the trained generaality of the neetwork model. The prop posed evoluttionary regioonal network k constrains the optimum search in i the reliablee space that ev volves intelliggently acco ording to the prediction acccuracy, and reaches a relliable optimum with much less iteration. ERNGA E provides addiitional samplees in the mosst probable regions to inccrease sam mpling efficieency, which is particulaarly importannt in engiineering app plications. T Two engineeering applicaations dem monstrate the effectivenesss of the proposed p schheme com mpared with Taguchi’s methhod and conveentional intellligent optimization. REFERRENCES [1].

G. Taguchi, “Performance Analy lysis Design.” Int. Journal of Prodduction 1978) 521-530. Research, 16 (1

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia [2]. [3]. [4]. [5].

[6]. [7].

J. S. Jang, C. T. Sun and E. Mizutani, Neuro-Fuzzy and Soft Computing: a computational approach to learning and machine intelligence, Prentice-Hall, 1997. D.B. Fogel, “An Introduction to Simulated Evolutionary Optimization”, IEEE transductions on Neural Networks, vol. 5, No. 1, 1994. H. Oktem, T. Erzurumlu, and F. Erzincanli, “Prediction of minimum surface roughness in end milling mold parts using neural network and genetic algorithm,” Materials and Design, v 27, 735–744, 2006. S. Sette, L. Boullart, and L. V. Langenhove, “Optimising a Production Process by a Neural Network/Genetic Algorithm Approach,” Engineering Applications in Artificial Intelligence. Vol. 9, No. 6, 681589, 1996. J. Yu, X. Chen, T.R. Hung and F. Thibault, “Optimization of Extrusion Blow Molding Processes Using Soft Computing and Taguchi Method”, Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 15, (2004), 625-634. T. Hanai, N. Iwata, T. Furuhashi, H. Honda and T. Kobayashi, “Proposal of Reliability Index in Search for Reliable Solution of Reverse Calculation Based on Fuzzy Neural Network Modeling”, Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan, Vol. 37, No. 4, 523-530, 2004.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[8]. [9].

[10]. [11]. [12]. [13].

[14].

D. Rosato and D. Rosato, Blow Molding Handbook, Hanser Publisher, Munich, 1989. R. W. Diraddo and A. Garcia-Rejon, “On-Line Prediction of Final Part Dimensions in Blow Molding: A Neural Network Computing Approach”, Polymer Engineering and Science, Vol. 33, No. 11, 1993, pp.653-664. BlowSim, 6.0, Industrial Materials Institute, National Research Council Canada 1999. J. Ronkkonen, S. Kukkonen, and K. V. Price, "Real-Parameter Optimization with Differential Evolution," IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation, Vol. 1, 2005, pp. 506-513. J. Yu and P.-K.Hsu, “Integration of Stamper Fabrication and Design Optimization of LCD Light Guides Using Silicon-based Microfeatures”, Microsystem Technologies, Vol. 16, Issue 7, 2010, pp. 1193-1200. M.-S. Huang, J. Yu, Y.-C. Lin, “Effect of Rapid Mold Surface Inducting Heating on the Replication Ability of Microinjection Molding Light-guided Plates with V-grooved Microfeatures”, J. of Applied Polymer Science. Vol. 118, Issue 5, 2010, pp. 3058-3065. G. Taguchi, “Performance Analysis Design.” Int. Journal of Production Research, 16, 1978, pp. 521-530.

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Article II

PROCEEDING 2nd ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “Renewable Resource and Intelligent Technology” Concept, Education and Application

2013


A New Copper Tube Configuration of Solar Water Heating Collector: Single and Double Cover Glazing Mustofa1, Yuli Asmi Rahman2, Muchsin3 and Rustan Hatib4 Mechanical Engineering Department1,3,4, Electrical Engineering Department2 UNTAD Palu, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—A new tube configuration of solar domestic hot water collector is presented. It takes combination between parallel and serpentine configuration within one-single collector which is made from wood. Copper tubes ½” are set-up with single and double cover glazing (SIDOCI) in which the single glazing covers the parallel tubes and double copper tube covering the serpentine ones. Sinusoidal wave plate is placed under the tube parallel configuration, while the serpentine tube is above flat plate absorber in black paint in order to maximize heat transfer during the sunshine. Testing was carried out at outdoor Mechanical Engineering laboratory under bright and clear weather with around 700 W/m2 solar intensity. Active (using pump) and passive water flow (thermosiphon) are experimentally conducted at 2 difference of mass flow rates. As a result, collector performance of the active system is better than the passive one within bigger mass flow rate, namely 0.111 and 0.031 (ltr/s) respectively. This trend is reverse in the passive system. Overall, the active collector is better performance than the active one. Keywords-SIDOCI; sinusoidal plate

serpentine-paralel

tube;

parallel tubes collector configuration. In addition to that, above flat-plate absorber is located the serpentine tube, while the sinusoidal wave is under the parallel tube configuration. Single glazing covers the parallel tube and double glazed for the serpentine configuration tube. It is called SIDOCI in Figure 1. Disassembly line of this collector can be shown in Figure 3.Single tube parallel, either serpentine or parallel tube has been done by researchers [4]. Also, double glazing for small reservoir capacity (2.5 liter) for thermosiphon system as did by [3], even without cover glazing. It is serpentine configuration. In fact, serial combination between the two tube configuration, both serpentine and parallel tubes, even single and double cover glazing in one single SWH collector has not been yet published. Therefore, this research is proposed.

flat-

I. INTRODUCTION Solar water heater (SWH) is the most popular means of solar energy application due to feasibility and economic attraction. Mostly, research on thermosiphon water heating system [1] & [2] that uses a parallel configuration collector tube and / or serpentine has been done at this time [6]. Thermosiphon system [5] & [7] has advantages without the aid of a pump to circulate the water in the collector, ease to maintain and install, and no need big space. It works with the principle of natural convection. Some research indicates that the above tube collector absorber flat-plate efficiency is higher than under the absorber plate. Likewise pipes were located in between the heat sink plate. Most solar water heater collector testing using a flat plate and partly with the sinusoidal wave plate and no one combination between flat-plate and wave sinusoidal in serial combination in one single box collector. Thus, this research aims of comparing passive and active SWH for the same and different mass flow rates in serial combination of a new serpentine and BOPTN UNTAD Palu 2013

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 1.

Serpentine-parallel tube configuration of SWH

Figure 2. Disassembly of SIDOCI SWH

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia From Figure 2 shows the number of parts to assembly the SWH. They are glass cover, copper tube, glass wool, triplex, flat-plate and wave sinusoidal plate absorbers and box collector from wood. Details are performed in part II of this paper. The various parameters which is associated with the SWH collector is as follows: The instantaneous efficiency is given by

Qu i

i 

I s Ac

(1)

While the useful heat gain from the flat-plate of serpentine tube system is

Qus  Aps S  U l Aps (T ps  Ta )

(2a)

For sinusoidal-plate of parallel tube system is

Qup  App S  U l App (T pp  Ta )

(2b)

The useful gain from the riser temperature is 

qu  m C p T

(3)

While the instantaneous efficiency of the SIDOCI collector is the ratio between output and input power of the tubes configuration as follows:

 

qu I s Ac

idea to create combinations and the results are quite high collector efficiency. Subsequently prototype of the collector box wood base 150x85x10 cm beam size and triplex 3 mm, flat plate and wave 1 mm in black paint Acrylic Lacquer Black Metallic as a heat sink plate. Copper absorber pipe sizes from ½” along approximately 17 m above the position in the plate, insulator sponge 3 cm thick and 3 mm plywood. Copper routes have the highest thermal conductivity. Collector box mounted on iron frame with a slope 20o facing north with observations starting at 9.30am till 3 pm on clear weather conditions at outdoor Mechanical Engineering laboratory of the University Tadulako Palu. The water tank volume of 110 kg made of fiberglass with the observation procedure begins by noting water in the reservoir with thermo-gun / digital and installation of thermocouples in 5 locations, i.e. before entering the collector, output serpentine tube or as input parallel tube and output temperature in parallel tube using thermocouples type-K. Ambient temperature is measured with a mercury thermometer as well as the intensity of the sun with Solarimeter TENMARS which is recorded every 30 minutes. The collector design is depicted in Fig 3. Mass flow rates of the collectors are 0.035 and 0.189 kg/s for active SHW system and 0.031 and 0.111 kg/s for thermosiphon/passive system.

(4)

For each tube configuration efficiency as follows: 

s 

m C p (Tos  Tis ) I s Acs

(4a)



p 

m C p (Top  Tip is ) I s Acp

(4b)

Thus, the total efficiency of the SHW collector is:

t   s   p

(5) Figure 3. Tested solar water heaters.

II. METHOD The initial step of this study is to review a journal article in terms of the configuration of the heat absorber pipes available today and found that there has been no new combination between serpentine and parallel, whereas the results showed that the serpentine tube configuration is more effectively used for solar heating of the morning till noon, while a parallel from noon till late afternoon to sunny conditions [6]. From here came the

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. SWH Passive System Figure 3 figures out the lower mass flow rate (0.035 kg/s) is better collector efficiency than of 0.189 kg/s. In other words, for the almost similar mass flow rate with the active system, the passive efficiency is less than the SHW active one.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Figure 6 indicates the tank temperature with time and range temperature between output and input on the collector. It shows, temperature in water tank tends to be constant from around 12.30 till 3pm along with higher T. T is temperature difference between output and input collector prior to entering the water reservoir.



Figure 4. Thermosiphon collector efficiency with two

m.

Figure 7. Variation of T and Ttank with time at



Figure 5. Water temperature in tank with

m 0.189 kg/s.

It is shown that water tank temperature during solar water heating is almost constant on 42oC. Compared with SWH active system in Figure 6, passive system is better than the active one in terms of long-lasting of hot water in the tank. B. SWH Active System Collector efficiency, on the contrary, is higher within bigger mass flow rate (0.111 kg/s) than that of 0.031 kg/s in SHW passive system. Also, the efficiency tends to be stable from noon till afternoon and higher tank as depicted in Figure 5 and 6, respectively.



m 0.111 kg/s.

C. Solar Intensity Based on data collected by solar radiation of 18 locations in Indonesia, the solar radiation in Indonesia can be classified as follows: for the western and eastern Indonesia with the distribution of radiation in the Western Regions of Indonesia (KBI) about 4.5 kWh/m2/day with monthly variation of approximately 10%, and in Eastern Indonesia (KTI) approximately 5.1 kWh/m2/day with approximately 9% of the monthly variation (EMR 2008). Continued the measurement data from 1991 to 1994, the Central Sulawesi categorized as the third largest in Indonesia after the District. Sumbawa (5,747 Wh/m2) and Jayapura (5,720 Wh/m2) in terms of the intensity of solar radiation, which amounted to 5,512 Wh/m2 [8] & [9]. This data, in fact, support for developing SHW in Palu as indicated in Figure 6.

Figure 8. Solar radiation with time.

Solar radiation in Palu is approximately 750 W/m2, even it rises till 800 W/m2 for clear and bright weather. It is fluctuated, but it is plateau at 12.30 till 3 pm. The fluctuation is caused by dust (scattering) and clouds (scattering and absorption). Figure 6. Efficiency of 2 mass flow rates with time heating.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Solar hot water collector with single cover glazing in parallel and double glazing in serpentine tubes has been made and also testing has been set-up. It is shown that the outlet temperature in parallel tube is approximately 90 oC on around 40oC in inlet temperature. This outlet temperature is higher than Afrizal’s prediction [10], it is only 82oC. SIDOCI collector efficiency yields an important design leading to advanced research and economic value in the future. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The financial assistance received from BOPTN Tadulako University, Palu in 2013 for carrying out this work is gratefully acknowledged. NOMENCLATURE i s p t Ac Aps App Cp Is Tps Tpp Ui

collector efficiency on tube configuration serpentine collector tube efficiency parallel collector tube efficiency total collector efficiency collector area serpentine collector area parallel collector area water specific heat solar radiation outlet serpentine temperature outlet parallel temperature heat losses coefficient

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

m2 m2 m2 J/kg oC W/m2 o C o C W/m2oC

U.C. Arunachala, “Performance Deterioration of Thermosiphon Solar Flat Plate Water Heater Due To Scaling” Engineering Journal, 2011, pp. 115-129. [2] S.V. Joshi, R.S. Bokil, J.K. Nayak, “Test Standards for thermosiphon-type solar domestic hot water system: review and experimental evaluation”, Solar Energy, vol. 78, 2005, pp.781798. [3] R. Oktova, S. Santoso, “Pengaruh Cacah Kaca Penutup Terhadap Kenaikan Suhu Maksimum Air Tandon Pada Kolektor Surya Plat Datar”. Berkala Fisika Indonesia, vol. 4, no. 1&2, Juli, 2012, pp. 33-42. [4] R. Tirtoatmodjo, E.A. Handoyo, “Unjuk Kerja Pemanas Air Jenis Kolektor Surya Plat Datar dengan Satu dan Dua Kaca Penutup”, Jurnal Teknik Mesin, vol. 1, no. 2, 1999, pp. 115-121. [5] R. Tang, Y. Cheng, M. Wu, Z. Li, Y. Yu, “Experimental and modelling studies on thermosiphon domestic solar water heaters with flat-plate collectors at clear nights”, Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 51, 2010, pp. 2548-2556. [6] E.A. Handoyo, “Perbandingan Konfigurasi Pipa Paralel dan Serpentine pada Unjuk Kerja Kolektor Surya Plat Datar”, Teknik Mesin UKI, vol. 2. No. 2, 2000. [7] H.B. Santoso, A. Harjatmo, A. Wulung, Suwidodo, “ Pembuatan Solar Collector Sistem Terbuka Dengan Alat Kontrol Berbasiskan Mikrokontroler ATMEGA 8535”, Seminar Nasional Aplikasi Sains dan Teknologi, Yogyakarta, 2008. [8] Anonymous, online available at http://www.kamase.org, accessed on 10 of October 2013. 2008a. unpublished. [9] Anonymous, online available at http://www.energiterbarukan.net, accessed on 10 of October 2013. 2008b. unpublished. [10] Afrizal, “Pengaruh Letak pipa pada Absorber terhadap Perfomance Pemanas Air Energi Surya”, Jurusan Teknik Mesin Uni. Syiah Kuala, unpublished. [1]

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Boiler Design On Tahu Industries For Steam Heating System Using Catia V5 Sunyoto1, Kriswanto2 and Dwi Ardiyanto Effendy3 Mechanical Engineering Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—The objective of this research are: 1) to design contruction of boiler tipe Vertical Fire Tube boiler to result 100 0C – 150 0C saturated steam temperature, 2) to design boiler with ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) of plan standart, 3) to determine the design and static analysis boiler with CATIA V5. The method used in this research is Research and Development with software. Boiler construction is designed with a standard ASME, the next boiler in software design and static analysis performed with boiler load and temperature are assumed to be the object of research using CATIA V5 software with emphasis on the subject of displacement and stress on boiler construction. These results get boiler specification 2 bar of operation steam presure and 6 bar of internal design presure. Boiler dimention are 757 mm of diameter, 2200 mm of high and on inside are 68 mm diameters of 21 fire tube. The fuel is wood. Maximal water volume to be used in boiler up to 327 liter. The material used are carbon steel SA 285 Grade C and pipe seamless carbon steel SA 53 Grade B. Analysis static of boiler to result 2.92 x 108 N/m2 of maximal strees, maximum displacement on the boiler contruction is 1.47 mm. Boiler contruction have 1.42 of safety value. Keywords-boiler; ASME; CATIA V5

I. INTRODUCTION The production process is an important process of an industry. Food industry, garment industry and other industries, rely on the equipment used in the production process. Tahu industry is one of the food industry needs to be developed in the production equipment. Many employers are still using simple tools in producing tahus. They still use the steamer as a means of production in the boiling process. But by using a steamer is boiling at risk can damage the quality of tahu itself. Because the process of steaming or boiling by using these pans can cause unpleasant taste in tahu products, is due to the clumping results at the bottom of a pot of boiling water, usually in the form crust. The crust is what inhibits the process of heating water to produce a less savory smell. The development of science and technology can support the development of the means of production in the tahu industry. One of these technologies in the field of energy conversion that produces a lot of creative ideas for use in the industrial world. Energy conversion machines into a power source would operate a variety of machines eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

in an industrial production. One of the energy conversion machine boiler. Boiler able to turn the water into steam that can be utilized pressure and heat of the water vapor. On a large scale boilers used for power plant or power through a steam turbine. Small and medium industries are making use of boiler and heating for processing by utilizing the heat of the water vapor produced. In the process of this boiler tahu production has a very vital function. As vital to the installation work on the boiler itself. Boiler produces steam which has high pressure. In the event of leakage power operator will be hurt, or even can explode and damage the surrounding environment. If damage occurs to the boiler it will delay the production process so that the resulting product quality decreases or gets corrupted. Therefore, it is necessary to design appropriate boiler for the tahu industry. Type of boiler is designed fire tube boiler. This type of boiler used for small scale processing industries begin to medium scale [4]. The fire tube boiler has a simple construction, easy to maintain, inexpensive and easy to manufacture. Planned in the form of a vertical boiler because it does not need a large place, so it can be placed in a relatively small space [3]. Standard boiler design used is ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), and adapted to the need for process steam heating on tahu industry. So the design of the boiler has to be made safe construction industry for use on tahu. The boiler design using CATIA V5 software, which is one of the software which is very helpful in the process of finalizing the design, simulation and analysis. The use of CATIA V5 software is quite easy, from modeling to analysis of components or construction can be done. CATIA V5 software is used for the manufacture of boiler design 3D, and will be performed static analysis to determine the strength of the structure is owned by the boiler. II. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS BOILER A. Boiler Construction Design In general, the process of designing a product iteration involves a long and repeated [6]. Boiler design that has been obtained is the result of the collection of data from

II - 5

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia the literature, surveys and calculations. The first boiler design specifications obtained the following data:  Type of boiler : Vertical fire tube boiler  Steam Capacity : 300 kg / hour  Diameter : 750 mm  Design pressure : 6 bar  Type Steam : Steam saturation  Operating Temperature : 100 0C - 150 0C  Operating pressure : 2 bar  Fuel : wood Boilers are designed belonging to the small capacity steam boilers (less than 10 tons / hour) and low pressure (less than 10 atm), so that the design standards used are ASME Section IV. Material in this boiler design using SA 285 Grade C is carbon steel and SA 53 Grade B is seamless carbon steel material for the boiler shown in ASME Section IV. Material SA 285 Grade C obtained the following data:  Maximum Allowable Stress Value (S) = 11 Ksi = 11000 lb/in2 [1]  Joint coefficient (E) = 85% = 0,85 (Doble welding) [1]  Material SA 53 Grade B obtained the following data:  Maximum Allowable Stress Value (S) = 11 Ksi = 12000 lb/in2 [1]  Yield strength = 242 Mpa [1]  Joint coefficient (E) = 85% = 0,85 (Doble welding) [1] 1. Boiler Shells  Design pressure (P) = 6 bar = 87 lb/in2  Shell radius (R) = 375 mm= 14.75 in,  Shell diameter (D) = 750 mm= 29.5 in,  Shell high = 1550 mm= 61.02 in. PR t  0.1388 in  3.5 mm SE  0.6 P

[1]

2. Fire Tube Fire tube designed should be able to withstand the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) of 86 lb/in2. Material fire tube using seamless carbon steel SA 53 Grade B for the ASME Section IV boiler. Firetube on this boiler is the part that get external pressure. The thickness of the tube is planned by the method of trial and error to get the thickness, as follows:  Outside diameter firetube = 2.67 in = 68 mm  Firetube high = 43.3 in = 1100 mm  Design pressure = 86 lb/in2  Design temperature = 1500C To get firetube thickness by using the procedure in ASME Section IV: D B a. 0  60  P  t D0 t

4393.19lb / in2  P  73.22lb / in2  P  P1 60 73.22 lb/in2 < 86 lb/in2 (So D0 / t = 60 can’t be used) P

D0 B  50  P  t D0 t

b.

6354.10lb / in2  P  127.08lb / in2  P  P1 50 127.08 lb/in2 > 86 lb/in2 (So D0 / t = 50 can be used) D B c. 0  40  P  t D0 t P

9143.18lb / in2  P  228.58lb / in2  P  P1 40 228,58 lb/in2 > 88 lb/in2 (So D0 / t = 50 can be used) Of trial and error calculations then taken D0 / t = 50, because the P value is closer to the value of P 1 D0  50 t 68mm t 50 t  1,36mm From the calculation, the thickness of 1.36 mm, the thickness of tube used is 1.4 mm, the outer diameter is 68 mm firetube. P

3. Tubesheet Tubesheet is the place to sustain the fire tube boiler. Tubesheet part that gets the greatest pressure, due to hydrostatic pressure work on the basis of place. Therefore tubesheet should be able to withstand the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) of 86 lb/in2. Tubesheet material using SA 285 Grade C is carbon steel material for the boiler shown in ASME Section IV.  Maximum pitch measured between the centers of tubes (p) = 4.724 in = 120 mm  C = 2.7 for tubesheets not over 7⁄16 in. (11 mm) thick  for tubesheets over 7⁄16in. (11 mm) thick  Outside diameter of the pipe (D) = 2.67 in = 68 mm 2  P  2  D  t    p  4   CS  

[1]

   88 lb in 2 3,14 x(2.67in) 2  2 t  x (4.724 in )     2 4  2.7 x11000 lb in    t  0.22in Results of calculation needs tubesheet thickness of 0.22 in. (5.62 mm), to facilitate the process as planned produsi taken tubesheet thickness 6 mm or 0.236-in. Then the plate thickness 6 mm and a Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) 88 lb/in2 can withstand a pressure of:

P

CSt 2   D2  p2     4 

[1]

II - 6 eic.ft.unnes.ac.id


P

2.7 x11000lb / in 2 x(0.236in) 2  3.14 x(2.67in) 2  (4.724in) 2    4  

P  98.96lb / in 2 4. Ligament Ligament is the distance between the plates in the fire tube tubesheet hole. Ligament using the same spacing pattern on each line. Ligament efficiency is determined by using the formula:

pd [1] P  Maximum pitch measured between the centers of tubes (p) = 4.724 in = 120 mm  Outside diameter of the pipe (D) = 2.67 in = 68 mm p  d 4.724in  2.67in E   0.43  43% P 4.724in So efficiency of ligament is 43%. E

5. Pipe nozzle Pipe nozzle serves as the support instruments such as boiler safety valve, pressure gauge/manometer, thermometer, water level gauge, main steam valve, and blowdown. Needs pipe nozzle adapted to the needs of the instrument function, so there are differences in the size of the pipe nozzle every instrument. Nozzle pipe material using carbon steel seamless SA 53 Grade B for boiler shown in ASME Section IV. a. Pipe nozzle safety valve, manometer, thermometer and water level gauge. Pipe nozzle using carbon steel materials with a diameter of 1-in. Thick nozzle pipes required was calculated as follows:

PR  0.04 SE  0.6 P 88 lb in 2 x0.5in t  0.04 12000 lb in 2 x0.85  0.6 x88 lb in 2 t  0.044in  1.1mm b. Pipe nozzle main steam and blowdown

t

[1]

PR  0.04 SE  0.6 P 88 lb in 2 x1in t  0.04 12000 lb in 2 x0.85  0.6 x88 lb in 2 t  0.049in  1.24mm

The boiler design manufacture use the CATIA V5 software. Dimensions and construction of the boiler has a total weight as follows: TABLE I. Struktur Boiler

VOLUME, MASSA AND SURFACE OF BOILER Volume (m3) 0.031

Massa (kg) 239.298

Surface (m2) 21.323

With the material properties are used: TABLE II. MATERIAL PROPERTIES CARBON STEEL SA 285 GRADE C Material Modulus young Poisson Ratio Density Thermal Expansion Yield Strength

Properties Value 1.93 x 1011 N/m2 0.30 7750 Kg/m3 1.24 x 10-5 K Deg 1.83 x 108 N/m2

TABLE III. MATERIAL PROPERTIES CARBON STEEL SA 53 GRADE B Material Modulus young Poisson Ratio Density Thermal Expansion Yield Strength

Properties Value 1.93 x 1011 N/m2 0.30 7750 Kg/m3 1.24 x 10-5 K Deg 2.14 x 108 N/m2

All material properties were taken at a temperature of 1500C is a value in the table ASME Section II.

Pipe nozzle using carbon steel materials with a diameter of 1-in. Thick nozzle pipes required was calculated as follows:

t

Figure 1. Boiler design

[1]

B. Modeling of Boiler Boiler design is designing the boiler construction in accordance with the standards of ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers). This is a picture of the results of the design:

C. Static Analysis Boiler Construction As this study forms the data analysis technique used is descriptive analysis, mean numbers in the show as a result of component measurement and test results are presented and in deskriptifkan clearly and used as raw material for making design [5]. Static analysis using the Generative Structural Analysis in CATIA V5. the information can be easily observed, because all the calculation results will be obtained in the form of boiler construction html file. Data obtained in the form of figures, images and the color of the static analysis results. Before performing the test should be known water load, pressure and temperature were working on boiler construction. Load is what will be used as the input force or load testing structure. Load calculations can be done on the boiler design boiler design is completed, as in CATIA V5 can be known weight of the structure is designed. After knowing the weight of the design of software, a new


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia calculation can be performed. Computation load on the boiler is divided into three loads of water charging, water pressure and maximum temperature in the boiler water. TABLE IV. LOAD BOILER DESIGN Load Water load

Value 3273 N

Pressure

351,7 N/m2

Temperature

343,15 0K

Part Tubesheet surface, the bottom burner boiler Firetube surface, surfaces in the shell, the bottom kitchen boiler Firetube, shell, tubesheet, burner, cover, nozzel pipe

Figure shows the direction of the stress on the construction of boilers that can be seen by the difference in color in the picture. In the picture there is a difference in color from blue to red. blue section is the part that had the smallest stress then becomes green and yellow to red, which means the part having the largest stress value is indicated on the diagram the color in the picture. Von mises stress that occurs at the boiler testing is 2.92 x 108 N/m2 as seen in the picture.

Figure 5. Displacement

Figure 2. Meshing

Meshing process is reading each element in the construction of the structure that is experiencing testing. The size distribution of structures within the meshing process will determine the speed of the testing process and the accuracy of test results. More smaller meshing applied is more better, but it will take a longer testing process. In the process of testing the boiler construction mesh is used differently in each part, and the element type used is parabolic.

Displacement on this test is the movement of material form after getting loading. Data is the maximum displacement values shown in the red section. Displacement that occurs in boiler construction was 1.47 mm, as indicated by the distribution of color on the parts of the boiler until the blue color changed to red. Blue part still is part of the least experienced displacement and the red part is the most experienced displacement. III. RESULTS In terms of construction, that the design of the boiler has a simple construction. This has implications for the process of making the construction more complicated if the boiler-making process is more difficult and requires a relatively long time. But if the construction is simple then making Boiler be relatively easier and faster processing time. The specifications of the materials used in the manufacture of vertical firetube boiler construction is as follows: TABLE V. MATERIAL SPECIFICATION BOILER

Figure 3. Deformation

No

Part

Figure shows the change in the form of construction of the boiler after getting loaded. deformation occurs in accordance with the mesh that has been applied.

1.

BoilerShell

2.

Tubesheet

3. 4.

5.

Figure 4. Von Mises Stress

Firetube Nozzle pipe (Main steam, Blow down) Nozzle pipe (Safety valve, Manometer, Thermometer, Water level)

Material Plat SA 285 Grade C Plat SA 285 Grade C Pipa SA 53 Grade B

Ukuran Diameter Thick mm (in) mm (in) 750 (29.5) 3.5 Inside (0.1388) 750 (29.5)

6 (0.24)

76.2 (3) Outside

1.52 (0.06)

Pipa SA 53 Grade B

50.8 (2) Outside

1.25 (0.049)

Pipa SA 53 Grade B

25.4 (1) Outside

1.12 (0,044)

750 (29.5) Inside 750 (29.5) Inside max

6.

Burner

Plat SA 285 Grade C

7.

Cover

Plat SA 285 Grade C

5 (0.19) 5 (0.19)


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia According to the table it can be seen that the specification of construction materials vertical firetube boiler design is simple, but the operation will be safe because it has been in accordance with the standard design of the boiler is ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers). A. Stress Analysis Review After analysis using CATIA V5 software, it can be seen that the maximum stress in the structure after a given load. TABLE VI. ANALYSIS RESULT Characteristics Maximum Von mises Stress Minimum Von mises Stress Maximum Displacement Minimum Displacement

Analysis Result 2.92 x 108 N/m2 198 N/m2 1.47 mm 0 mm

From the table it can be seen that the maximum stress on the design of the boiler is at 2.92 x 108 N/m2. Stress is still below the maximum allowable stress suitable material used, the tensile strenght of material SA 285 Grade C of 4.14 x 108 N/m2 [2]. factors to consider in the construction design is the safety factor, according to the research objectives are generating boiler construction is required to comply with the standard design of ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers). Materials used is also the standards of the ASME. Security of a design can be demonstrated by a value called the safety factor. To find a safety factor that is if a piece of construction planned, construction shape, load and strength are known, then the safety factor can be calculated to evaluate the safety of the that has been determined design. Analysis using CATIA V5 software shows that the maximum stress to the boiler design is 2.92 x 108 N/m2, the safety factor in the design of the boiler are:

n

S





4.14 x108 N m2  1.42 2.92 x108 N m2

Figure 6. Boiler Instrument

IV. CONCLUSION A. Summary Design contruction of boiler tipe Vertical Fire Tube boiler to result 100 0C – 150 0C saturated steam temperature with ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) of plan standart, and determine the design and static analysis boiler with CATIA V5. These results get boiler specification 2 bar of operation steam presure and 6 bar of internal design presure. Boiler dimention are 757 mm of diameter, 2200 mm of high and on inside are 68 mm diameters of 21 fire tube. The fuel is wood. Maximal water volume to be used in boiler up to 327 liter. The material used are carbon steel SA 285 Grade C and pipe seamless carbon steel SA 53 Grade B. Analysis static of boiler to result 2.92 x 108 N/m2 of maximal strees, maximum displacement on the boiler contruction is 1.47 mm. Boiler contruction have 1.42 of safety value. B. Advice On the results of the analysis showed that the greatest part is getting stress at the bottom of the kitchen boiler, then to get a higher safety factor, it can increase the thickness of material that is more than 6 mm. REFERENCES

B. Instruments Boiler Instruments used to support the design of the boiler. Manometer, function to indicate the pressure of steam in the boiler. Manometer used was kind of Bourdon. Thermometer, function to measure the operating temperature of the boiler. Water level gauge, the operation of the boiler should be no water level gauges. Water level should be kept at a standard water level, so it should be able to know about the water level is correct. Safety valve, serves as a safety that would work if there is more pressure on the boiler or pressure on the boiler pressure exceeds allowable limit. Main steam valve, function as the opening and closing main line steam that will be used to know the production process. Blowdown valve, works to throwing water and dirt in the boiler. The water in the boiler will be condensed and there are the solids and can be crust. Blowdown valve is also used to enter the water charging.

[1] [2] [3]

[4] [5]

[6]

ASME, Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code IV, Rules For Contruction fo Heating Boiler, New York : Three Park Avenue, 2004. ASME, Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code II, Properties (Metric) Materials, New York : Three Park Avenue, 2010. Rustono, Perencanaan Ketel Uap Tekanan 6 Atm dengan Bahan Bakar Kayu untuk Industri Sederhana, Oseatek, UPS, Tegal, 2008. Raharjo W. D., Mesin Konversi Energi. Semarang : Universitas Negeri Semarang Press, 2008. Widyatama, Perancangan Rear Part Mobil Listrik Menggunakan Software 3D Siemens NX8. Automotive Science and Education Journal, Volume 2 No. 1, 2013. Yamin M., Analisis Tegangan pada Rangka Mobil Boogie, Depok: Proceeding, Seminar Ilmiah Nasional Komputer dan Sistem Intelijen Universitas Gunadarma, 2008.



Iron Sand as Renewable Resource for Production Magnetic Nano Particles Materials Toto Rusianto a

Department of Mechanical Engineering ;Postgraduate student at Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineeringb AKPRINDa; Gadjah Mada Universityb Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected];[email protected]

Abstract— Iron sand is a mineral that is widely available in Indonesia. It contains several elements dominated by magnetite (Fe3O4). It has magnetic properties that can be attracted to a permanent magnet. Generally, iron sand is processed to pellets for iron making. Iron sand for pellet making has low benefit, if its deposit in a mine area is not huge enough, because it needs high cost for capital infestation for building pellets plant. There is another alternative in utilization of iron sand with low cost infestation. Iron sand can be processed into magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) through a simple synthesis process. This paper present the magnetic nanoparticles has been successfully synthesized by simple co-precipitation method from iron sand and its characterization. It establishes that iron sand has potential as a renewable resource for magnetic nanoparticles. Keywords-iron sand; magnetite; magnetic nano particles; pellet

I. INTRODUCTION A. Background Issues Indonesia has great iron mineral resources. Iron ore resource deposits can be grouped as iron sand, lateritic iron ore and primary iron ore. It consists of (% weight) iron sand (8 %), lateritic iron ore (75 %) and primary iron ore (17 %). Primary iron ore is found spread out in the area of South Kalimantan, West Kalimantan, Belitung, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, Lampung, and Papua. Lateritic iron ore is mostly found at South Kalimantan, South-East Sulawesi, and North Maluku. Iron sand is found, spread out at South Java coast, scattered from Sukabumi, Cianjur, Tasikmalaya, Cilacap, Purworejo, Yogyakarta and ended at Lumajang. The amount of main iron sand deposits resources reaches up to 160 million tons in Indonesia [1]. In Yogyakarta, the iron sand deposits approximate 33.6 million tons [2]. All of iron minerals in Yogyakarta would be processed as pellet and sponge iron for raw materials of iron and steel making. The iron sand does not only have potential for iron and steel making, but also has a great potential for magnetic materials. Several researchers have reported that iron sand had potential as a magnetic material. The magnetic eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

M. Waziz Wildan1, Kamsul Abraha2 and Kusmono3 Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering1,3, Department of Physics2 Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

material was obtained from the iron sand through synthesis with chemical reaction. Co-precipitation method is the most widely used method to obtained magnetic materials. The synthesis magnetic materials could achieve a product in pure condition with nanometre size. Generally it’s called magnetic nanoparticles. Synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles methods have been proposed by several researchers. The magnetic nanoparticles offers great potential for advancements in electronics, optoelectronics, magnetic storage, biomedical, ferro fluid, and magnetically guided drug delivery for targeting the therapy etc. Magnetic nanoparticles have been synthesized with a number of condition, compositions and different phases, including iron oxides such as Fe3O4 and -Fe2O3. In the last decades, many researchers have published their research for the synthesis of MNPs. Especially their publications have described efficient synthetic routes of shape and size-controlled. The popular methods including co-precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, thermal decomposition/thermal reduction, micelle synthesis, and other techniques can all be directed at the synthesis MNPs in high-quality. The MNPs such as spinel ferrites MFe2O4 (M = Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Mg, Cu, Zn) and their dispersions in various substances were among the most important magnetic materials [3]. The spinel ferrites have been used for nano magnetism studies. It has indicated great potential for important technological applications in many fields [4,5]. This paper presents a simple synthesis MNPs from iron sand of South Coast of Yogyakarta and its characterization. The used of iron sand in the research aimed to find out the potential of the iron sand to be produced for magnetic nanoparticles. It established the iron sand as renewable material resources for magnetic nanoparticles. B. Magnetic Properties Magnetism is phenomenon by which materials assert a repulsive or attractive force or influence on other materials. Magnetic materials are classified as responsibility to an external applied magnetic field. The magnetic characterization of a material vary widely

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia depend on the structure of the material, particularly on its electron configuration. The magnetic characterizations have been observed in different materials. The orientations descriptions of magnetic moments in a material indicate to identify different characterization of magnetism observed. All materials exhibit at least one of these types and the behavior depends on the response of magnetic moments to an externally applied magnetic field [6]. There are five basic types of magnetism can be described i.e. diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic, paramagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and ferromagnetic. In the presence of an externally applied magnetic field, the atomic current loops created by the orbital motion of electrons respond to oppose the applied magnetic field. A great of information could be learned from the respond to oppose the externally applied magnetic field by studying its hysteresis curve resulting magnetic properties of a material. A hysteresis curve shows the relationship between the magnetization (M) and the magnetizing force (H) presence externally applied magnetic field. An example hysteresis curve of magnetism characterization is shown at Fig 1.

(a)

magnetic field drops to zero, the ferromagnetic material retains magnetization a considerable of remanence magnetization (Mr) [8]. It’s typical hysteresis curve for a permanent magnet. Magnetic nanoparticles such as magnetite in nano size has a unique magnetic behaviour, it was called superparamagnetism. Special features of magnetic nanoparticles shows superparamagnetism phenomenon. The typical of superparamagnetism have a high saturation magnetization (Ms) and no remanence magnetization. The superparamagnetism is constitute of magnetism, can give a special magnetic property, which appears of nanoparticles materials ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic. The superparamagnetism is a phenomenon by which magnetic materials may exhibit a behavior like paramagnetism at below the Curie temperature or the Néel temperature. Superparamagnetism materials are intrinsically nonmagnetic but can be readily magnetized in the presence of an external magnetic field [9]. II. MATERIAL AND METHOD A. Materials The base material of the research used raw material from iron sand at the South Coast of Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta province. The iron sand as renewable material resources was mined from these deposit area. Permanent magnet was used to separate magnetic and nonmagnetic materials. It was milled to get fine powder for most effectively to next process. Precursor HCl (hydrochloride, ACS reagent 37% from Sigma-Aldrich) as a solvent formed a solution of reagent salt ions Fe2+ and Fe3+. NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide solution p.a. 25% from Sigma-Aldrich) was a solution agent to synthesized magnetite materials. B. Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticles The iron sand as fine powder magnetic material was solved used hydrochloride, the chemical reaction follow: FeO.Fe2O3 + 8 HCl  FeCl2 + 2 FeCl3 + 4H2O

(1)

The solution of iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride were obtained from these reaction and waste material. Its solution was separated from waste material by filtering. Iron (III) nitrate and iron (II) nitrate could be obtained by synthesized basic material with nitric acid, used oxalic acid as a catalyst. The synthesized of iron nitrate follows the chemical reaction at temperature of 90 C [10]: 2Fe3O4 + 24HNO3 + 2C2H2O4  6Fe(NO3)3 + 3Fe(NO3)2 + 14H2O + 4CO2 (b) Figure 1. Hysteresis curves of magnetic materials (a) ferromagnetism [7] (b) comparison hysterisis curves of ferromagnetism, paramagnetism and superparamagnetism.

Ferromagnetism material is magnetized in one direction, it will not back to zero magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by a field in the opposite direction. The driving magnetic field (Hc) must be reversed a large value to drive magnetization to zero again. When driving

(2)

The solution of iron (II) chloride and iron (III) chloride reacted with NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide). As the mechanism of the formation of Fe3O4 from ferrous and ferric salts was reacted by NH4OH as the coprecipitation reaction represented as [11]: FeCl2+2FeCl3+8NH4OH  Fe3O4+8NH4Cl+5H2O (3) It is generally known, in which stoichiometric amounts of ferrous and ferric ions reacted to produce Fe3O4. Precipitation reaction results in the form of a black colour gel, it was precipitated magnetite. The precipitate


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia was washed with distilled water to remove the remaining solution in ordered to precipitate free from the rest of the solution. Techniques such as sol–gel, co-precipitation, mechanochemical processing, micro emulsion and microwaves have been commonly used to prepare ferrite nanoparticles. But, until now, the most economic always for the production of large quantities of nano sized ferrite particles are chemical precipitation [5]. C. Characterization 1. x-ray diffraction analysis Characterization of the powder phases were investigated by x-ray diffraction (Rigaku D/MAX-2200 diffractometer) with Cu Kα radiation wave length of 1.54056 Å. Diffraction patterns were recorded from scan range 5° to 90° with a step of 0.02. The x-ray diffraction patterns were recorded on the fine grained powders in order to identify the crystalline phases. 2. Transmission electron microscope Transmission electron microscope (JEOL JEM-1400 Electron Microscope) was used to observe the MNPs images. The size distribution of MNPs was determined by measuring diameters of randomly selected on the TEM images and it was plotted as a histogram diagram. 3. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscope (EDS) SEM is very broad function, among others, to see the contours of the fracture of the material, shape and size of the grain, observing the structure of biological material, taking the measurements of the thickness of thin layers, as well as quantitative analysis. SEM type JEOL JSM6510LA with optional Energy Dispersive XRay/Spectroscopy (EDX/EDS) was used to analyse the chemical composition of the surface elements, in a very narrow area of the order of micrometres. 4. Magnetism characterization Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) systems are used to measure the magnetic properties of materials as a function of magnetic field, temperature, and time. The standard test method used ASTM A977/A977M-07 for magnetic properties. The research used VSM OXFORD type 1.2h machine. The hysteresis loops were measured with an applied external field magnetic between 10 kOe at room temperature. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. X-Ray Difraction (XRD) Fig. 2 shows of the XRD patern synthesis magnetite material from iron sand of South Coast of Yogyakarta. The well-defined d-spacing can be attributed to crystal planes of the typical cubic magnetite (Fe3O4 # JCPDS card number 019-0629). The XRD spectra are used for determining the crystallographic identity of the materials phase purity. The crystallite size can be determined from the x-ray line broadening using Scherrer’s equation given by [18]: D = Kλ/β cosθ

(4)

Figure 2. The xrd pattern diffraction of magnetite material

Where D (Å) is the average particle diameter size, θ is the angle of the peak (35.74), β is the full width at half maximum (FHWM) of the respective XRD peak (0.65), λ is the x-ray radiation wavelength (1.540560 Å) and K is a constant (0.9) which is very close to unity and is related both to the crystallite shape and to the way in which β and D are defined. Thus from equation (4) the average particle diameter size is 12.8 nm. The broadening of the diffraction peaks is related to the small particle size. In addition, in a diffraction pattern, the intensity can be used to quantify the proportion of magnetic nanoparticles formed. The discussion of XRD can use a mixture by comparing experimental peaks and reference peak intensities. B. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Materials with nano size can be only observed by microscope with high resolution. The transmission electron microscope is used to observe the microstructure of materials with very high spatial resolution. TEM is routinely used for observation of particle size. The technique reports the total particle size of the core and gives access to a number-weighted mean value. Furthermore, it provides details on the size distribution and the shape. However, this technique needs an analysis by image treatment, and must be performed on a statistically significant large number of particles. The size distribution of magnetic nanoparticles can be determined by measuring diameters of randomly selected on the TEM images. Fig. 3 shows the TEM image of magnetite nano size and its size distribution of nanoparticles size. The measuring particles size by Scherrer’s equation is 12.8 nm and the measuring diameters on the TEM images is 10  3 nm. The both methods of measuring the particle diameter give satisfactory results, because measurement of the particle diameter is small difference.

Figure 3. TEM image of magnetite nano size was synthesized from iron sand of South Coast of Yogyakarta and size distribution of nanoparticle size with average diameter size of 10  3 nm.


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) is more high magnification then TEM. The HR-TEM can give access to the atomic arrangement. It can be used to study the surface atomic arrangement of crystalline NPs and local microstructures (such as lattice vacancies and defects, lattice fringe, glide plane, or screw axes). Fig. 4 shows example HR-TEM image of magnetite nano grain with d-spacing lattice crystal size about of 0.49 nm. Figure 6. The chemical composition of synthesis magnetite nano materials used energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXD).

Figure 4. High resolution TEM image of an as-deposited Fe3O4 nanograin with d-spacing size [17].

C. Scanning electron microscopy and Energy dispersive x-ray diffraction (EDXD) The scanning electron microscopy is a widely used technique for the determination of morphology and size distribution of prepared particles in the scales of micro to nano range. SEM is not a good technique for characterization of core/shell NPs because this technique reports total particle size. Resolution of the SEM is lower than TEM and it is not efficient for NPs with particles size lower than 20 nm. Fig. 5 shows the SEM image of milled iron sand.

D. Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) Many techniques are available to measure the magnetic properties of materials include MNPs. SQUID magnetometer and VSM are powerful tools to measure the magnetization of sample. Based on the obtained VSM curve at low and room temperatures, magnetic behaviour of the MNPs can be identified. For example at room temperature, when externally magnetic field (H) reach maximum and go down to zero, the magnetic remanence (Mr) is zero too. The hysteretic loop feature indicates that the MNPs are superparamagnetic. Fig. 7 shows the hysteretic loop of synthesis MNPs from iron sand and fine powder iron sand as raw material with an applied external magnetic between  10 kOe at room temperature. Fig. 8 shows a simple method to indetification MNPs.

Figure 7. Hysteresis loop measured at room temperature for Fe3O4 nanoparticles. Its show superparamagnetic properties and the saturation magnetization (Ms) is 36.68 emu/g and the raw material is 13.24 emu/g.

Figure 5. The SEM image of milled iron sand of South Coast of Yogyakarta

EDXD provides the advantage of being carried out on the suspension and is used to improve the knowledge of fine structural details. EDXD can be used to provide an elemental analysis and determination of the chemical composition of prepared magnetic NPs. From EDXD data, the ratio of the elements in the NPs structure can be estimated. The pattern energy disperse of magnetite nano size was examined used EDXD, it is shown in Fig. 6. The some qualitative elements (% mass) was obtained i.e. Fe = 48.15 %, O = 25.15%, Al = 0.83%, Ti = 0.98%, Cl = 5.17 %, and C = 19.73%.

Figure 8. Permanent magnet attract magnetic nanoparticles in alcohol media.

E. Review the Research of Synthesis MNPs from Iron Sand The magnetic nanoparticles with general chemical formula of MFe2O4 and their dispersions in various substances were among the most important as magnetic materials. The various dispersion of MFe2O4 can be added salt metal (Mn+) in the salt solution of Fe2+ and


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Fe3+. Arifani, et. al. [12] had reported to produced BiFeO3.The BiFeO3 as multiferroics materials had been successfully synthesized by sol gel method based irons and from beach Jolosutro Blitar. Fe2O3 as basic materials was synthesized from iron sand. The Fe2O3 and Bi2O3 was disolved by HNO3 and it added by acetate acid, ethylene glycoland nitrogen. The reactant was calcinated at temperature of 200 – 500 C for one hour to produced BiFeO3. Multiferroic material is multifunctional magnet, where magnetism and ferroelectricity are strongly coupled together. Synthesis calcium ferrite was performed from hematite/Fe2O3 and limestone/CaCO3. The Fe2O3 was synthesized from irons and of the coast Jolosutro Blitar and the CaCO3 from natural imestone [13]. Calcium ferrite have an extensive application for optical memory devices, magneto plumbite structure, material and steel making industries [14]. Fe(3-x)MnxO4 (0 ≤ x ≤ 3) had been successfully synthesized from iron sand of Lumajang East Java. The iron sand was dissolved using HCl at temperature of 70C assisted magnetic stirrer. Solution performed was separated from excesses component using filter paper. The solution was added MnCl2.4H2O. The precipitate of Fe(3-x)MnxO4 was obtained by added NH4OH [15]. Yulianto, et. al. [16] had presented extracted magnetite from iron sand processed into soft ferrite of MnZn. The soft ferrites of MnZn were performanced as variation by mixing oxides of iron sand (α-Fe2O3) with various amounts of MnO and ZnO as (Mn1-xZnx) Fe2O4. The mixtures were calcinated at temperature of 1200°C followed by sintering at 1250°C. The iron sand obtained from a disclosed location in North Coast of Java. Yulianto, et. al. [10] had reported magnetic material (MnFerrite) prepared from iron sand used precipitation and sol-gel methods. The methods were applied to produce a homogenous and nanosized powder. The precipitation process was taken place at room temperature. MnO2 and Fe3O4 were dissolved with HCl solution to obtained MnCl2, FeCl2 and FeCl3 and the resulted solution were mixed. NH4OH and NaOH solutions were added into mixed solution to produce precipitated material. The applications of (Mn1-xZnx) Fe2O4 are for electronic device as soft ferrite magnetic. The synthesis magnetic nano particles from iron sand of South Coast of Yogyakarta can be produced average of 36 % of magnetite nano materials. It is really give an advantage for production magnetic nanoparticle. IV. CONCLUSION The synthesis magnetic nanoparticles was not only got from purity materials agent, but also can use the nature materials such as iron sand. The iron sand has composition iron oxide such as magnetite and maghemite. The obtained of magnetic nanoparticles can be done with easy and simple chemical process. It establishes the iron sand as renewable material resources for magnetic nanoparticles. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Grant Program (Hibah Bersaing), contract number: 1142.12/K5/KL/2013. REFERENCES [1]

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S. Rochani, Pramusanto, Sariman And R. I. Anugrah, “The current status of iron minerals in Indonesia,” J. Indonesian Mining, vol. 11 (11) , June 2008, pp. 1 – 17. B. Yunianto, “Kajian permasalahan lingkungan dan sosial ekonomi rencana penambangan dan pengolahan pasir besi di Pantai Selatan Kulonprogo Yogyakarta”, J. Teknologi Mineral dan Batubara, Puslitbang Tekmira, Vol. 5 (13), pp. 1-16, Januari 2009. A.H.Lu, E.L.SalabasandF.Schuth, “Magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis, protection, functionalization, and application”, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 46, 2007, pp.1222 – 1244. L.Wang, J. Li, Y. Wang, L.Zhao., Q. Jiang, “Adsorption capability for Congo red on nanocrystalline MFe2O4 (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) spinel ferrites”, J. Chemical Engineering 181– 182 pp.72– 79, 2012. S.Y. Vilar, M.S.Andujar, C.G. Aguirre, J.Mira, M.A.S. Rodriguez,and S.C. Garcia, “A simple solvo thermal synthesis of MFe2O4 (M = Mn, Co and Ni) nanoparticles”, J. Solid State Chemistry 182, pp. 2685–2690, 2009. W. D. Callister, Jr., “Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction”, John Wiley & Sons,Inc., 2007. R.Nave, “Electricity and Magnetism”, 2012, unpublished. D. Gignoux, M. Schlenker, “Magnetism Fundamentals”, Edited By Etienne Du Tremolet De Lacheisserie Ebook ©Springer Science Business Media, Inc. Boston, 2005. M. Faraji, Y. Yamini and M. Rezaee, Magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, functionalization, characterization, and applications, J. Iran Chemical Sociaty., Vol. 7 (1), pp. 1-37, March 2010, Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University Iran. A. Yulianto, Sulhadi, A. L.I. Azis, and E. Dayati, “Synthesis of iron sand into nano Mn-ferrite”, J. Fundamental and Applied Sciences,Malaysian Vol.9 (4) , July 2013, pp.215-219. H. Iida, K. Takayanagi, T. Nakanishi, T. Osaka, Synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles with various sizes and magnetic properties by controlled hydrolysis., J. Colloid and Interface Science, 314, pp. 274–280, 2007. M. Arifani, M. A. Baqiya, Darminto, “Sintesis multiferoik BiFeO3 berbasis pasir besi dengan metode sol gel, J.Sains dan Seni ITS, vol.1, Septmber 2012, pp. B11-B14. Mastuki, M. A. Baqiya, Darminto, “Sintesis dan karakterisasi kalsium ferit menggunakan pasir besi dan batu kapur”, J.Sains dan Seni ITS, vol. 1 (1) , September 2012, pp. B76-B80. H.I. Saleh, “Synthesis and formation mechanisms of calcium ferrite compounds”, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., vol.20 (5), 2004, pp. 530-544. A. Taufiq, Triwikantoro, S. Pratapa, and Darminto, “Sintesis partikel nano Fe3-xMnxO4 berbasis pasir besi dan karakterisasi struktur serta kemagnetannya”, J. Nanosains & Nanoteknologi, vol. 1 (2) , July 2008, pp. 67-73. A. Yulianto, S. Bijaksana, W. Loeksmanto, and D. Kurnia, “Synthesis of MnZn Ferrite from Iron Sand”, International Conference on Mathematics and Natural Sciences (ICMNS) Bandung-Indonesia, November 29-30, 2006, pp. 954-956. L.T. Chao, M. Wei, and J.L. MacManus-Driscoll, “Synthesis and characterisation of nanocrystalline iron oxides via ultrasonic spray assisted chemical vapour deposition”, J. Physics, Conference Series,vol. 26, 2006, pp. 304–307. D. Bahadur, J. Giri, B. B. Nayak, T. Sriharsha, P. Pradhan, N. K. Prasad, K. C. Barick And R. D. Ambashta, “Processing, properties and some novel applications of magnetic nanoparticles” J. Physics, Indian Academy of Sciences, vol. 65(4), October 2005, pp. 663-679.

This work was supported by the Ministries of Education and Culture of Indonesia Republic, Directorate General of Higher Education, through the Competitive



Developing Mechanical Industry by Partnership with Vocational High School Wirawan Sumbodo1, Joko Widodo2 and Samsudi3

Pardjono

Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Yogyakarta State University Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract—The industrial advancement of a country is one indicator of human resource excellence of a country. A strong industry will absorb workers, produce products that can be exported to other countries, and produce foreign exchange income. An advanced industry requires human resources innovating to develop products according to the customers’ needs. One of educational departments developing industrial human resources is Vocational High School. Vocational High School has a power to teach the students to work in certain fields. Teaching students to be skillful in working in certain fields can be formed by continuous exercise planned to construct the students’ competence according to industrial needs. Many efforts have been performed by Vocational High School to produce relevant graduates for industrial needs, among others by link and match program. Several partnership programs existing so far among others: Industrial Work Practice, Curriculum Arrangement, On the Job Training, learning process, graduate recruitment, facility and infrastructure, and competence test are required to improve the students’ competence. However, the absorption of Vocational High School graduates is still low, therefore, it requires an optimization of partnership program of Vocational High School with industry based on management function including planning, organizing, actuating, and controlling (POAC) especially in the programs of curriculum validation, industry work practice, and OJT, so that the Vocational High School graduates’ competency can be improved accordance with the industrial expectation.

victory in the competition in global era is the ability to manage and empower the human resources in mastering science and technology (http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2009/10/06/192953 72/twitter.com).

Keywords- partnership; industry; competence; vocational

I. INTRODUCTION One indicator of a country advancement is the strong industry producing excellent products that can compete in global era. Any countries owning the advanced technology and industry will be more prosperous and respected by other countries. Industrial advancement requires innovative human resources who are able to produce products and services according to customers’ expectation. The quality of industrial human resources is determined by the education system applied in the country. The education system in Indonesia is regulated in the Law of National Educational System 2013 regulating the policy of national education development, in which regulates the vocational education and training system in Vocational High School (VHS). Ali Muhammad (2009: 53) states that the key of a country’s eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

One kind of industries currently developing is automotive industry. Nowadays, the development of automotive industry is growing in line with the increasing costumers’ demand. Gaikindo (Gabungan Industri Kendaraan Bermotor Indonesia / Association of Indonesian Motor Vehicle Industry) predicts that the sale of cars in 2013 will increase for 10 percent compared to the previous year that reached one million units (Yongkie D. Sugiarto, 2012). This automotive industry production increase in Indonesia is not yet supported by a strong domestic automotive component industry because most of the components are imported. The office of Central Statistics Entity in Jakarta records that the growth of manufacturing industries in Indonesia was increasing for 6.02 percent (year on year) of the same period in 2010. The types of manufacturing industries experiencing production increase in 2011 of 2010, among others basic metals increasing for 16.26 percent, motor vehicles increasing for 14.85 percent, chemicals and commodities made of chemicals increasing for 11.93 percent. While those experiencing production decrease, among others rubber, commodities made of rubber, and commodities made of plastic decreasing for 8.57 percent, wood and commodities made of wood decreasing for 4.17 percent, machine and its equipment decreasing for 3.43 percent (Central Statistics Entity of Jakarta, 2012). The data above shows that although the industry of basic metals and motor vehicle increased, the industry of machine and its equipment decreased for 3.43 percent instead. This condition shows that the growth of manufacturing industry is not yet supported by domestic machine components, but depending on imports. This is in line with Mesdin Simarmata (2011) stating that although the manufacturing industry in Indonesia grows well, the dependence level of raw material import is still high. This condition requires an improvement on the

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia industrial human resources in order to produce the machine components needed by domestic industries. Excellent human resources in engineering are expected from mechanical engineering skill competence of Mechanical Engineering Skill Study Program of VHS that constitutes a vocational secondary educational institution authorized to equip the students with skills, knowledge, and attitude to be competent in jobs in accordance with the National Working Competence Standard in the field of Metal and Mechanical Industry. Mechanical Engineering Education always develops to adjust with the development of engineering technology including automotive technology that always adjusts with people’s needs (Endroyo B. and Ramelan, 2010). II. POTENTIAL OF VHS VHS has a potential to prepare human resources that have certain innovations and competences according the needs of industrial field. VHS contributes in the graduate employment, to reduce unemployment, to accelerate economic growth, and to increase prosperity. Therefore, the government continuously attempts to multiply the number of VHS, to open new skill programs, to promote the excellence of VHS to increase students’ interest to enter VHS. The graduates of VHS are considered easier to enter the job market than the graduates of Senior High School (SHS) because basically the lessons in VHS are accompanied by skill practice. The potential of VHS is more recognized by society after the presence of partnership program between VHS and industry producing excellent products such as a prototype of Esemka car assembled by the students’ of VHS and the partner industry. Other products such as Laptop, LCD Projector, and others are also the products of partnership between VHS and industry. The potential of VHS and industry needs to be optimized to be a solution of technology issues required to develop the industry in global era. The human resources, facilities, infrastructures, and laboratories owned by VHS are the potentials that can be utilized to improve the quality of VHS graduate competence. Joko Sutrisno (2012) totally supports the partnership between VHS and industry to make Indonesia as the second China or the second India (Kompas, 11 January 2012). Besides owning many potentials, vocational education can also provide a great benefits for students, for industries, and for society. For students, the benefits of vocational education are to improve the competence, to improve the skills, to prepare students to work in the industrial field selected by them, to improve the ability of entrepreneurship, and to adjust with the society, nation, and country. For industries, the vocational education serves to obtain the quality labors that can advance and develop the industry in order to be permanently existent in global era. The benefits of vocational education for society are to reduce unemployment, to produce excellent products that can compete in global era, to increase social prosperity, in order to improve the nation dignity in international. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The potential and excellence of VHS need to be continuously empowered, directed, and developed to conform to the vision, mission, and purpose. In Central Java, there are 1327 VHSs, both state and private, spread from various cities and regencies (www.datapokok.ditsmk.net accessed on 26 March 2013). The development of VHS in every regency/city will be continuously conducted by the government until a ratio between VHS and SHS of 70:30 is reached. Quantitatively, the government implements a policy to add some new school units for VHS, transfer the function of SHS into VHS, increase the number of student learning groups, add the skill programs, open the Open VHS, and ease the permission of VHS establishment, and stop the permission of SHS establishment. However, don’t be trapped in quantitative approach. Qualitatively, it is necessary to develop the students’ competence so that the VHS graduates can also create job opportunities (Suara Merdeka, 9 January 2012). Ideally, VHS should be able to produce graduates that can implement the knowledge obtained when taking the education in VHS to be skillful in work and develop the industry in order to be permanently existent in global era. This is in line with 16 vocational theories by Prosser in Bachtiar Hasan (www.file.upi.edu) stating that vocational schools will be effective if the students are taught with material, tool, machine, and tasks similar or identical to the job where the students will work on. The matters learned in VHS should be like those performed in the industry where the students work. Vocational schools will be effective if only the students is introduced to a real situation to think, feel, behave, as the labors do in the industry, where the students will work after graduation. Factually, not all VHS has facilities, learning process, school environment, and teacher competence that conform to the condition existing in industry. The orientation of VHS opening with aim of 70% VHS compared to SHS (30%) encourages a large-scale establishment of VHS that is not yet supported by adequate facilities and infrastructures. Therefore, the teaching and learning process that should use those tools as used in industry is not yet fulfilled, the practicum facilities for students is just pickup while going along, which means that most lessons in VHS contain just a few practicums and more theories making it less relevant. The work opportunities for VHS graduates are actually wide-opened, but some realities in the fields show that the number of unemployed VHS graduates is increasing. The Central Statistics Entity states that the number of unemployed until February 2012 reached 7.6 million. From that amount, most of the unemployed are the graduates of Senior High School (SHS) and Vocational High School (VHS). From the quoted data of Central Statistics Entity, Monday (7/5/2012), on February 2012, the level of open unemployment for secondary education still occupies the highest position, i.e. the level of open unemployment of SHS is 10.34% and the level of open unemployment of VHS is 9.51%. Until August 2012, the highest level of open unemployment is still

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia occupied by the graduates of VHS and SHS (Suryamin, 2012). The aspect of graduate absorption becomes an important part by considering that the by design of VHS graduates is for the occupational world. The current absorption is only reaching 60% - 70%, still under the ideal rate of 80% - 70%. Youth unemployment rate always haunts every country, and the development of VHS is intended to answer it. This year, the unemployment rate of VHS is decreasing from 8.32% (2010) to 7.77% (2011), but the unemployment rate of SHS is actually increasing from 7.46% to 8.37% (Suara Merdeka, 9 January 2012). The needs of technician level labors should be fulfilled by the graduates of VHS, in accordance with the vision and mission of VHS in Indonesia, among others: the establishment of international VHS, producing graduates who have the national identity, being able to develop the local excellence and compete in global markets (http://www.ditpsmk.net). III. RELEVANCE OF VHS GRADUATES TO INDUSTRY Various efforts to produce VHS graduates to be relevant to the needs of industry have been conducted through a partnership program between VHS and industry known as link and match. The link and match program was popularized by Prof. Dr. Wardiman Joyonegoro in the 1990s. The program is to overcome the problem of gap between educational world and occupational/industrial world. The education seems walking on its own world, while the industry still has to work hard to prepare human resources in accordance with its needs. The link and match is understood as linking and matching what learned in the educational world with the industrial needs. Rapid changes in the global era demand the industrial human resources to keep on innovating according to customer needs. Any changes will always exist so that the educational world, including VHS, should keep on following the developments occurring in the industrial world. (edukasi.kompasiana.com/2013/03/05/salah-pemahamanterhadap-link-and-match-540180.html). Samsudi (2006: 1) states that one of the main themes of national education development policy, particularly vocational education and training for the next decade, is the improvement of relevance, i.e. the relevance of educational results to the needs of development in general, and the needs of business/industrial world in particular, as well as the needs and challenges of skills (competences) currently and in the future. The competences of VHS graduates relevant to the needs of industry is expected to support the growth of industry in Indonesia to compete in the global era. Wolfgang Poetke (2003) states that education should be designed to support the growth of industry in its country, if not, then the education will be in vain (direct interview of the writer with him at Freiberg University of Germany in 2003). One implementation of link and match, among others, the implementation of education conducted partly in VHS eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

and partly in industry in one package known as dual system. The dual system model implemented in Indonesia adopts the vocational education system of Germany known as duale systeme. The implementation of dual system in vocational education in Germany is more successful because it is supported by the industry coordinated by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Germany. Duale systeme or dual system in vocational schools in Germany teaches around 20% of theories in schools and 80% of practice/internship guided by supervisors in industry. This model is beneficial for the graduates, for example, the automotive VHS graduates directly get jobs in the automotive company where the concerned graduate ever did an internship. Most of them are directly employed in the company where they did the internships. Other benefits of internship, students can use the equipment in the industry in accordance with the latest technology, there is no difference between the props existing in schools with those in the industry. (www.Eed.De/Ueberblick.Archiv.) The implementation of link and match in Indonesia is mostly in form of partnership programs, such as: industrial work practices, OJT (on the job training), guest teachers, curriculum validation, learning process, industrial class, graduate recruitment, competence testing, and industrial visits. However, not all industries implement all of the partnership programs. There are some industries only willing to implement industrial work practices and recruitment programs merely, or recruitment only. The type of partnership program chosen depends on the memorandum of understanding (MOU) between VHS and partner industry. According to Thomas Deissinger (2003), the implementation of dual system in Germany is expected to produce a solution to the problem of labor social market and stimulus for economic development. But he concludes that the dual system model can hardly be transferred to developing countries. Although the internship system has involved 83% of compulsory secondary education age. (www.Eed.De/Ueberblick.Archiv) The implementation of partnership program between VHS and industry still needs to be strengthened in a variety of mutual supporting and industry and VHS growth-oriented partnership activities. The writer’s observation in the field indicates that not all of partnership programs between VHS and industry can be implemented. There are only some industries partnering in graduate recruitment merely, or only industrial work practices, but there are also some partnering in broader partnership programs. The obstacles encountered when the dual system partnership program is implemented in Indonesia are among others: 1. Industry and VHS have not yet had a strong relationship, the cooperation is merely for formality, not yet oriented on mutual solving of problems encountered by industry and VHS. 2. The institution planning, controlling, and evaluating the partnership program between VHS and industry

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia does not yet function optimally, so that the implementation of partnership program between VHS and industry is not yet controlled well. 3. Quantitatively, the number of industries is still limited compared to the number of VHS students, so that the partnership program is equalization-oriented. 4. From the existing local industries, some are still small-scale and intermediate-scale, so that it will affect the limitedness of time and capacity of students from various skill programs of VHS. 5. Not all types of skill competences owned by VHS in certain regions are relevant to the types of existing industries, so that some of skill programs of VHS still look for partner industries in other regions. 6. Some technologies owned by partner industries are labor-based, not many of them are technology-based. 7. Some of partnership programs between VHS and industry have not yet reached the substantial aspect oriented on the competences improvement of human resources that are able to support industrial growth. 8. The partnership between VHS and industry has not yet reach all of management aspects including planning, organizing, actuating, and controlling (POAC) in every partnership program. The management of industrial-based VHS partnership will produce an institution professionally regulating the partnership program that can produce graduates who have the competences relevant to the industrial needs. IV. PARTNERSHIP PROGRAM BETWEEN VHS AND INDUSTRY Many efforts have been performed to improve the relevance and quality of VHS in Indonesia to conform to the industrial needs, however, factually, the number of unemployed of VHS is still high. Although there has been a partnership program between VHS and industry, it is still considered less effective. The result of initial survey by the writer shows that the partnership program between VHS and industry still is incidental. The partnership is implemented on organizing unit, not yet concerned to management elements, so it is not considered effective. One example of partnership programs between VHS and industry has managed to produce graduates who are competent according to the expectations of industry, among others, Adam Wyman, an engineer at General Motors (GM) in America. Adam Wyman, when he was 14, has defined his dream job. He wants to make future cars into fast and agile vehicles, and the most important, it is his own design. Currently he is living the life of his dream. He had worked for General Motors (GM) even before he was graduated from Ohio State on May 2013 with a title of diploma in mechanical engineering. Last July, he joined the Technical Engineering Center (TEC) in Warren, Michigan. As a part of the project, he is one of the experts who make the vehicle engine development. They were tested by the evidentiary basis of GM to build eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

and improve the generation of the company's vehicles in the future (Gemma Mc. Luckie, 2013). Adam Wyman is one of the graduates who studied at Bloom-Carroll Vocational High School in South East Columbus of America. He enrolled in the automotive technology in his first year at Fairfield Career Center (FCC) and he had an internship at the General Motors of America by obtaining reward of 225 dollars per week when having his internship at a local car dealer and paid “a fortune” from the placement period of cooperation between College of Engineering and General Motors. (The intermediate salary for mechanical expert, according to Job Statistics Bureau, is more than 78,000 dollars.) (Gemma Mc.Luckie, 2013) This story is one real proof that vocational schools are able to produce graduates to be engineers according to their dreams. This success is due to the strong partnership between Bloom-Carroll Vocational High School of Columbus America and General Motor (GM) automobile industry of America. Students who do internships are rewarded, and given the freedom to innovate, for students who aspire to be an engineer will be given a serious mentoring from industrial experts. The opportunity to make potential students like Adam Wyman develops by innovations that make the GM automobile industry still existent and interesting for the customers nowadays. VHS has produced the quality human resources according to industrial needs, the partnership program between VHS and industry has been strongly and mutually established, both of them realize that the competent human resources are the assets becoming the responsibility of government (VHS) and industry. The enforcement of industrial-based VHS partnership management is expected to be a solution to reduce the gap existing between the material learned in VHS and the job performed in industry. The limitedness of human resources owned by VHS can be resolved by conducting a partnership with industry referring to the principle of mutuality, respect, and optimization of the resources owned by both parties to reach the mutual goal according to the vision and mission. The mutual partnership between VHS and industry will strengthen the industry to be permanently superior in global era, support Indonesia to be a strong and independent Industrial Country that does not depend on imports. This partnership program will enable the mutual facilities usage, industrial work practice, expert exchange, OJT (on the job training), competence test, excellent products manufacturing, and recruitment of quality graduates that have competences according to the expectations of industry. The strategies to accelerate the partnership can be described in term of short, mid, and long-term. The fulfillment of industrial human resources competences by VHS graduates is a success of VHS that has produced graduates with qualifications according to the industrial needs. If most of graduates are employed by industry or able to open some new similar business/industries, the education model applied in VHS

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia will be considered good enough. Ministry of Education and Culture targets that about 70% of VHS graduates of this year are employed. They are not only employed in various industrial sectors, but also able to create their own jobs. Therefore, the Ministry of Education and Culture will extend the partnership with industry and develop the entrepreneurial education (www.kompas.com). The VHS-industry partnership will provide a change of cultural value of industry to the VHS students that can form an industrial character in the students. The industrial character is an individual positive behaviors, among others: oriented on quality and service, discipline, spirit, learning to innovate, honest, and other positive attitudes. This industrial character will be formed if VHS and industry have a partnership and form an industrial culture. Therefore, in order to advance the industry of mechanical engineering, it is necessary to develop a model of industrial-based VHS partnership management on the skill competence of engineering. The industrial-based VHS partnership management on the skill competence of engineering can produce an output in accordance with the expectations of industry. It requires an optimization of VHS potentials by a good partnership-based management. The industrial-based VHS management is a process where the managers of VHS and industry as administrators, mutually or having other persons, attempt to reach the mutual goal according to their visions and missions more effectively and efficiently. Many efforts to improve the relevance between VHS and industry have been performed by the government, among others, by the implementation of partnership policy in VHS and industry. The partnership established so far includes some partnership programs, among others: industrial work practice, distribution of VHS graduates, OJT (on the job training), guest teachers, industrial visits, and VHS curriculum development. Not all industries are willing to conduct all partnership programs, but it is adjusted to the capability of industry. There are some industries willing to accept the partnership program of industrial work practice only, some willing to accept the industrial work practice and OJT only, and some only willing to accept industrial visits. The initiation of partnership program is still dominated by VHS. It shows that the partnership program between VHS and industry is not yet perceived by industry. The partnership between VHS and industry is not yet based on a strong partnership program management function. The relationship between Vocational High School and industrial partners should be improved with the increasing of partnership programs that has a high relevancy to the industrial needs, such as curriculum validation, industry work practice, and OJT. Those partnership programs has relevancy to produce human resources that suitable with the industrial needs. Curriculum validation of industry will direct the learning process in Vocational High School as real workers in industry. OJT program will give an industrial experience for the teachers, so that they can train the students as the eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

real industrial workers. Industry work practice program will give work experience for the students, so that they will be ready in their affective, psychomotor, and cognitive to work in industry. The implementation of those three partnership programs should be based by the strong management function, from the planning, organizing, actuating, and controlling. The strong partnership between Vocational High School and industrial partner will involve all the elements that exist in the Vocational High School and in the industry. The built management is always oriented to the achievement of the vision and mission of both vocational high school and industry. Both of them build a strong partnership with the characteristic; 1. Realizing each weaknesses and strengths to reach the institution vision and mission, thus requiring partners to reduce the weaknesses of the partners. 2. Fully aware that industrial human resource development is a shared responsibility between vocational high school and industry.

3. Appreciate any difference, both in terms of opinions, culture, facilities and infrastructure that they owned. 4. Both of vocational high school and industry solve the problems that they have together. Vocational high school will help to solve industry problem. In the other hand, industry will also help to solve vocational high school problems. 5. Both of vocational high school and industry always see the differences positively, and open minded to to reach an agreement which is oriented in improving the quality of human resources and industrial growth. V. CLOSING Empirically, a nation that owns a strong industry will be able to prosper the people, improve the national dignity in international association. Constructing a strong mechanical industry is a mutual responsibility of academicians, government, and industry. A strong industry is supported by competent labors according to the needs of industry. The industrial labors are mostly sourced from educational institutions including VHS. Constructing the mechanical industry is started from constructing the educational institutions, i.e. VHS that will produce labors skilled in mechanical engineering. The industrial development requires the human resources that are able to adjust to the competences needed by industry. The formation of competence in line with the industrial needs must be performed mutually with industry. The implementation of partnership program between VHS and industry will be more efficient than if every industry opens its own VHS, and every VHS opens its own industry. The partnership program between VHS and industry needs to be managed well in order to be more effective and efficient in improving the competence of VHS graduates contributing towards Indonesia as the industrial country respected in the international.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia ACKNOWLEDGMENT Hereby I express my gratitude for Prof. Dr. Joko Widodo, M.Pd, Prof. Drs. Pardjono, M.Sc. Ph.D, and Prof. Dr. Samsudi, M.Pd, as the promoter and copromoter as dissertation who have allowed the writer to publish the result of this introductory study. In addition, the writer also expresses the gratitude for Prof. Dr. Chris Zirkle as the advisor when the writer attending the sandwich like program at Ohio State University. This article is expected to be useful for science, and technology development and as a reference in decision making, or as a material of study. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5]

[6]

Ali Mohammad, Pendidikan untuk pembangunan nasional: menuju bangsa Indonesia yang mandiri dan berdaya saing tinggi, Jakarta, Grassindo, 2009. Deissinger, Thomas, Persoalan Pendidikan Kejuruan di Negara Berkembang, Majalah Der Uberblick. Konstanz, Universitat Konstanz, 2003. Endroyo and Ramelan, Inovasi Guru Kejuruan Guru Pendidikan Teknik Mesin, Jurnal Pendidikan Teknik Mesin, Volume 5 No.2, Desember 2005, 2005. Gemma Mc.Luckie, Inspire Magazine, Columbus: College and Education of Human Ecology Ohio state University, 2013. Jeongwoo, Lee, Partnership with Industri for efficient and Effectife Implementation of TVET, International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, The International Vocational Education and Training Association Journal Volume 17, Number 2, USA, Vanderbilt Univerity, 2009. Kemendiknas RI, Rencana Strategis Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Tahun 2010 – 2014, Jakarta : Kemendiknas RI, 2010.

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[7] [8]

[9]

[10]

[11] [12]

[13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

Rukmana Nana, Model Manajemen Pendidikan Berbasis Kemitraan, Bandung: penerbit Alfabeta, 2006. Samsudi, Pengembangan Model Pelatihan dan Penerapan Gugus Kendali Mutu (GKM) Industri Kecil dan Menengah di Jawa Tengah, Universitas Negeri Semarang, 1999. Sharma, Rashika, Collaborative Partnership for Education for Sustainability: New Zealand Vocational Education, The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, Volume 7, Issue 1, 2011, pp.23-32. Widodo Joko, Kepemimpinan Pendidikan Transaksional Dan Trasformasional Di SMK Non Teknik, Jurnal Pendidikan Ekonomi Vol. 3 No. 1 Feburari 2008 Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Negeri Semarang, 2008. Wolfgang Poetke, Wawancara di Freiberg University Jerman, Freiberg Jerman, 2003. Zainal Arifin, Implementasi Manajemen Strategik Berbasis Kemitraan Dalam Meningkatkan Mutu SMK, abstrak, Adminitrasi Pendidikan FIP UPI, Bandung. Published on Tuesday, 16 October 2012 14:02 | Written by asep iryanto, 2012. Kompas, Selasa, 13 Desember 2011 Suara Merdeka, 3 Januari 2012 Suara Merdeka, 9 Januari 2012 http://cordovacendekia.blogspot.com/2009/08/modelimplementasi-kebijakan-kemitraan.html http://www.datapokok.ditsmk.net http://www.ditpsmk.net http://www.file.upi.edu http://megapolitan.kompas.com/read/2009/10/06/19295372/twitter .com http://www.ipabipusat.org. http:/ www.wikipedia.co.id

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Effect of The Use of Fuel LPG Gas and Pertamax on Exhaust Gas Emissions of Matic Motorcycle Khairul Muhajir Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology Institute of Science and Technology, AKPRIND Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract— In addition to the burning of fossil fuels has a negative impact on the environment. Diminishing air quality due to smoke of burning fossil fuels is one of the effects that we can see clearly. Then the effects of greenhouse gases generated by the combustion CO2 gas oil. As we know that burning fossil fuels will result in imperfect gases CO, which over time will accumulate in the atmosphere. Radiation emitted by the sun to earth should be reflected back into space, but the CO2 buildup will block the reflection. As a result, the radiation will be re-absorbed by the earth which ultimately increases the air temperature at the earth. Both effects are just some of the negative effects of fossil fuels which later was followed by a series of other negative effects for humans. Therefore the use of a renewable fuel that is safer for the environment is an absolute thing. Recent times, there have been some people apply the LPG fuel in gasoline motorcycle by doing some modifications on certain parts. So that LPG gas fuel can be used. This shows that the trend of the future of transportation fuels leads to the obvious, which is fuel efficient and do not pollute the environment. So that the levels of air pollution in Indonesia can be minimized. Scarcity of fuel oil that happened recently has given a very broad impact across various sectors of life. The sectors most affected are fast transport sector. Fluctuations in supply and price of petroleum should make us aware that the amount of oil reserves on earth are running low. Thus needed saving fuel by finding alternative fuels more efficient and environmentally friendly, which is then examined their effects on power, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions are produced. Starting from this, the authors try to do some research on the effect of using LPG fuel, hoping to determine the extent of the influence of the fuel on the performance and exhaust emissions are produced. In this research used Suzuki Motor Spin 2008 as the research object. How to research and data collection was done on the variation round 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, and 8000. The results showed that the use of LPG gas torque average 29.14% smaller, less power 8.28%, 7.44% BMEP smaller, fuel consumption rate of 39.57% smaller, bigger engine efficiency 26.43%, lower CO levels 72.10 %, lower levels of 42.39% HC, CO2 levels greater than 33.21% using pertamax fuel. Keywords-alternative fuel; engine performance and exhaust emissions

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I. INTRODUCTION Recent times , there have been some people apply the LPG fuel in gasoline motorcycle by doing some modifications on certain parts . So that LPG gas fuel can be used. This shows that the trend of the future of transportation fuels leads to the obvious, which is fuel efficient and do not pollute the environment. So that the levels of air pollution in Indonesia can be minimized. A. Problem Formulation Based on the above background, the researchers formulate the problem as follows : 1. How much influence the use of LPG gas fuel to torque when compared to using a fuel pertamax. 2. How much influence the use of LPG gas fuel for power when compared to using LPG fuel. 3. How to influence the use of LPG gas fuel for BMEP when compared to using pertamax. 4. How to influence the use of LPG gas to sfc when compared to using pertamax. 5. How to influence the use of LPG gas to the engine efficiently when compared to using pertamax. 6. How much influence the emissions generated by the use of LPG gas when compared to using pertamax. Benefits of Research: experiment and analysis of the results expected to be known to what extent the influence of the use of LPG gas fuel for torque, motor power, BMEP, fuel consumption, efficiency, and exhaust emissions generated by the motor, when compared to using a fuel pertamax. B. Equations Used in The Study The resulting torque engine (Heywood, 1988: 46): 

T = F x b







P = 2 π N x T x 10-3







work per cycle 

PnR  N



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mep 

Vd 

P n R x103  Vd x N

 d2 4

L









Regulator

Valve

.

sfc 

mf  P





Carburator

Adaptor

LPG Tube

Engine

II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Performance Testing Machine. Tests carried out using Suzuki engines Spin Testing is focused on engine performance and exhaust emissions. The variables measured include torque, shaft power, engine speed, fuel consumption, and efficiency. In this test done with the engine speed variation from 4000 to 8000 rpm. Settings by turning the throttle to raise the engine speed, at any multiple of 1000 Rpm done once data collection for each of the above two variables. The following flow chart shown from the research conducted. Start

Put Fuel Gas LPG Installation On Test Machine Prepare Dyno Test

Prepare Test Equipment Include: testing machine, Dynamometer, and Tools Supporting.

Figure 2. Installation of LPG fuel delivery to the motor gasoline.

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION AFR is the theoretical weight ratio of air to fuel mixture in the fuel theoretically, theoretical AFR obtained by reacting fuel with chemical equation in which combustion is considered perfect. Figure 4. shows a comparison between the engine speed with the torque generated from the data with the test results using LPG fuel. TABLE I.

RESEARCH DATA ENGINE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS FOR USE FUEL PERTAMAX

Engine Rpm 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Specific fuel consumption (2cc/s) 15.66 8.41 5.34 5.25 3.69

Torque (N.M) 11.50 9.96 7.95 6.25 6.56

Power (Kw) 6.5 7.0 6.7 6.2 7.4

TABLE II. RESEARCH DATA ENGINE PERFORMANCE MATERIALS FOR USE FUEL GAS LPG

Terms Fulfilled 1. material Test 2. Test Equipment

Perform Testing: The data engine speed, power, torque, fuel consumption and time

Engine Rpm 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Specific fuel consumption (2cc/s) 14.45 10.28 8.37 6.64 4.86

Torque (N.M)

Power (Kw)

11.21 6.65 4.39 3.69 4.00

6.6 6.2 5.9 5.5 6.8

Data processing

discussion

conclusion Figure 3. Torque versus engine speed. Stop Figure 1. Flowchart of the study.

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Torque is measured in this test is the torque after through automatic centrifugal clutch work optimally. At Figure 3. shows that the engine torque decreases with increase in engine rotation. Torque resulting from the use

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia of LPG fuel decreased at 7000 rpm which then increases again at 8000 rpm rotation. The maximum torque generated from the use of 11:50 PERTAMAX Nm at 4000 rpm engine speed, while the use of LPG at 11:21 Nm at 4000 rpm engine speed, so the maximum torque by using a smaller LPG 29 % of the maximum torque by using pertamax. Average torque resulting from the use of PERTAMAX of 8.44 Nm, while the use of LPG amounted to 5.98 Nm , so the average torque by using LPG smaller 24 % of the first to use. Chart 1. shows the ratio between engine speed with the power generated from the data with the test results using pertamax fuel and LPG Gas. Figure 4. shows that on Power Machines will rise in line with the increase in engine rotation. The power generated in this test is the following through automatic centrifugal clutch work optimally.

BMEP of use PERTAMAX of 1002.72 Kpa at 6000 rpm engine speed, whereas the use of LPG at 686.99 kPa at 7000 rpm engine speed, so the average effective pressure maximum by using LPG gas 31.48 % lower than the average effective pressure by using pertamax. BMEP average PERTAMAX resulting from the use of 876.47 kPa, while the use of LPG amounted to 616.61 Kpa, so BMEP average LPG gas by using a smaller 29.6 % of BMEP using pertamax. Chart 5. shows the comparison between the spin machine with the fuel consumption rate of the data generated by the test results using Pertamax fuel and LPG Gas. In the graph 5. shows that the rate of fuel consumption will increase along with the increase in engine speed. The rate of fuel consumption is the large amount of fuel mass required for each one unit of time. The amount of fuel consumption rate depends on the value of the engine speed, the higher the engine speed is generated, the greater the fuel required for the combustion process .

Figure 4. Power versus engine speed.

In the Figure 4. shows that the power generated increased along with the increase in engine speed. Power is the result of torque, so the value of power is highly dependent on the value of the motor torque generated. In this test the power generated from the use of PERTAMAX relatively higher when compared to the use of LPG. Maximum power of 7.4 KW for use PERTAMAX at 8000 rpm engine speed, whereas the use of LPG for maximum power 6.8 Kw at 8000 rpm engine speed, so the maximum power with using LPG smaller 60% of the maximum power by using pertamax. Average power resulting from the use of 6.76 Kw PERTAMAX, while the use of LPG by 6.2 kW, so the average power by using smaller LPG 56% of the average power by using pertamax. Figure 5. shows the comparison between the mean effective pressure (BMEP) using fuels with LPG gas PERTAMAX.

Figure 6. Specific fuel consumption versus engine speed.

Maximum fuel consumption rate of use PERTAMAX of 0395 g/s at 8000 rpm engine speed, while the use of LPG by 0201 g/s at 8000 rpm engine speed, so the rate of maximum fuel consumption using LPG gas is smaller than the rate of 37.18% fuel consumption by using pertamax. Fuel consumption rate of the average of the first to use at 0.169 g/s, while the use of LPG amounted to 0.116 g/s, so the rate of fuel consumption on average by using LPG gas 31.36% less than the rate of fuel consumption on average using pertamax. Figure 6. shows the comparison between the engine speed with the specific fuel consumption (sfc) which is derived from the data with the test results using Pertamax and LPG Gas.

Figure 7. Specific fuel consumption versus engine speed. Figure 5. Bmep versus engine speed.

BMEP is generated in this test is BMEP after through automatic centrifugal clutch work optimally. Maximum eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Specific fuel consumption (sfc) is needed in the testing machine is automatic centrifugal clutch sfc after work optimally. On Figure 7. indicates that specific fuel consumption is decreasing due to higher engine speed. This proves that the mass of fuel per unit of weight that II - 23

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia can be converted into heat energy per unit mass of energy, the better. By using specific fuel consumption pertamax smaller than using LPG. This is because that the specific fuel consumption is the result for the rate of fuel consumption with power, so if the value of the rate of fuel consumption and the resulting power of the specific fuel consumption will be smaller. Specific fuel consumption (sfc) maximum on condition automatic centrifugal clutch is working optimally from the use PERTAMAX of 0.0516 mg/J, while the use of LPG amounted to 0.0401 mg/J, so the specific fuel consumption by using smaller LPG 22:28 % of specific fuel consumption by using pertamax. Specific fuel consumption (sfc) the average of the use PERTAMAX of 0.0325 mg/J, while the use of LPG amounted to 0.0296 mg/J, so the specific fuel consumption (sfc) average LPG gas by using a smaller 8.92 % of consumption specific fuel using pertamax.

Figure 9. CO Emission Levels versus engine speed.

In the combustion exhaust emissions of CO were low indicating the combustion mixture is a mixture of thin air or more of the fuel burned, while the combustion with CO emission values that indicate high fat mixture or more fuel in the combustion air the. Maximum levels of CO emissions in the use of 9.77 % vol PERTAMAX at 6000 rpm engine speed, whereas the use of LPG at 8:13 vol% at 5000 rpm engine speed, so the maximum CO levels by using smaller LPG 16.78 % of the maximum CO levels by using pertamax. Average levels of gas emissions from the use PERTAMAX Discard CO by 8.62 % vol, while the use of LPG for 3.79 vol%, so the average CO level using LPG gas 56 % lower than the average CO level using pertamax. Figure 9. shows the comparison between the results of the engine speed exhaust emissions of hydrocarbons (HC) generated from the data test results.

Figure 8. Engine efficiency versus engine speed.

Basically the fuel conversion efficiency shows the comparison between the amount of power generated by an engine in one cycle to the amount of fuel energy supplied per cycle that can be released in a combustion process. Therefore if the price of the fuel consumption (sfc) is getting smaller, the price will increase efficiency. In the Figure 8. shows that the efficiency tends to decrease with increase in engine speed. first to use the maximum efficiency obtained at 5000 rpm engine speed, it shows that the rotation 5000 rpm, the fuel used can be converted into heat energy optimally, while at the engine speed is too high engine efficiency will decrease, this is caused by a variety of factors such as the valve opening late because the engine speed is too high so that the charging and exhaust in the cylinder to work less effectively. Maximum machine efficiency from first to use by 98 % at 5000 rpm engine speed , while the use of LPG amounted to 97.4 % at 4000 rpm engine speed , so the maximum engine efficiency by using less gas LPG 0.61 % of the maximum efficiency by using pertamax. Average engine efficiency of 75.8 % at first to use, while the use of LPG amounted to 79.23 %, so the average engine efficiency of larger use of LPG 4:53 % of the efficiency of the engine by using fuel pertamax. Figure 9. shows the comparison between the results of the engine speed exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) which is derived from the data with the test results using LPG gas. Figure 9. From the graph it can be seen that the CO emissions produced decreases with increasing engine speed. With the use of CO emissions pertamax be high Leih dibangkan using LPG. So for LPG gas emissions is smaller than pertamax. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 10. HC Emission Levels versus engine speed.

From the graph 10. is known that HC exhaust emissions produced decreased due to higher engine speed. In the combustion exhaust gas HC emissions are low due to the fuel carburetion the better, which means better kesilinder distribution, so that the combustion to be perfect, while the combustion with flue gas HC emissions rate is high due to unburned fuel and out into the raw gas, the valve overlap so that a gas flushing, a common cause of poor ignition system. Maximum levels of HC exhaust emissions in the use of 0.0024 % vol PERTAMAX at 4000 rpm engine speed, while the LPG at 0.00055 % vol at 5000 rpm engine speed, so the maximum HC levels using LPG gas fuel 77 % smaller than the maximum levels of HC using fuel pertamax. HC average levels of use PERTAMAX of 0.00094 % vol, while HC levels using LPG gas of 0.00029 % vol, so the average HC concentration resulting from the combustion of LPG 68.9 % lower than the average level of HC using pertamax.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION Based on the study the effect of using LPG fuel in 4-stroke Suzuki Motor Spin as well as from the results of calculations and data analysis has been done in the previous chapter, it can be concluded as follows : 1. Average torque with fuel pertamax of 8.44 Nm, while the use of LPG gas fuel by 5.98 Nm. So the average torque using LPG gas 29.14 % less than the average torque using pertamax. 2. Average shaft power using fuel Pertamax of 6.76 Kw, whereas the average shaft power generated using LPG gas is equal to 6.2 Kw. So the average shaft power using gas fuel LPG 8:28 % smaller than the average shaft power using pertamax. 3. BMEP average with the use of LPG gas fuel Kpa at 1066.7 while the average BMEP using pertamax at 1152.52 Kpa. So BMEP mean using less gas LPG 7:44 % of fuel use pertamax. 4. Kosumsi rate average fuel using PERTAMAX of 0.245 g/s while using LPG gas, the rate of fuel consumption average of 0148 g/s. Thus, the rate of fuel consumption on average by using LPG gas 39.57 % less than the rate of fuel consumption on average by using pertamax. 5. Sfc average using pertamax fuel by 0036 mg/h, while the average Sfc using LPG fuel at 0.024 mg/j. Thus, specific fuel consumption on average by using smaller LPG gas 98.8 % of the specific fuel consumption on average by using pertamax.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

6. Average engine efficiency with fuel pertamax by 58.34 %, while the average engine efficiency by using LPG is equal to 79.30 % . Average engine efficiency using LPG gas 26.43 % greater than the average engine efficiency by using pertamax. 7. CO levels on average by using pertamax of 3:37 % vol, while using LPG CO level is the average of 0.94 % vol. Average CO levels using LPG gas 72.10 % smaller than the average CO level using pertamax. 8. HC exhaust emissions average for pertamax of 0.000342 % vol, while using LPG gas HC concentration is equal to the average 0.000197 % vol. It shows that the average level of HC from the use of LPG gas fuel is smaller 42.39 % of fuel use pertamax. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was funded by The Institute of Science and Technology of AKPRIND of Yogyakarta Research Competition. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4]

[5]

Arends, BPM. & Barenschot, H., Motor Gasoline, Interpreting : Umar Sukrisno, grants, Jakarta, 1980. Heywood, JB, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, Singapore : McGraw - Hill Book Co, 1989. Malev, VL, the Internal -Combustion Engine Theory and Design , Tokyo : McGraw - Hill Book Company, Inc, 1945. Potter, Merle C, and Somerton, Craig W., Thermodynamics For Engineers, Mc Graw – Hill Publishers Book Inc., New York, 1993. Pudjanarsa, and Nursuhud A, D, Energy Conversion Machines, Andi Publisher, Yogyakarta, 2006.

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Analysis of Radial Force and Rotational Speed Test of Radial Permanent Magnetic Bearing for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Applications Kriswanto1, Haryadi2, Joga Dharma Setiawan3 and Jamari4 Mechanical Engineering Dept. Diponegoro University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—This paper deals with the design of radial Permanent Magnetic Bearing (PMB) that used as the main shaft bearing in Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). Radial PMB should have a greater radial force than the radial force of HAWT main shaft (bearing load). This paper presents a mathematical model, software modeling, and experimental test to calculate the radial force of the radial PMB. This paper also presents rotational speed test of the radial PMB compared to conventional bearings for HAWT applications. Mathematical models to determine the radial force using Coulombian model and vector approach are written in MATLAB R2012b codes. COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3b is use for software modeling with the magnetic fields user interfaces. Experimental test of the radial force is performed by measuring the displacement of the rotor to the stator for a given load variation. Results of the three analysis methods of radial force show that the larger the axis displacement of rotor magnet toward stator magnet, the greater the radial force. The radial force of radial PMB is greater than the radial force of HAWT main shaft. The rotational speed test results of HAWT that used radial PMB can produce higher rotational speed than the conventional bearings with an average increase of 87.4%. Increasing rotational speed occurs because the radial PMB has no friction. HAWT that used radial PMB can rotating at a very low wind speeds, 1.4 m/s with a torque of 0.043 Nm. HAWT which use conventional bearing starts rotating at the wind speed of 4.4 m/s with a higher torque of 0.104 Nm. Keywords-mathematical model; software experimental test; radial PMB; HAWT

modeling;

I. INTRODUCTION

employed in high speed systems and in cases where no contamination is required [3-4]. PMB have several attractive advantages over conventional bearings because magnetic bearings levitate rotors and therefore have no physical contact with the spinning rotors. The use of magnetic bearings can significantly eliminate the frictions that usually exist in conventional bearings, can contribute to efficiency in energy, longer life, ability to operate at very high RPM, elimination of mechanical maintenance of the bearing and lubrication, suitability for clean or vacuum room operation [2,5]. Although Earnshaw’s theorem states that there is no stable and static configuration of levitating permanent magnet, permanent magnet can be used as either axial magnetic bearing or radial magnetic bearing [6]. PMB has many advantages than AMB (Active Magnetic Bearing). It needs no position detection and no feedback control, has no electrocmagnets and thus consumes no additional electric power, as compared with electromagnetic levitation; it needs no bulky cooling system unlike superconductor magnetic levitation; after all, the PMB is simple in construction and low in costs [7]. PMB highly appropriately applied as the main shaft bearing of the HAWT. PMB in this work is a type of radial PMB. Radial PMB as the main shaft bearing of HAWT were placed as shown in Fig. 1. The radial PMB was built from the configuration of ring shaped magnets with radial orientation of vector of magnetization. Radial PMB was built and analyzed only a prototype.

The bearings are a vital part of wind turbines. They have to operate continuously under varying load and frequently intermittent lubrication. Wind turbine failure statistics in Germany show that most of the shutdown operation is related to the bearing [1]. Permanent magnet bearings (PMB) are contact free bearings wherein the rotor is levitated using an attractive or repulsive forces generated between the magnets [2]. PMB are a fascinating solution in applications where friction and wear are the main causes of damage and even of failure [3]. Since magnetic levitation causes no contact, PMB are efficiently

mainshaft bearing

Figure 1. Main shaft bearing of HAWT [1].

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Recent research about PMB by Bekinal simply discuss a mathematical model of an axially and radially magnetized permanent magnet bearing (ring magnets) using Coulombian model and a vector approach to estimate the force, moment and stiffness [2,8]. Several recent PMB patents for wind turbine applications are patent US20110062716A1 and US20110001379A1. Patent US20110062716A1 shows the use of PMB for rotational support of Darrieus-type wind turbines [9]. Patent US20110001379A1 presents the radial passive magnetic bearing with concentric permanent magnets repelling eachother in combination with thrust ball bearings [10]. None of the PMB patents above discusses PMB for HAWT applications. In order to support the radial load of the HAWT main shaft, radial PMB should have a greater radial force than the load. This work presents three methode to calculate the radial force of radial PMB configuration, ie mathematical model, software modeling, and experimental test. This work was also to know the rotational speed performance of radial PMB compared to conventional bearings for horizontal axis wind turbine applications.

moment at rotor, Fr the radial force, Fs the shaft mass, yr the distance rotor to bearing centre, yg the distance bearing centre to gear stay, ys the distance shaft centre of gravity to gear stay, ρ the density of air, r the radius of rotor blade, V1 the upwind, V2 the downwind, V the wind speed, β the pitch angle, λ the tip speed ratio, and e eccentricity of bearing. Table I shows is the specification of HAWT. TABLE I.

SPESIFICATION OF HAWT

Parameters r [mm] FzR [gr] Fs[gr] Yr [mm] Yg [mm] Ys [mm] 13 0.02 0.059 58 128 93 Value Parameters Value

λ 1.53

Cp 0.445

Cq 0.29

T [°C] 27.8

ρ[kg/m3] e [mm] 1.157 15

Radial force of HAWT main shaft obtained by calculating the loads and reactions by Eq. (1-8) at wind speed of 1.1 up to 8.4 m/s. The result of radial force as shown in Fig. 3, where the minimum radial force 0.587 N generated at wind speed 8.4 m/s, while the maximum radial force of 0.703 N is generated at wind speed 1.1 m/s.

II. BEARING LOAD Design of a rotor shaft shown in Fig. 2. The shaft is supported by a bearing placed adjacent to the rotor. Another bearing at the opposite end of the rotor shaft is integrated in the gearbox.

Figure 3. Radial force of HAWT main shaft.

III. RADIAL FORCES ANALYSIS

Figure 2. Loads and reactions on the main shaft [11]

1 2

FyR = FyR    r 2 (V12  V2 2 )

(1)

M1= MXR-FSYS-FZR(Yr+Yg) M2= FXR(Yr+Yg)+ MZR MxR =e FyR MzR =e FyR

(2) (3) (4) (5)

1 M yR  Cq   ,    A rV 2 2

(6)

V= (V1+V2)

(7)

1 Yg

(8)

Fr 

M12  M 2 2

Where FxR the side force on rotor, FyR the thrust on rotor, FzR the weight of rotor, MxR the tilting moment at rotor, MyR the driving torque at rotor, MzR the yaw eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

A. Mathematical Model Radial force of the radial PMB configuration is analyzed mathematically using Coulombian model and a vector approach with the help of MATLAB R2012b software. The radial PMB configuration presented in Fig. 4. The inner magnet as the rotor, while the outer magnet as the stator.

Figure 4. Configuration of radial PMB consists of a magnetic ring A and B.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Specification considered for the analysis are presented in Table II. The material of inner ring is made from NdFeb magnet, outer ring from ferrite magnet. TABLE II. SPESIFICATION OF THE RADIAL PMB CONFIGURATION Parameters Inner radius [mm] Outer radius [mm] Thickness, L [mm] Flux density, Br [T]

Inner ring R3=27.5 R4=3.775 Z1-Z0 =8 J2=0.39

Radial force, Fy is:

FY 

p  n, q  m

p  n,q  m

p 1, q 1

p 1, q 1



FApBqY 

p  n,q  m

Outer ring R1=37.5 R2=8.6 Z3-Z2=8 J1=0.05



p 1, q 1

The Coulombian model of the magnets is adopted, wherein each permanent magnet is represented by surfaces with fictitious magnetic pole surface densities in the direction of polarization. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of rotor and stator magnets with magnetization in the radial directions.

FCpBqY 



FApDqY 

p n,q m



(17)

FCpDqY

p 1, q 1

Analysis mathematically of radial force is done by writing Eq. (9-17) on MATLAB code.

Figure 6. The radial force-displacement graph of radial PMB calculated by mathematical model.

Figure 5. (a) Elements on the surfaces. (b) Displacement of the rotor magnet by a distance ‘e’ with respect to outer magnet [8].

The elemental forces can be expressed as: 

2

F A1B1 J

 S A1S B1

40 rA31 B1



F C1D1 J

2



2



2

r C1D1

(10)

 S A1S D1

40 rA31 D1

F C1B1 J

(9)

 SC 1S D1

40 rC31 D1

F A1D1 J

r A1B1

r A1D1

(11)

 SC 1S B1

40 rC31 B1

r C1B1

(12)

where, J is the magnet surface flux density, SA1the surface area of element A1, SB1 the surface area of element B1, the distance vector between elements A1 and B 1, and µo the absolute magnetic permeability. The vector can be expressed in X Y Z coordinate system as:

The maximum radial force Fy of the radial PMB configuration calculated by mathematical model is 3.55 N, which happens at the axis displacement of rotor magnet toward stator magnet of 18 mm. Fig. 6 above shows that the larger displacement of rotor towards stator, the greater the radial force. B. Software Modeling Radial force analysis of the radial PMB configuration use COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3b software for modeling. Analysis use the magnetic fields user interfaces to model the magnetic field. Add an infinite element domain to model the open region of free space surrounding the magnets. Use the Ampère’s Law node for the air domains and add separate for the magnets. Add a force calculation feature to compute the total magnetic force on the inner magnets. Radial force was analyzed using COMSOL software by setting the displacement from 0 to 18 mm. Fig. 7 show the magnetic flux density of the radial PMB at an origin ( radial displacement of 0 mm).



r A1B1 X A1  X B1 i YA1 YB1  j  Z A1  ZB1  k

(13)



r A1D1 X A1  X D1 i YA1 YD1  j  Z A1  Z D1  k

(14)



r C1B1 XC1  X B1 i YC1 YB1  j  ZC1  ZB1 k

(15)



r C1D1 X C1  X D1 i YC1 YD1  j  ZC1  ZD1  k

(16)

where, XA1, YA1, ZA1 the coordinate of element, A1, XB1, YB1, ZB1 the coordinate of element B1, XC1, YC1, ZC1 the coordinate of element C1, and XD1, YD1, ZD1 the coordinate of element D1. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 7. Magnetic flux density norm at an origin.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia D. Comparison of Result The radial force exerted by the stator ring on the rotor is plotted for its different radial positions in Fig. 11.

Figure 8. The radial force-displacement graph of the radial PMB using COMSOL.

The maximum radial force Fy of the radial PMB configuration using COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3b software is 3.4 N, which happens at the axis displacement of rotor magnet toward stator magnet of 18 mm. Fig. 8 above shows that the larger displacement of rotor towards stator, the greater the radial force. The result is similarly with a mathematical model. C. Experimental Test Experimental test is perform by measuring the displacement of the rotor to the stator for a given load variation. The load units is in grams, and then converted to newton. Set-up of experimental test to calculate radial force is presented in Fig. 9.

Figure 11. Radial force comparison.

It can be observed from Fig. 11 that the results of radial force obtained with mathematical model and software modeling match very closely with the results of experiment test. TABLE III. COMPARISON OF RADIAL FORCE RESULTS. Methode Mathematical model Software modeling

Radial Force Comparison [N] with 3.55 experimental test (3.5 N) 3.4

Variation [%] 1.37 2.92

Comparison of the results of the mathematical model, software modeling and experimental test is presented in Table 3. The mismatch between the results from the mathematical model and software modeling comparison with experimental test is less than 3%. The radial force of radial PMB configuration is greater than bearing load, so the configuration can be applied as main shaft bearing of HAWT. IV. ROTATIONAL SPEED TEST

Figure 9. Set-up of experimental test.

In performance test of radial PMB ie in testing rotational speed should be compared with conventional bearings (ball bearing) that applied on HAWT models. Rotational speed test performed with various wind speeds from 0 to 8.4 m/s produced from the fan, at an operating temperature of 27.8 ºC. Air flow is measured using a digital anemometer and rotational speed is measured using a digital tachometer. Set-up off rotational speed test as shown in Fig. 12.

Figure 10. The radial force-displacement graph of the radial PMB experimental test.

The maximum radial force Fy of the radial PMB configuration using experimental test is 3.5 N which happens at the axis displacement of rotor magnet toward stator magnet of 18 mm. Fig. 10 above shows that the larger displacement of rotor towards stator, the greater the radial force will be. The result is similarly with a mathematical model and software modeling. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 12. Set-up of rotational speed test

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Radial PMB can increase 87.4% rotational speed compared to conventional bearing for HAWT application. Increasing rotational speed occurs because the radial PMB has no friction. HAWT that used radial PMB can rotating at a very low wind speeds, 1.4 m/s with a torque of 0.043 Nm. HAWT which uses conventional bearing start rotating at a wind speed of 4.4 m/s with a higher torque of 0.104 Nm. B. Recommendation Earnshaw's theorem said that one of the six degrees of freedom of PMB should be controlled, so if need to build a magnetic bearing that functions as a radial and thrust bearing, The PMB should be added of active magnetic control.

Figure 13. Comparison of rotational speed result.

Fig. 13 shows the result of rotational speed test of the HAWT that used radial PMB and conventional bearing. HAWT that used radial PMB can rotating at a very low wind speeds of 1.4 m/s and conventional bearing start rotating at a wind speed of 4.4 m/s. HAWT model that use radial PMB at a speed 8.4 m /s produces rotational speed of 832.2 RPM, while the use of conventional bearings produces 359.1 RPM. Rotational speed data between radial PMB and conventional bearing compared, and be obtained mean of increase 87.4%. Increasing rotational speed occurs because the radial PMB has no friction. Radial PMB can levitate the main shaft HAWT. Comparison of torque between PMB and conventional radial bearing be calculated using Eq. 18.

1 C p   ,    AV 3 2 T 2 n 60

(18)

TABLE IV. DATA OF TORQUE AND ROTARY SPEED v1[m/s] 1.1 1.4 4.4 8.4

Radial PMB n [RPM] T [Nm] 0 0 5 0.043 217.7 0.031 832.2 0.056

Convensional Bearing n [RPM] T [Nm] 0 0 0 0 64.1 0.104 395.1 0.118

HAWT model that used radial PMB start rotating at 1.4 m/s with a torque of 0.043 Nm, while the HAWT model which uses conventional bearing start rotating at a wind speed of 4.4 m/s and with a torque of 0.104 Nm.

REFERENCES Uboguhigh, E.A., “Hight Reliability and Low Friction Bearings for Wind Turbine”Mini-project report.Energy-research councils UK. The University of Sheffield. United Kingdom, 2010. [2] Bekinal , S.I., Anil,T.R., and Jana, S., Analysis of Axially Magnetized Permanent Magnet Bearing Characteristics. Progress in Electromagnetic Research B, Vol. 44, 2012, pp. 327-343. [3] Di Puccio, F., Bassani, R., Ciulli, E., Musolino, A., and Rizzo, R., “Permanent Magnet Bearings: Analysis Of Plane And Axisymmetric V-Shaped Element Design” Progress In Electromagnetics Research M, Vol. 26, 2012, pp. 205-223. [4] Polajzer, B, “Magnetic Bearings", Theory and Applications, Croatia: sciyo, 2010. [5] Setiawan, J.D., “Active Magnetic Bearing for Frictionless Rotating Machineries”, ROTASI "Jurnal Teknik Mesin", Vol. 8 No3, 2006, pp. 6-10. [6] Ferreiro, R. and Perez, F.J., “Developing Magnetic Bearings For Subsea Oceanic Environments”, Journal of Marine Research, Vol. 8 No.1, 2011, pp. 35-48. [7] Qian, K.X., Zeng, P., Ru, W.M., and Yuan, H.Y., New Concepts and New Design of Permanent MaglevRotary Artiﬁcial Heart Blood Pumps. Medical Engineering & Physics Vol. 8, 2006,pp 383–388. [8] Bekinal, S.I., Anil,T.R., and Jana, S., Analysis of Radial Magnetized Permanent Magnet Bearing Characteristics. Progress in Electromagnetic Research B, Vol. 47, 2013, pp. 87-105. [9] A rotational magnetic bearing with permanent magnets, preferably for a wind turbine, USPatent US20110062716A1. [10] Passive Radial Magnetic Bearing with Concentric Permanent Magnets Repelling Eachother in Combination with Thrust Ball Bearings,USPatent US 20110001379 A1. [11] DNV/Risø, “Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbine,” Second edition, Denmark: DNV/Risø, 2002. [1]

V. CONCLUSION A. Summary The maximum radial forces of radial PMB produced by mathematical model is 3.55 N, by software modeling is 3.4 N, and by experiment test is 3.5 N. Results of the three method of analysis radial force show that the larger the axis displacement of rotor magnet toward stator magnet, the greater the radial force. The mismatch between the results from the mathematical model and software modeling comparison with experimental test is less than 3%.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Management Model of Vocational High School Graduate Competency Synchronization Based DUDI for Machining Skill Program Heri Yudiono Mechanical Engineering Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—This study aims to design a management model of vocational competency based synchronization for groups of subjects DUDI productive machining skills program. The research approach used in this study is a qualitative approach. The research was conducted at SMKN 1, SMKN 4, SMKN 5 and SMKN 7 Semarang. Instruments developed in light of the considerable research content and management approach. Data collection techniques using triangulation techniques through participant observation, in-depth interviews and documentation to obtain data from the same source. In this study testing the validity of the data using the test of credibility by triangulation. The study involved 12 participants consisting of: principals, viceprincipals and the curriculum areas of industrial relations, group leader competence and machining expertise DUDI partners. The results showed synchronization management model suggests the need for better coordination between providers of education graduates with those who need to employ graduates. Analysis of the needs of the workforce, including quality and quantity competence at different locations and times is preliminary information that needs to be provided in the synchronization process. In terms DUDI be designed capable of producing manpower and information needs of business opportunities in the job market and can also provide an overview of the functions and roles should be. This information can be a reference for the education providers in planning and adopting the curriculum and other educational policies. Synchronization process will not run optimally without the parties are in the middle of a mediation or alignment. Parties are expected to be alignment between supply side and demand side should have a strong commitment to oversee and facilitate the alignment process optimization through the role and function of each. Some things that can be advised of the need for optimization research is the role of stakeholders in the management of vocational competency synchronization, as well as advanced research in the development of management model synchronization, cooperation models and DUDI SMK effective and sustainable management evaluation model synchronization as well as vocational competence with DUDI. Keywords-model management; productive competence; machining

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synchronization;

I. INTRODUCTION Vocational High School is one of the vocational education that is expected to prepare candidates for the national workforce qualified middle level. To realize this vision, Vocational High School should clean thoroughly, integrated and sustainable in improving the quality and capacity. Competence of graduates should be tailored to the workforce competencies needed especially DUDI. Era of globalization also requires strong competitiveness in technology, management, leadership, and human resources. Technological advantage would lower production costs, increase the content of value added, expanding the diversity of products, and improve product quality. Management and leadership excellence will improve effectiveness and efficiency. Advantages of human resources is the key to competitiveness for human resources will determine who is able to maintain the survival, development, and win in the global competition. Qualified human resources has superior properties of creative, innovative, flexible, technologically savvy, skilled, and have multiple intelligences. Trilling and Fadel (2010) suggests that education in the 21st century capable of producing "innovative, inventive, self- motivated and self-directed, creative problem solvers to confront increasingly complex global problem". Therefore, vocational education is an economic education so that the implementation of vocational schools should be pro-job creation, pro economic activity, pro-economic growth, pro-economic equality, and welfare pro. Slamet (2013: 15-16) also reveal the condition of the current vocational schools shows the following matters: (1) most of the current vocational schools prepare students to work only on specific areas of expertise as workers / employees / employee. Very little has been deliberately set up students to become entrepreneurs. In fact, according to Kementerian Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi (2010), vocational high school graduates received as an employee in the formal sector is only 30 % and 70 % work in the informal sector (micro/ small enterprises) who were never prepared either by vocational schools; (2) alignment between vocational schools and the world of work in the dimensions of quantity, quality, location, and time, has not

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia been formally organized. Although it has been issued Peraturan Presiden Republik Indonesia Nomor 8 Tahun 2012 on Indonesian National Qualifications Framework (KKNI), but the container bridge formal vocational high school and the working world does not exist. In the past (1994) there was a container bridge the vocational high school and the world of work is the National Vocational Education Council (MPKN ). MPKN formed through a Joint Decree of Ministry of Education and Culture and the Indonesian Chamber of Commerce and Industry on the establishment of the Vocational Education Council and 0217/U/1994 No. 044 / SKEP/KU/VIII/94, but now the institute is not active. Though The decree also not been revoked; (3) vocational schools are less responsive to the demands of economic development locally, nationally, regionally, and internationally. Potential of the local economy, the wealth of natural and cultural resources, and regional and global competition has not taken quickly, fixed, and right. If so, the role of vocational schools to economic development will not be a maximum; and (4) reversal of the proportion of high school students: SMK of 70 % : 30 % to 30 % : 70 % demanded the implementation of vocational schools that ensure their students to gain work feasible. Ensuring students to obtain a decent job is not an easy task because it involves many parties. Nonetheless, efforts to ensure that graduates of vocational high school soon to get a job is an important task, either through high quality learning and relevant to the needs of the workforce as well as through programs of vocational guidance and counseling designed. The lack of fit between the competencies expected of the business and industrial world for vocational high school graduates with employment conditions in the industry needs is a separate issue for vocational schools. Therefore, efforts need to improve the quality and performance capacity of vocational education in secondary schools through productive competency management synchronization so that more graduates are absorbed in the work world. This study focuses on the design of competency management model synchronization productive vocational high school graduates with competencies DUDI. II. METHOD The research approach used in this study is a qualitative approach. The research was conducted at SMKN 1, SMKN 4, SMKN 5 and SMK 7 Semarang. Instruments developed in light of the considerable research and content management approach. Data collection techniques using triangulation techniques through participant observation, in-depth interviews and documentation to obtain data from the same source. In this study testing the validity of the data using the test of credibility by triangulation. The study involved 12 participants consisting of: principals, vice-principals and the curriculum areas of industrial relations, group leader competence and machining expertise DUDI partners.

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III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION In the context of education, synchronization is the adjustment of education as a supplier of human resources with the world of work that has dynamic needs and demands. The concept of synchronization is signaled the need for better coordination between the providers of graduate education to those who need to employ graduates. Analysis of the needs of the workforce, including quality / competence and quantity at a different location and time of initial information that needs to be provided in the synchronization process. Information needs of the workforce are accurate and necessary expertise in various development plans in the vocational education system reengineering in providing human resources according to the needs of the workforce. Reengineering all aspects of education, both at the institutional aspects, infrastructure, teaching staff competency and learning systems, should be directed to the achievement of the adjustment between education and the working world. Optimal synchronization efforts through the implementation of a series of systematic and sustained program that is very necessary to have a sense of belonging and involvement of all stakeholders including the community at large. Concept development education synchronization framework must consider three main components, namely the demand side, the supply side and the synchronization mechanism. In formulating synchronization program that is comprehensive picture of the future needs of multiple relevant dimensions. Projections of future needs of the competencies required of the workforce and number on each business / industrial world is indispensable and should refer to the special characteristics and potential of the DUDI, to the information required as a basic development plan forecasting the future. Demand model is designed to be able to produce the information needs of labor and business opportunities in the job market and can also provide an overview of the functions and roles that should be of DUDI. This information can be a reference for the education providers in planning and adopting the curriculum and other educational policies. Education development policies such as: the provision of facilities for pre, improving the competence of teachers in educating learners, and the learning system or applicable curriculum must be based on the needs of sync with the world of work. Meanwhile, the supply model should also describe the interaction between the activities of input - process - output desired and the function and role of stakeholders on the supply side. Synchronization education with the world of work is done by adjusting the pattern of supply / demand from the world of education with employment. In addition, it also needs to be based on a four dimensional map of the condition based on the quality, quantity, location and time. Demand conditions will control the supply side of the education system. Education system that includes training needs to be designed in a way that meets the demands of requests based on four dimensions are the same, so we need to design a deployment quality

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia education system both in terms of infrastructure, teaching and learning systems. The third aspect that needs to be redesigned is done at every level of education in any kind of formal education and training and other educational activities. Synchronization process will not run optimally without the parties are in the middle of a mediation or alignment. Parties are expected to be alignment between supply side and demand side should have a strong commitment to oversee and facilitate the alignment process optimization through the role and function of each. Alignment is done through the provision of supportive policies, mechanisms and procedures are able to establish certification certification as required workforce competencies, synergy programs across institutions, as well as consistency in maintaining this synchronization process. One of the aspects that determine the direction of development of vocational school is current demand conditions and future. The accuracy of this information from the demand side will determine the accuracy of the design of the education system, so that the output / graduates produced really able to answer the needs of the workforce. Therefore, a need to understand in detail about the condition of the existing demand in the job market. Synchronization will be effective, if there is coordination and synergy among the various agencies and institutions related to both the supply side and the demand side. To reinforce the direction of the synchronization program, then it needs to be formulated and agreed on measures that are used to reflect the degree of synchronization. This is important because with the measure / indicator is the

reference development, the program is structured synchronization will lead to the achievement of the targets and indicators set periodically. Therefore, need to be designed a synchronization performance measurement system that is able to provide guidance in the process of synchronization with measurable indicators. Successful management of synchronization of productive competence is determined by the principle of "supply and demand" of all parties to take their respective roles. School is able to meet the needs of the labor required DUDI with the expected productive competence, while DUDI addition to receiving supply of workers with the competencies needed supplies, as well as partners in strengthening and developing the productive competence of learners. Due to the above principles the productive competencies taught in vocational schools should sync/aligned with the competencies required DUDI. According to Finch & Crunkilton (1999: 16), the level of relevance of school curricula with industry can be achieved with the involvement of other stakeholders. While the management of synchronization of productive machinery to implement competency management functions developed by Terry (1982: 5), Hellriegel & Slocum (1989: 12-14) and Jones & George (2007: 8-13) , management functions include: planning, organizing, staffing, Motivating and controlling. Based on the theoretical study, the results of relevant research studies and issues arising in the implementation of synchronization of productive competence machinery, the design model of synchronization management competencies as productive machining as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Design model synchronization management competencies productive.

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REFERENCES

IV. CONCLUSION Based on the research that has been conducted to gain competency management model synchronization productive subjects concluded that the synchronization management model suggests the need for better coordination between the providers of graduate education to those who need to employ graduates. Analysis of the needs of the workforce, including quality / competence and quantity at a different location and time of initial information that needs to be provided in the synchronization process.

[1]

From the demand side should be designed capable of producing manpower and information needs of business opportunities in the job market and can also provide an overview of the functions and roles that should be of DUDI. This information can be a reference for the education providers in planning and adopting the curriculum and other educational policies. Synchronization process will not run optimally without the parties are in the middle of a mediation or alignment. Parties are expected to be alignment between supply side and demand side should have a strong commitment to oversee and facilitate the alignment process optimization through the role and function of each.

[5]

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[2] [3]

[4]

[6] [7]

Finch, Curtis R., and Crunkilton, John R., Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education: Planning, Content, and Implementation, Allyn and Bacon , Inc., Boston, 1979. Hellriegel, Don & Slocum, John W., Management, Addison Wesley Publishing Company, New York, 1989. Jones, Gareth R. & George, Jenifer M., Essentials of Contemporary Management, Second Edition, Mc Graw-Hill, Boston, 2007. Kementerian Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi, Master Plan Link and Match Pendidikan, Pelatihan, dan Dunia Kerja, Jakarta: Kementerian Tenaga Kerja dan Transmigrasi: Jakarta, 2010. Slamet, PH., Pengembangan SMK Model untuk Masa Depan. Jurnal Cakrawala Pendidikan, Februari 2013, Th. XXXII, No. 1. Terry, George R. & Leslie W. R., Principles of Management, Fourth Edition, Dow Jones, Irwin Homewood, Illinois, 1982. Trilling, Bernie & Charles Fadel, 21st Century Skills: Learning for Life in Our Times. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: San Francisco, 2010.

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IVS-C (Integrated Vehicle Security Concept) as Solution of Vehicle Theft in Indonesia Nur Rohman Arif Mechanical Engineering Department Semarang State University, UNNES Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The high rate of Motor vehicle theft in Indonesia and the limitations of police in solving this case, making this condition as an important issue to be studied. Various technologies that had been developed such as: alarm, GPS Tracking, and RFID were still not yet totally effective in reducing and resolving cases of motor vehicle theft. From this condition, author feel the need to develop a system of IVS (Integrated Vehicle Security) technology that is expected to respond the challenges and issues related to the motor vehicle security in Indonesia. This study was conducted related to the finding of Sri Mulyono in his study entitled "Analysis of long distance car Security Alarm Systems Via Remote Control SMS Through GSM and GPS networks as the Vehicle Tracker which Based on Microcontroller ATmega16" which concluded that this GPS Tracking technology is 100% working better. IVS-C is a concept of intelligent security technology that combines multiple security technologies (Alarm and GPS Tracking) and integrated with an electronic control unit (ECU) of Electronic Fuel Injection technology in the vehicle engine that serves to secure, to control, and to track vehicles in online and real time through a central server. Based on author’s analysis, the IVS-C which has three main functions, namely security, tracking, and control of the vehicle can be used in various types of vehicles, both motorcycles, cars, and other vehicles as well as having an ideal function to prevent and deal with cases of theft. So in addition to reduce the number of motor vehicles thefts, this technology is also expected to assist the police in monitoring and tracking of motor vehicles and arrest the motor vehicle thieves. Keywords- vehicle, theft, security, integrated

I. INTRODUCTION Security is the dream of every human being. In a world with full of competition and heavy life pressure to get the sufficient livelihoods, human beings tend to act beyond the limits. Humans would not hesitate to deceive, steal, and rob the valuables as a shortcut to get income to fulfil their living needs. In this global era, vehicle has become a basic need for every human being in supporting their activities in daily life. The results of the motorcycle ownership analysis (Woro, 2011) concluded that 57% of people in Buleleng regency has 1 unit of motorcycle, and the other 20% has more than 2 motors. Every year, that number is predicted eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

will always increasing with the consideration that the more number of family members, the more possible of having motorcycle more than 1 unit. This illustrates that every day the motor vehicle population in Indonesia will more and more increased. The Number of vehicles which always increasing, eventually opening the way for the criminal for doing acts of theft, robbery and embezzlement of the motor vehicle. A number of 2273 theft cases was reported to the Jakarta Police in the period of January to June 2012, and only 693 cases were resolved. This shows us that motor vehicle theft is still very high and still not be dealt optimally. Security technologies that have been developed such as alarm systems, security systems based on RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), and even SMS control is still not completely effective in securing and handling cases of motor vehicle theft. This is certainly a serious issue and needs to be reviewed by both the police and the intelligentsia to be able to handle this case. Therefore, the authors are eager to develop the IVS-C technology that can be useful for the community, police, and Indonesia in the future. II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Vehicle Security Conditions in Indonesia Indonesian National Police has provided a guarantee to the ownership of motor vehicles in Indonesia by specifying it in the Standard policy of Automobile Insurance in Indonesia. In the Standard policy of Automobile Insurance in Indonesia in 2010, in article 1, paragraph 1, point 1.2, dan1.3 explained that: This insurance covers loss and or damage to the motor vehicle and or the interests of the insured that is directly caused by: malicious acts; theft, including the theft which preceded or accompanied or followed by violence or the threat of violence as defined in Section 362.363 paragraph (3), (4), (5) and Article 365 Code of Criminal Law;. (Standard Policy of Automobile Insurance Indonesia, 2010). Generally, the security of vehicle ownership in Indonesia has been guaranteed by government as it is set in Standard Policy of Automobile Insurance in Indonesia. But, in practice from the survey results reported by Jakarta Police obtained the following data:

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE I.

DATA CASES OF MOTOR VEHICLE THEFT IN THE JURISDICTION OF CITY POLICE

Number

1 2 3

Year

2010 2011 2012

Cars

1.598 787 688

Motorbikes

9.114 4.565 3.850

Total

10.712 5.352 4.538

Source : Sat Reskrim Polda Metro Jaya, 2012

TABLE II. RESOLUTION OF CASES MOTOR VEHICLE THEFT IN THE JURISDICTION OF CITY POLICE IN 2012 Number

1 2

Type of Vehicle

Car Motorbike

Number of Cases

688 3.850

Resolved

47 1.135

Source : Sat Reskrim Polda Metro Jaya, 2012

B. Analysis of Long Distance Car Security Alarm Systems Via Remote Control SMS Through GSM and GPS Networks as The Vehicle Tracker which Based on Microcontroller ATmega16 From the result of Sri Mulyono's research (UNY, 2012) on “Analysis of Long Distance Car Security Alarm Systems Via Remote Control SMS Through GSM and GPS Networks as The Vehicle Tracker which Based on Microcontroller ATmega16”, concluded that the sms remote car security system which was developed using a GPS (Global Positioning System) , GSM Modem (Global System for Mobile), PIR Sensor (Passive Iinfra Red), Sensor LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Vibration Sensor with ECM (Electet Condenser Microphone), IC MAX232, Gate NOT logic, microcontroller ATmega16, 8 Relay 12V/30A and Google Earth application can be 100 % working properly. Furthermore, this security system can be used to control and provide faster information effectively and efficiently. (Mulyono , 2012). C. ERI (Electronic Regristration and Identification) ERI Program (Electronic Registration and Identification) is a technology breakthroughs which was conceptualized by the Traffic Directorate of Jakarta Police which is expected to create a system of registration and identification of vehicle that are valid and accurate. To implement the above system, it needs the valid and accurate data of motor vehicle registration and identification. ERI can we say as a technology that serves to record and detect motor vehicles electronically, which means the vehicle data would be more valid than the data manually, so that will minimize the occurrence of cases of vehicle data falsification as that is flare occurred today. The vehicle data is stored in a portable electronic devices called On Board Unit (OBU), which later with this OBU devices the utilization will increasingly be developed for various purposes. (Indonesian Police Commission, 2013). The three conditions above prompted the authors to spark an idea that can assist the police in handling cases of motor vehicle theft that are still very high as well as to help in ensuring the safety of motor vehicles in Indonesia. This security technology will apply GPS Tracking technology which has also been investigated by Sri Mulyono with 100% results to function properly. This technology is also planned to be applied and integrated into the system ERI that was conceptualized by the City eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Police that is expected to improve safety and security functions of motor vehicles in Indonesia in the future. III. IVS-C (INTEGRATED VEHICLE SECURITY CONCEPT) IVS-C ( Integrated Vehicle Security Concept ) is a vehicle security system which is designed by combining multiple security technologies (Alarm and GPS Tracking) and integrated with the electronic control unit (ECU) of the vehicle engine which serves to secure, control, and track the presence vehicles online. This system uses an alarm security system as prevention and the provision of information through the media noise if there is a unnormal touch on the vehicle. While GPS tracking is used to identify and track the whereabouts of vehicles online and in real time to monitor and track the vehicle if that vehicle is lost or problematic. Technological innovation applied in this I- VSC technology than that has been developed previously is focused on the presence of GPS tracking which is integrated with the engine electronic control unit ( ECU ) . Its function is that the presence of GPS tracking is a part of the engine electrical system , which would be a prerequisite for the machine whether to work or not . So that in case of theft or a crime involving the vehicle in question can be easily tracked and discovered its existence. A. IVS-C Design

Figure 1. IVS-C Design

Figure 2. IVS-C Flow Chart

Design concept of IVS-C Technology is by combining GPS Tracking Technology with Electronic Fuel Injection System (EFI). In this concept, the Signal of GPS Tracking becomes a precondition in deciding the working of the injection system.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Application of IVS-C IVS-C is designed to be used in various types of vehicles, both motorcycles, cars, and other vehicles. This allows the system to be applied in various types of vehicles because of its prototype dimensions can be made as succinctly as possible, so that it can be applied on a motorcycle as well. IVS-C can be applied in various types of vehicles, as long as the vehicle fuel system is controlled electronically (Electronic Injection).

1. Security function Security functions work if at any time there is a thief who tried to steal the vehicle by damaging / disabling / removing the IVS-C technology from the vehicle, the system will sound an alarm and disable the engine fuel system. So even though you have removed the tracking device, the machine will not be able to function and the vehicle will not be driven. This function involves tegnologi EFI (Electronic Fuel Injection) through the existing ECU control of the vehicle. 2. Tracking function Tracking function can be performed at any time or when the car had been stolen and IVS-C technology is still mounted on a vehicle. The system works by utilizing the GPS Tracking to find out the position of the vehicle and report it via the GSM network to the owner and or the police so that the presence of the vehicle can be quickly identified and found, as well as to assist the police in catching the culprit. In addition, the tracking function can also be done through the Internet that can be used by police to find out the real position of the vehicle.

Figure 3. Placement of IVS-C technology in car

3. Control functions Control functions (including functions of supervision, inspection, and control) is an additional function (optional) that can be applied to control the vehicle, such as to find out the speed of driving vehicle, activate the other systems in the vehicle, and so on. This function uses GPS Tracking technology as the primary duty bearer in vehicle tracking and vehicle control. IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions Generally, the security of vehicle ownership in Indonesia has been guaranteed by the government because it is set in the Standard Policy Automobile Insurance in Indonesia. But in the implementation, the security assurance for vehicles still can not be realized optimally, due to constrained the limitations of police in handling the theft of motor vehicle.

Figure 4. Placement of IVS-C technology in motor bike

C. Working Principle of IVS-C

Various types of vehicle safety technologies have been developed in Indonesia, among them are alarm technology, GPS-based safety, and RFID-based safety. However, from each of the existing systems still have weaknesses and yet optimal enough to prevent and handle cases of theft in Indonesia. IVS-C concept that has three main functions those are security, tracking, and controlling the vehicles is predicted can be used in various types of vehicles, both motorcycles, cars, and other vehicles as well as having the ideal function in preventing and handle cases of theft. So in addition to reduce the number of motor vehicle theft, this technology can also assist the police in monitoring and tracking motor vehicles and also arresting motor vehicles thieves.

Figure 5. Diagram of tracking system on IVS-C technology

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Recommendations Based on the results of the analysis described in this paper, the authors strongly recommend to materialize this IVS-C technology, due to the possibility of achieving security function of this technology is huge to be materialized. And as a follow up going to the concept of this technology, it is necessary the collaboration between students as the originator of the idea, with motor vehiclesproducing company, and the police as the authorities for vehicles security in Indonesia for realizing this IVS-C technology.

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

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Adisty, Lariza Oky, Sepanjang 2012 Terjadi Hampir 4.000 Curanmor,2012, http://regional.kompas.com/read/2012/12/01/14002920/Sepanjan.. 2012. Terjadi.Hampir.4.000.Curanmor. Accessed on : (22-032013, 09.45) Komisi Kepolisian Indonesia, Electronic Registration and Identifikation,2013, http://www.komisikepolisianindonesia.com/kasus/read/8623/electr onic-regristration-and-identifikation.html. Accessed on : (21-032013, 11.52). Mulyono, Sri, AnalisisSistem Alarm Pengaman Mobil Jarak-jauh Via SMS Remote Kontrol Melalui Jaringan GSM dan GPS sebagai Vehicle Tracker Berbasis Mikrokontroller ATmega16, Yogyakarta : Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, 2012. Polis Standar Asuransi Kendaraan Bermotor Indonesia, BAB 1, Pasal 1, Jaminan Terhadap Kendaraan Bermotor, 2010, http://www.google.co.id. Accessed on : (21-03-2013, 12.16). Woro, Sus Liris, Analisis Kepemilikan Sepeda Motor pada Rumah Tangga di Kabupaten Buleleng Menggunakan Model Regresi Logistik, Denpasar : Universitas Udayana, 2011.

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Preparing Manpower of Automotive Industry by Competency Test Abdurrahman1, Samsudi2 and Joko Widodo3 State University of Semarang Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The purpose of Vocational High School establishment is to equip the students with competences required to work. Industry requires many intermediate manpower. One of government efforts to prepare the manpower is by obligating the students to attend competency test. Therefore, the graduates of Vocational High School not only have diploma, but also standardized competence certificate, so that they will be employed in industry easily. This study disclosed the implementation of competency test in Vocational High School, especially in automotive expertise area. Interview, questionnaire, and observation were to disclose the data. The interview was conducted with the teachers, industrial parties, and students, while the questionnaire was fulfilled by the teachers. The obtained data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The study result showed that there were some weaknesses in the implementation of competency test resulting in the unrecognition of competence certificate holder by industry. The weaknesses were on the management elements, i.e. method, machine, satisfaction, man, money, and coordinating. The six management elements need to be prioritized to be improved in the implementation of competency test so that the holder of competency test certificate is recognized by industry. This study finding is very useful for the government to be focused on improvement of management elements that need to be improved. Keywords-competence; automotive expertise; management element

I. INTRODUCTION Since 1999/2000, the implementation of national final examination of Vocational High School has applied competency test conducted for productive component in form of practice and written test comprehensively – integrative. Active involvement of external element as assessor or verifier is expected to manifest a strategic step in creating Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) process in testing system in vocational high education. It is recognized that the role of vocational education in ready manpower provision, and as one of strategies to improve the economy growth that has been proved in some countries. Final aim of vocational education development is principally to help students to develop and integrate the knowledge, skill, attitude, and value, both academic and vocational, that is guided in order that the competence of eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

vocational school graduates can contribute in work field. The connection with human resource quality, the government has issued Legislation No. 13 year 2003 regarding employment, article 18 verse 4 states that to implement job competency certification, an independent National Professional Certification Entity was established. Furthermore, in Government Regulation No. 23 year 2004 regarding National Professional Certification Entity, it is explained that the duty of National Professional Certification Entity is to conduct job competency certification. The competency test is conducted by Professional Certification Institution that has obtained a license from National Professional Certification Entity. There are four options for schools to conduct productive competency test, i.e. (1) school completely; (2) school collaborating with business world/industrial world; (3) school collaborating with professional association; and (4) school collaborating with Professional Certification Institution. The study by Samsudi (2007: 123) found that the competency test of Vocational High School students were mostly conducted by school collaborating with business world/industrial world (50.33%), followed by school collaborating with professional association (26.04%), school completely (18.72%), school collaborating with Professional Certification Institution (17.33%), and there was also other model i.e., in Palembang, South Sumatera, the competency test conducted by Engineering Training Education Center (1.84%). The instrument of vocational practical test is arranged by Central Organizer consisting of: (1) Examination content outline, (2) Vocational practice examination content that consists of vocational practice examination content for each expertise program that averagely consists of 3 content Packages. The test participants attend one of the packages assigned by education unit organizer, (3) Assessment sheets of vocational practical test, and (4) Instrument of vocational practical test organizer verification that is used to assess the feasibility of education unit or other institution of vocational practical test. The criteria of vocational practical test assessor are specified as follows: (1) The assessors are from

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia business/industrial world/professional association/related institution who have educational background and/or working experience that is relevant to expertise program that will be tested and/or source from relevant productive teachers of Vocational High Schools with teaching experience of 5 years minimum and have working experience/internship in business/industrial world; (2) The assessors consist of combination of internal and external assessors; (3) The assessors who have competency certificate/statement letter of competency from business/industrial world or related institution are prioritized; (4) The assessors of vocational practical test are determined by City/Regency Organizer. Considering that the national examination process of vocational schools above requires not a bit fund and energy, and involves several governmental and private institutions and also teachers and assessors, the holders of diploma and competency certificate are expected to get job easily either in industry or governmental institutions, even they are expected to open their own business. The facts in the field are different from the expectation of schools. The things happen after the students are graduated, by bringing their diploma and competency certificate, the user candidates (business/industrial world) still do not trust in them. The business/industrial world still conduct some selections either by theoretical or practical test before deciding to employ them. This phenomenon shows the distrust of business/industrial world parties to the national examination program conducted by the government, including there are competency tests involving business/industrial world as the assessors and examination material verification team therein. The phenomenon and background of the problem, namely that the quality of Vocational High School graduates has not yet meet the expectation of stakeholders, then it requires more in-depth study in which sector becomes the reason why the quality of Vocational High School graduates is still doubtful. Based on the description above, it requires a study on how Vocational High Schools prepare manpower to meet the needs of industry running in automotive field. The main problem reviewed is “how the implementation of automotive expertise competency test in Vocational High School is and what management element needs to be perfected to make the graduates ready to work”. This study is expected to find the weakness of automotive expertise competency test in Vocational High Schools and then determine the resolution. II. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION A. Competency Test Competency is a combination among multiple skills, attitudes, and knowledge that can be demonstrate by students, which the skills, attitudes, and knowledge are obtained from conceptualization of material that has been studied and is meaningful for life. Competency standard is the main component that is very important in competency test process and as a basic reference for assessors to equalize the competency of eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

certificate holders. Without any standards, the stakeholders will face many difficulties in recruiting manpower. In competency test, the competency standard used is the Indonesian National Job Competency Standard. Reviewed from the assessment objectivity aspect, competency test has a very high objectivity level because the assessment is based on the performance of each student without considering any subjective matters. There are five competency dimensions that are used as assessment objectives, i.e. (1) Task Skill; (2) Task Management Skill; (3) Contingency Management Skill; (4) Environment Skill; and (5) Transfer Skill. The competency test is also used as a proof of recognition from business/industrial world and professional association toward teachers upon the learning process conducted in schools, it can be observed from the existence of collaboration during competency test. The business/industrial world parties as neutral institutions that dare to issue competency test certificate will give additional value for the certificate holders to apply for a job. Various approaches of competency test models are implemented in Indonesia, it is because the area and condition of each region and each school is different. The connection with approaches of competency test model of Vocational High School students was found in the study by Samsudi (2007: 122) as the following. Approach with project work with internal and external verification is mostly used by schools (74.28%) because this approach involves the school party and the parties other than the school (business/industrial world) so that the quality of test conducted can be more accurate and conform to the specified standard. With the approach, the collaboration between internal party (school) and external party (business/industrial world, professional association) of conducted competency test can complete each other. The approach with competency test model of collaboration between school party and business/industrial world parties is mostly used. Of course it has some weaknesses and strengths, but by considering that many Vocational High Schools use the model of schoolbusiness/industrial world collaboration, this model is probably more suitable to be applied in Indonesia. B. Vocational Education Vocational education is a secondary education that is directed to equip the students with certain fields so that after graduated from this education, the students can fill the opportunity and perform certain job. According to Government Regulation No. 19/2005 regarding National Education Standard, “Vocational High Education is a secondary education that prioritizes the students’ ability development for certain job”. According to Finch & Crunkilton (1993:12), vocational education has specific characteristics that differ it from other education generally. The characteristics are represented in the relationship with potential parameter that becomes the

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia control of preparation objectives of individual who is more efficient and useful as manpower. Learning innovation in Vocational High School should be continuously implemented. Considering that the condition of each school is varied, it requires unequal learning methods, so that the limitedness of learning facility does not widen the gap of graduate quality. Hall (1976: 10) states that there are five characteristics of Competence-Based Education that provide us with an idea of how an education program is arranged, including: (1) Self-pacing learning modules; (2) Learning resource centers; (3) Faculty teams; (4) Field experiences; (5) Personalization strategies; and (6) Communication facilities. C. Workshop Management Ricky W. Griffin (t.tn) defines management as “a process of planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling the resources to reach the goals effectively and efficiently”. To reach the specified goals, it requires tools. Tools are requirement of an effort to reach the specified outcome. The tools are known as 6M, i.e. men, money, materials, machines, method, and markets (Wikipedia). Management as a system has three system main components, i.e. input, process, and output. Input includes the elements: Man, Money, Material, Machine and Method. Process includes the elements: Planning organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. Outputs of management are productivity, satisfaction, profit, and new job. Management function was firstly introduced by a French industrialist named Henry Fayol in the beginning of the twentieth century. At that time, he mentioned five management functions, i.e. designing, organizing, instructing, coordinating, and controlling. The management functions conveyed by the writer were not the same. It was because the writer’s background and approach were not the same. D. Competency Test of School-Business/Industrial World Collaboration Model Competency test of school-business/industrial world collaboration model is conducted in schools by involving external assessors, while whether a Competency Test Location is allowed to be the test location or not, it will be determined by verifying team established by education department. All requirements of Competency Test Location, internal assessors, external assessors, and examination content have been determined by the education center. Schools and education department implement in accordance with the existing technical instruction. Psychologically, students will be more benefited because they have the examination in their own location and half of the assessors are their own teachers. E. Review of Relevant Studies First, Samsudi, et al. (2007) conducted a study entitled “Implementation of Expertise Competency Test in Case of National Examination in Vocational High Schools”. The study result shows that: most schools chose to use competency test with project work approach with internal eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

and external verification that could be defined as the competency test conducted by collaboration between school and business/industrial world. Second, dissertation by Samsudi (2006) entitled “Development of Productive Program Learning in Vocational High Schools” found that: support of equipment, learning material, and stakeholders in goodaccredited Vocational High Schools was quite adequate, but in intermediate-accredited Vocational High Schools was less adequate (low tendency). Third, dissertation by Joko Widodo (2005) entitled “Education Planning in Vocational High Schools”. The study results are: (1) the potential of external environment, i.e. business/industrial world, professional association, labor department, and other institutions for practical purpose provide a quite great participation for future school development efforts; (2) practice supporting facility is absolutely required during the implementation of Vocational High Schools to equip students with adequate competency. III. RESEARCH METHOD The data collection was conducted by techniques: closed questionnaire, interview, observation, and documentation. The subject of trial run, i.e. Vocational High School that will be used as the data collection location, was determined by the quality of Vocational High School from aspect of rank acquisition in Student Competence Contest. The rank in Student Competence Contest can be classified into three, i.e. first category quality: rank 1 to 5; second category quality: rank 6 to 10; and third category quality: rank 10 to 16. Based on consideration of two dominant aspects, i.e. the quality of Vocational High School is reviewed from the aspect of rank acquisition in Student Competency Contest, and consideration of the status of Vocational High School, i.e. State and Private, in this study, the data collection was conducted in SMK N 1 and SMK N Pelita Nusantara 2 representing the Vocational High Schools of first category quality, SMK 4 and SMK 17 Agustus 1945 representing the Vocational High Schools of second category quality, SMK N 5 and SMK Tlogosari representing the Vocational High Schools of third category quality. Data in form of recommendation, interview, and open questionnaire were described qualitatively, while data obtained from closed questionnaire, accuracy, clarity, and usefulness of the model were analyzed with percentage descriptive statistics. IV. STUDY RESULT The study result can be described as the following: the questionnaires disclosing the management fulfilled by internal assessors resulted in six management elements with score acquisition below 70%, i.e. Money (64.02%), Machine (66.56%), Directing (67.72%), Reporting (67.74 %), Coordinating (68.49 %), and Satisfaction (68.99%) that were categorized as problematic elements. Other elements, i.e. Productivity, Staffing, Material, Method, Profit, and New Job, Planning, Budgeting, Man, and

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Organizing obtained score above 70% that were categorized as non-problematic elements. A. Interview with Teachers 1. Method Element  In the same competence test material, the periods provided to finish the task were not the same in each school.  Some external assessors only came on Saturday (after the office hours, i.e. at 01.00 p.m.) and Sunday. 2. Man Element  Generally only one external assessor from business/industrial world who was sent to Vocational High Schools and the assessor assessed tune up material.  Only a small part of students who were assessed by external assessors. The external assessors only assessed one test material out of five materials that were tested. 3. Money Element State Vocational High Schools were not allowed to charge any fee of competence test, while Private Vocational High Schools were allowed to do so. It was the reason why Private Vocational High Schools could provide the external assessors with higher honorarium than that of State Vocational High Schools. B. Interview with Business World and Industrial World 1. Method Element  Internal assessors required to conduct a survey to some workshops to observe the advancement of current automotive tools and technology.  Workshop should provide a training, especially regarding current technology that has not been learned in schools.  Viewed form the side of business/industrial world, the material provided could be categorized as easy, the test material was still basic, it would be better if troubleshooting material was added because in workshop, a mechanic faced more troubleshooting problems.  The arrival of external assessors to schools was far from expectation. To deal with this matter, the schedule of competency test was recommended not to be too short (8-10 days), but make it longer, such as 6 months or 12 months. External assessors only had spare time on Saturday after 01.00 p.m. and on Sunday at 08.00 a.m. – 05.00 p.m. 2. Man Element The ability of internal assessors required continuous improvement to be equal as the quality of external assessors, so that in the assessment process, there was no wide gap between internal assessors and external assessors. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

3. Machine Element The competency test material still had many weaknesses compared to the works in workshops, especially in the matters of electronic technology currently used in new cars. 4. Satisfaction Element Room of competency test was not wide enough so that the assesse did not feel convenient in finishing the task. If the rooms are limited, the unused tools/machines can be disposed or stored in warehouse. C. Interview with Students 1. Method Element Five competencies were implemented at a time, i.e. consecutively from station 1 to station 2 and so forth. This kind of model made the students tired because they had to finish the task within 5 hours without any rest. 2. Satisfaction Element The students felt afraid because the atmosphere was so tense. 3. Planning Element The frequency of competency test exercise conducted by schools was considered inadequate. D. Recommendation from Teachers 1. Man Element (Internal Assessors)  Schools need to improve the quantity of internal assessors.  Refreshment training for internal assessors needs to be conducted before every competency test implementation.  The assessment standard needs to be equalized between internal assessors and external assessors.  City education department needs to program the training for internal assessors. 2. Money Element  The government needs to provide operational expense of competency test for state schools and private schools.  The government needs to provide expense support to replace damaged test equipment.  The cost of attending competency test through Professional Certification Institution is too expensive, students and teachers are not capable of paying. Besides that, the validity period is short, only three years. 3. Machine Element  It requires efforts in order that each Vocational High School has at least a car unit for tune up competency test, because there are some schools that have no car unit.  It requires procurement of main equipment and supporting equipment for competency test.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia  Workshop layout needs rearrangement so that the students will be more unimpeded in moving. 4. Method Element Test material needs improvement from conventional technology to modern technology (electronic) adjusted to industrial needs. 5. Directing Element City education department should be more intensive in monitoring the competency test. 6. Organizing Element  Students need more intensive training before they attend the competency test.  Competency test content from city education department should be delivered to schools long before the competency test implementation. 7. Satisfaction Element Clean the workshop room to make the atmosphere of competency test convenient. 8. Coordinating Element  Collaboration between school and business/industrial world needs to be improved.  The involvement of business/industrial world should be based on strong legal foundation so that business/industrial world will be eager in supporting Vocational High Schools.  Competency test certificate is not recognized by business/industrial world. E. Recommendation from Business World and Industrial World 1. Coordinating Element  Collaboration between Vocational High School and business/industrial world has to be conducted in accordance with the agreement. 2. Machine Element  Vocational High School students need to be provided with hi-tech test so that they can quickly adapt to the working environment.  Complete the equipment for practice so that it is not far from workshop condition.  Complete the equipment to train about diagnosis of car damage. 3. Method Element  Improve the competency test material by damage diagnosing content because the damage diagnosing work is frequently faced in workshop.

There are four similar management elements recommended by teachers and business/industrial world, i.e. coordinating, machine, method, and organizing. Comprehensively, the four elements recommended by teachers and business/industrial world can be described as the following: 5. Coordinating Element  Collaboration between Vocational High School and business/industrial world needs to be formalized in Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) so that it has a strong legal foundation.  So far, the competency test certificate is not recognized by business/industrial world because business/industrial world is still unsure of the certificate holder’s competency. Therefore, any solutions need to be found in order that the business/industrial world recognizes the competency certificate owned by Vocational High School graduates. 6. Machine Element  Vocational High School students need to be provided with hi-tech test so that they can quickly adapt to the working environment.  Complete the equipment for practice, especially:  Hi-tech equipment (electronics);  A unit of conventional car and a unit of EFI car;  A unit of media devices to train about car electricity damage diagnosis.  The competency test location layout needs to be designed so that students will be more unimpeded and convenient in moving. 7. Method Element  Improve the competency test material by damage diagnosing content because the damage diagnosing work is frequently faced in workshop.  Test material needs improvement from conventional technology to modern technology (electronic). 8. Organizing Element  Train the students to implement competency test in Competency Test Location to promote students’ mental.  Competency test content from city education department should be delivered to schools long before the competency test implementation.

4. Organizing Element  Improve the exercise in Competency Test Location before competency test to promote students’ mental.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Internal Assessors from Vocational High Schools

External Assessors from Business/Industrial World

Not adequate number of assessors Assessors need observation to business/industrial world Inadequate operational expense of State Vocational High School

Only 1 or 2 persons who are sent Not fully attending, only on Saturday and Sunday Only some students assessed Advice: period of test 6-12 months

V. CONCLUSION Based on the obtained data, it can be concluded that there are 5 management elements that faced no constraints, i.e. material, staffing, budgeting, productivity, and new job profit. The most problematic management elements from the most severe one are method, machine, satisfaction, man, money, and coordinating respectively. Therefore, the improvement priority can be sorted from method as the first priority and coordinating as the last priority. REFERENCES

Process of Competency Test

[1]

[2] Not convenient rooms Conventional equipment No troubleshooting test material Requiring hi-tech equipment procurement

Management aspects with score below 70 (result of questionnaire/quantitative): Money, Machine, Directing, Reporting, Coordinating, Satisfaction

Graduated, the competency certificate not recognized by business/industrial world

[4]

[5] Difficult in applying for job

Figure 1. Management Model of Factual Competency Test in Vocational High Schools in Semarang City

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[3]

[6]

Finch, C.R. & Crunkilton, J.R., Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. Hall, Gene E., and Howard L. Jones, Competency-based education: a proce improvement of education, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewoood Cliffs, 1976. Ricky W. Griffin. t.th. Manajemen. http://id.wikipedia.org/ wiki /ManajemenFungsi_manajemen. (accessed at 8 May 2012) Samsudi, at al., “Pelaksanaan Uji Kompetensi Keahlian Dalam Rangka Ujian Nasional SMK” Laporan Penelitian, Kerjasama Universitas Negeri Semarang Dengan Direktorat Pembinaan SMK Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2007. Samsudi, “Pengembangan Model Pembelajaran Program Produktif Sekol Menengah Kejuruan”, Disertasi, Bandung: Program Pascasarja Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, 2006. Joko Widodo, “Perencanaan Pendidikan Di Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan”, Disertasi, Bandung: Program Pascasarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, 2005.

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Finite Element Analysis Of Pressure Cooker Kriswanto

Sunyoto

Master of Mechanical Engineering Diponegoro University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Mechanical Engineering Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—This paper presents stress analysis and deformations using 3D CAD models pressure cooker assembly and finite element analysis (FEA) simulation of various wall thickness of the pressure cooker parts at workload conditions using CATIA V5 software. FEA to calculate stress and displacement that occur cause of load applied. Design of pressure cooker with 30 kg soft spines milkfish capacity has a geometry in 500 mm diameter, total high of 900 mm, design based on ASME using CATIA V5. Evaluation results using FEA CATIA show that 5 mm thickness is the acceptable minimum thickness from accaptance criteria where von mises stress is less than allowable strength material (SA 240 Grade 304). FEA analysis produces displacement 4.55 mm at 5mm pressure cooker wall thickness are assembled with a rubber gasket. When the rubber gasket removed, displacement generated only by 0.9 mm. The pressure cooker design has been analyzed in several acceptable thicknesses in term of safe design, so design with 5mm thickness of pressure cooker can be safe to use. The 5 mm thickness of the pressure cooker is the most economically wall thickness.

required of tube and head thickness of the pressure cooker.

Keywords- stress analysis; FEA; pressure cooker; ASME code; CATIA V5

I. INTRODUCTION Pressure Cooker is a cookware that utilizing hot steam for cooking food. The pressure cooker which made by Unnes has been applied by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) of soft spines milkfish in Central Java. The SMEs of soft spines milkfish needs a pressure cooker that produces high quality, safe, and energy efficient. The pressure cooker which made by Unnes has several advantages over existing pressure cooker, among others: higher productivity (big capacity), efficient of time, low energy and low cost of production needed [1]. The research about the quality of the production pressure cooker based on parameters of temperature and pressure, show that pressure cooker is capable of producing soft spines milkfish with relative higher protein levels than the pressure cooking process conducted by another entrepreneurs [2]. Working system of a pressure cooker similarly with pressure vessel, so in designing a pressure cooker based on ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code section VIII. The design method of pressure cooker according to ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) code as known as "design by rule" uses design pressure, allowable stress and a design formula compatible with the geometry to calculate the minimum eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The pressure cooker design has been using ASME Code, but the stress analysis of design has not been performed. Stress is one of the main causes of failure of a pressure vessel [3]. Pressure cooker similarly with pressure vessel, so stress is the main component that must be analysis.If the stress on a part at a critical location (the applied stress) is also known precisely, if the material’s strength (the allowable strength) is also known with precision and the allowable strength is greater than the applied stress, then the part will not fail [4]. Stress analysis is performed in order to ensure that a design will fulfill its intended function in a given loads environment. This paper presents stress analysis and deformations using three dimentional (3D) CAD (Computer Aided Design) models pressure cooker assembly and finite element analysis (FEA) simulation of the various thickness of a pressure cooker wall at workload conditions. The FEA is a numerical procedure that can be applied to obtain solutions to a large class of engineering problems involving stress analysis, heat transfer, electromagnetism, and fluid flow. The 3D CAD models and FEA simulations is used in this work is CATIA V5 software. II. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS PRESSURE COOKER A. Design by Rule To design a pressure cooker with 30 kg capacity soft spines milkfish requires geometric shell in 500 mm diameter and high of 780 mm. Its volume can contain 6 racks, which each of them can accommodate 5 kg soft spines milkfish. Design of pressure cooker according to ASME code. The formula in ASME Section I and Section VIII are used to determine the minimum required thickness and design pressure of shells and headers using the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) [5]. The maximum allowable stress values to be use in the calculation of the pressure cooker wall thickness are given in the ASME Code for many different materials. These stress values are a function of temperature.The material of food equipment allowed are stainless steel, type in the AISI 200 series, AISI 300 series, or AISI 400 series [6]. The material that used in pressure cooker design is AISI 304. The rules for cylindrical shells in ASME section VIII1 and VIII-2 assumse a circular cross section with uniform

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia thickness in directions.

the

circumferential

and

longitudinal

1. Thin Cylindrical Shells Pressure cooker using thin cylindrical shells, the Geometry of the pressure cooker shell is:  Diameter (D) and high of shell = 500 mm= 19.685 in.  Desain pressure of pressure cooker is (P): 2 bar (29 Psi) obtained from effective working of pressure cooker [5].  Maximum Allowable Stress According to ASME Section II for material SA 240 Grade 304 = 11200 Psi [5].

surfaces, deforms to fill in the valleys and compress on the high points. The gasket must be soft enough to deform, yet strong enough to resist being squeezed out by the pressure carried in the machinery. Geometry of gasket of pressure cooker is:  Inside diameter of gasket = 500 mm  Thickness of gasket= 13mm B. Modeling of Pressure Cooker Drawing parts of pressure cooker are using CATIA V5 software. The Geometry of drawing obtained from geometry calculation of pressure cooker part that refers to ASME section VII. Fig. 1 show the detail drawing of pressure cooker.

 Shell radius of wall (R) = 250 mm = 9.84 in.  Welding factor for welded pipe (E) = 0.85  Circumferential Stress (longitudinal welds), when, 29 psi < 0.385 x 20000 psi x 0.85. The equation for the required thickness in the circumference direction, due to internal pressure is given as:

PR , when t  0.5RorP  0.385SE SE  0.6 P (1) 29 Psix9.84in   0.03 in = 0.76 mm 11200 Psix0.85  0.6 x 29 Psi

t

(a)

2. Dished Heads Formulae ASME section VIII-1 determines the rules for dished heads. Head of pressure cooker using elliptical head.The commonly used ellipsoidal head has a ratio of base radius to depth of 2:1. The actual shape can be approximated by a spherical radius of 0.9 D and a knuckle radius of 0.17 D. Geometry of head of pressure cooker is  Straight Skirt Length (h) = ¼ D = ¼ x 19.685 in = 4.92 in  Radius L = 0.9 D = 0.9 x 19.685 = 17.72 in  Radius r1 = 0.17 D = 0.17 x 19.685= 3.35 in The required thickness of 2:1 heads with pressure on the concave side is given below: PD t 2SE  0.2 P (2) 29 Psix19.685in   0.03 in = 0.76 mm 2 x11200 Psix0.85  0.2 x 29 Psi

(b) Figure 1. Detail drawing of pressure cooker (a) shell with end cap support (b) elliptical head.

From the 3D model of pressure cooker using software CATIA V5 we can get a data of volume, mass, and inertia of the pressure cooker part. The mass of pressure cooker be use as applied load for the FEA simulation.

3. Gasket A gasket is used to create a seal between mating surfaces of machines or piping assemblies. The seal is necessary to prevent leakage of gas, liquid, or dust into or out of these assemblies [7]. When a gasket is clamped between the mating surfaces of a joint it must deform enough to compensate for the imperfections in the finish of the mating surfaces. The clamping pressure applied to these joints does not create enough distortion in the flanges to effect a seal, so a gasket, placed between these eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

(a)

(b)

Figure 2. Three dimensional model of pressure cooker (a) shell (b) elliptical head.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia C. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Pressure Cooker Failure of thin cylindrical pressure vessel occurs in two ways, it may fail along the longitudinal section i.e. circumferentially or it may fail along the transverse section i.e. longitudinally. Two types of tensile stresses occur in pressure vessels. One is circumferential or hoop stress and the other one is longitudinal stress. Longitudinal stress is half of the circumferential or hoop stress. Therefore, the design of the pressure vessel must be based on the circumferential or hoop stress [8]. The finite element analysis (FEA) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely, or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary differential equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as Euler's method, Runge-Kutta, etc [9]. The uniform cylinders having axis of symmetry are analized using axisymmentric elements. These elements adapt a different stress strain matrix & stiffness matrix is derived a/c the following formula.

k  ∬BT .D.B.dr.d .

(3)

Finite element method software that is used in the stress analysis of pressure cooker is software CATIA V5. FEA simulation using CATIA V5 to calculate stress and displacement of the thickness variety of pressure cooker design. Analysis only performed on assembly of three main part (shell, head and gasket). Assembly of pressure cooker is then subjected to an internal pressure, load the content applied, temperature field when operate, mass off the pressure cooker and then corresponding maximum von mises stress values and deformation are noted from the analysis results. The iterative procedure is continued till the von mises stress reaches near about yield strength values. While modeling and carrying analysis in CATIA the following cylinder with specified dimensions are chosen and modeled in the software CATIA. The assumptions are made: 1. Material is perfectly elastic. 2. Default tetrahedral mesh gives enough accuracy. The factor of safety is a factor of ignorance. If the allowable strength is greater than the applied stress, then the part will not fail. Design will be accept if the factor of safety is more than 1. Factor of safety formula is:

FS 

Sallow σ ap

(4)

The material considered used for pressure cooker sheel and head is SA 240 Grade 304 refer to ASME section II Table 1, with main properties as specified in Table I.

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TABLE I.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF PRESSURE COOKER PART [11]

Material Properties Material Young's modulus (N/m2) Poisson's ratio Density (kg/m3) Coef. of thermal expansion ºK Yield strength (N/m2)

Shells SA 240 Grade 304 1.93e+011 0.29 8030

Head SA 240 Grade 304 1.93e+011 0.29 8030

Gasket Natural Rubber 2e+006 0.49 910

9.4e-006

9.4e-006

1.62e-004

2.05e+008

2.05e+008

-

The load cases of pressure cooker to be considered during the analysis are listed in Table II. TABLE II. LOAD CASES ON PRESSURE COOKER Type of Load Internal Pressure Axial Load (loadofcontents) Temperature Field Mass of pressure cooker

Magnitude 2e+005 N/m2 (2 bar) 300 N (30 kg) 373.15 K (100 ºC) 950 N (95 kg)

III. RESULTS The pressure cooker being designed ASME section VIII. From the formula in ASME section VIII can decide minimum thickness of wall thick cylinder sell through Eq. 1. Geometry of elliptical head obtained from Eq. 2. The formula based on design pressure. Minimum thickness of pressure cooker is 0.76 mm. Pressure cooker capacity 30 kg has a geometry in 500 mm diameter, total high of 900 mm. A. FEA Results of Pressure Cooker with Gasket No Load 300N and No Temperature Applied FEA results of pressure cooker in variety thickness with gasket where the applied load is 2e+005 N/m2 of internal pressure, 950 N of mass, without application of temperature and content load shown in the table III. TABLE III. FEA RESULTS OF PRESSURE COOKER IN VARIETY THICKNESS WITH GASKET, NO LOAD 300N AND NO TEMPERATURE APPLIED No 1 2 3

Thickness of Shell and Head (mm) 0.7 0.9 1.5

Von Mises Stress (N/m2) 5.6e+008 5.5e+007 4.34e+007

FEA results get the minimum thickness of the pressure cooker that suitable the acceptable criteria is 0.9 mm thickness. The von mises stress of 0.9 mm thickness (5.5e+007 N/m2) is less than the allowable strength of pressure cooker material (2.05e+008 N/m2). Fig. 3 shown the 3D model von mises stress at nodal of pressure cooker, where maximum stress (5.5e+007 N/m2) is in the red area, while the minimum stress (0) is the blue area. The red area is stress distribution of tensile stress. The analysis did not reveal any compressive stress, so the stress that occurs in a pressure cooker only tensile stress.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The 3D model a von mises stress at nodal of pressure cooker shown in the fig. 4, where maximum stress (1.97e+007 N/m2) is in the red area, while the minimum stress (0) is the blue area. The red area is stress distribution of tensile stress. The analysis did not reveal any compressive stress, so the stress that occurs in a pressure cooker only tensile stress. Maximum von mises stress as shown in contact area of assembly shell and head.

Figure 3. The von mises stress of 0.9 mm thickness pressure cooker with gasket no load 300N and no temperature applied

B. FEA Results of Pressure Cooker with Gasket Loaded 300N and No Temperature Applied FEA results of pressure cooker in variety thickness with gasket where the applied load is 300 N of load, 2e+005 N/m2 of internal pressure, 950 N of mass, no temperature applied shown in the table IV. TABLE IV. FEA RESULTS OF PRESSURE COOKER IN VARIETY THICKNESS WITH GASKET LOADED 300N, NO TEMPERATURE APPLIED No 1 2 3

Thickness of Shell and Head (mm) 0.7 0.9 1.5

Von Mises Stress (N/m2) 5.6e+008 5.5e+007 4.34e+007

The results of von mises stress of pressure cooker that apply a 300 N load compared with no applying a 300 N load is not different. These results suggest that loading 300 N (contents load) does not influence the results of the stress analysis. Based the FEA result, the minimum thickness of the pressure cooker that no temperature applied that suitable the acceptable criteria is 0.9 mm thickness

Figure 4. The von mises stress of 5mm thickness pressure cooker with gasket

Von mises stress result from FEA CATIA V5 then being investigated in acceptable criteria with factor of safety. The respective design check of the method being investigated is accepted if the ratio is more than one.

Fs 

2.05e  008N / m2  1.04 1.97e  008N / m2

C. FEA Results of Pressure Cooker with Gasket Loaded 300N and Temperature Applied FEA results of pressure cooker in variety thickness with gasket where the applied load is 300 N of load, 2e+005 N/m2 of internal pressure, 950 N of mass, and 100˚C temperature applied shown in the table V. TABLE V. RESULTS OF PRESSURE COOKER IN VARIETY THICKNESS WITH GASKET LOADED 300N, TEMPERATURE 100˚C APLLIED No 1 2 3 4 5

Thickness of Shell and Head (mm) 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Von Mises Stress (N/m2) 2.42 e+008 2.34 e+008 2.2 e+008 2.14 e+008 1.97 e+008

Diplacement (mm) 4.65 4.64 4.63 4.62 4.55

The von mises stress that less than allowable strength (2.05e+008 N/m2) is 1.97e+008 N/m2 which is pressure cooker on 5mm thickness. Thickness of pressure cooker that less than 5 mm produce von mises stress greater than allowable strength, so that thickness less than 5 mm is a design failure. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 5. The translational diplacement of 5 mm thickness pressure cooker with gasket

Fig. 4 shows the 3D model deformation of pressure cooker, the maximum translantional diplacement vector is 4.55 mm. The maximum deformation shown in red arrows indicate the component gasket.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION

Figure 6. The translational diplacement of 5 mm thick pressure cooker without gasket.

When the gasket is removed from the pressure cooker on the thickness of 5mm, FEA results is shown in fig. 6 The smallest deformation (4.55 mm) is on 5 mm thickness of pressure cooker. The deformation shown on component gasket. When the gasket is removed from the pressure cooker on the thickness of 5 mm, the displacement is 0.9 mm. Translantional displacement certainly be small because the rubber material has a high elasticity. Rubber material also serves as an additional safety when the pressure cooker produce over pressure, although here have been a safety valve. D. FEA results of pressure cooker at 5mm thickness when temperature variety applied TABLE VI.

FEA RESULTS OF PRESSURE COOKER AT 5MM THICKNESS WHEN TEMPERATURE VARIETY APPLIED

No 1 2 3 4

Temperature (ºC) 100 80 60 0

Von mises stress (N/m2) 1.97e+008 1.34+008 7.64e+007 2.07e+007

When the temperature in the pressure cooker was varied, von mises stress decreased corresponding to the decrease of the temperature. Maximum von mises stress as shown in contact area of assembly shell and head. When the temperature in the pressure cooker is 80 ºC, von mises stress resulted from FEA CATIA is 1.34+008 N/m2. The analysis as shown in fig. 7 did not reveal any compressive stress, so the stress that occurs ina pressure cooker only tensile stress. The von mises stress is stress distribution of tensile stress. The analysis did not reveal any compressive stress, so the stress that occurs in a pressure cooker only tensile stress.

A. Summary Design of pressure cooker capacity of 30 kg soft spines milkfish based on ASME using CATIA V5. Pressure cooker has a geometry in 500 mm diameter, total high of 900 mm. Evaluation results using FEA CATIA V5 show 5 mm on thickness is the minimum thickness acceptable from acceptance criteria where von mises stress (1.97e+008 N/m2) is less than allowable strength material SA 240 Grade 304 (2.05e+008 N/m2). FEA result shown the smallest deformation is 4,55 mm at 5 mm wall thickness are assembled with rubber gasket, when a rubber gasket removed, displacement generated only by 0.9 mm. The pressure cooker design has been analyzed in several thickness acceptable in term of safe design (acceptance criteria), so design of 5 mm thickness of pressure cooker can be safe to use. The 5 mm thickness of the pressure cooker is the most economically wall thickness. B. Advice The minimum thickness of pressure cooker design that safe to use is 5 mm with SF 1.04, if we want to get a greater factor of safety (FS), we can use a thickness greater than 5 mm. REFERENCES Sunyoto, “Uji Kualitas Bandeng Presto dengan Alat Low Temperatur High Pressure Cooker,” in Jurnal Sain dan Teknologi. vol. 8 no. 20, 2010. [2] Suminto, “Survey lapangan Kajian Standar Nasional Indonesia Produk Unggulan UKM Sektor Pangan,” Activities Report Badan Standar Nasional, 2012. [3] F. Nabhani, T. Ladokun, and V. Askari, “Reduction of Stresses in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels Using Finite Element Analysis,” Finite Element Analysis–From Biomedical Applications to Industrial Developments, Croatia, InTechopen, 2012), pp. 379-390 [4] D.G. Ullman, The Mechanical Design Process. New York: McGraw Hill componies, 1984. [5] P. Jurandir, ASME Section I & Section VIII Fundamental.. PDHonline Course M398 (3 PDH), 2012. [6] Anonym. Food Equipment Materials. ANSI/NSF 51–1997. USA:NSF International, 1997. [7] G. Ghanbari, Pressure Vessel Design Guides & Procedures.www.pv-book.com, 2011. [8] N. Dwivedi and V. Kumar, “Burst Pressure Prediction of Pressure Vessel using FEA,” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology. vol. 1 no7, 2012. [9] C. Nagaraju, D.S. Sandeep, A. Kumar, and Mallikarjunarao, ”Application of HTT for Beam Element. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. Vol. 2(6), pp. 2051-2056. [10] Finite element Analysis CATIA V5 tutorial. (DassaultSystemes, 2008). [11] Material of properties, product data sheet 304/304L stainless steel. www.aksteel.com [1]

Figure 7. The von mises stress of 5 mm thickness pressure cooker at temperature 80ºC.

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The Implementation of Productive Program Learning of Vocational High School for the Development of Graduates Enterpreneurship Samsudi Engineering Faculty Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The productive program learning of Vocational High School (SMK) has a strategic position to be designed and implemented in developing both hard competence and soft competence. Empirically, the design and implementation of productive program learning can be administered through integration of learning materials, learning methods, and learning evaluation. The learning materials need to be designed by focusing on productive activities (making or creating product both in form of goods or services) which underlines the enterpreneurship character, the learning methods are implemented through some assignments or project-work, and the learning evaluation needs to undergo performance evaluation technique by emphasizing process and product. Keywords-the implementation of productive program learning for SMK; graduates enterpreneurship

I. INTRODUCTION The productive program learning in vocational high school (SMK) puts more orientation on building up and achieveing hard competence, which is the technical competence/skills according to the working competence standards (SKKNI). However, the soft competence aspect, especially the entrepreneurship competence, has not been optimally developed yet. Nationally, high school graduates still place themselves in the highest rank for the open unemployed workers (TPT), and SMK graduates have become the biggest contributors from this. Until August 2008, the percentages of the open unemployed workers according to school graduates are: (1) SMK: 14.59%; (2) SMA: 14.50%; (3) Diploma: 13.66%; dan (4) University 13.08%. (Kemnakertrans, 2010). Such reality perhaps is caused by the entrepreneurship character building that is not developed optimally in the SMK productive program learning. The needs upon entrepreneurship character building is in accordance with the research finding n Harvard University, The U.S., which revealed that one’s success is not solely determined by his/her technical knowledge or skills (hard skills), but more on how that individual’s capacity in handling him/herself and others (soft skills). The study eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

showed that someone’s success is determined by 20% of hard skills and 80% of soft skill. (Kemendiknas, 2001:1) A study from Samsudi (2009) showed that the process of looking for workers from SMK graduates becomes a serious concern. There has been a well-acknowledged agreement by principals, teachers, parents, and students themselves that their main reason in choosing SMK is because of a decision to get a job right away. Through the development of teaching materials, learning methods, and learning evaluation system which focus on the entrepreneurship character indicators, the productive program learning basically can be developed to build garduates entrepreneurship competence and character. II. THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study aims to: 1. analyse the needs of the implementation of productive program learning for developing the graduates entrepreneurship; 2. find the framework of the applicable model/design forproductive program learning to build up graduates’ entrepreneurship development. III. RESEARCH PROCEDURE A. Prelimiary Study On the stage of preliminary study, this research and development was planned to undergo the following phases: literature study, study/collection of data, and description and analysis of field findings (factual model). The preliminary study employed descriptive-analysis. Therefore, the expected findings would be the description and analysis about the factual model of productive program learning, primarily in the aspects of teaching materials, learning methods, and evaluation of entrepreneurship character. B. Model Development and Validation The steps of model development and validation are as followed: a) constructing initial model/design of productive program learning for SMK; (b) carrying on

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia validation I draft model through Focus Group Discussion (FGD); (c) the validation result became hypothesis model which will be tested on the validation II; (d) the process in validation II was a trial and error which involved the model grup. This step aimed to describe the model implementation and to assess the result of the model toward graduates entrepreneurship development. On the model development and validation, the analysis approach employed descriptive approach in a form of data presentation; the measurement of model applicability and impementation were also analysed through descriptive analysis. IV. THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE STUDY A. Results of the Study The results of the study are as followed: 1. Results of preliminary study The main goal of the preliminary study is to find the result of needs analysis toward productive program learning for SMK in order to develop the SMK graduates entrepreneurship character.

The result of needs analysis is received from data sources (respondents), which are from group of human resources involving respondents: 1) SMK principals; 2) teachers; 3) Du/Di Instructors. And the variables which become the focus on model development include: 1) learning materials; 2) learning methods; and learning evaluation. The findings about the needs of productive program learning model is described in a form of data presentation (mean, median, medus, etc), then is analyzed (interpreted) through descriptive-analitcal technique. The data which has been analyzed can be seen in figure 1: as followed: (0.00 to 10.00) means extremely necessary; (11.00 to 20.00) means necessary; (21.00 to 30.00) means unnecessary; (31,00 to 40,00) means extremely unnecessary. Therefore, table 1 and figure 1 showed that the teachers, principals, and Du/Di instructors generally say that on the aspects of materials, methods, evaluation of productive program learning development need to create such graduates entrepreneurship.

Figure 1. The data which has been analyzed.

2. The Implementive Model Design of Productive Program Learning According to the results of needs analysis and factual model description, the applicable model design is focused on three integrated which are: 1) the development of learning materials is focused on technical activities (productive) by emphasizing the creation/making of goods and service, but in the same time, is also associated with the development of entrepreneurship character; 2) the learning methods emphasize the assignment and/or project-work; and 3) the evaluation employs performance assessment wich underlines the process and result (product) of learning. The applied model can be presented through the chart beside :

Figure 2. The implementative model chart of productive program learning to build graduates’ entrepreneurship character

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia V. SUMMARY This development model is implemented by teachers since they construct their lesson plan by coordinating the materials, methods, and evaluation as the primary components in learning scenario which contain the entrepreneurship. The materials are designed on the basis of making/creating the product or service emphasizing entrepreneurship character; the methods are designed through assignment and/or project-work, while the evaluation is designed through performance-based technique emphasizing proses and product assessment. The designs on three primary components (materials, methods, and evaluation) are designed in the learning activity. Then the learning result (students) who have technical competence (productive) will be received. The development design can be implemented for SMK in technology and engineering, business and management, and tourism. B. Discussion According to the findings, the aspects that need development in the productive program learning are materials, methods, and evaluation. These three aspects are the main components in the curriculum. Therefore, the curriculum factor becomes very significant in the learning development to create working performance and graduates career. As explained by Smith (2007), the creation of working competence and graduates career must be designed within school curriculum. In accordance with this idea, the development of materials, methods, and evaluation in the productive program learning will empower the development of working performance and graduates career. In the context of teachers’ competence and vocational education instructors, Mndebele (2006) believed this concept as a significant matter in developing graduates entrepreneurship. Similar with the finding of the study, the teachers’ and instructors’ ability in designing the learning/training will increase the quality of materials, methods, and evaluation of productive program learning.

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Based on the result of the study, the conclusions are: 1. The needs toward a model development of productive program learning for SMK to create graduates interpreneurship is regarded significant by principals, productive teachers, and Du/Di instructors, especially the development on the aspects of learning materials, learning methods, and learning evaluation. 2. The applicable model framework of productive program learning that is conducted in a full integration to build up entrepreneurship competence is as followed: (1) the development of learning material that is focused on the technical activities (productive) by emphasizing the making/creation of goods and service, and is associated with the entrepreneurship character development; (2) the learning methods that emphasize assignment and/or project-work; and (3) the evaluation that employs the working performance technique by emphasizing the learning proses and result (product). REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

Borg, Walter R. and Gall, Meredith D., Educational Research: An Introduction, New York and London : Longman, 1993. Kemendiknas, Pengembangan Pendidikan Kewirausahaan. (Bahan Bimtek Pengembangan Kewirausahaan), Jakarta: Pusat Kurikulum dan Perbukuan, 2010. Lee, Jeongwoo, Partnerships with Industry for Efficient and Effective Implementation of TVET, International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 17, Number 2, 2008. Mndebele, Comfort B.S., Vocational Entrepreneurship Education in a Developing Country: Self Reported Performance of Male and Female Vocational Instructors in Swziland, International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 14, Number 1, 2006. Samsudi, Kesiapan Stakeholders dalam Implementasi Kebijakan Pengembangan SMK Menuju 2015, Laporan Hasil Penelitian Dosen Senior, LP2M Unnes, 2009. Smith, Bettye P., Employability Standards: Inclusion in Family and Career Science Middle School Curriculum. Journal of Career and Technical Education, Vol.23, No.1, Fall 2007.

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Analysis of Factors Causing Food Insecurity in Probolinggo District Luthfiyah Nurlaela1 and Choirul Anna Nur Afifah2 Home Economic Department, Engineering Faculty Surabaya State University Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—This study aimed to identify the potential of local food in the community, food availability and distribution, and family food consumption (levels of energy and protein consumption) in the food insecurity region; and to analyze the causes of food insecurity in the District of Probolinggo. The research is descriptive qualitative. Data was collected using interview, observation, and documentation. Research conducted in Alas Pandan and Bimo villages (subdistrict of Pakuniran) and Jatisari village (subdistrict of Kuripan). The villages have serious condition in food insecurity. The number of respondents is 45 families. The potential local food are rice, corn, cassava, mango, and banana. The staple food availability in family level is good. Access for gaining food mostly by buying. Food distribution in family and community is good, i.e. 62.2%. The levels of energy and protein consumption are still under nutritional adequacy rate. Causes of food insecurity in the district Probolinggo are: a) the low of family food availability on food source of protein, vitamin, and mineral; b) levels of energy and protein consumption of community is under the RDA; c) the low of income; d) the low of education; and e) lack of community access to technology mainly food processing technology. Keywords-availability; distribution; food consumption; food insecurity

I. INTRODUCTION The fulfillment of food needs in the context of food security is the pillar for the formation of qualified human resources are needed to improve the nation's competitiveness in the global landscape in Indonesia (Suryana, 2004). To achieve food security required the availability of food in quantity and quality, affordable distributed and safely consumed for every citizen to prop up its activities on a daily basis all the time because the food security system consists of sub-systems, availability, distribution and consumption subsystem (Saliem, et al; 2002). Increasing population, the narrowness for agriculture and climate change cause of food being one indicator important of welfare a nation. Of food in family containing understanding the food sufficient and available in a number which can meet consumption family. Tercukupinya food needs will not mean if food distribution and consumption food populations still low. Food distribution is not limited in the spreading and fair eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

distribution food sources in several regions, but they have also reaching up on a level family. Food consumption affected by many factors. The rate of consumption 5; more determined by quality and quantity of food consumed. Food quality reflect the nutrient substance needed by the body, contained in foods the food reflects the amount of any quantity in a nutrient foods. Food consumption less impact on low nutrition status of people at risk the emergence and malnutrition (malnutrition). Food vulnerability is the condition of not enough food a society. According to the food and agriculture organization (FAO); and act number 7 1996 about food the front lines can be defined that individuals or household people have no access economy (revenue inadequate or food prices, unaffordable) not having access physically to obtain food pretty normal life healthy, and productive good quality and quantity. Probolinggo is district with wide area 1,696,166.90 ha of his capital kraksaan. There are at least 98 village in sixteen sub-district in thousand probolinggo is categorized front lines. Map food scarcity probolinggo district 2007 issued council food security east java cooperate with university brawijaya calamity find there are two subdistricts being entire villages including front lines. Subdistrict it is pakuniran and kuripan. The research activity focused on family in three village with category very prone food, namely village pedestal pandanus and villages bimo (pakuniran subdistrict) and village jatisari (kuripan subdistrict). Purpose activity this research are 1) identify potentials local food in society, 2) knowing of food level family in the proneness food, 3) dig information about food distribution in family and community, 4) food consumption aware family (levels of consumption of energy and protein consumption levels) and 5) conducting an analysis of the causes of food insecurity based on data availability, distribution and consumption of food. This research is expected to be a guideline or reference for the basic driving force of development and policy makers in the intervention to the community in the area of food insecurity, source literature for students in community nutrition lecture activities, as well as references for further research or development related to community food security.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia II. METHOD The kind of research is descriptive qualitative, by cross sectional design. Determining the location done in purposif, with consideration the region in category very front lines so elected two villages in sub-district pakuniran, namely Alas Pandan village and Bimo village, and one village in sub-district kuripan, namely jatisari village. Research subjects is families who have toddlers in the village of Alas Pandan, Bimo and the village of Kuripan Village, each village taken as many as fifteen families so that the number of respondents was 45, elements of the Government that Kecamatan, village of Pakuniran devices and Food Security Agency and Kuripan Regency Probolinggo. Data collection was carried out through interviews, observation, and documentation. Research instrument used in the form of observation sheet and questionnaire. The Data collected in the form of primary data about the potential for local food, family characteristics, availability (food list or inventory method), distribution and consumption of food (recall 2x24 hours). According to the Department of health RI (1990) level/degree of food consumption is said to be good if & gt; 100 RDA, medium = 80-99, lack of RDA = 70-80 deficit and if RDA & lt; 70 RDA. Secondary Data in the form of a monograph of the village and the result of weighing a toddler from May 2011 until June 2012. The data analysis done on a descriptive qualitative, where data are presented in the form of percentage for exposing and illustrating the observation results obtained. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. The General State Of The Region. The village has an area of Alas Pandan 197.4 Ha. The base area of Pandan are generally in field area 104.7, tegal 48.7 Ha, and estates area 18 Ha. Villagers Alas Pandan totaled 1,886 people or 746 families. The majority of the inhabitants of livelihood as farmers edged 280 people and peasants, 466 people, as a seller, entrepreneur, civil servants, a builder, driver/taxi, and so on. In terms of educational level, there were 838 people did not finish elementary school, 619 people finished primary school, 207 people finished junior high school, 86 people finished senior high school and 118 people College. Principal agricultural community such as rice, cassava, mango, banana, and teak. From these results, the community has been expanding into several industries such as the manufacture of household to make cassava, Tempe and industry furniture also develops in the village though still in small scales and marketing is, but has medapat intensive training from the related institutions (dept. of industry). The village is located on the slopes of Bimo Arjuno and includes mountainous terrain or hills to an agrarian agroekologi. Total area 465,5 Ha Bimo Village fields or moor is the widest part (206 Ha) then a forest of teak 136,8 Ha. The main types of Community agriculture rice, cassava, bananas, teak and mango. A mainstay of the eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

range chicken farming village of Bimo results. Villagers Bimo consists of 625 people men and women, with a total of 534 families as much as 430 families. Percentage inhabitant of largest was adult as many as 759 people (65.71%). Livelihood population main as farmers and farm laborer 375 people (86.81%). Number of resident there are elementary and finished elementary is also high is 108 people (16.05%) and 376 people (55.87%), known only 18 people (2.67%) who until in level university mention the percentage of poor families in village bimo still high (73.5%), this are reflected of condition houses that walled bamboo or wood still dominate, namely as many as 54.9%. Jatisari village is the only village in the Sub-District of Kuripan which includes categories very prone. The village includes a hilly area that is mostly dry land/tegal 737.86 Ha, 483 teak forest and rice field rainwater 4.43 Ha. Village jatisari hamlet, is divided into 65 neighborhood units and 26 neighborhood unit. The characteristics of the economy of the community at large-eyed livelihood as self-employment (workshop), a builder, pedicabs, farmers, peasants and taxi driver. The Data shows the village of monograph almost 90% of the community includes a poor family. The results of the agricultural community is cassava Besides rice and corn. Forested areas are generally planted with teak trees. B. The Potential of Local Food Communities. Local food community was greatly influenced by the agroecology region. Ecological factors have a very dominant role towards the formation of food consumption patterns 6. Pakuniran and Kuripan Subdistrict is areas with agricultural region agroecology. Food in the form of rice and tubers, especially yams and cassava, taro dominated the local food community, however rice production has not been able to meet the needs of the whole population so that the availability of rice as a staple food still must be met from other regions. Some regions, especially the village of Bimo also planting corn as a result of his farm. This data in accordance with Arsiniawati 3 which states that all districts/cities in East Java, put rice as the staple food maize, although in the form of rice, maize (a mixture of rice and maize) as well as ampok or aron (corn) are still commonly found in Probolinggo District among others. Animal food sources that are generated in the form of a lot of chicken, beef and goat the next. Animal food in the form of a chicken or the egg that is consumed is the result of society's own livestock, while cows are more used to help cultivate their farmland.None of the results generated by the fisheries community land and the sea. Most of community more consume fish be processed salted fish). Type of vegetable that is often found in water convolvulus, cassava leaves, mustard greens, spinach, and so on. In Pakuniran Subdistrict, mango and banana into a fairly promising local commodities. Some mango plantations are found, but still limited consumed/sold the community in the form of fresh, they haven't been able to develop it into a product that is worth the economic high. Unlike the case with banana, Pakuniran subdistrict community has been able to develop the entrepreneurial

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia banana (banana to make) that can sustain their household economy. C. The Availability of Food Family. The availability of food family is considered the family of the ability to fulfill the needs of a group of cereal grains, pangannya the tubers, panga animal, oils and fats, fruit/seeds fatty, nuts, sugar, and fruits and vegetables. The availability of food family be judged from availability of foodstuffs in the period one week. Such as rice grains become main society, staple food partly (about 46.6%) the family also provides of corn for processed into nasi corn as an alternative to substitute rice. Cassava is sort of the most numerous consumed, but more often used as food an interlude and entrepreneurial (cassava chip). A kind of food animal that is widely available is a chicken and eggs, next fish. The availability of fish in the family rarely in form of fresh fish but preserved, in the form as of salted fish. Some fresh fish that is often found here was a fish fresh-water or river, which is a lele or mujair fish. Food products other animal is milk, who is also available but limited only on 17.7 % of the family. TABLE I.

FOOD AVAILABILITY IN FAMILY PER WEEK

Kind of Food Paddy/rice Corn Cassava Noodle Chicken Beef Fish Egg Vegetable oil Coconut/coconut milk Peanut Soybean curd Tempe Sugar Watercress Cassava leaf Lettuce Spinach Banana Papaya

(%) Food Availability per week 5 days 100 44,4 8,9 0 6,7 0 48,9 31,1 91,1 4,4 6,7 73,3 51,1 88,9 8,9 17,8 2,2 8,9 0 0

Data shows that the whole family having good availability of rice, soybean curd, sugar and oil for frying. While little food available in family is beef, chicken, noodles, coconut/coconut milk, soybean curd, lettuce, spinach, bananas and papayas. And virtually food source of protein (either animal or vegetable) and food source of vitamins and minerals (vegetable and fruit) is food group should be increased its availability. D. Food Distribution Family. Food distribution family one of them is determined from access family obtain food. Family access to food in sub-district pakuniran kuripan and carried out largely by purchasing family so that ability to obtain food closely related to purchasing power or family income so family with high income be easy obtain food compared with the family lower-income. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The ability of the family to provide for and obtain food won't be effective if not supported by the distribution of good food to all family members. The distribution of good does not mean the food must be consumed in equal amounts to all the family but food to be distributed properly in every time (as breakfast, lunch and dinner), a kind of food divided evenly to all the family members as well as a quantity of food consumed adjust by nutrition needs family members. Based on the answers given the family about food distribution, then known there are 62.2% family having good food distribution; 31.1% having fair food distribution and 6.7% family with food distribution less well. E. Food consumption. Major indicators from family food consumption seen from energy consumption level and protein consumption level. Composition and kosumsi food someone influenced knowledge nutritional and health 6. The results of a survey conducted by the food consumption of Probolinggo district at 2010 known that the energy consumption population with an agricultural region is 1944.8 cal/capita/day while data recall the overall population of energy consumption in Pakuniran and Kuripan sub-district is 1979.17 cal/capita/day. Although this figure look higher than energy consumption inhabitant of Probolinggo district but compared Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) 2005 that energy consumption level inhabitant of Indonesia actually 2150 cal/capita/day, so the rate is still low. Consumption protein population known 53.82 grams /capita/day. While the survey food consumption in Probolinggo district 2010 with agricultural region is 56.3 grams /capita/day and RDA protein consumption according to 2005 55 grams/capita/day. It is describe in general protein consumption population in pakuniran and kuripan sub-district should participate for lack of consumption protein in long time caused a lot of nutrition problems mainly in infants and toddlers. Majority of respondents having medium level of protein consumption (37.8%). If connected with the availability of food family especially on source of protein in general only available less than three days in a week so that data describes food source of protein availability having a significant relation between the level of protein consumption society. F. The Cause of Food Insecurity in Probolinggo District. Realization of food security produced some element the subsystem interact: food availability, food distribution and food consumption 1. The approach taken to build third subsystems was coordination and community empowerment in participatory. The identification challenged the cause of insecurity in pakuniran and kuripan sub-district, Probolinggo based on the data has been obtained is: 1. A lack of food availability as a source of protein (beef, chicken, fish and tempe) as well as a source of

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia vitamins and minerals (coconut/coconut milk, watercress, lettuce, spinach, bananas and papayas). 2. The level of energy consumption and protein majority people are still under the criteria adequate nutrition. 3. The low income people and it difficult to fulfill their food nutrition for family 4. Low education society so that knowledge and awareness about the importance of food or nutritive also less, and the difficulty they get jobs adopted. 5. Lack of public access for technology especially the processing producing stuff. Identification by way of referring to the problem effort or an alternative solution that can be done is an educational program nutritional and health care for the community. A form of activity can include counseling, training and the development of a device formal education that integrated in school curriculum. The program not only aim is to raise public awareness about food and nourishment so that implicates to improve the quality of food consumption, but also a manner to eliminate the problem of malnutrition in toddlers and poor preventive measures the onset of food scarcity and give the impact of food sustainability.

4. Energy consumption level the overall population is 1979.17 cal /capita/day and rate of consumption protein average 53.82 grams/capita/day or still below the adequate nutrition, and 5. The cause of food insecurity in probolinggo district are lack of food availability families at source of protein vitamins and minerals, the level of energy consumption and protein people who are below criteria, the low income and community education, and lack of public access for technology. B. Recommendation 1. The need for coordinated with education dept. district probolinggo and social institutions related to increase knowledge society on nutrition and socialization through different lines health and education. 2. Designing and devices promotion and education on food security through various education. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION [3]

A. Conclusion 1. Potential local food is rice, corn, cassava as staple food, banana and mango for fruit and chicken and eggs on animal food. 2. The availability of food at the level of the family including good is rice, oil, soybean curd and sugar. While the food is sold as cow, a little available chicken, noodles, coconut/coconut milk, watercress, sawi, spinach, bananas and papayas. 3. Access get food carried by buying and food distribution, including good family and community

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[4]

[5] [6]

Anonimous, Rencana Strategis dan Program Kerja Pemantapan Ketahanan Panga Tahun 2001-2004, Badan Bimas Ketahanan Pangan, Departemen Pertanian, 2001. Anonimous, Analisis Pola Konsumsi Pangan Wilayah Berbasis Pola Pangan Harapan (PPH) 2010 Kabupaten Probolinggo, Badan Ketahanan Pangan dan Penyuluh Pertanian Kabupaten Probolinggo, 2010. Arsiniawati M. Brata-Arbai, dkkKajian Mutu dan Gizi sera Khasiat Makanan Tradisional Jawa Timur, Laporan Penelitian kerjasama antara Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian Universitas Brawijaya Malang dan Badan Ketahanan Pangan Jawa Timur, Tidak diterbitkan, 2001. Nindyowati, E., Kebijakan dan Program Pembangunan dalam Mewujudkan Ketahanan Pangan. Makalah yang disampaikan dalam Seminar Nasional Makanan Tradisional, di NICE Center Graha Pena Building Surabaya, 27 Oktober 2001. Soediaoetama, A Djaeni, Ilmu Gizi II. Jakarta: PT. Dian Rakyat, 1996. Suhardjo, Sosio Budaya Gizi. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1989.

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The Training Management of Designing Life Skill and Chemo-Entrepreneurship Based Learning to Chemistry Teachers of Senior High School in Semarang Sri Susilogati Sumarti Department of Chemistry Faculty of Science and Math, UNNES Semarang, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract—The improvement of teachers’ professionalism in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning is needed. This research aims to find the model of training management in designing life skill and CEP based chemistry learning with details of (1) describing the design, (2) obtaining the test result, (3) finding the effectiveness, and (4) finding the description of the training model in designing life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. This research used Research and Development (R & D) approach with stages of (1) conducting a preliminary study, (2) determining the empirical model based on the analysis result of preliminary study, (3) developing the empirical toward the hypothetical model, (4) testing the effectiveness of the hypothetic model through limited field test, and (5) improving the hypothetical toward the finding model. The data gathering was held by observation, interview, questionnaire, and documentation. The data analysis was held by qualitative and analytical descriptive using paired t-test with level of significance of 0.05. Preliminary study showed that the teachers needed the training in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning to increase their competence in designing, implementing, and evaluating life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. The findings showed that the training model in designing in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning was effective to improve the quality of teachers in implementing chemistry learning. It is recommended for training providers that the training model in designing in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning is excellent to be developed within a wider scale. Keywords-model of training management; life skill; chemo-entrepreneurship

I. INTRODUCTION Development of entrepreneurship among educators is crucial because educators are agents of change who are expected to instill characteristics, nature and character, as well as the entrepreneurial spirit for learners. Entrepreneurial-minded education is an education which applies the principles and methodology to the formation of life skills to the learners through a curriculum developed at school.[1] eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Various attempts have been made to improve the quality of teachers in order to not only accelerate the learning process of students in achieving cognitive but also affective and psychomotor aspects. [13] One of them is by developing a life skill and chemoentrepreneurship (CEP) based chemistry learning. The learning process is done by integrating aspects of life skills and entrepreneurship in learning activities. [8] The author observed 40 teachers of chemistry Lesson Teachers’ Council about the experience of training and carrying out a life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. The result showed that (1) in general, all teachers were experienced in competency enhancement training; 80% of teachers experienced in chemistry learning training, and 90% of teachers have not attended training related to life skill and CEP chemistry based learning, (2) a 95% of chemistry teachers implemented chemistry learning without integrating life skills and CEP because of difficulties associated with entrepreneurial learning design and lack of time and available cost, (3) a 95% of teachers did not link the concepts of chemistry and the concept of entrepreneurship. The data indicated that the lesson plans created by teachers did not link the concept to the manufacture of chemistry products, (4) a 95% of teachers have not carried out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, (5) a 95% of observed teachers stated that they really needed the competency improvement in applying life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. The problems in this study were: (1) how the chemistry learning training model and CEP-based life skill is and (2) whether the model training is effective to enhance the ability of teachers in carrying out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. II. METHOD Stages covered in this study, followed the model of Borg and Gall (1989:784-785) with some simplification as follows: (1) conducting a preliminary study, (2) setting the empirical model based on the analysis of the preliminary study, (3) drafting the hypothetical model based on

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia empirical model, (4) designing validation by experts and practitioners, (5) improving the designed model, (6) performing a design trial, (7) evaluating the improved design to produce the finding model, and (8) writing research reports. [2] Techniques of data collection were interview, observation, and documentation using the instruments in the form of questionnaires, interview guides, observation sheets, and field notes. Analysis of data was performed by using qualitative and quantitative approaches. A qualitative approach is needed to clarify the description of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning model. Descriptive quantitative analysis is needed to measure the variables of the ability of teachers before and after training, participants' responses to the implementation of training, and criteria for the effectiveness of the model based on the variables measured. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The training model of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning model (Fig 1) is a management model of organizing training programs in order to improve the learning ability of teachers to carry out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. [5] Organizing activities include preparation of design implementation which consists of components: principles of implementation, objectives of implementation, activities, training materials, participants, facilitators, organizers, schedules, venue, cost, and evaluation process.[3] Implementation of the training includes activities including: opening, technical explanations, learning of theories, assignments, teaching practice, the implementation of learning at school, and reflection. Observation activities include assessments of program implementation consisting of evaluation of program planning, program implementation and result evaluation. [9] The effectiveness of the model was determined through testing the model by measuring the participants’ ability to design learning before and after the training, participants’ response in the training implementation, participants’ ability to carry out teaching practice at schools, and students' ability to practice in the production, presentation, and entrepreneurship. [6] The increase in teachers’ capability to design learning before and after training is presented in Figure 2. Measurement of the teachers’ ability to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning was conducted on all participants. This ability focused on six key indicators, namely the ability to formulate learning objectives of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, set learning activities of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, summarize the learning materials, develop a guide of product production, develop sheet assessment of the product and a presentation assessment sheet. It was generally known that a significant increase on the six teachers’ skills in designing life skill and CEP based chemistry learning from sufficient to be very high criteria. Even the indicator of teachers’ ability to formulate learning objectives of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning and the ability to eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

set an assessment sheet of products have considerably increased. This showed the promising first step to the success of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning due to the purpose of learning is a crucial runway to achieve the target of learning while the product assessment sheet is an assessment tool to measure the extent of achieved indicators. [12] TRAINING MODEL OF LIFE SKILL AND CEP BASED CHEMISTRY LEARNING

PLANNING

ORGANIZING

Need identification

Designing program

Training

Priority of needs

Basic of implementation

opening

Objectives of training Needs of learning material

Formulation of commitee

IMPLEMENTING

Technical explanation

Theoretical learning tasks

Participant of training Formulation of objectives, curriculum, Program, dan training methods

Fasilitator

Training commitee

Assessme nt of program execution

Evaluation of planning

Type of training

Materials of training

MONITORING

Evaluation of execution

Evaluation of results

Practical learning

Implementation at schools

Training schedule Fasilitator and materials

Discussion and coordination

reflection Place of training

fees

Process of training

Evaluation

Figure 1. Training model

Figure 2. Improvement of teachers’ ability to design learning before and after training

Teaching practices at schools, were conducted SMA 16 Semarang, SMA 12 Semarang, MA Al-Khoiriyyah, and SMA 1 Semarang with the involvement of two classes for each school; experimental and control group. The

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia control group test were not performed at MA AlKhoiriyyah because it only has one class. The result of learning practices at schools by teachers in the experimental group and control group are shown in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, and Figure 9. Figure 3 shows that the ability of teachers to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning for the experimental group and control group had a significant difference. The experimental groups of all schools were able to demonstrate the ability to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning with very high criteria, whereas the control groups were only in a range of criteria from medium to high except MA Al-Khoiriyah that did not involve a control group in this test because it only has one class with the same teacher. This finding suggested that the training model generated in this study proved effective to train chemistry teachers of senior high schools in improving the ability to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. This is due in this training model trained teachers to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning step by step in a systematic and measured way to achieve the learning objectives which have been set.

Figure 3. The ability of teachers to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning

Figure 4 presents the ability of teachers in carrying out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning including the control groups and experimental groups. Indicators of the ability of teachers to implement learning involves 15 subindicators which include the ability to carry out apperception, mention the goals of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, explain concepts related to life skills and entrepreneurship, determine which products are put into practice, guide students to good manufacturing practices, motivate students’ entrepreneurship, guide students to conduct economic analysis of products, the relevance of the lesson plans, interaction with students, product attractiveness, product benefits, product uniqueness, product innovation, the ability to summarize the learning materials, and evaluate the learning. Among the four schools that were designated as samples in this study, MA Al-Khoiriyah was the only school that has only one class for each class that is not possible to pull out the control group as other samples. It is observed in Figure 4 that the ability of teachers in carrying out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning for the experimental group was higher than that for the control group with very high criteria for the experimental group and high criteria for the control group. It also is another evidence that the finding model was effective to produce chemistry teachers who were able to both design and perform life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. Figure 3 and Figure 4 also reveal that probably the initial ability of each teacher at the same school was similar. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Because teachers in the control groups did not receive training in how to design and implement correctly and systematic learning, then some sub-indicators in the ability indicators to design and implement learning were unobservable.

Figure 4. The ability of teachers to perform the life skill and CEP based chemistry learning

Figure 5 presents the ability of the four school chemistry teachers in evaluating the process and the results of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning for the control group and experimental group, except for MA Al-Khoiriyah that only has one class. It can be seen in Figure 5 that the ability of chemistry teachers in evaluating life skill and CEP based chemistry learning between the control and experimental groups are significantly different from the high criteria for the control group and very high criteria for the experimental group. Thus it can be concluded that the training model of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning was effective to enhance the ability of teachers in designing and carrying out, as well as evaluating life skill and CEP based chemistry learning.

Figure 5. The ability of teachers to evaluate life skill and CEP based chemistry learning

In addition to the ability of teachers in designing, implementing, and evaluating life skill and CEP based chemistry learning as an evaluation of the impact of the training model, an evaluation toward students’ activities in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning which has been implemented in four sample schools also has been conducted. This study focused on students’ activities including the practice of making chemistry-based life skill products, presentation skills, and entrepreneurship aspects shown in the learning process. By considering that the students from different schools may not have the same initial condition associated with the focus of this research, the three aspects of students’ activities observed are discussed for each school without generalization. The results are presented in Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia and creatively in the capture of existing business opportunities.

Figure 6. The ability of students of SMA 16 Semarang

Figure 6 presents the results of the assessment prof production, presentation, and the entrepreneurial spirit of students of SMA 16 Semarang respectively for the control and experimental groups. It can be seen from Figure 6 that the ability of the experimental group’s skills in producting life skill products and presenting the results was higher than the control group. Similarly, an assessment of the entrepreneurial aspects of the experimental group showed a better criteria than those of the control group. The experimental group achieved a very high criteria for all three of these aspects while the control group reached the criteria up to medium/adequate. However, in general, the difference is not very significant as the results shown by students of SMA 1 Semarang (Figure 9) and SMA 12 Semarang (Figure 7). This is possible because the input of students at each school was relatively the same for all classes. Thus, the training model generated in this study can effectively enhance the ability of teachers in designing, implementing, and evaluating life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. This will have a positive impact on improving students' ability to make a life skillbased chemical products and can directly improve students’ entrepreneurial spirit.


The same pattern did not apply to MA Al-Khoiriyah as shown in Figure 8. Because the school had only one class for each academic year then the data was obtained only from the experimental class. However, by looking at the end result of the class it can be seen that the results of production, presentation, and the students’ entrepreneurial spirit of MA Al-Khoiriyah Semarang were relatively similar to the three schools which have a control group, except for the aspects of the entrepreneurial spirit. On this aspect, MA Al-Khoiriyah only showed result in high criteria, while the three other schools already showed results in very high criteria. It could be related to the input of students who tend to be shy and submissive psychologically, so they were less able to think critically

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Figure 8. The ability of students of MA Al-Khoiriyyah


The increase in teachers’ capability in designing, implementing, and evaluating the learning process was supported by the ability of the excellent coaches and learning strategies. Implementation of learning in the training were as follows: facilitators/trainers as a learning resource facilitating the activities of the learning process with the following steps: (1) delivering the competencies to be achieved, (2) explaining the materials briefly, (3) guiding the drafting life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, (4) training the manufacture of products, and (5) guiding the group discussion. Provision of learning experiences in this training was aimed to increase teachers' ability to both dimensions of the knowledge and skills in designing life skill and CEP based chemistry learning. Chemistry teachers as learning community individually or grouply together with the facilitators collaboratively carried out activities in the training process through the steps of: (1) listening carefully the description of materials, (2) conducting practices to plan a life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, (3) manufacturing products with the guidance of instructors, and (4) implementing the designed life skill and CEP based chemistry learning at schools with assistance. The effectiveness of the model was also supported by the responses of participants to the training, which showed good or excellent results. Participants' responses to the implementation of training on life skill and CEP based chemistry learning are shown in Table 1. Effectiveness criteria were determined based on the average score of the indicators broken down into the criteria of less effective, effective, and very effective as shown in Table 2.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE I. Sub Varia ble contex t

Input

Proces s

produc t

benefit

impact

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

EVALUATION ON TRAINING IMPLEMENTATION Indicator

Accordance of training with the main role of teachers Accordance of training with the teachers’ expectation Accordance of training with the objectives of training Accordance of training with the development of curriculum Curriculum of training Preparation of supporting materials Qualification of trainers Budget and infrastructure Schedule Environment of training Methods used by trainers Interaction between trainers and trainees Learning media in training Available time Providing opportunities in questioning Improving knowledge and capability Achieving the objectives of training satisfyment Mastery of skills after training The result of training is in line with the objectives Product benefits to participants Benefits to students Benefits to schools Benefits to development of competences Improvement on teachers’ competencies in life skill and CEP based chemistry learning Improvement on teachers’ competencies in motivating students to be an entrepreneur Students’ motivation to be an entrepreneur enhanced Benefits of training to the development

Score

Criteria

3.70

Very suitable Very suitable Very suitable

3.70 4.23

Suitable Very good

4.10 4.00 4.10 4.00 3.86

Very good Good Very good Good Good

4.53

Very good

4.40 4.23 4.16

Very good Very good Very good

4.46 4.53

Ability of teachers in designing learning Ability of teachers in implementing learning Ability of teachers in evaluating learning Ability of students to produce life skill products Ability of students to present the results Students’ entrepreneurial spirit Process aspect product aspect Benefit aspect Impact aspect Contextual aspect Input aspect Trainer capability Total average

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B. Recommendation The training model of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning should be socialized and made continuous improvements by adjusting to the development of industry and science for teachers to increase their competence in a learning-based entrepreneurship. REFERENCES

3.80

Good

[1]

4.30

Very good

[2]

3.93 3.83 3.90

Good Good Good

[3]

3.60 4.33 4.16 4.03

Good Very good Very good Very good

3.66

Good

[4]

[5]

[6] 4.16

Very good [7]

4.16

Very good

3.70

Good

3.63

Good

TABLE II. THE CRITERIA OF EFFECTIVENESS OF THE FINDING MODEL Indicator

A. Conclusion Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that: (1) training model of life skill and CEP based chemistry learning was very effective to improve the competence of teachers in carrying out life skill and CEP based chemistry learning, (2) the effectiveness of the training model indicated an increase in the ability of teachers to design life skill and CEP based chemistry learning before and after training and the significant difference in entrepreneurial abilities of students in the control group and experimental group by a teacher who trained and untrained.

[8]

[9]

[10]

Average Score 4.58 4.65

Criteria very effective very effective

[11]

4.75 4.27

very effective very effective

[12]

4.09 4.18 4.2 3.9 4.05 3.9 4.18 4.05 4.53 4.26

very effective very effective very effective Effective very effective Effective very effective very effective very effective very effective

[13]

Basrowi, Kewirausahaan untuk Perguruan Tinggi, Bogor: Penerbit Galia Indonesia, 2011. Borg,W.R and Gall, M.D., Educational Research : An Introduction, New York: Longman, 1989. Gilley, Jerry W. & Eggland, Steven A., Principles of Human Resource Development, USA, 1995. Addison-WeRuberg, Laurie, et al. Value Added Assessment: Teacher Training Designed to Improve Student Achievement, West Virginia: Center of Educational Technologies (CET) Wheeling Jesuit University, 2007. Jeffries, David R, et al, Training for Total Quality Management: Practical Trainer Series, London: association with the institute of Training and Development, 1993. Latifatus, Z., Integrasi Kecakapan Hidup (Life Skill) dalam Pembelajaran Kimia di SMA Negeri Kota Malang, Laporan Penelitian, 2009. Putra, Nusa., Research and Development (Penelitian dan Pengembangan): Suatu Pengantar, Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2011. Runge, Wolfgang & Brase, Stefan, Education in Chemical Entrepreneurship: Towards Technology Entrepreneurship for and in Chemistry-related Enterprises. Karlsruhe: RISCnet Germanysly Publishing company, 2009. Susiana, Nancy, Upaya Menumbuhkan Sikap Wirausaha Siswa SMA melalui Pembelajaran Kimia Terintegrasi Life skill, Disertasi Program Pasca Sarjana UPI, Bandung, 2007. Uribe, Claudia, The Politics and Incentives that Contribute to the Improvement of Teacher Performance and Motivation, Harvard University: HIID and PPE, 1999. Vaidya, ShipraDeveloping Entrepreneurial Life skills: An Experiment in Indian School. Glasgow: Institute for Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 2007. Woro Sumarni, Pengembangan Model Pembelajaran Berorientasi Chemoentrepreneurship (CEP) terintegrasi ketrampilan Generik dengan Media Chemodutainment (CET) sebagai upaya peningkatan efektivitas pembelajaran kimia dasar: Laporan penelitian, 2007. Yateman Aryanto, et al, Strategi Pengembangan Ilmu Kimia Indonesia Yogyakarta: Deputi Bidang Perkembangan, Kementerian Negara Riset dan Teknologi, Diglossia, 2006.

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The Utilization of Fabric Wastes as Row Material in the New Small Business Sicilia Sawitri Services and Production Technology Department Engineering Faculty of Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The advantages of technology has brought good and bad effects into indutrial development, for example: the effect in the fashion industries. Fashion industries have rose rapidly. Many small fashion industries have developed into giant, with million rupiah sales, such as garment industries which produce men’s, women’s and children apparels. These factories also produce fabric wastes. Fabric wastes bring some problems to everybody. Fabric wastes may cause garbage everywhere. If someone burns the fabric wastes, it can make air pollution. What will someone do now? We have to manage the fabric waste. We can change fabric wastes into something useful, by created into some handy craft. A new small business can use the fabric wastes as row material to produce many kind of handicrafts such as bags, wallet, cushion case etc, by using some technique such as patchwork, quilting, weaving, crocheting Keywords- fabric waste; new small business

I. INTRODUCTION The advantages of technology has brought good and bad effects into indutrial development, for example: the effect in the fashion industries. Fashion industries have rose rapidly. Many small fashion industries have developed into giant, with million rupiah sales, such as garment industries which produce men’s, women’s and children apparels. These factories also produce fabric wastes. Fabric wastes bring some problems to everybody. Fabric wastes may cause garbage everywhere. If someone burns the fabric wastes, it can make air pollution. What will someone do now? We have to manage the fabric waste. We can change fabric wastes into something useful, by created into some handy craft. A small business can use the fabric wastes as row material to produce many kind of handicrafts such as bags, wallet, cushion case, by using some technique such as patchwork, quilting, weaving, crocheting. Fabric wastes are the rest of fabrics after someone cut the material in making clothes. We can find fabric wastes in garment factories, dress makers, tailors, home mass garment production and haute couture (High fashion house). Usually they throw away the fabric wastes in some places which will create garbage or they burn them, which will make air pollution and may cause our environment no healthy. The smoke will go everywhere and may cause health problem. The sizes of fabric waste eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

are small and big, depending on the patterns that will be cut and the wide of the fabrics themselves. Fabric wastes material come from cotton, silk, wool, acrilic and polyester (man made fabric) or blend fabric (nature and man made fiber). The natural material such as: wool, silk and cotton can be burnt and become ash, but the man-made fiber like polyester, acrilic, polyamide made fabric can’t be burnt. Who will responsible of this situation. The government and all of the members of he societies have responsibility in overcoming the fabric wastes, because we don’t want to see our environment becomes dirty and ugly. The government has to manage this problem, by encouraging the small home industries to make some things which have selling force. The PKK organization can also handle this problem, by giving some trainings to the members on how to create some useful things. The vocational school takes responsibility, for examples the techer ask the students to make some handycrafts or children clothes by using patchwork, applique, weaving and quilting technique. II. FASHION BUSINESS There are several fashion businesses where can created fabrics wastes. Fashion business according to Rulanti Satyodirgo as cited by Sri Wening and Sicilia Sawitri (1994) mentioned several kinds of businesses, namely: sewing course, business couturier, tailor, haute couture, boutique, small scope garment, large scope garment factories, and intermediate fashion business. Sewing Course/instead of producing cloths it produces skilled personnel and indirectly represents the fashion business. There are several types of sewing courses and the levels of student ability after completing the course. While the grade levels in the course can be divided into: 1) basic level, 2) skilled level, 3) advanced level, and 4) sewing teaching level. Couturier business is one of types in the field of fashion businesses for individuals, in this case the customer comes and is measured to fit the appropriate size and then the clothes are produced.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Sri Wening and Sicilia Sawitri (1994:95) defined couturier (dress maker) as the individual fashion business type by measuring each customer particularly for women and children. At first it is only a side-job for housewives to spend their spare times as well as to earn some additional income for family. All jobs starting from measuring, creating patterns, and cutting to the final product they perform by themselves. They, generally, use simple equipment. The system used in the couturier business is semi tailoring, i.e. a fashion finishing technique with merely veering process. Service products usually made are women and children clothing. Tailor business is a service business which receives orders with tailoring systems, typically working on menswear. Tailoring system is a sewing technique in which either the outside and inside of the cloth produces is neatly covered with upholstery fabric (lining). Fashion models in tailor business are generally coats or semicoats. Haute couture comes from the French language, which means high cutout (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Fashion_design, 2010). Haute couture business is an exclusive fashion business, both in terms of design and materials and finishing techniques. A unique design is intended merely for one customer with good quality and exclusive material given as well as finishing technique needs a special attention; thus the price of a fashion produced in hatue couture is certainly expensive. Haute couture is a reserved term and only used on the standards set by the ChambreSyndicale de la Couture. However, the business of ready-to-wear and mass production are sometimes claimed to produce haute couture fashion. Boutique is a fashion business that sells clothes and accessories (Dunn, 1978: 88). The quality of these clothes is usually good, smooth and neat stitching, and limited production number. Accessories that are available in the boutique include an assortment of jewelry, shoes, sandals, handbags, scarves, belts and many others. At the boutique businesses, they do not receive sewing orders; the stocks are supplied by other companies that produce clothes and accessories. Type of clothing sold in the boutique is ready-to-wear fashion. Ready to wear (Mass Production) Clothing Business provides customers with large quantities and produces ready-made clothing in large quantities and use standard sizes (S, M, L, XL, LLL etc.). The materials that are generally used are less expensive materials, thus the price can be affordable by the lower classes. The selected trends are generally adapted from the clothing worn by famous people. The use of materials with low price and simple techniques with a machine enable to produce cheap-priced clothes. Mass production conducted in the industry is generally called garment, while production conducted in houses is called convection. III. STEP FOR CREATING A NEW BUSINESS A new business can create every time, everywhere and can be created by every body. There are 10 steps for creating a new business (Duermyer, R. 2010), such as: (1) Decide what products or service in the small business will eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

offer. (2) Understanding small marketing business concepts, (3) Make sure the tasks needed before starting a small business, (4) Make a list what needs to be done to prepare a home for business, (5) Understand legal barry to starting the business. (6) Review the small business insurance needs. (7) Learn the risks and benefids of the legal forms of business organization. (8) Determine start up cost, calculate the start up costs, the amount money it’s going to take to get up and running. (9) Consider the break even points, the cash flow and the funding options. (10) Gauge the family’s support for the home business. According to Hisrich, Peters and Shepherd (2008: 140) to create and start the new venture or business needs sources of new ideas, some of the more frequently used sources of idea for entrepreneurs include: consumers, existing product and service, distributions channels and federal government. Consumers. Potential entrepreneurs should continually pay close attention to potential consumers. This attention can take the form of informally monitoring potential ideas and needs or formally arranging for consumers to have an opportunity to express their opinions. Existing products and services. Potential entrepreneurs should also establish a formal method for monitoring and evaluating competitive producs and services on the market. Frequently, this analysis uncovers ways to iprove on thes offering that may result in a new product or service that has more market appeal and better sales and profit potential. Distribution channels. Member of the distribution channels are also excelent sources for new ideas because of their familiarity with the needs of the market. Not only do channel members frequently have suggestions for completely new product,but they can also help in marketing the entrrepreneur/s newly developed products. Federal government. The fegeral government can be a source of new product ideas in two ways. Firts of the Patent Office contain numerous new product possbilities. Second: new product ideas can come in response to government regulation . New small business also needs creativity, innovation, high motivation, high self confidence. IV. CREATING SOME THINGS FROM FABRIC WASTE IN SMALL BUSINESS In small business, we can create some things new from fabric wastes. By using some techniques the fabric waste can be canged in some things usseful, for examples: photo frames, pillow cases, cusshion cases, bags, dolls, mat, telephone covers, refrigerator coverts. We can apply some techniques to create those things new, such as: appliqué, quilting, mozaic, weaving and patch work technique. A. Applique Technique Applique technique is basically a sewing craft, by applying a small fabric as decorative design on other large fabric, using sewing machine or hand decorative stich. Inspiration for applique design can be found in many

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia sources, among other coloring books greeting cards and everyday objects. A typically simple design can consist of a central motif cut form a single piece, or perhaps made up of two or more pieces (Reader’s Digest, 1979: 192). Applique technique can be applied on any kind of linen equipment, such as: table clotes, pillow case, cusshion cases, table mats, curtain, aprons, children clothes and handycrafts. Those can be sown on figure 1 – 2.

Figure 3. Hand bag patchwork & quiting work.

Figure 1. Fabric waste cussion case used both techniques patchwork and quilt from kain perca (Reader’s Digest, 1979)

Figure 4. Some handy craft made of fabric waste by applying patchwork and quilting technique.

Figure 2. Beautiful wallet in patchwork and quilting

B. Patchwork Technique Patchwork technique is the joining of pices of fabric to form a larger unit of fabric (Reader’s Digest, 1979: 208)..The most interesting characteristic of any patchwork is he design that the joined fabric pieces produce. Some patchwork designs are simple and easy to analyze, others are so intricate that it is hard to tell how they were achieved.

C. Quilting Technique Quilting technique is one of the techniques which is using a piece of sponge under the fabric and tying them by using hand or machine stitches. There are two types of quilting techniques, they are: Italyan type and Britain type. In the Italyan type, the stiches are around the motif, but in Britain type the stiches are geometricall. See figure 5 – 6.

Before some one create a product by using patchwork technique, two decisions need to be made simultaneously: the purpose of the patchwork that is, whether it will be used for skirt, a pillow, a quilt, etc. and the patchwork design (Reader’s Digest, 1979: 208). See figure 3 – 4.

Figure 5. Plain weaving.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Those three basic weavings can be created to another variation.

Figure 6.

Twill weaving.

D. Weaving Technique Weaving is the interlacing of two sets o yarns which are interlaced at right angles to each other (Katz, Colleen, et al, 1980: 318). There are three basics of weaving, the firts is plain weaving, the second is twill weaving and the third is satin weaving. (See figure 7-8)

Figure 9. Hair pin using Jo-jo technique.

V. CLOSING Based on the previous information, we can make some conclusions, as follow: 1. Beside producing clothes, fashion industries also create fabric waste which have some effects, such as: garbage and air pollution. 2. Being responsible: government, societies, PKK, Vocational school. 3. By creating something new, fabric wastes have some. advantages , those can be designed to become useful things. By using applique, patchwork, quilt and weaving technique, all al the fabric waste can be created into sometings new , those are: hat, bag, table clothes, pillow case, cusshion cases, table mats, curtain, appron, children clothes, and handycrafts. REFERENCES [1]

Figure 7. Satin weaing. [2] [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7]

Duermyer, R., 10 Step Before Starting a Small or Home Business, 2010, http://himebusiness.about.com/od/getstarted- down loas Juny 29th, 2010 Dunn.GM, Fashion Design. Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1978. Hisrich, RD, Peters, MP, Shepherd DA., Entrepreneurship, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. http:// www. allpeoplequilt.com/magazine-more/americanpatchwork-quilting/color-options-americanpatchwork- quiltingjune 2013. American Fabrics and Fashion Magazine, Encyclopedia of Textiles. USA: Prentice-Hall Inc, Englewood Cliffs. NJ., 1980. Reader’s Digest, Complete Guide to Needlework, New York: Reader’s Digest Accociation Inc, 1979. Sri Wening & Sicilia Sawitri, Dasar-dasar Pengelolaan Usaha Busana, Yogyakarta: FPTK IKIP Yogyakarta, 1994.

Figure 8. The variation of weaving.

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Development of Reproductive and Nutrition Education Online (Internet-based) for Adolescents Choirul Anna Nur Afifah1, Veni Indrawati2 and Setya Chendra Wibawa3 Home Economic Department, Engineering Faculty Surabaya State University Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—The purpose of this research was to determine: (1) development model of reproductive and nutrition education online (internet-based), (2) the influence of the development of the nutrition education and reproduction online (internet-based) against adolescent affective and cognitive ability. This is a development with research using educational development model Plomp (1997) which travels five phases i.e.; (1) investigation; (2) design; (3) realization; (4) evaluation and (5) implementation of the nutrition education and reproduction online in adolescent. Prototype website for nutrition education and reproduction tested to 50 students in Junior High School Progressive Bumi Sholawat Sidoarjo. Data retrieval using the method of observation, interview, documentation and tests. The Data obtained were analyzed by quantitative descriptive. The results showed the development of reproductions nutrition education online of valid votes by the mean-value expert of 4.58. The practicality of the device which is judged from the ease for use, an obstacle course and student response included in the practical aspects and criteria of effectiveness is rated highly effective device. Results of model reproductions nutrition education online demonstrated that cognitive domain of students reached 88.7%, and students affective domain on reproduction and nutrition education models online reach for 81.4% so that it can be said the development of the nutrition education and online reproductions of achieving good results. This proves that the technology-based educational tools and in accordance with the character of the students need to continue to be developed in order to form the young generation are smart, honest and responsible. Keywords-availability; distribution; food consumption; food insecurity

I. INTRODUCTION Adolescents or teenager is the figure of the young generation with unique characteristics. They do not want to be considered children but have not yet said to be mature. A teenager tried to show different social status in the process of searching for identity and existence itself in society, they want to try new things and easily replicate or affected conditions and behaviors around it. Adolescence eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

is the final phase of the process of human growth and development so that the status of nutrition and health is a determining factor of the physical quality of a teenager 4. A person's condition in adulthood will be determined by the State of nutrition and health during adolescence . Optimal nutrition Status such as determined from knowledge of nutrition, in addition to economic and cultural factors (Supariasa, 2003). Some nutritional problems that often teradi in teenagers is less nutrition, obesity and anemia 6. Regarding this fact then Dr. Tirta Sari, MSc Prawita as Chairman of Yayasan Gerakan Masyarakat Sadar Gizi declared nutrition education should be included in the school curriculum (http://health.detik.com/read/2011/05/02/143122/1630450 /763/). Some facts prove that many teens who get caught up in the Association is free and illegal sexual intercourse. As reported in the Global TV video footage of teenage abortions in uniform gray in a private clinic in Pasuruan (Global TV, January 31, 2009). Daily Discourse in Denpasar alerts you that a dentist ever performed abortions of fetuses that 1500 most of his patients are teenagers (Discourse, February 28, 2005). It is also delivered body Counseling PKBI Yogyakarta, which has been handling the case of unplanned pregnancy 3000 and from the figure of 560 cases of students. (www.id.wordpress.com/tag/kesehatan-reproduksi/-12). Other Data revealed by the Director of BKKN M Masri Muadh said, based on the results of the survey company condoms in 2005 in almost all major cities in Indonesia from Sabang to Merauke, recorded about 40%-45% of teenagers between 14-24 years old stated openly that they have premarital sex. Swept up in the free sex behaviour, every year there are an estimated 2.3 million cases of abortion, that 20% of them do teenagers. Analysis of the research 1 on the use of multimedia in education reproductive health proved to be effective in improving cognitive skills and affective high school students. But the media have a weakness on a limited scope for adolescents in school as well as the sustainability of the media was developed. The reality encourages researchers to develop media education

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia capable of overcoming these deficiencies through the use of internet based media (online).

models continued with the analysis of the effectiveness and practicability of the model.

Online education is education that requires learners to enter classrooms through the internet with the primary means of learning material delivery and interaction classes implemented through a relationship with the internet . Utilization of online media as educational media because the media is much closer to the real situation, more participatory, accessible and has a large scope 3. According to Advantages of the system on line is for knowledge of learners will be more easy, more spacious, because many learning resources, not only from teachers, but many sources that can be accessed via the internet . This purpose of this research is specifically identified as follows: 1) for developing device and reproductive nutrition education online (internet-based) m and 2) to find out the results of the development model of nutrition education and online reproductions of early adolescent (Junior High Schools) which includes cognitive and affective aspects.

Stages of development of the educational model of nutrition and reproduction online refers to Plomp (1997) as follows:

II. METHOD The study is research development. Stages of development refers to the development model Plomp (1997) which consists of five phases, namely investigation, design, realisation, evaluation and implementation. Research activities carried out from February until November 2013. Location of research carried out in Bumi Sholawat Progressive Junior High School in Lebo Village Sidoarjo. Data collected includes primary data and secondary data. The primary Data consist of 1) early nutrition and reproduction knowledge students, 2) effectiveness and practicality model, 3) aspects of cognitive, affective and students as a result of the development of the model. Secondary Data are data on students, school conditions, data interview topic nutrition and reproduction of teenagers to the experts. The methods used to collect data in this study is the interview, observation, documentation. As for the instruments of his supporters are observation sheet, camera, cognitive and affective tests. Respondent or subject research on Bumi Sholawat Progressive Junior High School students. As for the number of students involved representatives of classes VII, VIII and XI are each numbered eight people and total of 24 respondents. Research activities carried out by the five phases, namely: (1) phase of the investigation by identifying nutrition knowledge and perceptions of adolescents about reproduction via spreading the now and interviews to experts about nutrition education materials and reproduction as well as the analysis of the existing website, (2) compose the initial draft of model education of nutrition and reproduction. (3) drafting media design education online. (4) perform validation of the model at the experts and practitioners of education and Informatics, (5) a limited trial of nutritional education and reproductive eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

INVESTIGATION I M P L E M E N T A S I

DESIGN

REALISATION/CONSTRUCTION

EVALUATION AND REVISI

IMPLEMENTATION

Figure 1. Stage of development model refers Plomp (1997).

Level of knowledge of nutrition, reproductive knowledge of respondents or the effectiveness of the model assessed the respondent's answers to some questions about the nutritional needs of teenagers, eating habits and behavior/lifestyle, and then categorized into good nutrition knowledge if answer; 80% correct, being if the answer of 60-80% correct and less if the answer 60% correct (Khomsan, 2000). The practicality of the model used to determine the use of the model by the respondents, which are rated on a scale from Guttman. Respondents rated the affective abilities scale Likert and given a score of 2 for correct answers, score 1 for answers in doubt, and a score of 0 for a wrong answer, further categorized into good, quite good and less good. Data that has been processed further presented in percentage form and analyzed by descriptive. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Nutritional and Reproductive Development Model of Education 1. Investigation phase The investigation phase is carried out by a teenage subject matter of observation and especially IPA (Biology) began classes VII to class IX for retrieved overview the extent of knowledge of nutrition and reproduction that have accepted students, b) excavation of early nutrition and reproduction knowledge teenagers so known understanding nutrition and reproduction of materials owned by the students, as well as in-depth interviews with c) health experts (specialists in gynaecology and obstetrics) to obtain gabaran the extent to which the material is necessary and feasible to early teens at level JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL. Observations the subject matter suggests that teens has gained knowledge of the nutrients requairements, nutritional problems, reproductive organs, reproductive processes, the development of the fetus in the womb and sexually transmitted disease. Data mining as early as JUNIOR HIGH adolescent reproductive nutrition and

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia generate most of the topics about the nutritional needs of teenagers, puberty, reproductive organs and sexual transmitted diseases including less or under 60% of teenagers could answer correctly. Further interviews to health expert convey that sex education needs to be given to reproductive or teens that age because reproductive organs begin to develop and early signs of maturity appear. Results of the interviews to the nutritional experts, convey a teen must know her nutritional needs so that it can implement on their food consumption should be selective in choosing food and understand the possibility of interference or nutritional problems faced. So far the material taught in school nutrition has not been a lot of peeling the influence of lifestyle, such as the consumption of fast food, smoking, instant food so the media effectively to increase community knowledge of nutrition, especially teenagers. on the development of the above data refers to, and then determined the nutritional content of topics that will be developed, namely adolescent growth and development, nutritional problems, and anemia, menstruation, pre menstrual syndrom, wet dream, female reproductive organ, male reproductive organs, and diseases caused by sexual intercourse. 2. Design phase Design of the device of the preparation and development of material based on a topic that is obtained from the investigation stage as well as the creation of the structure or design of the web. Material in the form of articles in the style of the popular language and equipped the illustration pictures to clarify the content. The development of the material is done by arranging the polls and quizzes to measure the ability of adolescents to understand the content. Then, content of the material expert to validator. Based on the advice and feedback given then made revisions so that the resulting material that have been refined and ready to upload (upload) within the website. The next device design is the creation of the structure or design of the web. Website designed by observing the age factor for the users. The registration process has been informed that users must be aged over 13 years to be able to open the website. Website structure has eight pages, i.e., home, news, Gallery, repository, quizzes, polls, and member, consultative forum. The next process is done upload material in pages that are available on the website. 3. Realitation/construction phase At this stage the main activities undertaken, namely the preparation and reproduction of the nutrition education tool online. The device has the characteristics of internetbased technology, demanding activities students/users, not dependent with time, and have a wide affordability. The name of the identity of the web is www.gizidanreproduksi.net. The structure of the website consists of several pages including a) home, which contains a description of a web identity and purpose of web creation, b) news, which contains various articles on nutrition and reproduction, c) contains photo galleries, activities related to the preparation of the web, d) eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

repository, contains some other information to enrich the material in the article, e) quiz, a variety of questions related to articles published in the news, the answer key contained in it automatically appears after the user answers questions, as well as the score after users answer all the questions according to the chosen topic, f) poll, to dig up information about adolescent, g) member, it contains the procedures for registration and login to open web, h) forum of consultation, and interaction of the user with the experts as resource persons. 4. Validation and evaluation phase Validation phase device to two reviewers, expert education and Informatics, as well as nutritional experts. Instruments used include the now to assess the appropriateness of the content, language and presentation of feasibility. Results of the validation showed the average value of the first reviewers is 4,58 . If converted with criteria the category of reproductive and nutrition education online is good or valid. The reviewers gave advice to complement the content with the latest facts and data or does not use the actual image illustrations (photographs) but in the form of animated images, cartoons, etc. Based on the results of the assessment of the devices tested with stated deserves to make improvements as in the suggestions and input validators. 5. The implementation of the tests Implementation of the test done to 24 respondents. The planning activity tests beginning with 1) activities include the introduction, introductions and greetings dissemination devices, 2) core activities include registering, filling out polls, read the article, answer the quiz, and write down questions about the material. 3) fill out the question form student response and closing Student assessment related to ease of use and reproductive nutrition education tool online shows 83,7% students expressed the easy of use, 16.3% of students who stated quite easily, and no one argued harder. Interviews of students indicate that they have been used to open a wide range of information via the internet that operate and make use of the website is nothing new for students Common barriers facing students lies on internet connection that is not entirely smoothly received so few students had to join his friend in order to unlock the device. Students seem very enthusiastic to learn more information within the website, this is indicated by the number of questions asked of students as well as their disappointment when the connection fails and they haven't read the information in the web as a whole. Based on assessments of student response note that display aspects (66.7%), illustrations or pictures (52.4%) as well as the highest rating gets a website layout with criteria quite well.The result is a picture that the device needs to be enhanced to improve the response of teenagers as a user of the website, including the do with Revisions change the color display website, replacing some of the illustrations of the images in the article, and change the appearance of the quiz in the website.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Student learning outcomes analysis shows that adolescent reproductive and nutritional knowledge is said to be good if they were able to answer the question & gt; 80% right, if they are to answer 60%-80% true, and otherwise less if & lt; 60% correct (Khomsan, 2000). Cognitive test results students show there were 88.7% of students have a good knowledge of nutrition and reproduction and 11.3% students have knowledge of nutrition and the reproduction medium. An assessment of the ability of students' affective note there are 81.4% students have good attitude and 19.6% students have the poor attitude. B. Results of Development and Reproductive Nutrition Education Online Based on the expert examination, nutritional and reproductive education models that have been developed have good or valid assessment (4.53). Thus the model nutrition education da reproduction stated deserves to be widely tested in the school. Assessment and advice from experts, researchers did a small revision to the section that gets the input and advice of experts. The first Draft of the revised assessment based on developed after the validator produces second draft model nutrition education and online reproductions. Practicality observation results obtained from the model implementation trial model which includes: the ease of use of the website, the constraints faced by the courts, and student response. Ease of use and nutrition education website reroduksi tend to indicate the majority of students (83.7%) pass easily. This model indicates that the ease of internet based education to teens have great opportunities to develop. Teens have the chance of adding to his knowledge without bound in the schedules or formal activities in school, besides that they'd have the freedom to express questions or problems facing it without worries booed or shaved his friend. Problems faced in the test is the internet connection that is not smooth in some laptops the students, but that problem can be overcome by joining the friends so that they too can benefit from the nutrition and reproductive education website. Student response against websites tend to be good and interesting from the side depth/clarity of the material and the suitability of the topic material with the characteristics of the youth. Next on the indicator display website, the suitability of the illustrations/drawings with material and layout marking students quite well. Based on data obtained revealed that learning devices include practical category. The effectiveness of the model obtained from the student learning outcomes are based on the assessment of the achievement of students in a comprehensive manner on the cognitive and affective domains. Cognitive ability of students on the topic of adolescent growth and development, menstruation and wet dreams shows there

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were 88.7% of students have a good knowledge of nutrition and reproduction and 11.3% students have knowledge of nutrition and the reproduction medium. An assessment of the ability of students' affective on adolescent growth and development, nutritional problems, and diseases caused by sexual intercourse shows 81.4% students have good attitude. IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusion 1. The development of nutrition education tools and online reproductions of valid votes by the mean-value expert of 4.58. The practicality of the device which is judged from the ease of use of the device, an obstacle course and student response included in the practical aspects and criteria of effectiveness is rated highly effective device. 2. Results of model development and reproduction online nutrition education demonstrated that cognitive domain keterserapan students to the educational model of nutrition and reproduction online reached 88.7%, and students' affective domain keterserapan on reproduction and nutrition education models online reach for 81.4% so that it can be said the development of the nutrition education and online reproductions of achieving good results. B. Recommendation 1. Need to be repaired and the consummation of consistently against a device education nutritional and reproductive to information that is given keep up to date and relevant to the development of a teenager. 2. Need to expand the scope of the target device and reproductive nutrition education so that the whole community can get a correct source of information about nutrition and reproduction. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3] [4] [5]

[6]

[7]

Afifah, Faidah, dan Purwidiani, Pengembangan perangkat Pendidikan Kesehatan Reproduksi (PKR) yang berbasis multimedia bagi Siswa SMU untuk Mencegah Pergaulan Bebas Remaja. Lemlit Unesa, 2010. Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional, Materi Rapat Kerja Nasional Program Berencana Nasional Tahun 2002, Jakarta, 2002. Heinich, et all, Intruction Media and Tecnologies for Learning, Fifth edition.Von New Jersey: Hoffman Press, 1996. Husaini, MA., Kecukupan Konsumsi Besi: Wanita membutuhkan Lebih Banyak, Buletin Gizi I (13:25-31), 1989. Plomp, Educational anf Training System Design, (The Nederlands: University of Twente. Faculty of Educational Science and Technology), 1997, pp. 4-6. Sukarno, VD, Model Pendidikan Berorientasi Masa Depan, 2010, http://gemapendidikan.com /2010/05/model-pendidikanberorientasi-masa-depan-2/ Tomlinson, Material Developing in Material Developing in Material Teaching, New York: Cambridge university Press, 1998.

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The Effect of Pedagogical and Personality Competences toward the Lecturers' Performance in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes Siti Fathonah1, Haris Abdullah2 and Wahyuningsih3 Service and Production Technology Faculty of Engineering, Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], wahyuningsih_sunarko.co.id3

Abstract—Professional lecturer is required a good performance, including lecturer in Technological Faculty Unnes. Lecturer performance among those effect by pedagogical and personality competencies. Research objectives were to determine 1) how the level of pedagogical competency, personality competency, and lecturer performance, 2) the effect of pedagogical competency on lecturer performance, 3) the effect of personality competency on lecturer performance, 4) the effect of pedagogical and personality competencies on lecturer performance. The sampling technique used purposive sampling with 41 lecturers as samples of 164 population. The independent variables (pedagogical and personality competencies), the dependent variable (lecturer performance). Data were collected by using a structured questionnaire. Data were analysed by using descriptive percentage, partial regression and multiple regression. The result of this research are 1) pedagogical competency, personality competency, and lecturer performance is high with average score 3,76, 3,74 and 3,84; 2) has effect of pedagogical competency on the lecturer performances, p 0,00; 3) has effect of personality competency on the lecturer performances, p 0,00; 4) have effect of pedagogical and personality competencies on the lecturer performances, p 0,00; Suggestions are 1) The lecturers FT performance’s are always upgraded; 2) Each Lecturer has better engaged students in the future research activities. Keywords-lecturer performances; competencies; personality competencies

pedagogical

I. INTRODUCTION In developing the ability and forming the valuable behaviour and civilization of the nation in order to educate the nation, the lecturers’ roles are very important since they take part in the front row of educational activities. Since the importance of lecturers’ roles in developing the qualified human resources, the lecturers that are going to teach must meet several requirements set by law. According to the Law No 14 issued in 2005 about Teacher and Lecturer, the lecturers must have academic qualifications, competences, educational certificate, physical and mental health, and must meet the qualifications set by the higher education where they

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work, and have the competence to achieve the national education goals. Competences the lecturers need to have comprise pedagogical competence, personality competence, social competence and professional competence. The two essential and main competences among those four are pedagogical and personality competences. Since 2012, the education paradigm in Indonesia has changed into the character education for all the subjects taught at school, the lecturers, therefore, are demanded to have good character and become the role model for their students. Salam stated that education does not recognize a specific recipe; since the most important things in education are the educator personality and creativity. What is meant by a pedagogical competence is the ability to manage the students learning activities. Personality competence is a great personal ability, good character, wise, and commanding, as well as become the good role model for the students. Those competences will determine the educational quality [1]. The main factor of the low quality of education is caused by educator/lecturer factor (50%), curriculum (20%), infrastructure (20%) and learners (10%) [2]. There is a way that can be conducted to improve skills and abilities of a specific organization in developing human resources including lecturers, i.e. by evaluating the human resources’ performances and skill. The lecturers’ performance can be measured by conducting the evaluation of competence. The evaluation of competence for lecturers has to be conducted routinely and sustainably in order to know the performance improvement for each lecturer. In this case, the Faculty of Engineering of State University of Semarang—as one of state university in Indonesia—is also demanded to have high performances lecturers. The result of performance evaluation conducted for Unnes lecturer in 2009 was 3.00. The evaluation was made by themselves, students, colleague and the ones from directly higher level while conducting the lecturer certification. Up to 2010, the lecturers in Unnes who have got the educational certificate are 42.8% lecturers and

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia 3.3% professors [4]. Besides, the evaluation of faculty workload which is conducted in Silkados since 2010 is also intended to know Unnes lecturers’ performance. The evaluation of performance for lecturers is highly important to do continuously in order to they improve their performance. Therefore, it needs to conduct a research to know the effect of pedagogical competence and personality competence to the lecturers’ competence in the Faculty of Engineering. The objectives of this research are to know (1) the level of pedagogical competence, personality competence and the lecturers’ competence of the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes; (2) the effect between pedagogical competences to the lecturers’ competence in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes; (3) the effect between personality competences to the lecturers’ competence in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes; (4) the effect between pedagogical and personality competences to the lecturers’ competence in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes.

the research, the lecturers’ competence in designing the learning process was in the competent level. This was reflected in the readiness of lecturers to deliver the lectures or practicums; lecturers planned the methods and materials that would be delivered to the students. This was in line with Uno’s statement in which the lecturers are responsible in designing the learning process: preparing materials that are relevant to the goals, times, facilities, the advance of knowledge, students’ needs and abilities, comprehensive, systematic, and effective functional. Besides, the lecturers have to design the methods which are relevant to the students’ circumstances [7]. According to Hamalik, there are three aspects of teaching preparation. The first aspect is designing the activities for each learning hours. The second aspect is preparing the teaching media needed. The last aspect is relating to the mental preparation [8].

II. RESEARCH METHOD The subjects of this research are 164 lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering of Unnes in which 41 of them are as samples; samples are determined by the use of purposive sampling technique [5]. The independent variables of this research are pedagogical and personality competences; while the dependent variable of this research is the lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering of Unnes. Structured questionnaire of pedagogical competence, personality competence and lecturers’ competence is used for data collection process. Percentage description analysis is used for analysing the data; while partial regression analysis is used to analyse the effect of independent variables to the dependent variable. Multiple regression analysis is used to know the effect of two independent variables to dependent variable [6]. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Pedagogical Competences of Lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes Pedagogical competence is the ability in which lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering have in teaching and learning processes such as lecture preparation including designing and implementing the learning scenarios, choosing the methods, media, and evaluation instruments for the learners in order to achieve the educational goals in the domain of students’ cognition, affection, and psychomotor. Percentage descriptive analysis was used to know the level of pedagogical competences among the lecturers based on the sex which is the results can be seen in Fig. 1. More than 90% of the pedagogical competences among the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes was in the high and very high categories, in which the mean was 3.76. When it is compared, the pedagogical competences of male lecturers were higher than the pedagogical competences of female lecturers. It was reflected at the indicators used in this research. Based on eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 1. Lecturer percentage based on pedagogical competences

The research results showed that the lecturers’ competences in delivering the lectures generally in competent category. It was reflected in the lectures conducted by lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering that can be put in the high category. This showed that the lecturers were on time and consistent in conducting the lectures. They also had good abilities to make the class live, therefore the learning activities were enjoying and were not boring. In delivering the materials and answers of the questions in the classroom, the lecturers always explained clearly. The utilization of media and technology in the learning processes by the lecturers was also high; it was reflected with the use of LCD and teaching media to support the process of leaning activities. The supporting research results was conducted by Jimoyiannis suggesting that we draw on the apparent successes and challenges of the teacher preparation program to make suggestions regarding further applications of the construct of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) in science teacher preparation [9]. Other research conducted by Cambridge in which the findings suggest that teachers are moving away from only using ‘real’ experiments in their practice. They are exploring the use of technologies to encourage students to engage in ‘‘What If’’ explorations where the outcomes of ‘virtual’ experiments can be immediately accessed, for example through using a simulation. However, this type of activity can serve just as a mechanism for revealing – and indeed reinforcing – students’ informal conceptions if cognitive conflict is not generated or remains unresolved. The teachers in our studies used simulations, data logging,

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia projected animations and other dynamic digital resources [10]. The research results showed that the lecturers’ competences to evaluate the learning results generally in competent category. It was reflected in the various ways of measuring the learning results, giving feedbacks towards the assignments given, the relevancy of test materials or assignments to the objectives of each subject as well as the relevancy of mark given to the learning results. This is in accordance with the opinion stating that the information obtained will be fed back to the learning process. Feedback will be used as a starting point to improve and enhance the future learning processes [7]. Thus, the learning process will be continuously improved to obtain optimal results. This is consistent with the results of research conducted on the East Coast of Malaysia that teaching is a key factor in evaluating teaching performance, as well as professional attitude, motivation, and classroom management [11]. Pedagogical competence had a relatively high contribution to the performance of teachers in an amount of 56%, it proved that the pedagogical had the major effect of the lecturers’ performance. The effect on the pedagogical competence toward the lecturers’ performance was proved from the results of the partial regression calculation, which is p = 0.00. Ha is accepted while Ho is rejected, meaning that pedagogical had positive and significant effect to the lecturers’ performance. With the regression line Y = 3.073 +0.248 X1, it showed that the higher pedagogical lecturer would improve lecturers’ performance. The effect of pedagogical competence toward the lecturers’ performance was in line with the research conducted by Yamin and Maisah stating that the competence have an effect on the lecturers’ performance. The positive effect of pedagogical competence toward the lecturers’ performance meant that if there was a change in the pedagogical competence would lead to changes of lecturers’ performance in the same direction [12]. B. Personality Competence of Lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering The personality competences include the abilities of lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering to be a great personal ability, good character, wise, and commanding, as well as become the good role model for the students. Percentage descriptive analysis was used to determine the level of personality competences among the lecturers based on the gender which can be drawn in the Fig. 2. The frequency distribution of personality competence among the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes showed that personality competence had a similar assessment with pedagogical competence. The evaluation found that more than 90% lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering belong to high and very high level of competence. The total mean of personality competence was 3.74.

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Figure 2. Bar chart description of personality competence among lecturers.

When it was compared, the overall personality competence of male lecturers was higher than female lecturers’. At the very high category, male lecturers had a greater percentage than female lecturers; while at the high category, female lecturers had greater percentage than male lecturers. Based on the research results, it can be explained that the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering were able to control themselves in various situations and conditions; made the decision wisely, did what they said, had a personal authority as lecturers, as well as being the attitude and behaviour role model. In treating the students, they did fairly and did not discriminate between one students to the others. As lecturers and educators, they should be able to control themselves and should be wise and fair. Lecturers should be able to maintain their dignity in front of the students, since they are the ones who always become the role model for the students. In accordance with Uno’s statement saying that the teacher should be the role model for students, because the lecturers are basically the representation of a group of people in a community or society that are expected to be role models, which can be replicated and obeyed [7]. The research results for lecturers’ characteristics that are favoured in Malaysia, the UK and the United States are thorough, open, stable, and fun [13]. The research with a sample of 193 Professors of the University of Seville, a structural model on the mediating role of personal perceived competence in the appearance of burnout syndrome and stress symptoms under potentially stressful work conditions. The estimated model was adjusted satisfactorily, ascertaining the mediating effect of perceived competence in the effect exerted by the work conditions studied on the depersonalization and personal fulfilment, as well as in the appearance of stress symptoms. The effect on the emotional exhaustion dimension was not confirmed. The latter also acted on the estimated model as a mediating variable, facilitating the negative impact of stressors on emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal accomplishment [14]. The lecturers are not merely responsible for transforming knowledge to the students, they are also the educators who are responsible for setting the students’ character and personality in order to become a better

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia person. This is in accordance with the opinion [15] which states that teachers are responsible for carrying out educational activities at schools in terms of providing guidance and instruction to students. This responsibility is realized in the form of implementing curriculum development, guiding the students to learn, developing students’ personality, character, and physical, analysing learning difficulties, as well as assess the students' progress. Personality competence had a high relative contribution to the lecturers’ performance around 44 %, it proved that the personality competences had a great effect on the lecturers’ performance. The effect of personality competence toward the lecturers’ performance could also proven from the regression calculation results showing the significant value for personality competence in which p = 0.00 meaning that personality competence had a positive and significant effect on the lecturers’ performance. The regression line Y = 1.658 +0.015 X2 showed that the higher the personality competence of the lecturers would improve the lecturers performance higher. The effect of personality competence toward the lecturers’ performance was supported by research conducted by UNSA in Sumbawa Besar. The study stated that there was a significant correlation of the personality competence between the self-perception assessment and peerperception assessment, but it was still positive and had low correlation. The results of research conducted by FKIE-IKIP lecturers throughout Indonesia stated that the personality dimensions that were examined (sense of responsibility, achievement motive and teaching attitude) had determinatively contributed to the effectiveness of the lectures [17] (Kamars , 1980). C. Lecturers’ Performance in the Faculty of Engineering The lecturers’ performance is a result of the work accomplished by the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering in carrying out duties in accordance with the competence and responsibilities as the lecturers. The percentage descriptive analysis was used to determine the level of lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering and the results can be seen in the diagram below:

Figure 3. Bar Chart Description of Lecturers’ Performance in the Faculty of Engineering

performance was 3.84. Lecturers’ performance between male and female lecturers were almost at the same percentage value. Generally, the lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering was in the high category, although there was an indicator that had the lowest average, i.e. on the indicator of the involvement of students in research/study and/or development/design conducted by the lecturers. It was not in line with the opinion [12] that the professional competence of the mastery of the structure and methodology of science that explains that lecturers should master the research steps and deepen knowledge/professional subject material in the global context by involving students to the research. Strategic Plan of Unnes [4] says that the academic culture can be reflected in the productivity of scientific work, the frequency of seminars, discussions, and workshops; and these were still low. Professional attitude of the lecturers was still not optimal because the main orientation was more on the educational and teaching tasks, lack of attention to the task of research and community services. It can be reflected by the limited textbooks, nationallyaccredited journals, intellectual property right achievement, and other scientific work produced by the lecturers. The lecturers, therefore, in the Faculty of Engineering Unnes should increase the involvement of students in a research study. Haryadi [16] said the lecturer profiles that can improve performance will be able to do the planning and development of lecturers toward the improvement of the quality of college and graduates. Results of multiple regression test showed that pedagogical competence and personality competence affect the lecturers’ performance by 94.7 % with p = 0.00; meaning that pedagogical competence and personality competence had a significant effect on the lecturers’ performance. The regression line Y = 4.217 + 0.199 X1 + 0.249 X2 showed that the higher pedagogical competence and personality competence among the lecturers will improve lecturers’ performance. The effect on the pedagogical competence toward the lecturers’ performance was supported with a research conducted by Setiawati in FPTK UPI, about the effect of working competence toward the lecturers’ performance. The results of these studies indicate that competence has a positive correlation and significant impact on the performance of lecturers. Results of other studies conducted on faculty ITS [17] stated that lecturers’ competence was very influential in defining teaching or pedagogic competence. Lecturer with good professional level/competence does not necessarily have good teaching competence, it is strongly effectd by the (high/low) personality competence of each lecturer. Lecturer with good social level or competence while having low/high personality will be very influential toward the teaching patterns (pedagogical competences).

Data analysis of the frequency distribution of lecturers’ performance showed that more than 90% lecturers were in the high and very high categories, while less than 10% lecturers were in the moderate/sufficient category; in which the mean value of lecturers’ eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION Based on the results of the study, data analysis and discussion, the conclusion that can be drawn as follows: 1. Based on the descriptive analysis, the results obtained are: a. Pedagogical competence among the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering, Unnes is high with a mean at 3.76. b. Personality competence among the lecturers in the Faculty of Engineering is relatively high with a mean at 3.74. c. The lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering is relatively high with a mean at 3.84. 2. There is a significant effect between the pedagogical competence and the lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering, State University of Semarang, with p value at 0.00 and the regression line equation Y = 3.073 +0.248 X1. 3. There is a significant effect between the personality competence and the lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering, State University of Semarang, with p value at 0.00 and the regression line equation Y = 1.658 +0.015 X2. 4. There is a significant effect between the pedagogical and personality competence with lecturers’ performance in the Faculty of Engineering, State University of Semarang, with p value at 0.00 and the regression line equation Y = 4.217 + 0.199 X1 + 0.249 X2. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

Salam, B., Pengantar Pedagogik, Jakarta : Rineka Cipta, 1996. Marlina, N., Pelaksanaan Akreditasi perlu ditetapkan. Majalah Triwulan Bina Diknakes. Pusdiknakes, Edisi Nomor 25 Bulan September,h,21, Jakarta, 1997. Djuwita, T.M., Strategi Pengembangan Dosen, Bandung: Lotus Mandiri, 2008.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

[10]

[11]

[12] [13]

[14]

[15] [16] [17]

[18]

Universitas Negeri Semarang, Rencana Strategis Universitas Negeri Semarang 2010-2014, Semarang: Unnes, 2010. Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R & D, Bandung: Alfabeta, 2006. Uyanto. 2009. Pedoman Analisis Data dengan SPSS. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu. Uno, Hamzah, Profesi Kependidika, Jakarta: bumi Aksara, 2008. Hamalik, O., Proses Belajar Mengajar, Jakarta: Bumi Aksar, 2007. Jimoyiannis. A., Developing a Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework for Science Education: Implications of a Teacher Trainers’ Preparation Program, Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference (InSITE), 2010. Hennessy, et.al. Pedagogical approaches for technologyintegrated science pedagogic. Computers & Education 48 (2007) 137–152, Accessed 15-11-2013. Ramli, N., D. Mohamad and N. H. Sulaiman, Evaluation of Pedagogic Performance with Outliers Data using Fuzzy Approach, International Conference on Mathematics Education Research 2010 (ICMER 2010), Accessed 12-2-2011. Yamin, M dan Maisah, Standarisasi Kinerja Guru, Jakarta: Gaung Persada, 2010. Swami, V, A. Furnham, I. Maakip, S Ahmad, N Hudani, P. S.K. Voo, A. N. Christopher and J Garwood, A cross-cultural investigation of students' preferences for lecturers' personalities in Britain, Malaysia and the United States. Learning and Individual Differences, Volume 17, Issue 4, 4th Quarter 2007, pp. 307-315. [14] Navarro, M.L.A, M. B. Mas and A. M. L. Jiménez. 2010. Working Conditions, Burnout and Stress Symptoms in University Professors: Validating a Structural Model of the Mediating Effect of Perceived Personal Competence. The Spanish journal of psychology / Volume 13 / Issue 01 / May 2010, pp. 284-296, Accessed 16 November 2013. Hamalik, O., Pendidikan Guru Berdasarkan Pendekatan Kompetensi, Jakarta: PT Bumi Aksara, 2002. Haryadi, Meningkatkan Kinerja Dosen, 2011. http://fe.unsoed.ac.id/Diakses 24-1-2011. Kamars, D., Beberapa Dimensi Kepribadian sebagai Faktor Determinatif Efektivitas Mengajar (Studi eksploratif di FKIE – IKIP Indonesia), Disertasi, Bandung: UPI, 1980.. http://perpustakaan.upi.edu/5-2-2011 Anuraga, G., Pemodelan indeks prestasi dosen (IPD) di jurusan statistika its dengan moderating sem score factor, Skripsi, Surabaya: ITS, 2011.

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Breadfruit (Artocarpus Altilis) Flour Egg Roll by Adding Different Amount of Tapioca Flour Ratna Sulistyani Purwanita1, Pudji Astuti2 and Asih Kuswardinah3 Services and Products Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering, Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Egg Roll is a kind of cake made of wheat flour in which most people love to eat. The dependence on wheat flour is definitely high in the food productions. Breadfruit flour is an alternative that can be used to reduce the dependency. Breadfruit flour is made of fresh breadfruit which is dried and sieved. Breadfruit flour has a lot of advantages compared to wheat flour i.e. the nutrient content on carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins, vitamins B and C are higher; in addition it has lower fat. Breadfruit flour egg roll is made of breadfruit flour by adding different amount of tapioca flour ranging from 90 g, 110 g and 130 g, to find out the people preference of breadfruit flour egg roll. The experimental method was applied in this research, while data collection was conducted by examining the preference of breadfruit flour egg roll. Percentage descriptive analysis was applied in this research to find out the people preference level of breadfruit flour egg roll. Result findings showed that most people generally prefer breadfruit flour egg roll with 100 g of tapioca flour. The characteristics of this egg roll most people like are yellow, sweet enough, tasteful breadfruit and its aroma, crunchy and dry textures. Keywords- egg roll; breadfruit flour; tapioca flour

I. INTRODUCTION Indonesia is a rich country of various biological resources, but a lot of popular food in our country generally use the food ingredients imported from other country. This makes the price of food is expensive because of the materials used are expensive. On the other hand, our food security has not been supported. Indonesia as an agricultural country has ever reached the food self-sufficiency country, i.e. a country that is able to meet the food needs coming from the farmers of their own country. The future hope of Indonesia is to achieve and strengthen food security for its population. Indonesia has various types of food, but there are still lots of food which use wheat flour, which is one of commodities that Indonesia has to import from foreign country. To reduce the consumption of wheat flour, it needs to develop the local food ingredients that can eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

replace wheat flour in food production. One of the diversifications in food production is breadfruit flour egg roll. Breadfruit is a food that Indonesian people has been familiar with. Breadfruit does not have any seeds and a padded part. Carbohydrate content in breadfruit is high enough. In addition, it also contains vitamins A and B complex, Ca (Calcium) and P (Phosphorus) which are better than potatoes and roughly similar to the sweet potato (Saptoningsih, 2010). The production during the breadfruit season is very abundant, on the other hand the use of breadfruit as food ingredients has not been maximized. This condition leads the price of cheap breadfruit cheap. To maximize the use of breadfruit, it is needed to be processed and also to be able to last longer; because it is perishable if not immediately consumed. For example, the breadfruit can be processed into breadfruit flour. Breadfruit flour is more durable than fresh breadfruit. If it is packed properly, it can last up to 9 months. Breadfruit flour has several advantages compared to wheat flour, i.e. the nutrient content on carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins, vitamins B and C are higher; in addition it has lower fat. In addition it also contains lower energy making it suitable for people who are in low-energy diet, for example for patients with diabetes and obesity. Breadfruit flour has great prospects to replace wheat flour in the various food productions such as cakes, noodles, and so on. Egg roll is one of the processed food that can be used as an alternative to optimize the use of breadfruit. Egg Roll is a kind of cake that has sweet taste, crunchy texture, rolled cake, perforated and fissured. To make egg roll, wheat flour becomes a basic ingredients. Egg roll has a crunchy texture and easy to digest, thus what makes most of people from various ages like this cake. Based on these conditions, breadfruit flour is made to be egg roll and most of people like this breadfruit flour egg roll because of its taste, aroma, and texture.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia II. MATERIAL AND METHOD The experimental method was applied in this research, while data collection was conducted by examining the preference of breadfruit flour egg roll. Percentage descriptive analysis was applied in this research to find out the people preference level of breadfruit flour egg roll. TABLE I. No. 1 2 3 4

PREFERENCE LEVEL AND SCORE

Preference Level Like so much Like Quite like Dislike

Score 4 3 2 1

would make the yellow color of breadfruit flour egg roll. Meanwhile sugar would be in caramelization process after being heated and it resulted the brownish color. TABLE III. RESULT OF PREFERENCE TEST No 1.

2.

The ingredients used are breadfruit flour, tapioca flour, eggs, sugar, margarine, butter, ovalette and vanilla.

Aspect Color

Taste a. Sweet

Sample424 100 90 150 120 150 50 4 2

Sample332 100 110 150 120 150 50 4 2

Sample231 100 130 150 120 150 50 4 2

To make breadfruit fruit egg roll, it is needed several tools such as gas stove, digital scales, mixers, basin, spatula, spoon, egg roll mold, and bamboo rollers. The production of breadfruit flour egg roll includes two stages, i.e. preparation and production stages. In preparation stage, it needs to prepare the ingredients and tools that are going to be used. The production stage includes: 1) mixing the breadfruit flour, tapioca flour and vanilla; 2) heating margarine and butter until melted; 3)mixing eggs, sugar and ovalette at high speed until fluffy and white for approximately 10 minutes; 4) putting the mixed flour into the egg mixture and mixing them till blended; 5) putting the liquid margarine in a lukewarm condition into the mixtures, and mixing them till blended; and 6) pouring the mixture into the sixth egg roll molds that have been heated, baking them until cooked thoroughly and then rolling them. III. DISCUSSION Egg roll that public have already known is made of wheat flour. In fact there is also egg roll that is made of breadfruit flour as the replacement of wheat and tapioca flour with different amount of each. The finding data obtained from untrained panelists on breadfruit flour egg roll are shown in Table 3. Based on preference test results, in the aspect of color, panelists preferred the sample 424 i.e. breadfruit flour egg roll by adding 90 g of tapioca flour which resulted golden yellow egg roll. The color of tapioca flour is bright white, therefore the more tapioca flour used the brighter/paler egg roll will be. The mixture of ingredients used would result a certain color of on breadfruit flour egg roll. Yellowish-white breadfruit flour, margarine and butter eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

score

424

261

Percentage (%) 81,56

332

268

83,75

231

210

65,63

424 332

245 261

76,56 81,56

231

192

60

424 332 231 424 332

247 230 237 220 263

77,19 71,88 74,06 68,75 82,19

231 424

222 189

69,38 59,06

332 231

204 269

63,75 84,06

b. Breadfruit

TABLE II. THE INGREDIENTS OF BREADFRUIT FLOUR EGG ROLL Ingredients Breadfruit flour Tapioca flour Sugar Egg Margarine Butter Ovalette Vanilla

Sample

3.

Aroma

4.

Texture

Preference category Like so much Like so much Like Like Like so much Little bit like Like Like Like Like Like so much Like Like so much Like Like so much

In addition, the more tapioca flour mixed would make the sugar level contained in the egg roll decrease, therefore the caramelization process would be lower which resulted the less brown color in egg roll. In the aspect of sweetness and taste of breadfruit, sample 332 of breadfruit flour egg roll was preferred. It was made of 110 g of tapioca flour compared to the other samples. Sweet taste in egg roll was resulted from sugar and carbohydrates contained in the ingredients used. Carbohydrates when they are reacted with water (hydrolyzed), will break down into monosaccharaides (sugar). Excessive or lack of sweetness can reduce the quality of the breadfruit flour egg roll. The combination of sweet, savory in each ingredients will produce a certain sweetness in accordance with the amount of sugar used. Composition of the sugar used in the egg roll production should be appropriate to get ideal sweet taste. Amount of tapioca flour in the breadfruit flour egg roll will also influence the level of sweetness. The more tapioca flour used, the less sweet the egg roll will be. Breadfruit flour has a distinctive strong taste of breadfruit, therefore the taste of breadfruit in the experimental egg roll will be tasteful. In the sample 424, the taste of breadfruit was better than other samples, since it was made of the least amount of tapioca flour, i.e. 90 g. The less tapioca flour used, the less amount of egg roll mixture will be; therefore the taste of breadfruit is more tasteful. The public reference levels in the aspect of aroma from three samples of breadfruit flour egg roll are relatively similar, but the highest rate was sample 332 which was made of 110 g of tapioca flour.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Typical fragrant aroma of breadfruit flour egg roll came from the ingredients used such as eggs, sugar, margarine, butter, and breadfruit flour. Tapioca flour in the egg roll production did not affect the flavor. A good aroma indicator in the breadfruit flour egg roll is the tasteful breadfruit aroma. Breadfruit flour has a distinctive aroma that is strong enough, while tapioca flour does not have a strong aroma, therefore the aroma of breadfruit is dominant in the breadfruit flour egg roll. In the aspect of breadfruit flour egg roll texture, the sample 231 was most preferred. This breadfruit flour egg roll was made of 130 g of tapioca flour. It had crunchy texture. The use of tapioca flour in the egg roll production was to make it crunchy. Starch has a quite high water absorption. In the roasting process, the water that evaporates is greater, therefore it would decrease the water in the egg roll. As a result, it would become a crunchy texture. The more tapioca flour used the more crunchy it would be. According to Matz (1992), the level of swell and the texture of snacks are influenced by the ratio of amylose and amylopectin. Starch which has a high content of amylopectin tends to make a fragile product, whereas amylose will give resistant textures that can be easily broken. Thus, the more tapioca flour used in breadfruit flour egg roll the crunchier it will be than which used 90 g and 110 g of tapioca flour.

2. In the aspect of aroma, breadfruit flour egg roll which used 110 g of tapioca flour was preferred over the others. 3. In the aspect of texture, the sample 231 of breadfruit flour egg roll was most preferred. It was made of 130 g of tapioca flour. 4. If viewed from all aspects, the highest average score was sample 332; the breadfruit flour egg roll which was made of 110 g of tapioca flour. 5. Breadfruit, therefore, can be used as an alternative to wheat flour in producing egg roll. And public like breadfruit flour egg roll very much. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4] [5]

Matz, S.A., Bakery Technology and Engineering 3 Ed, Pan-tech International Inc., Texas, 1992. Moorthy, S.N., Tropical sources of starch, Ann Charlotte Eliasson (ed). Starch in Food: Structure, Function, and Application. CRC Press, Baco Raton, Florida, 2004. Saptoningsih, Manfaat Sukun Sebagai Sumber Pangan Alternatif, 2010,Jumat, 09 April, http://www2.bbpplembang.info/index.php?option=comconten&view=article&id=51 7&Itemid=304, 2010 accessed on 7 feb 2012. SNI 01-2973-1992, Cookies, Badan Standarlisasi Nasional BSN. SNI 01-34511994-1994, Tepung Tapioka, Badan Standarlisasi Nasional BSN.

IV. CONCLUSION 1. Public like breadfruit flout Egg roll. In the aspect of color, panelists preferred the sample 424 of breadfruit flour egg roll. It was made of 90 g of tapioca flour which had golden yellow color. Breadfruit flour egg roll which used 110 g of tapioca flour was most preferred. It had sweetness and ideal breadfruit taste.

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Analysis of Drop Voltage and Losses in 20 kV Distribution System Using Distribution Generation Biomass Plant Agus Siswanto

Safrizal

Department of Electrical Engineering University of 17 Agustus 1945 (UNTAG) Cirebon, Indonesia [email protected]

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Islam Nahdlatul Ulama (UNISNU) Jepara, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Process of the electric power distribution centers of power plants to consumers through a network of experienced transmission technical losses that system power losses and energy losses caused by the resistance in the conductor currents flowed. The greater the inductive load in the system and the length of transmission lines 150 kV and 20 kV distribution is used, the greater the reactive power is absorbed and causes a voltage drop.

Biomass resources include agricultural waste, animal manure, forest waste, industry waste, municipal waste, sewage sludge, crops, etc. Biomass can be converted into electricity (or heat) in one of several processes. The majority of biomass electricity is generated using a steam cycle where biomass material is first converted into steam in a boiler. The resulting steam is then used to turn a turbine generator. Biomass can also be used with coal to produce electricity in an existing power plant (co-firing). Co-firing is the most economical near-term option for introducing new biomass electricity generation and lowers the air emissions from coal-fired power plants. Another alternative is to convert the solid biomass into a fuel gas. The fuel gas can then be used in a piston-driven engine, high efficiency gas turbine generator [3].

Based on the relationship of voltage and reactive power, the voltage can be corrected by adjusting the reactive power flow both from the capacitor bank and a synchronous generator. On research, proposes the use of a synchronous generator with a prime mover as a Biomass power plant on the Bus Voltage Regulator Distributed Generation system that is able to improve the voltage drop as well as to increase the reliability of the optimal and the distribution network. Keywords-- inductive load; distributed generation system

biomass

power

plant;

I. INTRODUCTION DG (distributed generation) is defined as installation and operation of small modular power generating technologies that can be combined with energy management and storage systems. It is used to improve the operations of the electricity delivery systems at or near the end user [1]. These systems may or may not be connected to the electric grid. Distributed generation system can employ a range of technological options from renewable to non-renewable and can operate either in a connected grid or off-grid mode. The size of a distributed generation system typically ranges from less than a kilowatt to a few megawatts. There are various methods used for loss reduction in power system network like feeder reconfiguration, capacitor placement, high voltage distribution system, conductor grading, and DG unit placement. All these methods are involved with passive element except DG unit placement. Both capacitors and DG units reduce power loss and improve voltage regulation, but with the DGs loss reduction almost doubles that of Capacitors [2]. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Indonesia is the biggest CPO (Crude Palm Oil) producer in the world. In 2009, the area of oil palm plantation reached 7.5 million hectares with 19.8 million tons CPO production. From oil palm processing, byproducts including Mesocarp Fiber (MF), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB), and Palm Oil Mills Effluent (POME) are generated. Installed Capacity "On-Grid" Based Power Plant Biomass, Biogas and municipal waste In 2012 is 75,5 MW [4]. II. IMPACTS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION A. Impact on Power System Planning One of the main tasks of distribution network planning is to provide reliable and high quality power supply based on generation and load forecasting. The DG reduces the dependence of the distribution network on large scale power plants and transmission lines. The random input and with drawal of DG sources from the grid increases the uncertainty of power system load forecast. This randomness leads to an urgent need to create a reasonable distribution system network by effectively coordinating the various DG sources. B. Impact on Power Flow and Losses Power flow in traditional radial distribution networks is unidirectional. The introduction of DG into the distribution network causes two way power flows and

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Analysis of Drop Voltage and Losses in 20 kV Distribution System Using Distribution Generation Biomass Plant Agus Siswanto

Safrizal

Department of Electrical Engineering University of 17 Agustus 1945 (UNTAG) Cirebon, Indonesia [email protected]

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Islam Nahdlatul Ulama (UNISNU) Jepara, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Process of the electric power distribution centers of power plants to consumers through a network of experienced transmission technical losses that system power losses and energy losses caused by the resistance in the conductor currents flowed. The greater the inductive load in the system and the length of transmission lines 150 kV and 20 kV distribution is used, the greater the reactive power is absorbed and causes a voltage drop.

methods are involved with passive element except DG unit placement. Both capacitors and DG units reduce power loss and improve voltage regulation, but with the DGs loss reduction almost doubles that of Capacitors [2]. Biomass resources include agricultural waste, animal manure, forest waste, industry waste, municipal waste, sewage sludge, crops, etc. Biomass can be converted into electricity (or heat) in one of several processes. The majority of biomass electricity is generated using a steam cycle where biomass material is first converted into steam in a boiler. The resulting steam is then used to turn a turbine generator. Biomass can also be used with coal to produce electricity in an existing power plant (co-firing). Co-firing is the most economical near-term option for introducing new biomass electricity generation and lowers the air emissions from coal-fired power plants. Another alternative is to convert the solid biomass into a fuel gas. The fuel gas can then be used in a piston-driven engine, high efficiency gas turbine generator [3].

Based on the relationship of voltage and reactive power, the voltage can be corrected by adjusting the reactive power flow both from the capacitor bank and a synchronous generator. On research, proposes the use of a synchronous generator with a prime mover as a Biomass power plant on the Bus Voltage Regulator Distributed Generation system that is able to improve the voltage drop as well as to increase the reliability of the optimal and the distribution network. Keywords-- inductive load; distributed generation system

biomass

power

plant;

I. INTRODUCTION DG (distributed generation) is defined as installation and operation of small modular power generating technologies that can be combined with energy management and storage systems. It is used to improve the operations of the electricity delivery systems at or near the end user [1]. These systems may or may not be connected to the electric grid. Distributed generation system can employ a range of technological options from renewable to non-renewable and can operate either in a connected grid or off-grid mode. The size of a distributed generation system typically ranges from less than a kilowatt to a few megawatts. There are various methods used for loss reduction in power system network like feeder reconfiguration, capacitor placement, high voltage distribution system, conductor grading, and DG unit placement. All these eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Indonesia is the biggest CPO (Crude Palm Oil) producer in the world. In 2009, the area of oil palm plantation reached 7.5 million hectares with 19.8 million tons CPO production. From oil palm processing, byproducts including Mesocarp Fiber (MF), Palm Kernel Shell (PKS), Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB), and Palm Oil Mills Effluent (POME) are generated. Installed Capacity "On-Grid" Based Power Plant Biomass, Biogas and municipal waste In 2012 is 75,5 MW [4]. II. IMPACTS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION A. Impact on Power System Planning One of the main tasks of distribution network planning is to provide reliable and high quality power supply based on generation and load forecasting. The DG reduces the dependence of the distribution network on large scale power plants and transmission lines. The random input and with drawal of DG sources from the grid increases the uncertainty of power system load forecast. This II - 79

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Power loss The losses considered here are the losses in the distribution system plus the transformer. The operating constraints are the maximum allowed voltage variations, line thermal capacity and transformer capacity. Power losses in distribution systems vary with numerous factors depending upon the system configuration, such as level of losses through transmission and distribution lines, transformers, capacitors, insulators, etc. Power losses can be divided into two categories: real power loss and reactive power loss. Consequently, reactive power makes it possible to transfer real power through transmission and distribution lines to customers. The total real and reactive power losses in a distribution system can be calculated by,

(1) IV. VOLTAGE DROP IN A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM A basic overview on voltage drop in a distribution system is shown in a one line diagram in Figure 2, The current I as a function of the load complex apparent power S PL j QL and the load voltage U2 will be

(2) U0

U1

Grid

(4) DG can be connected to the grid directly using synchronous or induction generators or through a power electronic interface. Synchronous generators or power electronic interfaced DG can be operated at various modes of the reactive power. The DG either generates or absorbs reactive power or the DG does not exchange reactive power with the distribution system. Synchronous generators or power electronic interface based DG can also be involved in the distribution system voltage control, i.e., when the DG is operated at a constant voltage by varying its reactive power output. On the other hand, induction generator based DG always absorbs reactive power. For a system with load and DG as shown in Figure 4, the voltage drop on the feeder can be approximated by which indicates that if the DG generates reactive power or the DG does not exchange reactive power with the grid, the DG will always decrease the voltage drop along the feeder. If the generated power is larger than the feeder load, power will flow from the DG to the substation and causes a voltage rise. If the DG absorbs reactive power, the DG can either increase or decrease the voltage drop. This depends on the DG active and reactive power relative to the load active and reactive power and the X/R ratio of the line. DG

PDG ±QDG

U2

I

U0

PL, QL

RLN, X,LN Feeder

XTX

For a small power flow, the voltage angle  between U2 and U1 in (3) is small, and the voltage drop U U1 U2 can be approximated by

XTX

Grid

Load

U2 RLN, X,LN

PL, QL

Feeder

Grid

Figure 2. One line diagram distribution system.

I

U1

Load

Figure 4. Single line distribution. U1

DG PV Bus

jIXLN



0,4/20 kV 1000 kVA

Slack Bus



750 kW

SUTM 20 kV A3C 150 mm2

30 km R = 0,2162 Ω/km

X = j 0,3305 Ω/km

U2 I

IRLN

Grid HVAC 150/20 kV PLN

Figure 3. One line diagram and corresponding phase diagram for an illustration of the voltage drop a distribution system.

The voltage drop on the feeder is given by

10 MVA 150/20 kV

1000 kVA 0,4/20 kV

DG PV Bus

Load =132 A PQ Bus

200 kW

Figure 5. Case of single line diagram.

(3)

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia V.

 Power Losess

DISCUSSION AND RESULT

Technical data on the glass feeder service districts Dolok Sanggul Feeder ± 30 km length. Output from PLTU Biomas as big as : 750 kW

P = 3. 1322. 0.2162 = 11301.2 (11.3 kW)  Voltage drop after injection DG 750 kW DG PV Bus

TABLE II. FEEDER LOAD DATA GELAS 2011 Power Transformer (MVA)

Substation Tele

20

Feeder Service area Gelas

Burden on the Moon (Amp)

Dolok 125130 127 132 130 sanggul

0,4/20 kV 1000 kVA

Slack Bus SUTM 20 kV A3C 150 mm2

750 kW

30 km R = 0,2162 Ω/km

X = j 0,3305 Ω/km

10 MVA


150/20 kV

Load =132 A PQ Bus

Slack Bus SUTM 20 kV A3C 150 mm2


30 km R = 0,2162 Ω/km

=

X = j 0,3305 Ω/km

10 MVA 150/20 kV

Load =132 A PQ Bus

Figure 6. Case of single line diagram.

Case:  Voltage drop before injection DG 750 kW Z =(R + j XL)*L =(0.2162 +j 0.3305)*30 = 6.486 + j 9.915 or 11.854∟56o 

 Voltage Drop = 1381,6 Volt (1,38 kV),

 Power Loses  P= 3. I2 . R = 3 . 1022.0.2162 = 6748.0 Watt (6.74 kW) VI. CONCLUSION

132 -36.86O A  Real Power = 3.V.I.Cos 36.86  Reactive Power = 3.V.I.Sin 36.86 = 3.20000.132.0.8 = 3.20000.132.0.6 = 3658.09 Watt (3.658 MW) = 2743.5 VAr (2.743 MVAr)  Apparent power = 3.V.I  VA = 3,658 + j 2,743 MVA = 3.20000.132 = 4572.6 VA (4.572 MVA)  Voltage Drop AV = 3 x 132 {(0,2162 . Cos 36,86)+(0,3305 . Sin 36,86)}. 30

= 2544 Volt (2.544 kV)  Voltage Receiving = Vs-V = 20000-2544 = 17455.5 Volt

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The result show from the case that voltage drop before injection distributed generation is 2544 volt (2.54 kV). With power loses is 11301.2 (11.3 kW) So after install of distributed generation 750 kW single unit, at near load like show in figure 4, can be improved voltage drop is 1381.6 volt (1.38 kV), With power loses is 6748,0 (6,74 kW), AV =2554 – 1381.6 =1172.4 Volt, AP=11301.2 – 6748.0 = 4553.2 Watt REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5]

P Chiradeja, R Ramakumar, An Approach to Quantify the Technical Benefits of Distributed Generation. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 2004,19(4): pp. 764–773. W Caisheng, MH Nehrir, Analytical Approaches for Optimal Placement of Distributed Generation Sources in Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2004, 19(4): pp. 2068 – 2076. Ferry August Viawan Voltage Control and Voltage Stability of Power Distribution Systems in the Presence of Distributed Generation; Dissertation Ph.D S3 CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Göteborg, Sweden 2008; Page 27 http://www.ebtke.esdm.go.id Gummadi Srinivasa Rao*, Y.P. Obulesh** Voltage Profile Improvement of Distribution System using Distributed Generating Units International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) Vol. 3, No. 3, June 2013, pp. 337~343

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Speech Recognition System Base on Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) and Hidden Markov Model (HMM) Using Matlab for Speaker Identification Andriana1, Zulkarnain2 and Barmawi3 Universitas Langlangbuana Bandung, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—System Speech Recognition is a recognition process using MatLab that can identify a person with voice processing. The basic purpose of the study was to identify and classify the utterances of different people. Identification to know who is saying these words is by matching the characteristics of speech in the database with the input utterance. Characteristics of speech can be distinguished by extraction with a coding technique, a fundamental frequency (pitch), formant and energy. Coding techniques commonly used by the National Institute of Standards Technology (NIST) in the lawyer-ekstraksian speech signal is LPC (Linier Predictiv Coding). Unique identity of each person can be identified using a statistical model of hidden Markov model (HMM). Keywords-speaker recognition; feature extraction; LPC (Linier Predictiv Coding); Statistic Model; Hidden Markov Model (HMM)

I. INTRODUCTION Speech recognition is a recognition process to find out who would like an information signal to match the characteristics of existing words in the input speech data base. Speech characteristics can be distinguished by extraction with a coding technique. Coding techniques are commonly used by the National Institute of Standards Technology (NIST) in the speech signal ekstraksian is LPC (Linear Predictiv Coding). Pattern Recognition sound while someone used methods Hidden Markov Model (HMM). In this method sounds are considered as random parameters which can be estimated to be analyzed and sought the maximum possible value for the recognition process. For LPC algorithm and HMM used MatLab software. Speech Recognition System is a system that functions to convert spoken language into written language. Enter the system is human speech, then the system will identify the spoken words or sentences and texts produced in accordance with what was said.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Speech Recognition system can recognize all the words in a language and do an introduction for each unit forming speech sounds (phonemes), then try to find the possible combinations of results most acceptable words, by using Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Simpler system is a system that can only recognize a limited number of words. The system usually more accurate and more easily trained , but can not recognize words beyond vocabulary ever taught . This system uses Matlab software as a complement to the training process and recognition of phonemes Identification is a process of introducing speakers to know who is saying the information signal to match the characteristics of existing words in the input speech data base. Speech characteristics can be distinguished by extraction with a coding technique . Coding technique commonly used in speech signal ekstraksian is LPC. Identification methods can be divided into methods based not text (Text - Independent) and the method based on the text (Text - Dependent). In recognition system speakers are not based on the text, input utterance spoken by speakers should not be the same as the words that exist in the database. Instead, the speakers based text recognition system that must be recognized in addition to speakers, speech input should also be in accordance with existing words in the database. Reciter recognition system based on text that is not described in the This research can be applied to system identification of the person talking on the phone and what she was talking about. The system not only check who is talking but also verify the word. The system is expected to recognize the voice, then the result of the speech recognition is used as a reference for identification reciter voice recognition and what was said . In this study were made using a simulation program with the help of Matlab GUI to recognize and display the signal shape one's speech. Form recognizable speech signal is energy, pitch, and formant. This program will read voice file in the form of the extension *.Wav and displays based on energy, pitch, and formant. In addition,

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia simulation is autocorrelation and Fast Fourier Transform ( FFT).

~

x l ( n) = xl ( n) w( n) ,0 ≤ n ≤ N-1

(4)

The window is commonly used Hamming window that has the general form:

 2π n   ,0 ≤ n ≤ N-1  N − 1

w(n) = 0,54 – 0,46 cos 

(5)

Another window is the Hanning window can be used. 4. Autokorelasi Analysis Each frame has been through windowing, and then through the process autocorrelation: Figure 1. Block diagram of the process of identification of speakers.

rl ( m) =

II. LINIER PREDICTIVE CODING (LPC) The main purpose signal processing in the system identifier reciter is to acquire the appropriate language for the content of all the speakers, in contrast with the reciter recognition system which aims to get the traits that match the characteristics of each reciter, which is free from the influence of the spoken word. LPC analysis is commonly used in the speech recognition system can also be used in the recognition system speakers. LPC analysis steps to obtain the LPC coefficients in identifying speakers based on reference are as follows: 1. Preemphasis Preemphasis is used for flattening the spectral signal and increase the authenticity of the signal on the subsequent signal processing. Preemphasis system that is commonly used is a first order system: H(z) = 1 – ãz-1, 0,9 ≤ a ≤ 1

(1)

Output of the circuit preemphasis ,ŝ(n), is : ŝ(n) = s(n) – ãs(n-1)

(2)

Magnitude ã commonly used is 0,95 (for the use of rigorous, usually used value ã = 15/16 = 0,9375).

N − 1− m ~

∑

~

x l ( n) x l ( n + m), m = 0,1,….,p.

n= 0

(6) with the highest autocorrelation value of p, is the order of the LPC. P value is usually between 8 to 16. 5. LPC analysis The next process is the LPC analysis, which change every frame autocorrelation coefficient p +1 to the LPC. III. HIDDEN MARKOV MODEL (HMM) HMM is a voice recognition system that basically assumes that the voice signal is a realization of a code message in the form of one or more sequences of symbols. To get the symbols, the first voice signal is converted into a discrete sequence of parameter vectors with the same space. Discrete parameter vector is assumed to form an exact representation of the sound signal at intervals for about 10 ms for a single vector, because the voice signal can be considered stationary. Although not entirely true, but it is a rational interpretation. The basis of recognition is the mapping between the circuit and the circuit symbol vector sound desired. Two of the problems are:

Signal changes that have been made Preemphasis filter using LPF.

1. Mapping of symbols into sound not one by one because of fundamental differences in symbols can affect voice sounds almost the same.

2. Frame Blocking After dipreemphasis, then cut the signal in a frame with a frame consisting of N-samples, and every frame is a M-adjacent samples. The output signal from preemphasis ŝ(n), cut into a frame with the equation:

2. Boundaries between symbols can not be identified directly on the sound signal. Therefore, it is not possible consider the sound signal as a series combination of static patterns.

xl(n) = ŝ(Ml + n),n = 0,1,…,N-1 ; l = 0,1,…,L-1

(3)

with L is the number of frames. Large N and M are 300 and 100 for a sampling rate of 6.67 kHz signal, which means the frame along with 45 ms separation distance between frames is 15 ms. 3. Windowing Windowing (windowing) is used to filter the signal to zero at the beginning and end of the frame. After going through the process of framing, the signal then passes the windowing process with the equation: eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The second problem can be solved by dividing the signal into a recognizable symbol of a separate (isolated word recognition). In general, the problems that occur in speech recognition systems such as the above can be solved by using the method of hidden Markov models.

IV. VEKTOR QUANTIZATION (VQ) VQ is one method of matching characteristic (feature matching). VQ vector mapping process a large number of vectors into a vector with a certain amount, so that the II - 83

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. VEKTOR QUANTIZATION (VQ) VQ is one method of matching characteristic (feature matching). VQ vector mapping process a large number of vectors into a vector with a certain amount, so that the existing data are compressed and remains accurate. Vector obtained in the recognition process is a reciter of the feature vector of each reciter contained in the database. With VQ process, will obtain a representation from each feature vector speakers with less number of vectors, vector was referred to as the codebook of each reciter. The codebook consists of vectors bebeberapa codeword which is the centroid of a set of feature vector. Distance calculation is done by comparing the deviation between the coefficients cepstrum of speech signal to be recognized and codebook of each reciter on the database.

Figure 4. Spectrum of speaker 1

Euclidean distance of the two vector equations can be written :

d E (x, y ) 

dim

 x  y  i 1

i

2

i

(7)

The above equation is a general equation for calculating the Euclidean distance equation used to determine the distance between the two vectors. The end result of comparing speakers 1 and 2 in the data base, with speakers 1 and 2 in the testing process are as follows: Speaker 1 matches with speaker 1, Speaker 2 matches with speaker 2. V. TESTING RESULTS Display of the testing process result are the following:

Figure 5. Spectrum of speaker 2.

Figure 2. Sound recordings of speaker 1.

Figure 6. Formant of speaker 1

Figure 3. Sound recordings of speaker 2.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Formant of speaker 1 :  Formant 1 Frequency 183.5  Formant 2 Frequency 687.6  Formant 3 Frequency 1375.3  Formant 4 Frequency 2397.6  Formant 5 Frequency 2848.7

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Figure 10. 2 D vector is of obtain from matLab Subroutine mfcc (mel frequency spectrum coeficient) Figure 7. Formant of speaker 2.

Formant of speaker 2:  Formant 1 Frequency 453.2  Formant 2 Frequency 1155.9  Formant 3 Frequency 1808.7  Formant 4 Frequency 2895.3

Figure 11. Comparing vector with database vectors.

The end result of comparing speakers 1 and 2 in the data base, with speakers 1 and 2 in the testing process are as follows: Speaker 1 matches with speaker 1 Speaker 2 matches with speaker 2 Figure 8. Average Energy signal speaker 1.

Figure 12. Speech recognation program.

Figure 9. Average Energy signal speaker 2.

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If cepstrum sound recording average yield on the data base and the same test results as evidenced by the possibility of euclidean distances are close, then the identity of the speakers can be recognized.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia VI. CONCLUSION

[3]

Of system testing that has been done a few conclusions can be drawn as follows: 1. Each person has a different sound characteristics in pitch, formant and energy. 2. Different characteristics can be used to identify a person's identity with the help of MatLab software using LPC method and HMM methods. 3. If cepstrum sound recording average yield on the data base and the same test results as evidenced by the possibility of euclidean distances are close, then the identity of the speakers can be recognized. REFERENCES [1] [2]

Lawrence, Rabiner, & Biing-Hwang, Juang, Fundamentals of speech recognition. Beijing: Prentice-Hall International, Inc, 1999. Lawrence, R, Rabiner, A Tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recognition, Proceedings of the IEEE, VOL.77, NO 2, February 1989.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

Zhou, Haitao, Design and Implementation of Speech Recognition System Based on Field Programmable Gate Array. The research is financed by Applied Program of Basic Research of Tianjin (08JCYBJC14700), 2009. Woodland, P.C., Odell, J.J., Valtchev, V. & Young, S.J. Large vocabulary continuous speech recognition using HTK. ICASSP ’94, 2, pp.125-128. Young, S., A review of large-vocabulary continuous-speech recognition, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 13, No.5, 1996, pp.45-57. S J Melnikoff, S F Quigley & M J Russell, Implementing a Simple Continuous Speech Recognition System on an FPGA, Proceedings of the 10 th Annual IEEE Symposium on Field-Programmable Custom Computing Machines (FCCM’02), 2002. Lintang Y.B., Adaptasi Sistem Pengenalan Ucapan Bahasa Inggris ke dalam Sistem Pengenalan Ucapan Bahasa Indonesia Baku Menggunakan Pendekatan Bootstraping Termodifikasi. Arman.A.A.,Proses Pembentukan dan Karakteristik Sinyal Ucapan, Jakarta, 2006.

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Plagiarism Detection On Learning Management Systems (LMS) Moodle Using Winnowing Algorithm Henning Titi Ciptaningtyas1 and Ilham Kusdi2 Informatics Departement Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—There are various Learning Management Systems (LMS) used to manage distance learning through computer networks. One of the popular open source LMS is MOODLE (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment). LMS is a software application for storing the learning process and recording all of student-teacher activities, including course resources (label, folder, file, URL, etc) and course activities (offline evaluation, online evaluation, assignment, etc). Student’s online assignment usually collected in digital documents form, because it makes the assignment easier to store, easier to find, and easier to grade. But, the digital documents make the student can do plagiarism easier than before because it takes only copypaste-modify part of the others student’s digital document. In this research, the plagiarism detection system was made as a LMS Moodle plugin to find common material in the digital documents files that has been uploaded by the student. The inputs of plagiarism detection system are text files (.txt, .doc, .docx). The output of plagiarism detection system is degree of similarity from the assignment files and presented as a chart. The system analyses the digital documents using Winnowing algorithm. It creates fingerprint on each document and compares the fingerprints to calculate the level of similarity. Document scanning process can compared the documents in one-to-one and oneto-many documents. The system then displays the degree of similarity with an interactive interface and easy to understand report. It can help the teacher detect plagiarism of assignments uploaded by students on the same course. The LMS Moodle plugin can detect plagiarism with accuracy about 90%. The best parameters configuration in detecting plagiarism are n = 30 of n-grams, basis prime numbers b = 5, window size w = 30, and the threshold value = 50. Keywords-plagiarism detection, moodle, winnowing, LMS

I. INTRODUCTION Rapid growth of information and communication technology (ICT) gives a huge effect for distance learning (usually known as e-learning system). E-learning system becomes popular in various schools, colleges and educational institutions because it is able to overcome the disadvantages of conventional learning system that eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

requires direct meeting between student and teacher in the classroom[1]. By using E-learning, student can learn and teacher can teach via online from anywhere and at anytime. E-learning uses Open Source Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as LMS Author, Claroline LMS, Moodle LMS, etc. One of the popular open source LMS is MOODLE (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment). It has been used by schools, universities, educational institutions and training, and millions users around the world [4]. By using E-learning, students can easily follow online quizzes or upload assignments, and teacher can easily find and grade the assignments or quizzes. Student’s online assignment usually collected in digital documents form such as spreadsheet, word document, or digital image. But, the digital documents make the student can do plagiarism easier than before because it takes only copy-paste-modify part of the others student’s digital document such as assignment, papers, etc. Plagiarism sometimes difficult to detect because it involves so many students in the course and so many files. Therefore, it is important to build a system that can detect plagiarism in LMS so it can assist teachers in evaluating students. In this research, we propose a plagiarism detection as a plugin on LMS Moodle using Winnowing algorithm. This plugin will analyze files (numerous uploaded assignments or exams by students) and displays the degree of similarity with an interactive interface and easy to understand report. So it can help the teacher detect plagiarism of assignments uploaded by students on the same course. II. MOODLE MOODLE (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is an Open Source platform for Elearning software (also known as a Course Management System , Learning Management System, or Virtual Learning Environment / VLE). MOODLE is very popular among educators around the world as a tool for creating online dynamic learning websites. MOODLE needs to be installed on Apache web server. MOODLE was originally developed by Martin Dougiamas to help educators create online courses with a focus on interaction and

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia collaborative construction of content, and still in continuous development. The first version of MOODLE was released on August 20, 2002 [4]. MOODLE has been used by various institutions and individuals, including universities, high schools, elementary schools, government departments, health care organizations, military organizations, airlines, oil companies and independent teachers as seen on Table 1. Moodle is a free, downloadable and freely distributed, and does not require registration procedures for the users. Every person who uses Moodle termed Moodler. Moodle also provides ample opportunity for users to participate in development activities. Moodle development is divided into three kinds of contributions that make a new plug-in, changing Moodle core code, and some other contributions that do not involve PHP programming [5]. TABLE I.

Numbers 87.068 239 7.879.401 73.749.660 1.300.207 130.592.711 69.984.910 199.609.623

Winnowing is an algorithm to detect plagiarism. In this algorithm, the content similarity of text files can be identified through a process called document fingerprinting [2]. It changes text into a set of hash values to be the document’s fingerprint. Fingerprint will used as a reference for the detection of the similar content. The advantage of using Winnowing algorithm is the plagiarism detection does not depend on words position in document (position independence). The concept of Winnowing algorithm [3] can be described as follows: Elimination of irrelevant characters (whitespace insensitivity), creating a series of grams with certain size, calculating hash value, divide the set of hash values that are formed into a window of a certain size, and selection of a hash value to be a document fingerprint . Here is an example of Winnowing algorithm on a document with "Implementasi Algoritma Winnowing" phrase [3]: 1. Perform whitespace insensitivity, eliminate the irrelevant characters such as punctuation, spaces, and so forth. Capital letters are ignored, so the sentence will be as follows : implementasialgoritmawinnowing

2. The process followed by creating a series of grams with certain size (n-gram), for example 5 gram. So, the gram series will be as follows:

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

menta algor mawin

13237, 13365, 12975, 12944, 13582

13325, 13462, 12797, 12455,

12869, 12306, 13471, 13905,

12479, 13450, 13537, 12917,

12991, 12516, 13028, 13341,

In Winnowing algorithm, we use Rolling Hash function to calculate hash values. Hash function H(c1..ck) is defined by ( 1 ) as follows [2]: c1 * b(k-1) + c2 * b(k-2) + ... + c(k-1) * bk + ck Notes: c : ASCII value of character b : base (prime number) k : sum of character

H(imple) = ascii(i) * 34 + ascii(m) * 33 + ascii(p) * 32 + ascii(l) * 31 + ascii(e) * 30 = 105*81 + 109*27 + 112*9 + 108*3 + 101*1 = 12881

III. WINNOWING ALGORITHM

imple mplem pleme lemen ement ntasi tasia asial sialg ialgo gorit oritm ritma itmaw tmawi winno innow nnowi nowin owing

12881, 12601, 12147, 13674, 13403,

For example, n-grams of "imple" in the example with a value of base b = 3 and sum of character k = 5 wil be as follows [6] :

TABLE 1. MOODLE IN NUMBERS

Type Registered Sites Countries Courses Users Teachers Forum Posts Resources Quiz Questions

3. After calculating hash values of each formed gram, the result will be as follows:

entas lgori awinn

4. Set of the hash value will be divided into a certain window size, for example 4. Then choose the minimum hash value in each window as follows: [12881 [13237 [13325 [12869 [12479 [12991 [12601 [13365 [13462 [12306 [13450 [12516 [12147 [12975 [12797 [13471 [13537 [13028 [13674 [12944 [12455 [13905 [12917

13237 13325 12869 12479 12991 12601 13365 13462 12306 13450 12516 12147 12975 12797 13471 13537 13028 13674 12944 12455 13905 12917 13341

13325 12869 12479 12991 12601 13365 13462 12306 13450 12516 12147 12975 12797 13471 13537 13028 13674 12944 12455 13905 12917 13341 13403

12869] 12479] 12991] 12601] 13365] 13462] 12306] 13450] 12516] 12147] 12975] 12797] 13471] 13537] 13028] 13674] 12944] 12455] 13905] 12917] 13341] 13403] 13582]

5. The previous hash value will be used as a document fingerprint. By adding the information of fingerprint position in the document , it will as follows: [12869, [12306, [13028, [12917,

3], [12479, 4], 9], [12147, 12], 17], [12944, 19], 22]

[12601, 6], [12797, 14], [12455, 20],

6. The content similarity from two document can be calculated from document’s fingerprint with (2) as follows [6] : Sum of Equal Hash Degree of Similarity  x 100% (2) Total Hash II - 88

(1)

Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia  Final Result: the level of similarity between files based on document’s fingerprint. The results shown in form of either report graphs or tables.

Suppose document A has fingerprints as follows: [

11891, 12203, 12803, 12450, 12114,

12411, 12351, 13351, 12497

12261, 12350, 12135, 12211, 12377, 12891, ]

And document B has fingerprints as follows: [ 12450, 13351, 12377, 12891, 12114, 12497, 12578, 12799, 12151, 11891, 12203, 12411, 12261 ]

Total equal fingerprints are 10 as follows: |

12450 12497

13351 11891

12377 12203

12891 12411

12114 12261

|

Total number of fingerprints are 18 as follows : |

11891 12803 13351 12578

12203 12351 12377 12799

12411 12261 12135 12211 12891 12114 12151|

12350 12450 12497

From (2), the degree of similarity between document A and document B can be calculated as follows: Degree of Similarity = 10/18 x 100 % = 55.56 %. IV. SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION In this research, the plagiarism detection system was made as a LMS MOODLE plug-in to find common material in the digital documents files that has been uploaded by the students. The inputs of plagiarism detection system are text files (.txt, .doc, .docx). The output of plagiarism detection system is degree of similarity from the assignment files and presented as a chart. The system analyses the digital documents using Winnowing algorithm. It creates fingerprint on each document and compares the fingerprints to calculate the level of similarity. Document scanning process can compared the documents in one-to-one and one-to-many documents. The system then displays the degree of similarity with an interactive interface and easy to understand report so it can help the teacher detect plagiarism of assignments uploaded by students on the same course. Teachers can choose various configurations of different parameters, such as the value of n of n-grams, prime base b, window size w, and threshold value of plagiarism t, to get the best configuration. Plagiarism detection process can check the documents in 3 ways: One-to-One, One-to-Many, and Many-to-Many. General architecture of the system is shown in Error! Reference source not found.. The plagiarism detection system consists of:  Doc Parser: extract the contents of the input file. The output is a text string.

Figure 1. System Design

V. EXPERIMENT RESULT A. Test Scenario In this research, we use functionality test and configuration parameters test. Functionality test used to verify that plagiarism detection in One-to-One, One-to-Many and Many-toMany files can work properly. We use eight text file uploaded to E-learning as the trial data, the content similarity can be detected by the system with accuracy above 90%. Test parameter configuration is aimed to obtain the best configuration for detecting content similarities. The configuration parameters are:  The value n of n-grams: n is used in gram quantities of Winnowing algorithm.  Basis number b: b is a prime number used as a base in rolling hash function.  Window size w: w is the window size used when dividing a collection of hash values.  Threshold value t: t is the treshold value of the level of content similarity. B. Experimental Result Plagiarism detection has 4 menus : One-to-One, Oneto-Many, Many-to-Many, and configuration. 1. Functionality Test Result Functionality test result as follows: a. Plagiarism detection configuration Plagiarism detection configuration can be seen in Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found..

 Document finger-printer: processing text extraction from Doc Parser into a fingerprint text document containing hash values .  Fingerprint Checker: compare the fingerprint documents between files. Figure 2. Default and one-to-one configuration.


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Reference source not found.. Error! Reference source not found. shows no plagiarism detected from files. Error! Reference source not found. shows that plagiarism is detected from files.

Figure 3. One-to-many and many-to-many configuration.

b. Result of one-to-one plagiarism detection Result of plagiarism detection in one-to-one can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1 left shows no plagiarism detected from both files. Figure 1 right shows that plagiarism is detected from both files. Figure 7. Result of many-to-many plagiarism detection 1.

Figure 4. Figure 1. Result of one-to-one plagiarism detection.

c. Result of one-to-many plagiarism detection Result of plagiarism detection in one-to-many can be seen in Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found.. Error! Reference source not found. shows no plagiarism detected from files. Error! Reference source not found. shows that plagiarism is detected from files.

Figure 8. Result of many-to-many plagiarism detection 2.

2. Parameter configuration test result Parameter configuration test used several test scenarios in Table 1. Scenario 1 is the default configuration that used to compare the other scenarios. TABLE II. PARAMETER CONFIGURATION

Figure 5. Result of one-to-many plagiarism detection 1

Scenario 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

n-gram 30 30 30 30 30 10 50 30

Window Size w 30 30 30 10 50 30 30 30

Base b 3 5 17 3 3 3 3 3

Treshold t 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 20%

Scenario 2 and 3 used to analyze the variation of base number b to find out the most appropriate hash. Table 3 is the experiment result of various value b between two documents (3112030105.docx and 3112030139.docx) with Window Size w = 30, n-grams = 30 and threshold t = 50 %. Variations in the value of b = {3, 5, 17} show that the larger prime number, the accuracy will also increase. Therefore, to maximize the results, greater base value b is highly recommended. TABLE III. EXPERIMENT RESULT OF B VARIATION Figure 6. Result of one-to-many plagiarism detection 2.

d. Result of many-to-many plagiarism detection Result of plagiarism detection in many-to-many can be seen in Error! Reference source not found. and Error!

Base b 3 5 17

Equal Fingerprint 1189 1115 1014

Total Fingerprint 1213 1133 1029

Similarity Degree 98.02% 98.41% 98.54%


Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Scenario 4 and 5 used to analyze the variation of window size w window to find out appropriate window size. Table 4 is the experiment result of various Window Size w between two documents (3112030105.docx and 3112030139.docx) with Base Prime Number b = 3, n-grams = 30 and threshold t = 50%. Variations in the value of w = {10, 30, 50} shows that the bigger w value, the accuracy will be decrease. TABLE IV. EXPERIMENT RESULT OF W VARIATION Window Size w 10 30 50

Equal Fingerprint 3219 1189 760


TABLE V. EXPERIMENT RESULT OF N VARIATION Equal Fingerprint 1097 1189 1190


Threshold t 20% 50%


Total Fingerprint 1213 1213

Similarity Degree 98.02% 98.02%

 Gram Size n: 30  Window Size w: 30  Base Hash Value b: 5  Threshold Value t: 50 % VI. CONCLUSION From the experimental result, we can conclude: 1. Winnowing algorithm can implemented as a plugin in LMS MOODLE to detect plagiarism in documents uploaded to the MOODLE LMS. 2. The best configuration to obtain optimal results is gram size n = 30, window size w = 30, base prime number b = 5 and threshold t = 50. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

Scenario 8 used to analyze the variation of the threshold t to find out appropriate treshold. Table 6 is the experiment results of various Treshold t between two documents (3112030105.docx and 3112030139.docx) with Base Prime Number b = 3, n-grams = 30 and Window Size w = 30. Variation of threshold values = {20, 50} has a small effect to calculate the level of content similarity. This is because the threshold value only represents the maximum limit of a tolerance level in plagiarism. The smaller threshold value, more reports the detection of plagiarism will occur.

Equal Fingerprint 1189 1189

From various configurations, we recommend the best configuration for detecting similarities of content as follows:


Scenario 6 and 7 used to analyze the variation size of n gram to find out enough gram size. Table 5 is the experiment result of various n-grams size between two file documents (3112030105.docx and 3112030139.docx) with Base Prime Number b = 3, Window Size w = 30 and threshold t = 50%. Variations in the value of n-grams = {10 , 30, 50} show that the bigger n value, the accuracy will be decrease. If the value of n is too large, for example n = 50, it means that the text file that is checked should have the same content (common subsequence) up to 50 characters long, which is certainly very rare. For the values n = 10 and n = 30 it has no significant difference of accuracy.

n-gram Size 10 30 50

TABLE VI. TABLE 2. EXPERIMENT RESULT OF T VARIATION

[4]

[5]

[6]

M.Ali, “Materi Pelatihan E-Learning Pengantar E-Learning”, Jurusan Pendidikan Teknik Elektro, Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, 2009. P.Y.Kusmawan, U.L.Yuhana, dan D.Purwitasari, “Aplikasi Pendeteksi Penjiplakan pada File Teks dengan Algoritma Winnowing”, Jurusan Teknik Informatika, Fakultas Teknologi Informasi, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November Surabaya, 2010. M.R. Pratama, E.B.Cahyono, dan G.I.Marthasari, “Aplikasi Pendeteksi Duplikasi Dokumen Teks Bahasa Indonesia Menggunakan Algoritma Winnowing Dengan Menggunakan Metode K-Gram dan Synonym Recognition”, Jurusan Teknik Informatika, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, 2011. M.Dougiamas, “Moodle-org: Open Source Community-Based Tools for Learning” [internet], 2012, [accessed : 3 September 2012], Available at http://moodle.org. M.N.Qomaruddin, A.Jadzie, dan Y.Bilfaqih, “Perancangan Sistem Visualisasi Automatis”, Jurusan Teknik Elektro, Fakultas Teknologi Industri, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya, 2009. D.Purwitasari, P.Y.Kusmawan, dan U.L.Yuhana, “Deteksi Keberadaan Kalimat Sama sebagai Indikasi Penjiplakan dengan Algoritma Hashing Berbasis N-Gram”, Lab Semantik Web-Teknik Informatika, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh, 2011.



Honeypot in Raspberry Pi Cluster for Analyzing Attacker Behaviour Supeno Djanali1, FX. Arunanto2, Baskoro Adi Pratomo3 and Hudan Studiawan4 Department of Informatics, Faculty of Information Technology Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Many kind of network attacks have been developed these days. Most of them are targeted to web application and never been detected yet. We need something that can analyze what the attackers do. But if we use production server to catch the attackers actions, it will put the production server in danger. Therefore, we used honeypot to lure the attacker for coming into our trap. When they interact with honeypot, all of their actions will be collected and can be analyzed later. In this paper, we proposed a honeypot system that planted in Raspberry Pi cluster and then used them to analyze how the attackers act. Raspberry Pi is a credit-card sized computer with ARM processor with limited computational power. Thus, we clustered several Raspberry Pi and implemented a web honeypot on top of them. The Raspberry Pi would work together to serve the attacker and provide us with its log to be analyzed. In our experiment, we saw that the honeypot on top of the cluster could work well. When we tested it using Acunetix, the honeypot could make Acunetix think that it has successfully attacked a server. By looking at our web-based log analyzer, administrator can see the attacks that were performed more clearly and give them more information about them. Keywords-Raspberry Pi; Honeypot; cluster; attacker behaviour

I. INTRODUCTION Currently, variation of attack to server has been increasing. Variety of malware and new attack appears every day. Therefore, we need a mechanism to learn how new type of attack works. There are common attacks, i.e SQL injection, RFI (Remote File Inclusion), and LFI (Local File Inclusion). One way to learn a new attack is to see how an attack occur. However, it will be inconvenient if the attack happens on a server that has important data. To replace a server that has important data, we made a group of server that does not have confidential and important data. That group of server (server cluster) will mimic behaviour of the original one. So that hackers who interact with it will think they are interacting with the original one. Interaction between hackers and the trap (honeypots) can be used to study how hacker works [1]. Furthermore, administrators do not have to worry about eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

theft or loss of data because there is no important data on it. Hardware prices may also become obstacle. If buying a single server needs a lot of money, of course the costs required to build a server cluster can also be higher. We propose an alternative to use a mini-computer, Raspberry Pi, as a replacement. Raspberry Pi is a credit card-sized computer that uses an ARM-based processor. The price of a Raspberry Pi board is only about USD 35. However, the ability of the Raspberry Pi computer is not as good as with the regular x86-based processors. Therefore, some of the Raspberry Pi will be clustered. In this paper, we propose a honeypot in a clustered Raspberry Pi to study attacker behaviour. We also developed a real time web interface that displays cluster activities. II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Raspberry Pi Cluster Architecture Cluster is one type of distributed computer system, consist of a set of stand-alone computer and work together as one integrated resource [2]. The stand-alone usually is a high-end and high-prize server. In this study, the server would be replaced with the Raspberry Pi. University of Southampton have implemented Raspberry Pi as a server cluster. On the cluster, they implemented Message Passing Interface (MPI) to perform a parallel calculation [3]. In addition, it also supports a variety of programming languages such as Fortran and Python. The first phase of this research is building server cluster using Raspberry Pi. Server cluster requires load balancer to distribute the work. In this study, we use Linux Virtual Servers (LVS) [4] as balancer and ten Raspberry Pi type B as backend server with Debian-based operating system, Raspbian. The load balancer used Ubuntu Server 13.04 Raring Ringtail as operating system. Broadly speaking, the cluster’s architecture is shown in Figure 1.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia configuration is shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively.. ifconfig lo:6 10.151.22.212/32 route add -host 10.151.22.212 dev lo:6 echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/conf/all/arp_ignore echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/conf/lo/arp_ignore echo "2" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/conf/all/arp_announce echo "2" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/conf/lo/arp_announce Figure 2. Raspberry Pi’s LVS configuration.

Figure 1. Raspberry Pi server cluster architecture.

B. Glastopf Configuration Glastopf is a web application honeypot developed by Lukas Rist in affiliated with Honeynet Project [5]. Glastopf will receive request from attacker and then it will emulate the attack’s result. For example, if an attacker try to access PHP file which is containing phpinfo() function, then Glastopf will give a phpinfo page to the attacker as if there is a real phpinfo page in the server. There are several emulated attack responses in Glastopf, such as Remote/Local File Inclusion, SQL Injection, PHP CGI, etc. In this paper, we planted Glastopf in every Raspberry Pi and pointed the log to another, single, MySQL server. Furthermore, we modified Glastopf’s source code a little, since there is a bug at the login form. Glastopf version 3’s login form’s action is pointed to localhost port 8080, which is not exist. The modification was done in file dork_page_generator.py which was located in /usr/local/lib/python2.7/distpackages/glastopf/modules/handlers/emulators/dork_list/ directory. We just changed line 99-102 in that file to the code below. dork_page = self.surface_creator.get_index(choice(intitle_list), "/login.php", body, "Footer Powered By")

C. LVS Configuration Linux Virtual Server (LVS) is a mechanism to make several computer’s seen as a computer with single IP Address. LVS consists of two parts, LVS Director and Backend Server. LVS Director is a computer that distribute incoming packet to backend server. Unfortunately, LVS Director couldn’t be installed in Raspberry Pi, so we had to use an x86 computer to be the Director. There are three different mechanisms to redirect packet in LVS, which are NAT, Direct Routing, and Tunneling. Based on the documentation [4], Direct Routing is the best method if you can put all server and director in a subnet. Because with Direct Routing enabled, outgoing packets from backend server don’t have to travel through the LVS Director again and there are no additional data in the packet. So, we used it to redirect incoming packet. Raspberry Pi LVS and LVS director eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

ifconfig eth0:6 10.151.22.212/32 route add -host 10.151.22.212 dev eth0:6 ipvsadm -C ipvsadm -A -t 10.151.22.212:http -s rr ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.188 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.192 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.193 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.194 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.195 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.196 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.197 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.198 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.199 -g -w 1 ipvsadm -a -t 10.151.22.212:http -r 10.151.22.190 -g -w 1 Figure 3.

LVS director configuration.

In the Figure 2, we can see the configuration of LVS that was applied in our Raspberry Pi. There are extra things to do if we will use LVS Direct Routing, such as configuring virtual network interface and enabling ARP Ignore and Announce. Figure 3 is configuration for the LVS Director. We had to list every backend server that we used. For the load distribution, we used a simple round robin algorithm, since all of backend server have same specification. D. Deploying Server Cluster To capture a real attacker behaviour, we deployed our Raspberry Pi cluster in a public IP address. Load balancer will distribute all incoming requests to each board in the cluster. We put our public web server, mail server, and honeypot server cluster in the same subnet to trap the attacker. Then, we installed low interaction honeypot application. Low interaction honeypot is a type of honeypot that imitating certain services. This type of honeypot will mimic a web server behavior to capture attacks patterns on web-based applications. An overview of architecture with public access can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Cluster server with public access.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia E. Web Monitoring Application In addition to the honeypot, we have developed webbased reporting application to display the data that goes into the honeypot. This application is useful for administrators who will analyze the patterns of attacks.

the result, Acunetix can be tricked into thinking that its attack has been successful. Though, most of conducted attack were considered informational, but there are attacks that were considered important too. This results can be seen in Figure 6.

After the attack data obtained, web monitoring will parse existing honeypot log database. Every honeypots save their logs into centralized database. We put this database together with load balancer. The web-based reporting application has to process and analyze the parsing results into an information attacks occurred, including a new type of attack. In monitoring applications, we also displayed statistical behavior of hackers as the most frequent type of attack performed and its frequency. Attacker behavior monitoring application is implemented with PHP, the most famous and well-proven web-based programming language. PHP application will read centralized database that consist of generated log by Glastopf in each Raspberry Pi. Once read, data from database is displayed in web page. III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The proposed Raspberry Pi cluster has been deployed to public IP address to be accessed by the real attacker for two weeks. Though, not many data could be gathered, we successfully got some sample what hacker would do. However, we also test this cluster internally to see its performance. We have tested using Acunetix Vulnerability Web Scanner to check for web vulnerability and manually hack Glastopf honeypot. Our Raspberry Pi cluster implementation is shown in Figure 5. A. Acunetix Assessment Results There was a computer which acted as a hacker and used Acunetix Web Vulnerability Scanner to penetrate our honeypot. We used several type of attacks from Acunetix, such as File Upload, XSS, and SQL Injection. Based on

Figure 5. Raspberry Pi Server Cluster.

B. Manual Hack to Honeypot There were some vulnerability that we hacked manually, i.e RFI, SQLi, LFI, sensitive directory (robots, phpMyadmin, phpinfo), comment spam, and login brute force. Several attacks type is described in Figure 7 where http://x.x.x.x is our honeypot public IP address. As attacker, we tried to send spam message by filling textarea for comment multiple times. Login brute force is attempted by guessing username and password and send to honeypot server.

Figure 6. Acunetix testing results. RFI: http://x.x.x.x/admin.php?id=http://example.com/rootkit.c SQLi: http://x.x.x.x/admin.php?id=select%20*%20from%20events LFI: http://x.x.x.x/index.php?file=../../../../etc/passwd Robots: http://x.x.x.x/robots.txt phpMyAdmin: http://x.x.x.x/phpmyadmin phpinfo: http://x.x.x.x/phpinfo Figure 7. Manual attack to honeypot.

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C. Web Monitoring Results As written above, we had a web monitoring application to read honeypot logs and viewed it to administrator. There are several points that was considered important to be displayed in our web application, such as list of attacks per pattern, most accessed URL, most active client, total number of attack per pattern, and per day. Screenshot of our web application can be seen in Figure 8.

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Figure 8. Web application to monitor attacker behaviour.

IV. CONCLUSIONS Based on the experiment that was explained above, our system could lure attackers into the honeypot and made them interract with it. Unfortunately, data from public access weren’t too many. If the experiment had conducted longer, we would have gotten more data. But overall, our system has made hacker think that they has successfully attacked a server. Especially, when they used automatic tools such as Acunetix. Our web-based monitoring application also showed that processing honeypot’s log will make it more useful than we have to look at the raw log data.

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4] [5]

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study is supported by Directorate General of Higher Education via Laboratory Research scheme with grant number 013674.119/IT2.7/PN.08.01/2013.

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Mairh, A, Barik, D, Verma, K, Jena, D., Honeypot in Network Security: A Survey, ACM ICCCS, Rourkela, Odisha, India, February 12–14, 2011. Kopper, K., The Linux Enterprise Cluster: Build a Highly Available Cluster with Commodity Hardware and Free Software, No Starch Press, San Francisco, 2005. Cox S., Steps to make Raspberry Pi Supercomputer, Computational Engineering and Design Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, 2013. Zhang. W., “Linux Virtual Server for Scalable Network Services”, 2000. Rist, L, Vetsch, S, Kobin, M, Mauer, M., A dynamic, lowinteraction web application honeypot, The Honeynet Project, 2010.

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Comparative Study of Two Methods for Blood Cell Segmentation Budi Sunarko1, Simon Williams2, William R. Prescott3, Murk J. Bottema4 and Scott M. Byker5 School of Computer Science, Engineering and Mathematics, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia 1, 2, 4 Semarang State University, Semarang, Indonesia1 Hydas World Health, Pennsylvania, USA3 Microscopes International, Texas, USA5 1 [email protected] , [email protected], [email protected] [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Blood cell identification is important for the diagnosis of many blood-borne diseases, such as malaria parasites and blood cancers. As part of a program to develop a fast, accurate and affordable automatic device for diagnosing malaria, a critical initial step is to automatically segment individual red blood cells (RBC) in a blood smear slide. A comparative study of two RBC image segmentation methods is presented; one based on edge-detection and one based on thresholding. To identify RBC, the edge-based segmentation is implemented using the Canny operator succeeded by the circle Hough transform (CHT) and the thresholding-based segmentation is carried out utilizing the Otsu algorithm accompanied by the distance transform (DT). The methods are applied to images of RBC obtained from Hydas World Health. Results show that the Otsubased segmentation recognizes RBC with 99.37% accuracy and a 96.63% sensitivity whereas the Canny-based segmentation provides accuracy and sensitivity of 86.73% and 88.06% respectively. There was no statistical difference in performance in terms of number of true detections between the Otsu-based method and a human reader at the α = 0.05 level (n = 20, p = 0.431) but the performance of the the Canny-based method was significantly lower than the human reader (n = 20, p < 0.001). Keywords-Canny operator; circle Hough transform; Otsu method; distance transform; image segmentation; malaria

I. INTRODUCTION Blood cell identification is important for the diagnosis of many blood-borne diseases such as malaria and cancer. In most cases, highly trained individuals inspect samples of blood to arrive at a diagnosis, but increasingly, computer-aided methods are used to assist or replace human experts. A common problem in diagnosing bloodborne diseases is counting red blood cells. The process of identifying individual cells in an image is called segmentation. Here, two different approaches to segmenting red blood cells are compared. One method is based on edgedetection using the Canny method followed by the circular Hough transform and the other method is based on setting a threshold using Otsu’s method followed by This research is supported by the Australia Awards Scholarships

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the distance transform. These methods are briefly reviewed here. A. Canny’s Algorithm The Canny’s algorithm provides optimal localization of edges [1] in general situations. For this reason, Canny’s method has been used to find edges in many image analysis tasks including finding boundaries in medical images [2]. B. Circle Hough Transform The CHT measures the response obtained by assuming that the image contains circle of radius r centered at (a,b) for every combination of a, b, and r [3]. The stronger the response, the larger the evidence that such a circle exists. As an example, the CHT has been used to identify circular objects such as defects in hard disk drives [4]. C. Otsu’s Method Thresholding techniques convert intensity images to binary images. Success often depends on choosing an appropriate threshold and many applications require that such a threshold is chosen automatically. Otsu’s method for selecting a threshold [5] applies if the distribution of grayscale levels in an image is bimodal with one mode representing objects of interest. Otsu’s method works by finding the threshold that separates the image into two regions of maximum internal homogeneity. Since image intensity variance is a measure of homogeneity, the threshold is chosen to minimize the within region variance. D. The Distance Transform In a binary image, the distance transform assigns to every pixel in the foreground, the distance to the nearest pixel in the background. The distance transform is useful in many situations [7, 8, 9], but here it is used to find the centers of RBC. This is possible because RBC are generally round which means that the center of the binary footprint of an RBC corresponds to a local maximum of the distance transform. This work represents an initial step toward developing a fully automatic, accurate and cost effective method of malaria diagnosis.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia II. METHODS AND MATERIALS A. Data Slides of parasitaemic blood were provided by the Hydas World Health (Pennsylvania, USA). The anonymized slides were made from blood samples collected under an Institutional Review Board sanctioned minimal-risk human-use protocol, treated with Giemsa stain and cover slips were attached with mounting glue. The slides were scanned by Microscopes International using an automatic scanning microscope, fitted with a 10x ocular and a 60x objective lens, equivalent to a numerical aperture of 850. JPEG images at the resolution of the camera, 540x960, were produced at a density of 286 images per mm2. Several hundred images were provided, but since manual counting of the RBC was required for validation, only 20 images were included in this study. An example of a RBC image is as shown in Fig. 1. For the processing steps described here, the original RGB images were converted to intensity based on luminance. The Matlab programming language was used to implement the Otsu and Canny-based segmentations. B. Edge Detection Method Canny’s algorithm was applied to the gray scale intensity images to produce boundary images. To reduce noise from the binary images, a median filtering was implemented. This resulted in many complete or nearly complete boundaries nominally corresponding to RBC. In addition, some cell boundaries appeared as double boundaries and many spurious lines were found which were not associated with RBC (Fig. 2). The CHT was applied to the boundary images to identify individual RBC. The outcomes of this were a set of three values; location (x-y coordinate) and radius. Fig. 3 shows all detected circles including RBC like objects. The following algorithm was used to decide which candidate RBC represents a single RBC and which represent occluded RBC. 1. Compute average radius, R. 2. Step through all of RBC centers, pj. 3. For every i, compute the distance Dij between pi and pj.  If Dij > R, no change.  If Dij < R, remove pi or pj depending on which has the shorter radius. C. The Threshold Method Otsu’s method was applied to the gray scale intensity images resulting in binary images showing the footprints of RBC as white spots (Fig. 4). The radius of the RBC was taken to be the distance between the center and the minimum distance to boundary. Then, a median filter was implemented to remove noise from the binary images. Next, the distance transform was utilized to the filtered images and the regional maxima values were taken in the distance transform image as the centers of RBC. Since RBC are not perfect circles, one candidate can have many local maxima all having the same distance to the eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

boundary. In addition, local maxima outside RBC were found due to background noise. As a result, there are many possible centers of RBC (Fig. 5). To select the most appropriate centers, a simple clustering algorithm was employed. 1. Identify isolated single RBC as components of area greater than 2500 pixels containing a single local maximum. 2. Compute average area, A, and radius, R, of isolated RBC. 3. Step through all cells indexed 1, 2, …, n. o If An < A, no change o If An > A, step through all local maxima, pj.  For every i, compute the distance Dij between pi and pj.  If Dij > R, no change.  If Dij < R, remove pi or pj depending on which has the lower image intensity value. D. Analysis Methods The performances of the two methods for segmenting RBC were compared in terms of accuracy and sensitivity. Accuracy measures the total proportion of correct assignments while sensitivity measures the proportion of actual RBC detected. These values are expressed in terms of true positive detection (TP), false positives detection (FP), true negative detection (TN), and false negative detection (FN).

TP  TN TP  FP  TN  FN TP Sensitivity = TP  FN

Accuracy =

(1) (2)

A pairwise t-test was used to compare each of the tests with a human observer. This resulted in a probability (pvalue) that the observed difference was due to chance alone. III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSION A. The Edge Detection Method Fig. 6 shows outputs of the image segmentation based on the edge detection method. The results of comparing a human reader to Canny based segmentation are summarized in Table I. Of the 654 RBC samples, 575 were correctly identified, providing an accuracy of 86.73% and sensitivity of 88.06% for the segmentation. Although many RBC were detected, the number of true detection reported by the edge-based segmentation was significantly lower than the human reader at the α = 0.05 level (n = 20, p < 0.001). The method does not identify enough whole RBC, especially RBC at the edge of the image (Fig. 3). In addition, 10 blank areas lying between two or more RBC, were detected as RBC incorrectly (FP). The CHT used to recognize the RBC on the sample images is primarily to blame. The method is fundamentally driven by circle shapes. Therefore, this method is prone to inaccuracy from non-circular objects.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. The Threshold Method Fig. 7 shows the result of the image segmentation based on the threshold method. Potential RBC were identified from the images with an accuracy of 99.37% and a sensitivity of 96.63% (Table II). Furthermore, a paired t-test shows that there is no significant difference between human readers and the algorithm in terms of the number of true detections (TP) at the α = 0.05 level (p = 0.431, n = 20). However, uncommon RBC shapes lead to some false detections (FP) and some missed RBC (FN). In terms of FP, the Otsu-based segmentation identified a biconcave RBC (Fig. 8) as two RBC. Also, the Otsubased segmentation cannot properly detect RBC with unusual shapes (Fig. 4, 5 and 7). Unusual shapes can result from proximity to the boundary of the image or from the thresholding step if the intensity is not sufficiently different from the background.

Figure 1. Example of original blood cell image. The image illustrates malaria-uninfected red blood cells and platelets.

Figure 2. Output of the Canny’s operator applied to image in Fig. 1. Most detected edges were not continues and some cells were converted into two or more different circles. Some edges not related to RBC were also found.

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Figure 3. An output of the CHT applied to Fig 2. Most RBC were detected as more than one RBC. Several RBC at the edge of the image were not detected. Red dots indicate circle centers found by CHT.

Figure 4. Output of the Otsu’s method applied to Fig. 1. Some neighboring cells in the original image were joined. Cell areas in binary images are wider than that of in the original images. In the upper-right corner, there is a cell with center below threshold.

Figure 5. The DT applied to Fig. 5. Each RBC has many local maxima (green dots). All RBC were detected, including many at the edge, some non-RBC objects were also detected.

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Figure 6. An output of the CHT applied to Fig 2. A false detection can be seen lying between four true RBC, in the upper-right quadrant.

Figure 8. RBC views. Reprinted from Biomed 108-Human Physiology TABLE II. OTSU’S METHOD AND DISTANCE TRANSFORM RESULTS. DEFINITIONS ARE AS FOR TABLE 1. Images

Figure 7. Clustering applied to Fig. 5. Non RBC objects were removed and true RBC were retained. An output of the clustered Otsu-based segmentation. TABLE I. CANNY’S OPERATOR AND CIRCLE HOUGH TRANSFORM RESULTS. DETECTED CELLS ARE ONES FOUND BY THE ALGORITHM, TRUE CELLS ARE THOSE FOUND BY HUMAN OBSERVATION. Images X0Y1 X0Y3 X0Y16 X0Y20 X0Y21 X1Y0 X1Y1 X1Y14 X1Y15 X1Y19 X2Y0 X2Y4 X2Y5 X2Y14 X2Y20 X3Y0 X3Y1 X3Y3 X3Y4 X3Y5 Ʃ

Detected Cells 37 30 33 29 32 28 31 22 24 32 27 19 34 32 34 26 32 30 24 29 585

True Cells 35 32 34 30 39 31 34 26 32 36 29 23 37 32 34 32 37 42 28 31 654

TP 34 29 32 28 32 28 30 21 24 32 27 19 34 31 33 26 32 30 24 29 575

FP

TN

FN

3 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 10

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 3 2 2 7 3 4 5 7 4 2 4 3 1 1 6 5 12 4 2 78

X0Y1 X0Y3 X0Y16 X0Y20 X0Y21 X1Y0 X1Y1 X1Y14 X1Y15 X1Y19 X2Y0 X2Y4 X2Y5 X2Y14 X2Y20 X3Y0 X3Y1 X3Y3 X3Y4 X3Y5 Ʃ

True Cells 35 32 34 30 39 31 34 26 32 36 29 23 37 32 34 32 37 42 28 31 654

TP

FP

TN

FN

34 31 33 30 37 31 33 25 29 34 28 21 36 32 33 30 35 40 28 31 631

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 0 1 2 2 2 0 0 22

IV. CONCLUSION These experimental results show that the Otsu-based segmentation gave similar results to human reader at the α = 0.05 level (n = 20, p = 0.431). On the other hand, the Canny- based segmentation provided a significantly poorer outcomes than a human reader (n = 20, p < 0.001). Hence Otsu-based threshold segmentation is a better method, in this task. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Detected Cells 34 31 33 31 37 31 33 25 29 34 28 21 36 34 33 30 36 40 28 31 635

J. Canny,”A computational approach to edge detection,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1986, pp. 679-698. X. Qin, J. Jiang, W. Wang, and F. Zhang, “Canny operator based level set segmentation algorithm for medical images,” IEEE, 2007, pp. 892-895. R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart, “Use of the Hough transformation to detect lines and curves in pictures,” Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1972, pp. 11-15.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia [4]

[5]

[6]

S. Liangwongsan, B. Marungsri, R. Oonsivilai, and A. Oonsivilai, “Extracted circle Hough transform and circle defect detection algorithm,” World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 60, 2011, pp. 432–437. N. Otsu, “A threshold selection method from gray-level histogram,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. SMC-9, No. 1, 1979, pp. 62-66. J. Zhang and J. Hu,”Image Segmentation Based on 2D Otsu Method with Histogram Analysis,” in Proc. IEEE International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering, 2008, pp. 105-108.

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G. Borgefors, “Distance Transformations in arbitrary dimensions,” Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, Vol. 27, 1984, pp. 321-345. [8] C. T. Huang and O. R. Mitchell, “A Euclidean distance transform using grayscale morphology decomposition,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. 16, No. 4, 1994, pp. 443-448. [9] P. E. Danielsson, “A new shape factor,” Computer Graphics and Image Processing, Vol. 7, 1978, pp. 292-299. [10] ___,”Blood Cells”, Biological Sciences Biomed 108 Human Physiology. Available from: http://www.biosbcc.net/doohan/sample/htm/Blood%20cells.htm, [18 September 2013] [7]

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Designing Simple Technology as a Science Teaching Aids from Used Materials Arif Widiyatmoko1 and Sita Nurmasitah2 Science Education Study Program, Mathematics and Natural Science Faculty 1, Engineering Faculty2 Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—The purpose of this research is to design simple technology for Science teaching aids that utilized the used materials. Based on the research result, there were three products of simple technology tools that can be used for Science teaching aids, they are: simple generator, electrolyte test device, earthquake detector and flood detector. The result of trial showed that those simple technology tools for teaching Science got a positive response from students and teachers. Keywords- simple technology; science; teaching aids

I. INTRODUCTION The quality of science teaching and learning continues to be an area of concern. When it is inadequate, it is often the lack of a sufficient number of highly-qualified and dedicated science teachers that is cited as the problem. A central component of science education is the learning of scientific inquiry. The term scientific inquiry describes particular practices such as generating questions about the world, constructing explanations, assessing available sources of information to inform one’s observations, testing hypotheses, and interpreting data or results (National Research Council, 2000). In recent years science education reform movements have emphasized the need for integrating technology into teaching, learning and assessment processes as technological advancements revolutionize all facets of human life. Accompanying the pace of the technological advancements in the twenty-first century has been the proliferation of scientific information, rapid transformations in society (e.g., growth of cities with their increased pollution, transportation need) and emergent problems in our physical environment (global warming, species elimination). These changes have coalesced to increase the complexity of the science curriculum and science itself as an area of study and instruction. They are also suggestive of the need for better methods of instruction and assessment as well as ways of improving and facilitating the knowledge and process of learning of students (Kumar, 2009). In science education, simulations, animations, and other interactive graphics can be an effective way to represent complicated relationship (Bravo, 2005; Furberg 2009; Holzinger et al., 2009; Lowe, 2003), and equally important, can active and motivate students (Merrick & Maher, 2007; Yaman et al., 2008). Technologies can be eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

used as media for learning through inquiry. The inquirybased learning framework focuses on this particular set of uses. Innovative learning approaches in science, mathematics, and engineering have concentrated on this set of uses (Bruce & Levin, 1997). Science education in Indonesia is still using a traditional method. The teacher rarely use learning media and teaching aids because of the lack of it. At present, in Indonesia, many science teachers are still using conventional methods (explaining) in the learning process. It is not in accordance with the Curriculum Education Unit in 2013 that in learning science need to use a variety of learning methods. One of the methods is to use learning media and science teaching aids. Science is a knowledge gained through the data collection by conducting experiment, observation, and deduction to produce an explanation of a phenomenon that can be trusted. One of the goals of science education in junior high is to make learners have the ability to, (1) develop an understanding of a variety of natural phenomena, concepts and principles of science that are useful and can be applied in everyday life, (2) develop a curiosity, a positive attitude, and awareness of the interplay relationship among science, environment, technology, and society, and (3) increase the awareness to participate in preserving, maintaining and conserving the environment and natural resources (Ministry of Education, 2006). In Curriculum 2013, science education will have several changes such as the concept of learning which is developed as an integrative science educations will be no more as educational disciplines. The concept of this integration is shown in the Core Competence and the Basic Competence in science education in which one Basic Competence has integrated science concepts derived from physics, biology, chemistry and earth and space science. The orientation of science education are applicative skills, the development of thinking skill, learning skill, curiosity, and the development of caring and responsible attitude towards the social and natural environment (Munegumi, 2013). Criteria for good science education in accordance with the curriculum 2013 are not enough to stem from a book, but the teaching processes must be equipped with

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia practical tools which are in line with the surrounding environment. Students will be encouraged to develop the skills and attitudes that are useful to attend the higher level of education or to live in the community. Through the use of instructional media, the instillation of concepts, principles, and laws of science education will result in effective learning. At first, the students will face a difficulty when learning the science education; and it will be much easier for them to understand when the teachinglearning processes take advantages of learning media and interesting teaching aids. The teaching aids can be used to help learners have the exploitation in the form of observation (observing), associate the phenomena (associating), ask or formulate the problems (questioning), and conduct the experiment (experimenting) or advanced observation. Teaching aid is defined a helping tool to educate or teach in order to make the concepts taught are easy for students to understand. The teaching aids used in the teaching-learning processes can be made by the teachers or students by using simple materials that are easily obtainable from the surrounding environment. These teaching aids will help learners understand and achieve the learning competences. Scientific teaching aids can be created in accordance with the concepts taught at reasonable costs; these can be made from the simple materials that are easily obtained from the used materials. Science teaching-learning using the teaching aids is more effective in achieving the learning objectives that have been set before when compared to the lack of teaching aids in teaching-learning processes. Teaching aids are the intermediary or messenger of learning contents. The teaching-learning processes using the teaching aids means that the teacher optimize the whole function of students’ senses to increase the effectiveness of students learning in the way of hearing, seeing, feeling, and using the mind logically and realistically.

III. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION To finally understand the teaching aids, firstly it is better to understand the media; since the teaching aids are included in media. Pujiati (2004) explained that the medium of instruction can be defined as all the objects that mediate the learning processes; they can be as software or hardware. Meanwhile, teaching aids are media of teaching that contain and carry out the characteristics of the concepts learned. Additionally Sudjana (2002) gave a sense that teaching aids are the things teacher can use in the teaching-learning processes in order to make the learning processes more effective and efficient. The functions of teaching aids are to visualize something that cannot be seen or difficult to see, and to lead to the understanding or improving one’s perception. Sidhartha and Winduono (2009) described the functions and benefits of science teaching aids as follows: a.

As the alternative or replicative objects.

b.

Assisting teacher teaching-learning processes.

c.

Motivating students to be more active and creative in learning.

While the benefits of science teaching aids are: a.

Students will easily understand the concepts they learn by using teaching aids.

b.

Students can utilize or apply the knowledge and skills of science-technology.

c.

Students’ skills will increase and more active in learning.

d.

Students’ creativity will increase.

e.

Relationship between teachers and students will be more closely.

f.

The cost is relatively cheaper and the procurement time can be adjusted as needed.

g.

The school will have more teaching aids.

II. METHOD The objective of this study is to design the science teaching aids using simple technology from the used materials. The steps taken to develop these science teaching aids are: 1. Assigning one material/theme of integrated science in junior high school that needs teaching aids in its teaching-learning processes. 2. Designing the model of science teaching aids using used materials and then being tested for feasibility. 3. Revising the draft model of science teaching aids to be in accordance with the aspects and indicators of its feasibility. 4. Producing the science teaching aids using simple technology from the used materials. 5. Trying out the science teaching aid in order to provide feedbacks and suggestions for improvement. 6. Enhance the science teaching aids based on the feedbacks and suggestions received while having trial. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Below are some results of the science teaching aids that have innovation value of simple technology from used materials: 1. Electrolyte solution test device Electrolyte solution test device has a function to explain the concept of science in chemistry. The production of this electrolyte solution test device is the advance development and modification the existing simple test tool. This simple test tool uses two metal rods and carbon linked to the source of electric current which is then put/soaked in the electrolyte solution. The indicator is the emergence of bubbles around the metal rod/carbon. It certainly has a lot of shortcomings/weaknesses. Therefore, it needs to make a portable electrolyte solution tester equipped with complete indicators such as LED lights, VUmeter and Buzzer. These three indicators are intended for high accuracy of the experiment/test results; in addition to anticipate whenever one of the indicators gets “error”. Beside as the electrolyte solution

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia tester, this tool can also be used to test the (high-low) level of conductor materials, or a conductor or an insulator. As the indicator of the strong-weak electrolyte of test solution, the tool will provide the light-dim of LED lights, large-small deviation of VUmeter hand, as well as hardsoft bell buzzer (those there indicator can also work altogether). To test the next sample, two rod electrodes must be dried, by wiping the surfaces using tissues (this is to anticipate the sticky electrolyte ions on electrode rods).

3. Flood Detector "Flood detector" teaching aid is designed to facilitate students learn about the simulation of flood simultaneously detect impending flood by using a detector alarm. This teaching aid is assembled using electrical circuit which is equipped with a switch that will turn on if the float touches the switch so that the alarm will buzz. This teaching aid is designed to resemble the surface the earth, i.e. in the form of land and water where most of the approximately 20 cm of the aquarium used as miniature of land and in the middles of it is water area. In the next of water area, there is an empty space which is used to place the equipment such as alarm circuit. In the water area, there is a sort of float which is used as an indicator of low and high water surface. When water tides, the float will be lifted so that it will nudge the switch to turn on the alarm. This detector uses a 220 V electrical series. It is also able to explain to students how the floods came, and how the detector is able to detect the presence of flood that would be associated with the tidal material. It is made of used materials such as paralon, glass, wiring, etc.

Figure 1. Electrolyte solution test device.

2. Earthquake detector This earthquake detector is one of the examples of science teaching aids. Seen from the working principle, it is one example of the change in energy, the chemical energy into electrical energy. This also provides an example of vibration concept. To make this earthquake detector is not too difficult and does not need a lot of budgets. Besides as teaching aids, this detector can be also used at home to alarm the earthquake strikes so that it can reduce loss of lives. This detector works by vibrating the detector in order skein in the wire lop to vibrate and touch the wire loop. When the skein touch the wire loop, therefore the copper wire which has been elasticized in the FCB (containing relays, switches, and circuit) with the help of batteries can conduct electricity that generate the sound of the buzzer. Switch located on the FCB serves to turn off the earthquake detector. While the relay in this detector functions as a breaker.

Figure 2. Earthquake detector.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 3. Flood detector.

After teaching and learning process using Science teaching aids finished, teacher and student were asked to fill in questionnaire in order to know their response towards the teaching aids used in the teaching – learning process. The below table is the summary of teacher and student response. TABLE I.

THE RESULT OF TEACHER AND STUDENT RESPONSE TOWARDS SCIENCE TEACHING AIDS TEST

Respondent Teacher Student

Percentage (%) 92,9% 95,8%

Criteria Very Good Very Good

After the students completed the questionnaire of developed teaching aids assessment, it is known that the students feel that the teaching – learning by using teaching aids are very useful, it is based on the student response data that obtain an average percentage of 95.8% (Very Good). Students assume that Science teaching aids are very good to use in teaching – learning process. Moreover, there was an analysis to know the weaknesses of the teaching aids. The result showed that there were some weaknesses in that developed teaching aids. Furthermore, there was an analysis to know the teacher response towards the teaching aids. The teacher response data is used to know the teacher response about

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia the appropriateness of teaching aids that applied in Science teaching and learning process. The questionnaire is given to Science teachers before the teaching aid is used and the questionnaire is asked to be returned after the teaching – learning process finished. The teacher response towards the teaching aids is categorized very good. It is shown from fourteen questions in the questionnaire that gave to five Science teachers, only one question with “No” answer from each teacher. Total amount of the result is 92.9%. The suggestion from the teacher is to develop more teaching aids for other Science concepts. The importance of using teaching aids in particular fields especially in science education is based on the fact that the field of science there are a lot of topics that require teaching aids to help explain, such as the abstract learning materials. Therefore, teaching-learning processes using the teaching aids for specific learning materials is considered to be appropriate to help students understand the materials. On the other hand, it will lead to make the atmosphere of classroom activities live, and communication between teachers and students can be maintained. It is considered it can assist students in improving academic achievement in the field of science education. The fact that the use of teaching aids at school have not entrenched, in the sense that not all of science teachers use teaching aids on their teaching-learning processes. It is due to they have not be aware of the important use of teaching aids as well as its influences in the teachinglearning processes, teachers have lack of skills, as well as the expensive materials used to design and make the teaching aids. Therefore, it needs to produce the teaching aids by taking the beneficial of cheap and used materials. The application of teaching aids in the teaching-learning processes was important because students in receiving the learning experience or deepening the learning materials are considered that they need a lot of objects and events that are concrete and easy to understand, more impressing and living longer in their memory. Piaget (in Bower & Hilgard, 1981) suggests that cognitive development of junior high school students is in the concrete operational stage. Accordingly, in order to succeed with good learning, teachers should use teaching aids. The importance of using teaching aids is reinforced by the opinions of Edgar Dale (2003) about learning success which is measured by the levels of students' learning experiences gained by students depend on teachinglearning treatments, both teacher treatments or student activities while learning. The utilization of used materials available in the environment can be maximized so that it can help maintain and conserve the environment. Items of household waste and used materials can also be used. Therefore, making teaching aids do not always require a lot of budgets. Below are several things to consider while making the science teaching aids: a. Using used materials that are easy to obtain in surrounding environment, or a material that can be obtained at the store or at a nearby market. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

b. Developing materials that could lead students to think critically, encouraging students to ask, curious, and seek the truth. The teaching aids hopefully will encourage students to make an assessment and analysis of the credibility and validity of the subject matter they receive. c. Making teaching aids with simple technology which is related to the concepts of science. IV. CONCLUSION Based on the research findings and discussion, it can be concluded that the use of used materials and simple technologies can be used to produce several useful science teaching aids to explain the science concepts in the teaching-learning processes. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13] [14] [15]

Arsyad A., Media Pembelajaran, Jakarta: PT Rajagrafindo Persada, 2009. Munegumi, Toratane, Interdisciplinary science education and “origin of life”: An exemplification with teaching aids, Science Journal of Education, 1(2): 20-27, 2013. Bravo, C., A Collaborative Simulation Tool to Support the Learning of House Automation, Simulation, December 2005, 81: 815–826. Bruce, B. C., & Levin, J. A., Educational technology: Media for inquiry, communication, construction, and expression, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(1), 1997, pp. 79-102. Furberg, A., Scientific Inquiry in Web-based Learning Environments. Exploring technological, epistemic and institutional aspects of students’ meaning making. PhD-thesis, University of Oslo, 2009. Holzinger, A., Kickmeier-Rust, M. D., Wassertheurer, S., & Hessinger, M., Learning performance with interactive simulations in medical education: Lessons learned from results of learning complex physiological models with the HAEMOdynamics SIMulator, Computers & Education, 52(2): 292–301, 2009. Kumar, David, Evaluation of Interactive Media in Science Education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2009. Lowe, R. K., Animation and learning: selective processing of information in dynamic graphics, Learning and Instruction, 13: 157–176, 2003. Merrick, K., & Maher, M., Motivated Reinforcement Learning for Adaptive Characters in Open-Ended Simulation Games. ACE’07, June 13–15, Salzburg, Austria, 2007. National Research Council, Inquiry and the national science education standards. The National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2010. Yaman, M., Nerdel, C., & Bayrhuber, H., The effects of instructional support and learner interests when learning using computer simulations, Computers & Education, 51(4): 1784– 1794, 2008. Guzey, S. S., & Roehrig, G., H. Teaching science with technology: Case studies of science teachers’ development of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge, Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 2009, pp. 2545. Pujiati, Penggunaan Alat Peraga dalam Pembelajaran Matematika, Yogyakarta: PPPG Matematika, 2004. Sidharta dan Winduono, Media Alat Peraga Praktik IPA, Bandung: PPPPTK IPA, 2009. Sudjana, Nana, Dasar-dasar Proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo, 2002.

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A dSPACE Test Bench Model of Multi-energy Sources for Light Electric Vehicles Farid Arafat Azidin1 and Mahammad Abdul Hannan2 Dept. of Electrical, Electronics and System Engineering Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Electric vehicle (EV) is getting significant importance due to public’s increased appreciation for green technology as well as exhausting natural resources that lead to spike oil prices globally. However, single-sourced EV like battery electric vehicle has disadvantages such as short travel distance range, longer recharging duration and slow response by sudden energy demand. Thus, a system that coupled multiple energy sources is proposed to overcome mentioned drawbacks. This paper further describes a dSPACE test bench model of light electric vehicle (LEV) with multi-energy sources. Intelligent switching controller hardware is designed and developed to effectively manage power distribution according to different vehicle driving states. Both switching control signals and vehicle load are modeled using MATLAB/Simulink. Then, data is presented in graphical user interface (GUI) as offered by dSPACE DS1104. The collected results conclude that the proposed vehicle system manage to comply the standard drive cycle ECE-47 and hence suggest that this research could be another steppingstone for the multi-source energy electric vehicle technology. Keywords-multi-energy source; electric vehicle; dSPACE DS1104; MATLAB/Simulink; control algorithm

[8], EV will reduce GHG up to 40% if the electrical source is generated from energy plant that uses renewable energy too. Additionally, EV also helps to reduce global warming effect and it is much quieter that the conventional combustion-based-vehicle, which produces heat and noise due to the movement of pistons and other mechanical parts. Due to these shortcomings and friction within the engine, the vehicle lost about 80% of its energy efficiency. A similar EV on the other hand recorded only about 30 to 40% of energy loss [9]. The focus of this paper is to study hybrid system with multi-energy sources. A downscaled test bench model will be designed and tested by using dSPACE DSP DS1104 [10]. The proposed model structure of LEV in dSPACE test bench model is shown in Fig. 1. The multi-energy sources used are battery, proton exchange membrane fuel cell (FC), and super-capacitor (SC). The EMS circuit board contains switching controller that is responsible to deliver optimum power to the vehicle engine. A car light is used to represent the DC load. Three input sensors for the switch controller of EMS, which contain control algorithm, are speed pedal, battery SOC and load current.

I. INTRODUCTION

Desktop Computer System

Research, development and deployment of renewable energy in EV have becoming more and more important for universities and industries alike in order to meet growing interest and demand from consumers. Since no single energy source could deliver performance that is on par with an equivalent vehicle with internal combustion engine, coupling more than one renewable energy sources is proposed [1-2]. Such study is not new and has already started since last decade. The basic principle is to combine more than one energy sources, and activation of the sources is controlled by means of an intelligent energy management system (EMS) [3-4]. In such a system, there is normally primary and secondary type of energy source. Two commonly used renewable energy sources which can act as primary source are battery, which is referred to as Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) and PEM Fuel Cell, which is also referred to as Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV) [5]. Other alternative energy sources that can be used as secondary source include solar cell and super-capacitor [6-7]. The usage of electric vehicle will help lower the greenhouse gases (GHG) in the cities. According to Rao and Wang

MATLAB/Simulink

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Battery

FC

SC

Battery SOC

dSPACE DS1104

Switch controller

DC Motor Drive

Load Current

Variable Load/electric motor

EMS Circuit Board

Figure 1. Structure of LEV test bench model.

II. SOFTWARE INTEGRATION IN DSPACE The MATLAB/Simulink block which integrated with dSPACE, as shown in Fig. 2, has the task to prepare input sensor signal, process control algorithm from sensor signal, deliver PWM control output and evaluate overall vehicle system. All components within this block will be explained in following sections.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia C. Battery SOC The third signal from A/D converter is to measure battery SOC. After going through the same step like load current signal, the SOC equation is describes as shown below:

Pedal_In

RTI Data

Out1 In1

Pedal Speed Detection MUX ADC DS1104 MUX _ADC1

Out2 Current_In current

Load Detection

Current_Batt pedal_in

Battery SOC

Out3

MASTER BIT OUT Po

SC

Pd

FC

Out1

DS1104 BIT _OUT _C8

MASTER BIT OUT DS1104 BIT _OUT _C4

BC

Bc

Control Algotithm 1

In1

OR

MASTER BIT OUT

Logical Operator

DS1104 BIT _OUT _C10

Vehicle System

(4)

where i(t) is battery current, Q is battery capacity in second and t is time in second.

Speed_km/h

Pedal Set Actual Speed

 100* i(t )  t  SOC  100    Q  

Terminator

PWM Control

Figure 2. Integration Simulink/dSPACE block function of LEV

A. Pedal Speed Detection The evaluation of voltage signal for speed pedal offset is between 0-5V analog. After being connected to A/D converter of the dSPACE, the signal is down by 0-0.5V digital. This signal will next be amplified and filtered to reduce noise and increase its stability. After that the speed signal is directly linked to trigger the SC. A delay function block in Simulink is used to control the SC, which tasks to avoid accidentally press by user and to limit the use of half energy stored in the SC. Since energy in the SC decreases linear to voltage drop, practically only half of its energy is used. The pedal speed signal PS(t) can be defined by following mathematical equation:

 A  PS (t )     u (t )  T1  1  st 

(1)

where u(t) is signal from A/D converter, t is the cut off signal in time domain, A is amplification parameter and T1 is timer relay for SC. B. Load current Detection The load current is current flow to the load, which depends on the offset of speed pedal. The load current signal is measured in voltage and needs to be filtered and amplified. After that, load current signal is divided into two paths. One path signal is connected to a timer relay to activate FC. The timer is adjusted to rely on FC start time and high load current interval. The equation of load current signal PD(t) which describe this signal is as follows:

 B  PD (t )     u (t )  T2  1  st 

(2)

where T2 is timer relay for FC and B is the amplification parameter. The other path of load current will be used for GUI interface to show actual current. The voltage signal is linearized with analog ampere meter to get correct current measurement in ampere. During the experiment an analog ampere meter are linked in series to the load. The linearization equation of the load current iL(t) from voltage measurement can be derived by below expression:

iL (t )  C  u(t )

D. PWM Signal linearization The signal from speed pedal is amplified and filtered to ensure signal stability. After that, it is calculated to perform the correct duty cycle for PWM signal, which can be formulated as follows:

 A  Pwm(t )     u (t )  B  1  1  st 

(5)

Where u(t) is pedal offset and A, B are the parameter gain and linearization. Afterward, the signal is linked to the PWM peripheral of DS1104 DSP. E. Control Algorithm Three individual switches control the three energy sources. The control algorithm is designed to fulfill the condition based on vehicle load situation while maximizing energy conservation. The operational control strategies are based on seven operation states. The main task of the system is to maintain the power source to drive the DC motor. The controller takes three basic operational input conditions: pedal speed (PS) from the pedal offset, high power demand (PD) from load current and battery capacity (BC) from SOC value. In this strategy, battery plays an important role as primary energy source for the vehicle, and its capacity level determines the critical point for changing states and activating auxiliary energy sources. Table 1 presented the proposed control states that are based on source and vehicle conditions. All the states must be clearly defined to fulfill the load demand while at the same time keep the vehicle in high performance. All condition states from above are described again in Boolean logic equations in Table 2. The logic inputs are based on detectors that recognize vehicle momentary condition and the logic output is the selection outcome from the logic input. In this system, FC is controlled via ON/OFF switch and this means, if activated, its energy is supplied to the load in full operation. The system attempts to manage the operation of the energy sources based on the operational control strategy. Any excess energy will charge the battery because both FC and battery are directly connected.

(3)

where C is linearization factor. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE I. State

STATES AND VEHICLE CONDITIONS

wheel friction force, Ft, and gravitational force, Fe, as shown below [12]:

Description

TABLE II. BOOLEAN LOGIC TABLE State 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Input Condition BC PD PS 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

SC 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

Output Condition FC Battery 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

TABLE III. VEHICLE MODEL PARAMETER Vehicle model parameter

Values

Vehicle mass + passengers Frontal Area, A Drag coefficient, cd

240 kg 1.2 m2 0.75

Rolling coefficient, ur

0.009

Air-density, d

1.25 kg/m3

Gravity Acceleration, g

9.81 ms-2

F. Vehicle System The current flow to the load is assembled as an armature current flow to the DC machine. The motor speed ω can be described by net torque in MATLAB/Simulink as follows [11]:

J

dw  Te  TL  Bm  T f dt

(6)

where J is total inertia, Te is electromechanical torque, TL is input torque, Bm is viscous friction coefficient and Tf is Coulomb friction torque. Next, motor speed is evaluated through Simulink block based on three-wheeled LEVs or like batteryscooters. The characteristics of the vehicle’s dynamic parameters are shown in Table 3. The total forces exerted on moving the vehicle is calculated as acceleration force, Fa, air friction force, Fr, eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Ftotal  m

(7)

where m is vehicle mass, A is frontal area, d is air density, cd is drag coefficient, μr is rolling coefficient, g is gravity acceleration and α is angle. The power consumed by vehicle, Pveh, can be calculated from total force as follows [13]:

Pveh  Ftotal  v

(8)

III. TEST BENCH MODEL RESULT AND DISCUSSION For the purpose of this study, a test bench model has been down-scaled and constructed to power the vehicle with 55W lamp load. The highlight of this research is to observe electrical flow and learn know-how technique by using dSPACE DS1104. Evaluation of the proposed vehicle system is done against the ECE-47 and ECE-47ext drive cycles. These drive cycles are the acceptable standards to measure performance of mopeds and electric scooters [14-15]. The GUI data from dSPACE are captured and presented in the MATLAB figure. The key measurements for the validation are vehicle velocity, load currents and switching time between multiple energy sources. As can be seen in Fig. 3, test result from proposed system is compared to drive cycle ECE-47. Multi-source Test1 is performed when battery capacity is high, whereas Multi-source Test2 is executed when battery SOC level is about 50%. Both test results demonstrated only a small deviation to the standard drive cycle. As for example, the Multi-source Test2 has slightly higher fluctuation in the vehicle speed. At 72s of the drive cycle, Multi-source Test 2 need to change energy source to FC since battery SOC is below 50%. As overall observation from the vehicle speed graph, it can be concluded that both Multi-source Test1 and Test2 still manages to follow the standard drive cycle. 50 ECE-47 Multi-source Test1 Multi-source Test2

45 40 35

Vehicle Speed / km/h

Off operation/Safety features/regenerative braking Battery under SOC level, vehicle powered by FC only Battery is used as single source to drive motor as long as there is no high power request. Fraction of the energy is conserved and FC stays in ready-mode and will only be activated if battery capacity is low. 3 FC takes over as prime source to handle vehicle speed request and simultaneously charging the battery. SC is triggered due to high PS. It will return to state 2 when battery is fully charged. 4 Due to high power request, FC and battery are activated as auxiliary energy sources. 5 In this situation, vehicle accelerates with combination power from battery and SC. The vehicle will return to state 2 as soon as energy in SC is exhausted. 6 Battery is exhausted. Power demand is still high and forces both FC and SC to be triggered. SC will turn off when all of its energy is used and by then, the system will return to state 1. 7 In situation of high speed, acceleration and load demand, all energy sources are forced to be activated. * For every FC activation, SC is activated to support FC start-timedelay.

dv  0.5  cd  d  A  v 2  dt r  m  g  cos   m  g  sin 

0 1 2

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Figure 3. Comparison of Multi-source Test1 and Multi-source Test2 with ECE-47 drive-cycle.

Graphs in Fig. 4 shows current flow of Multi-source Test1 and Multi-source Test2 in ECE-47 drive cycle. Both test system’s current increased rapidly with maximum

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia 70

ECE-47ext Multi-source

60

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current of almost 2.2A and 2.0A respectively. Then, both current continue to oscillate until 40s at average of 1.8A for Multi-source Test1 and at 1.7A for Multi-source Test2. Next, both currents decline abruptly at 50s of the drive cycle and fluctuate at 0.75A for vehicle speed of 20 km/h. After reaching 100s of the drive cycle, both current decrease until reaches 0A.

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Figure 5. Switching activation of (a) Multi-source Test1 and (b) Multisource Test2 for ECE-47 drive cycle.

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Figure 4. Current flow to the load in ECE-47 drive cycle test.

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The system under test in Fig. 7 is validated against ECE-47ext drive cycle. This extended drive cycle has an increase of 33.3% of the speed from the normal ECE-47 drive cycle. It is clearly seen that the Multi-source system was able to follow the complete drive cycle effortlessly. The changing state can be observed in Fig. 8. The Multisource system started at state 2, which means it uses battery as the only power source. After 11s, high speed is requested that caused user to increase the throttle speed. Consequently, the system changed to state 5 and activated SC to fire up energy. This can be observed in Fig. 9 too, where current rose up to 2.7A before fall down again 4s after that when SC was deactivated. Due to the high current demand at 16s, Multi-source turns to state 7 and triggered all of its energy sources. Here, once again the current up surged to 2.8A, which is resulted the system to drive at over speed. After that, the system turned to state 6 when SC is no longer active. At 32s of drive cycle, the system returned to state 7 for 4s before returning to state 6. Then, Multi-source stayed at state 6 for 13s. When drive cycle declined at 50s, FC is switched off. For the rest of the cycle, Multi-source stayed at state 2.

Boolean Logic

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Figure 7. Comparison of Multi-source with ECE-47ext drive cycle

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Figure 6. Battery SOC of Multi-source Test1 and Multi-source Test2.

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-0.5

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Figure 9. Multi-source load current in ECE-47ext drives cycle.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Principally it can be summarized that the test system follows both ECE-47 and ECE-47ext drive cycles. However, there are some parts where test system deviated from the drive cycle line and this is mainly due to test being executed manually. Thus, improvement to introduce automatic control maneuver in the system may help to deliver better test results. Therefore it can be presumed that power sharing can be helpful to handle high power demand especially when battery SOC reaches 50%. Thus, such a Multi-sources system can provide extended travel range for battery powered vehicle while offering alternative ways for recharging or hydrogen refueling. IV. CONCLUSION A new electric vehicle concept with multi-energy source is approached in this paper. Three renewable energy sources employed in this system are battery, supercapacitor and fuel cell. The energy sources are coordinated through control algorithm in EMS to propel the electric motor with sufficient power while encountering various driving condition. A test bench lab model is designed to contain an intelligent switching control board with interface from dSPACE DS1104. During validation tests, the proposed model had successfully trailing the ECE-47 and ECE-47ext drive cycle with minor issue due to manual human control maneuver. This kind of issue is expected and this creates an improvement possibility to introduce automatic control maneuver in the system so that a better test result can be collected. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The Authors would like to thank National University of Malaysia (UKM), University Technical Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) and Ministry of Higher Education of (MOHE) Malaysia for financial support.

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10] [11] [12] [13]

[14]

[15]

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

M.A. Hannan, F.A. Azidin, A. Mohamed, “Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review, ” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol. 29, 2013, pp. 135-150. K. Jorgensen, “Technologies for electric, hybrid and hydrogen vehicles: Electricity from renewable energy sources in transport,” Utilities Policy vol. 16, 2008, pp. 72-79. M. A. Hannan, F. A. Azidin, A. Mohamed, “Light Vehicle Energy Management System using Multi-Power Sources,” Przeglad Elektrotechiczny (Electrical Review), vol. 3, 2012, pp. 197-204. P. Garcia, L.M. Fernandez, C.A. Garcia, F. Jurado, “Fuel CellBattery Hybrid System Integrating Two DC/DC Converters for Transport Applications,” Power Electronics and Drive System, Taipei, PEDS 2009, pp. 139-143. M. Uzunoglu, M.S. Alam, Dynamic modeling, design and simulation of a PEM fuel cell/ultra-capacitor hybrid system for vehicular applications. Energy Conversion and Management 48 (5) (2007) 1544-1553. P. Thounthong, S. Rael, B. Davat, “Control strategy of fuel cell/ supercapacitors hybrid power sources for electric vehicle,” J. Power Sources, vol. 158(1), 2006, pp. 806-814. Y. Tang, W. Yuan, M. Pan, and Z. Wan, “Experimental investigation on the dynamic performance of a hybrid PEM fuel cell/battery system for lightweight electric vehicle application, ” Applied Energy, vol. 88, 2011, pp. 68-76. Z. Rao and S. Wang, “A review of power battery thermal energy mangement,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, 2011, pp. 4554-4571. S.T. Tie, C.W. Tan, “A review of energy sources and energy management system in electric vehicles,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 20, 2012, pp. 82-102. A. Rubaai, “A DSP-Based Switching Motor Controller,” Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, IAS '08, 2008, pp.1-7. MathWorks, SimPowerSystems. MATLAB 2008. J. Larminie, J. Lowry, Electric Vehicle Technology Explained. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2004. M.A. Hannan, F.A. Azidin, A. Mohamed, “Multi-sources model and control algorithm of an energy management system for light electric vehicles,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 53(1), 2012, pp. 123-130. Y.-P. Yang, J.-J. Liu, and T.-H. Hu, “An Energy Management System for a directly electric scooter,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 52(1), 2011, pp. 621-629. J. Jia, G. Wang, Y.T. Cham, Y. Wang, and M. Han, “Electrical characteristic study of a hybrid PEMFC and ultracapacitor system,” IEEE Trans Industrial Electronic, vol. 57(6), 2010, pp. 1945–1953.

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Earthquake Datalogger Using Vibration and Local ULF Geomagnetic Field Measurement M. Andang Novianta1, Emy Setyaningsih2 and Arie Noor Rakhman3 Department of Electrical Engineering1, Department of Computer System2, Department of Geological Engineering3 Institute of Science and Technology AKPRIND Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

MS. Hendriyawan A. Department of Electrical Engineering University of Technology Yogyakarta Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Earthquake researchers need an instrument that can accurately measure and record the characteristics of the earthquake in a long time, and commonly the instrument known as a data logger. All data is stored in the data logger is data based on the time of events (time stamp). A data logger must have a timer device that provides accurate timing information. Data Logger based 8-bit AVR microcontroller perform seismic and geomagnetic data acquisition in 3-axis (x, y, z). Recording seismic waves and ULF geomagnetic are very useful for studying the anomalous character just before large earthquake (M>5.5). The seismic data is read with a sampling rate of 20 Hz and the ULF geomagnetic data is read with a sampling rate of 1 Hz. Data Logger must be able to measure and record in long time, moreover energy source is a battery with a limited capacity. In this experiment, data logger run in discrete mode with sampling interval = 50 mSec, t wake up = 0.5 mSec, t sleep = 49.5 mSec, and use a 5000 mAH battery, have obtained lifetime estimation for 165 days at the temperature of 25ºC Group Group I (treatment) Group II (non treatment)

Pre 67 64

Post 83 79

49 40

In an effort to clarify information illustrative histogram is presented in Figure 2.

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The results presented in two parts, namely the use of TPCK effectiveness in improving the mastery of concepts and the relationships between the waves graduated (final value) and the performance of the students during the lecture. Mastery of the concept of data collected through pre and post tests and Hake’s factors are presented in Table 1. TABLE I.

DATA OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST SCORES AND FAKTOR HAKE

Group

NK

PF

Av

Group 1 (treatment)

82

79

80

Group 2 (non treatment)

78

77

77

NK (concept score), PF (performance), Av (average)

The data shown in Table 4.1 was illustrated with the histogram is presented in Figure 1 as follows.

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Figure 2. Score of Pretest and Postest with Hake’s Factor .

According to Etkina (2010)[2] emphasize to prospective physics teachers in addition to mastering the content and pedagogy also needs to have a competence of physical education curriculum, knowledge of effective instructional strategies, assessment techniques are valid and reliable. Furthermore, Jimoyiannis (2010)[14] states for the preparation of prospective science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge required technology (technological pedagogical content knowledge, TPCK). Given the importance of professionalism briefing for student teachers of physics, the results of this study reveal the linkages between academic subject competence (content), pedagogy, and technology. focused on briefing for prospective teachers of physics in an attempt to master the three pillars namely competence competency content, pedagogy, and technology.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Data processing results also show that there are significant differences between the concept wave mastery (posttest) between the group given TPCK learning and groups that do not, with t = 2.261 (p = 0.027), with a value of t table = 1.67. Analysis of these results inform the treated group (combination of simulations and experiments) achieve a higher competency than the group that did not. The above results are supported by Jimoyiannis and Komis (2007)[5] also Koehler and Mishra (2009)[6] stated mastery of the subject matter (content) and pedagogy require component technology in learning science (physics) a requirement that prospective teachers' professional provisioning. Results of the data analysis by solving wave group I and II, showed relatively similar though more widely used forward pattern 4 semesters as presented in Table 3. Expert generally use forward way of solving pattern, while beginners using backward pattern. One of the respondents answered the question about explaining the wave at t = 0, zero deviation. Respondents answered: directly connecting condition t = 0 to y  A sin (t ) , so finding a solution y = 0. These results indicate that the backward dominant pattern executed by respondent 2 semesters. TABLE III. PROBLEM SOLVING PATTERN OF TRAVELING WAVE BY GROUP I (2 SEMESTERS) AND GROUP II (4 SEMESTERS) Patterns of problem solving on traveling wave Forward Backward

Group I (%) 50 50

Group II (%) 62.5 37.5

Average (%) 56.25 43.75

The analysis showed that many respondents still use problem solving patterns with the backward thinking to interpret the question then uncover the memory experience to determine a solution, do not use existing data and perform data processing to determine the answer to the problem. TABLE IV. PATTERNS PROBLEM SOLVING WAVE PROPAGATION IN A MEDIUM BY GROUP I AND GROUP II Patterns of problem solving on wave propagation in a medium Forward Backward

Group I (%) 33 67

Group II (%) 50 50

Average (%) 41.5 58.5

Considering from the pattern of problem solving by groups I and II, which show quite different patterns of forward half more used 4 (group II) as presented in Table 3. Expert generally use forward way of solving pattern, while beginners using backward pattern. Four of the six students of 2nd semester explaining that the waves propagate in a string depends on the mass of string and long string. Two students from the 2nd half responded by linking the forces that affect the waveform. Four students from 4th semester can explain correctly that the waveform is determined by the type of string and the mass of the suspended load. Results of patterns of overall problem solving done by the students can be presented in Table 3. The analysis showed that many respondents still use eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

problem solving patterns with the backward thinking to interpret the question then uncover the memory experience to determine a solution, do not use existing data and perform data processing to determine the answer to the problem. Understanding of the concept of wave propagation which includes traveling wave, superposition, and wave propagation in the medium can be improved by using cross check with the written test and interview methods (triangulation). Research that supports the provisioning of teacher competence, Buchori (2007)[4] states teachers and prospective teachers is projected to have a commitment to professionalism, which is argued to enrich knowledge and enhance skills of pedagogy which support sustainable profession. IV. CONCLUSION Based on the research data analysis it can be concluded those a) obtained a significant difference between the wave concept mastery treatment with simulation and experiment groups and not, with t = 2.261 (p = 0.027), with the level table value of t = 1.67, b) obtained a significant difference between the performance employment between the treatment and not, with t calculated = 3.610 (p = 0.001 ), referent to the t table = 1.67, d ) analysis of pre and post test scores obtained = 49 and = 40 (scale of 100 ) for the treatment group and not. The analysis showed that many respondents still use problem solving patterns with the backward thinking to determine a solution, do not use existing data and perform data processing to determine the answer to the problem. The research conclusion was TPCK implementation to effective improve the mastery of wave concepts and to develop the performance of prospective physics teacher. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4] [5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

Yamin, M. & Maisah, Standarisasi Kinerja Guru, Jakarta: Gaung Persada Press, 2010. Etkina, E., Pedagogical content knowledge and preparation of high school physics teachers,nPRST –Physics Education Research, 6 (020110): 1-26, 2010. Jimoyiannis, A. & Komis, V., Examining teachers’ belief about ICT in Education. Implications of a teacher preparation programme. Teacher Development, 11 (2): 149-173, 2007. Buchori, M., Evolusi Pendidikan di Indonesia, Yogyakarta: Insist Press, 2007. Koehler, M.J. , Mishra, P. & Yahya, K., Tracing the development of teacher knowledge in a design seminar: Integrating content, pedagogy, and technology. Computer & Education, 49 : 740-762, 2007. Koehler, M.J. & Mishra, P., What is technological pedagogical content knowledge ? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Education, 9 (1): 60-70, 2009. Goodnough, K. & Hung, W., Engaging Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Adopting nine step Problem Based Learning Model, The Interdiciplinary Journal of Problem -based learning, 2 (2): 61-90, 2009. [8] Mishra, P. & Koehler, M.J., Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge : A framework for teacher knowledge, Teacher College Record, 108 (6): 1017-1054, 2006.

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[10]

[11]

[12] [13] [14]

Karim, M. R. & Hashim Y. The Experience of the E-Learning Implementation atthe Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia. Malaysian Online Journal of Instructional Technology (MOJIT), 1(1) : 50-59, 2004, available online at www.library.oum.edu. Indartono, S., Pengaruh E-learning pada Pembentukan Karakter : Preposisi untuk pembelajaran matakuliah Perilaku Organisasi. Jurnal Pendidikan Karakter, 1(1) : 59-73, 2012. Fraenkel, J.R. & Wallen, N.E, How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, sixth edition. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2006. Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan: Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R & D, Bandung: Alfabeta, 2006. Marzano, R.J., Classroom Assessment & Grading that Work, Alexandria USA: ASCD, 2006. Jimoyiannis, A., Developing a Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framwork for Science Education: Implications of a Teacher Trainers’ Preparation Program. Proceeding of Informing Science & Education Conference (InSITE), University of Peloponnese Korinthos, Greece, 2010.

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Implementation of Disaster Mitigation Information System Based Local Wisdom Central Java Said Sunardiyo1 and Arief Arfriandi2

Ubaidillah Siroj

Electrical Department, Engineering Faculty Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected]

Student Master at Electrical and Information Technology Department, Engineering Faculty Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The purpose of this study was to obtain disaster mitigation information system based on local wisdom Central Java. The information system is designed to provide convenience and complete information to users or communities, so that communities are better prepared for disasters and can reduce the risk of disasters. The study was conducted through a research and development approach. Disaster mitigation information system based on local wisdom generated validated by the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) Central Java.

Therefore the problem of information is a complex field and the potential for typical local knowledge in each of disaster-prone areas need to be implemented into an integrated information system that is capable of processing both spatial data and the attribute data effectively and efficiently .Specific objectives of this research are :

Keywords-information systems, Disaster Mitigation, Local Wisdom Central Java

2. Generating system with material information databases, map-info, sketch drawings positioning, space, location, road distance / radius : the point of disaster-prone areas in each district / city, the public information about the local knowledge, the types of potential disasters, types of vulnerabilities and risks posed, disaster mitigation, evacuation techniques, evacuation sites, equipment and logistics, health centers, hospitals, medical offices, social services, police nearby, Satlak PB and PB task force, SAR Regional Fire Department, and Pokmas; these data are evaluated and validated by the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) Central Java.

I. INTRODUCTION Almost 6 years the state of Indonesia hit by major disasters alternating for example, Mount Merapi which is spewing lava and rain washed away with water being unusually cold lava has destroyed infrastructure butted. Great tidal wave or tsunami, landslides at some point in Central Java, and West Java, flood in Sumatra and Kalimantan, earthquake in Papua, West Java and Cilacap, industrial fires in Jakarta. There have been many losses caused thousands of people who died, billions of property broken, etc. The incident became a national concern. Series of catastrophic events that require attention, namely how to anticipate when such disasters will be repeated so that early people able to take action or measure are effective in saving. An important one for the community is to find out early on how to deal with disasters based on knowledge passed down orally from their ancestors to escape from local catastrophic events that destroy. Heritage is better known as the 'local knowledge' that way and practice developed by a group of people who come from a deep understanding of the local environment. So that valuable information is contained in the guidance of local knowledge into disaster risk reduction or mitigation. The need for managing and mitigating against disasters is important. Information about the range of indigenous knowledge in certain areas and local disaster mitigation efforts are needed because it will provide accurate data for the policy makers institutions such as BPBD, SAR, Health Department, Police Officers and locals take the right decision, quickly and accurately eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

1. Analyze the information needs of disaster mitigation based on local wisdom Central Java

The importance of research on disaster mitigation information system development based on local wisdom Central Java is expected to: 1. Equip and organize information management in Central Java.

in

disaster

2. Disaster mitigation information system is based on local wisdom in every disaster-prone areas is expected to minimize the risk posed by hazards. 3. Disaster mitigation information system based on local wisdom can be applied in other areas throughout Indonesia. A. Disaster Management A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society that cause large losses to human life, property and its environment, which exceeds the ability of the affected society to cope using only the resources of the community itself, UNDMTP (United Nations Disaster

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Management Training Program), classification is usually based on:

2005,

disaster

1. The cause of the disaster (natural or man-made); 2. Faster than suddenly).

catastrophic

events

(gradually

or

Disaster management is one of the responsibilities of central and local government with the community in order to achieve maximum protection to the community and in the social, economic and environment from possible disasters; Community participation should be implemented through community empowerment that leads to community-based disaster management. Placing disaster management as one of the main parts in development disaster management is a dynamic form of a series of activities, an integrated and sustainable; implemented before disaster, during before the disaster until after the disaster. Before the disaster: Disaster mitigation, include the collection and analysis of data in order to attempt and to reduce disaster vulnerability and danger of a disaster. Disaster preparedness, including disaster predictions (emergency preparedness) the preparation of the danger signs, early warning systems and evacuation systems), and dissemination of disaster through the print media as well as lectures. B. Disaster in Central Java Central Java Province has 29 districts and 6 cities which cannot be separated from the issue of disaster, such as landslides on the slopes of the mountains in Banjarnegara district which killed six people, a landslide in the tourist area Tawangmangu Karanganyar Surakarta, also landslides in the area of North Waterford, Wangon Cilacap Earthquake earth in the region Purworedjo and Wonosobo, flash floods in the city of Semarang (1991) which claimed hundreds of lives, land Subsidence also occurs in Cilacap and Tegal, water quality degradation due to increasing salinity content of widespread and increasing symptoms, to Semarang and surrounding areas striking Lorok occur around ponds, Genuksari, Wonosari, Tambaksari, from the existing data, in these areas the groundwater quality of the aquifer to a depth of 40 meters is brackish , the highest level of salinity in the pond located Lorok the value of electrical conductivity (EC) close to 1000 m/ cm (micro ohms per centimeter), as standard size, DHL water has a value of less than 400 m/cm, brackish water 400 m/cm to 2,500 m/cm, and the salt water over 2,500 m/cm , decrease ground water quality is not only caused by the salt content, including the growing number of participating iron content, so the water brownish yellow, so well in Semarang district became unfit to drink, just decent for bathing and washing, the Governor of Central Java has made water conservation the potential catchment areas, the availability of surface water in the area of Semarang and Demak, made water conservation areas, as outlined in the letter of the Governor of Central Java Number : 647 / at June 1, 1990 on Nature Conservation Semarang Ungaran and DAS Garang and Jragung. But lately in the areas of water conservation, water extraction is carried out by companies large enough food and drinking water, eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

(Eko Teguh Paripurno, 2007). In Central Java disaster occurs 1,000 times and 997 times in West Java disaster in 13 years according to the Data Coordinating Center for Disaster Information Indonesia (DIBI) National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB. Floods, landslides, and tornados that struck Central Java since 2009 swallowed dozens of casualties and material losses caused as much as Rp.776.614 billion, Daily Executive Head of Information Communications and Public Relations (BIKK) Government of Central Java Province, Uri Shihabudin, in Semarang, explaining Sragen most material losses, which reached Rp.212.89 billion. Of the 35 countries and cities in Central Java, during the late December 2007 to early January in 2010 listed 23 areas hit by the disaster, mostly flooded and landslides, the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources also noted prone areas disasters caused by ground movement in Central Java, October 2009. Throughout, there are 31 areas to watch out for, Disaster-prone areas, as informed Volcanology Agency website, Wednesday, October 7, 2009 such as Cilacap, Boyolali, Tegal, Magelang, Banyumas, Purwokerto, Kendal, Klaten, Pekalongan, Semarang, Purworedjo, Wonosobo, Banjarnegara, Karanganyar and Purbalingga, other area is Pemalang , Bradford, and Kebumen, Blora, Grobogan, Jepara,, Pati, Sukoharjo, Sragen, Solo, Surakarta, and Apex, while 3 in the region most vulnerable to potentially catastrophic category is Winton (22 points), Banyumas (21 points) and Banjarnegara (17 points), the sector of highest losses occur due to infrastructure damage to roads, buildings, and irrigation, which reached USD, 397.82 billion, while the agricultural sector suffered a loss of Rp.175.232 billion due to damage to rice fields, dry land, irrigation networks, and others. So now entered the phase of rehabilitation and reconstruction of areas that have got a disaster, and Central Java Provincial Government budgetary policy setting for the process. It did not say how much the budget allocated for the rehabilitation of the infrastructure. C. Local Wisdom Role in Disaster Mitigation By the time the tsunami struck the Indian Ocean in 2004, there are two stories that appeared and aroused the concern of the potential of local wisdom. Those who live on the two islands, both utilize their knowledge handed down orally from their ancestors to escape from the devastating tsunami. Application of local wisdom in the facing and saving yourself from the disaster has provided plenty of valuable lessons as well as policy makers aware of the importance of developing local knowledge for disaster risk reduction. Local knowledge is a way and practice developed by a group of people, which comes from a deep understanding of the local environment, which is formed at the place from generation to generation, because wisdom comes from within the community itself, is distributed in a nonformal, owned collectively by concerned communities, developed over several generations and easily adapted, as well as embedded in the way of life of the community as a means to survive. Many stories are brought by our

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia ancestors about the habits of disasters in the region and it is the knowledge of its own in facing disaster response. Moreover, when this information can be packaged and managed in the Knowledge Management, which integrates well (Henderson, 2010). Local knowledge in disaster mitigation owned Bedouins actually constituted by Pikukuh (customary provisions) are become guidance and direction in thinking and acting. Pikukuh is the basis of wise and prudent traditional knowledge in preventing the risk of disaster. (Raden Cecelia Permana Eka, 2011). In the village of Magelang Pucungroto has rituals to cope with landslides, namely: banana leaf shaped pincuk then filled kathul, red onion, garlic, pepper, coriander, black glutinous rice, awar awar leaves and then burn incense. In the process of burning incense, the people recite the mantra "ngobong menyan iki nyuwun karo gusti Allah, mugo - mugo diparingi slamet ora sido longsor". This ritual is performed during the day, then at night some people do mujahadah along with reading the prayer. After a few days, the land that originally was fracturing and probably will happen again covered by soil erosion landslides. Java community has a number of local wisdom in dealing with disasters, until recently among the Javanese still continue to uphold that local knowledge is the ancestral heritage. They also do a number of rituals in order to avoid disaster. Disaster for Javanese community is a reflection of the disharmony of human relationship with nature. (M. Imam Zamroni, 2012)

B. Interface Implementation In general, view website Miitgasi Disaster Information System Based Local knowledge can be divided into 6 sections that are included in the user interface are: 1. Header Part of the head of a website, consisting of logos and BPBD, Unnes. Menu navigation buttons and links to explore the website content. 2. Maps Map of Central Java as a red balloon marked local wisdom. If we click the map it will show the name of local knowledge and expose more information of local wisdom 3. Content The content looked at some of the main menu and other services selected. On the Home menu, Instructions for Use, News and Contact us. 4. Footer Footer is located at the bottom of the page on the website: Consists of (1) local knowledge in the area districts / town in Central Java. (2) We Service: a description of the benefits of information systems. (3) Disaster-Prone Areas, contains validation disaster-prone areas in all districts/cities in Central Java.

II. METHODS The method used of planning method, development, and testing the feasibility of a software. Subjects in this study was software Website Local Wisdom-Based Information Systems. The methods used to collect the data and information required in this study are: 1. Methods of Observation Observations were carried out aiming to get information and data about the local wisdom in areas in Central Java. 2. Method of literature The literature used several books, papers and other scientific sources, such as Web sites and related research articles .

Figure 1. Maps of local wisdom on Central Java.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Implementation The technology used in the development of this system is a web -based application technology. In the process of its application system requires several components. All the components supporting Google Map app installed (installed) in the computer, such as Adobe Dreamweaver, MS4W, Navicat Premium, and a browser that supports the Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox. Then the next step is to realize that the system design has been made. Figure 2. Content of system.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia REFERENCES [1]

Figure 3. Detail of local wisdom.

IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Development of a site disaster mitigation information system based on local wisdom Central Java is able to be implemented for the community. The suggestion for the future is necessary to the existence of deep research for the manufacture of similar applications, and development in terms of information systems is more extended again, so as to obtain more in-depth data and factual.

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Hendra, Bencana dan Kearifan Lokal, 2010. http://piba.tdmrc.org/content/bencana-dan-kearifan-lokal. Diunduh : 12 Maret 2011. [2] Jogiyanto HM, Analisis dan Desain Sistem Informasi : Pendekatan Terstruktur Teori dan Praktek Aplikasi Bisnis, Yogyakarta : Andi, 2005. [3] M. Imam Zamroni, Islam dan Kearifan Lokal Dalam Penanggulangan Benana di Jawa, Jurnal Penangulangan Bencana, Volume 2 Nomor 1, 2011. [4] Nuarsa, I Wayan, Mengolah Data Spasial dengan MapInfo Profesional, Yogyakarta : Andi, 2004. [5] Prahasta, Eddy, Konsep-konsep Dasar Sistem Informasi Geografis, Bandung : Informatika, 2005. [6] Prahasta, Eddy, Sistem Informasi Geografis : Membangun Aplikasi Web-Based GIS dengan Map Server, Bandung : Informatika, 2006. [7] Raden Cecep Eka Permana, Isman Pratama Nasution, Jajag Gunaijaya, Kearifan Loal Tentang Mitigasi Bencana pada Masyarakat Baduy, Makara Sosial Humaniora, Volume 15 Nomor 1, July 2011. [8] Robert N Anthony dan John Dearden, Geographics Information Systems, Mac Graw Hill, 2003. [9] Imam A, S, Kepedulian Terhadap Kebencanaan Geologi dan Lingkungan (makalah lokakarya), Bandung : Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Geologi, ITB, 2004. [10] Indarto Adiguno, Pengembangan Sistem Informasi Geografis Untuk Layanan Darurat Kota Semarang, Skripsi, unpublished, Jurusan Teknik Elektro Unnes, 2007. [11] Sugiyono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan, Pendekatan Kuantitatif Kualitatif, dan R & D, Bandung : Alfabeta, 2006. [12] Zona Rawan Bencana di Jateng, http://nasional,vivanews,com/news/read/95096 downloaded on 15 April 2010, 09,15 WIB.

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External Lips Channel at the Bottom of Concrete Beam Andang Widjaja

Nuroji

Civil engineering department Faculty of Engineering Surabaya State University Surabaya Indonesia [email protected]

Civil engineering department Faculty of Engineering Diponegoro University Semarang Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract— This paper discusses about the use of externally lips channel as a replacement for reinforcing steel bar at the bottom of concrete beam. Lips channel steel has lips to confine concrete. Lips channel at the perimeter of concrete beam produce greater moment than embedded reinforcing steel bar, because the distance between the axis gravity of lips channel to concrete compression area longer than the distance of the axis gravity of reinforcing steel bar to concrete compression area. The strain of outer material of lips channel greater than concrete. The dimension of specimen was 12.5 cm x 18.5 cm x 180 cm. Mix design of concrete was K500. The result showed the strain on the lips channel was of 0.00126 when subjected load of 78.991 kN and moments of 23.697 kNm. This strain of lips channel already passed the standard strain of 0,001. The strain of reinforcing steel bar that laid on the axis of lips channel was 0.00163 smaller than the strain of reinforcing steel bar (0,002). Strain of concrete was 0.00087. concrete beams test collapsed on moment 22.395 kNm. The specimen has slip at the moment of 5.16 kNm.

with tensile stresses and resist bending. Without the steel reinforcing, the concrete beam would be brittle and break under the loads imposed on it. A concrete beam is a loadbearing unit that can be used to carry both horizontal and vertical loads [1].

Keywords-concrete; lips channel; slip, strain

I. INTRODUCTION This paper is discusses about concrete beam on two simple supported that loaded by flexural loading. A load was applied to the simple supported beam until failure Concrete beams were not concrete beam containing reinforce steel bar, but it constructed on lips channel as steel reinforcement at the bottom of beam. The lips channel at the lowest side of beam as the manifestation of single reinforced concrete beams. The paper considers reinforced beams with different steel bar models. The normal beam based on ordinary portland cement were also prepared and tested for comparison of performance.

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcing bars or other types of reinforcement have been integrated to improve one or more properties of the concrete. For many years, it has been utilized as an economical construction material in one form or another in buildings, bridges, and many other types of structures throughout the world. A large part of its worldwide appeal is that the basic constituent materials cement, sand, aggregate, water, and reinforcing bars are widely available and that it is possible to construct a structure using local sources of materials and labor [2]. In addition to being readily obtainable, reinforced concrete has been universally accepted because it can be molded essentially into any shape or form, is inherently rigid, and is inherently fire-resistant. With proper protection of the reinforcement, a reinforced concrete structure can be very durable and can have a long life even under harsh climatic or environmental conditions.

Performance aspect such as load carrying, moment, deflections, and strains at different stages were studied. The failure modes were also recorded for the beams. The paper compares the performance of normal reinforced concrete beams vis a vis reinforced concrete with lips channel.

The externally lips channel as a replacement for reinforcing steel bar of concrete beam. It laid at the bottom of concrete beam as a single reinforced concrete beam. The advantages of lips channel at the bottom of concrete beam were: strain of lips channel has greater than the concrete.and the distance between the center of gravity of lips channel to the edge of compressive block at top of beam greater too. lips channel steel has lips to confine concrete. Lips channel at the perimeter of concrete beam produce greater moment than embedded reinforcing steel bar, because the distance between the axis gravity of lips channel to concrete compression area longer than the distance of the axis gravity of reinforcing steel bar to concrete compression area. The strain of outer material of lips channel greater than concrete. Steel reinforcement that constructed at the outer side of the concrete beam will be confined mass concrete at tensile block.

Generally, beams are made by encasing steel bars, plates, or fibers within the concrete. Such steel reinforcing increases the beam strength, and allows the beam to cope

Reinforcement steel bars are placed at the side top and bottom, the axis of steel affects point distance reinforcing the upper perimeter was relatively larger instead of

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia reinforcing steel on the inside. Value larger nominal yield moment large, or the appropriate formula [3]. Another factor favor is the value steel strain is much greater than the concrete, so the initial crack in the concrete perimeter beam can be avoided. If crack initiation is delayed then the bearing capacity of the reinfoced concrete beam with lips channel will increase. Five basic assumptions are made: 1.Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending. 2.Strain in concrete is thee same as in reinforcing bars at the same level, provided that the bond between the steel and concrete is sufficient to keep them acting together under the different load stages i.e., no slip can occur between the two materials. 3.The stress-strain curves for the steel and concrete are known. 4.The tensile strength of concrete may be neglected. 5.At ultimate strength, the maximum strain at the extreme compression fiber is assumed equal to 0.003[3].

This stage should be considered as the basis for calculating the cracking moment Mcr, which produces tensile stresses at the bottom fibers equal to the modulus of rupture of concrete, Figure 3. The flexural formula M/Z to compute the flexural strength of the section:

(1) When the moment is increased ncreased beyond Mcr, the tensile stresses in concrete at the tension zone increased until they were greater than the modulus of rupture fctr, and cracks will develop. The neutral axis shifts upward, and cracks extend close to the level of the shifted neutral axis. Cracked concrete below the neutral axis is assumed to be not effective and the steel bars resist the entire tensile force. The stress-strain strain curve for concrete is approximately linear up to 0.40 fcu; hence if the concrete stress does not exceed ed this value, the elastic (straight line) theory formula M/Z may be used to analyze the "all concrete" area in Figure 3.

Figure 1. Single reinforced beam section with strain distribution.

The assumption of plane sections remaining plane or called Bernoulli's principle means that strains above and below the neutral axis NA are proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, Figure 1. Tests on reinforced concrete members havee indicated that this assumption is very nearly correct at all stages of loading up to flexural failure, provided good bond exists between the concrete and steel. This assumption, however, does not hold for deep beams or in regions of high shear[3] [3]. As illustrated in Figure 2, where moments are small, compressive stresses are very low and the maximum tensile stress of concrete is less than its rupture strength, fctr. In this stage the entire concrete section is effective, with the steel bars at the tension side sustaining a strain equal to that of the surrounding concrete , but the stress in the steel bars is equal to that in the adjacent concrete multiplied by the modular ratio n. Utilizing the Transformed Area Concept, Concept in which the steel is transformed sformed into an equivalent concrete area, , the conventional elastic theory may be used to analyze the "all concrete" area in Figure ure 2 [3].

Figure 3. Transformed section for flexure somewhat after cracking (http://osp.mans.edu.eg/concrete/Course.htm u.eg/concrete/Course.htm.).

Figure 4. Diagram of strain and stress on bending beam (Park R. and Pauley T., 1975). 1975)

Reinforced concrete beam that support the load will have flexible behavior along the element. The load is relatively small and has not cracked concrete can illustrated that the reinforcing steel and concrete work together, received by the concrete compressive force alone. The increase will lead to an increase in strain and stress, as well as the location of the neutral axis move up [2]. Stress distribution stribution is linear, there was no stress at neutral line and it is proportional to the strain while low stress. At normal load, the compression of concrete less than or equal to a half the fc and assumed to be proportional to the value of the strain. For increasing load until the ultimate causes higher strength of reinforced than the strain of concrete (Figure 4..d) [2].

Figure 2. Transformed section for flexure before cracking. cracking

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The curvature of the beam elements is or rotation per unit length of the element in ϕ. ε εs ε +ε ϕ= c = = c s kd d (1 − k ) d (6)

Figure 5. Diagram of strain and stress on bending single reinforced concrete beam (Park R. and Pauley T., 1975).

The rationale for the application of an external reinforcement is the use of steel as reinforcement longitudinal channel lips that are in the perimeter beams and concrete blocks as well as restraints. Analogous to the stress strain diagram Park R. and Paulay T.(1975) above, shows that the resultant tensile force (T) under the external reinforcement for concrete beams reinforced steel cross-sectional area (As) multiplied steel strength (fy).

(1)

The strength of concrete compressive was, 0,85

(2)

where 0.85 :coefisien of eqivalent block fc:

compression strength of concrete

a:

high of compression block of the concrete beam

b:

width of the concrete beam

the distance of C and T was Jd,

(3)

where

Figure 6. Deformation of flexure element.

II. METHOD Composition of concrete materials were: 1 pozzolan portland cement: 1.14 sand: 1.77 gravel: 0.388 of water. specimens were made for 3 cubes of 15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm and concrete beam of 12 cm x 18,5 cm x 180 cm. The portland cement brand was Semen Gresik, fine aggregate was provide from Krasak river Muntilan at Magelang district, coarse aggregate was provide from crusher machine, and water from ground water at laboratorary. the water-cement ratio was 0.52. Manufacture specimens begun with five cubical metal molding of 15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm, and a concrete beam specimen that casted on wood formwork with lips channel at bottom and deform reinforcement steel bar of 10 mm at the gravity axis of lips channel. Specimen of beam was a square shape, width of 125 mm and height of 185 mm, and 1800 mm long. The width of 125 mm was taken from the width of lip channel steel profile 125 x 50 x 20 x 2.

d: the distance between the center of gravity of concrete reinforcing steel bar to the edge of compressive block at top of beam (effective high of concrete beam). Subsequently, moment,

(4)

distance of the center of axis of the channel lips at bottom side to neutral axis. Thy + Ts = Cjd , jd = d - 0.5 a. effective high beam, d, is the distance from the top edge to the center of the axis of external reinforcement. The radius of curvature, R to the neutral axis, the height of neutral axis, the strain concrete at the extreme compression fiber, εc, and the strain of rebar, εs, will change at all the beam elements because the area would be crack [5]. On a small part of the elements, along dx, then the rotation to the two ends of the beam element were:

ε s dx 1 ε c εs dx ε c dx = = ; = = R kd d (1 − k ) 2 kd d (1 − k )

Figure 7. The concrete beam specimen with external lips channel on test.

(5)

Figure 8. Section of concrete beam specimen

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Material mixed with the concrete mixer. Mixing material gravel, sand, and cement done consecutive with ⅓ volume parts to material all contained in a mixer that has spinning, followed by entering amount of water gradually. The purpose of adding water gradually is to get slump minimally. Slump testing performed several times to determine the resulting level of viscosity. viscosity After the slump test was 96 mm, freshly concrete mixed again for a moments for homogeneous, then poured to a steel tray, and put in a mold. Compaction of fresh concrete in each mold performed with a hand-driven vibrator machine.

MPa, 8.23 kg. The average of compressive strength was 34.92 MPa.

Data analysis taken from logger equipment, for instance: P for load, εs1 for strain of the bottom of lips channel, εs2 for strain of reinforcing deform steel bar,

εc for strain of concrete. Figure 11. Moment and strain of concrete beam with lips channel.

Then curvature, (7) moment, (6)

When the moment was 2.75 kNm, the strain of concrete, εc, was 0.000247, strain of reinforcement bar, εs, was 0.000038, and strain of lips channel, εLC, was 0.000072. The shear friction between lips l channel an concrete and has not slip yet. But, moment increase 235% or 6.46 kNm strain of concrete was increase to 0.00036 mm, strain of reinforcement bar was 0.00032, and the starin of lips channel was 0.00028. 0.00028 The shear friction between lips channel an concrete and has slip.

Figure 9. Set up of test.

III. RESULT The result of tensile test on side web of the lips channel specimen showed that the quality of steel fy was 215.35 MPa, and the flange section was fy = 184.07 MPa. The average of tensile strength of fy was 199.71 MPa. Modulus of elasticity of lips channel,, Es, was 200,000 MPa and strain. εy was 0.00099. The sectian area of lips channel of 120.35.20.2 was 286.7 mm2. The tensile strength of reinforcing steel bar of deform D10 was fy, 457.65 MPa and strain, εs was 0.002. The reinforcing steel bar of deform D10 was classified in steel of 40 MPa (BjTP 40) SNI 07-2052-2002 2002 table of mechanical and characteristic. weight (kg) 31,72

37,62

35,41

40 8,21

20

8,28

8,23

0 1

2

3

specimen Figure 10. Compression strength of concrete cube

The compressive strength and weight of each cylinder was 31.72 MPa, 8.21 kg; 37.62 MPa, 8.28 kg, and 35.41 eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 12. Strain and moment diagram.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Strain diagram above showed that the slip between the surface of concrete and the lips channel. First slip occurred when the point loads of 17.201 kN and moment of 5.16 kNm such as shown in Figure 12. This strain diagram was recorded value of the strain gage strain of concrete, reinforcement, and the channel lips were not linear to the distance. The experimental concrete beam composite lips channel had collapsed at the moment of 22.3947 kNm due to shear cracks in the supporting area, and there was slip between lips channel surface and concrete. When point load of 78.991 kN and moment of 23.6973 kNmm, the strain of lips channel was 0.00126. The strain of 0,00126 was greater than the optimum strain of lips channel of 0,00099. And strain of reinforcing steel deform bar (D-10) was 0.00163 less than the optimum strain reinforcing steel deform bar of 0,002. At the same time of that load the strain of concrete was 0.00087 less than normal concrete strain of 0,003.

Figure 13. Diagram displacement (mm) and load (kN).

The figure 13 showed that behavior of the relationship between displacement and load. The stiffeness of the lips channel beam was good from 0 to 70 kN. When the point load was 9.185 kN there was small slip of concrete beam surface and lips channel of 0.285 mm. The point load of 74.649 kN the slip growth to 5.155 mm, and it already had collapsed the beam specimen. Figure 15. The strain of concrete beam specimen.

2

Figure 14. The strain of concrete beam specimen.

For instance n=20, 0.003/20=0.00015 0.00015 analyzed by trial and error then, 0.000105, 0.00015, 0.000105 155 0.00015 0.00015 0.000105 c = 91.17647 mm compressive strength Cc eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

" !

#!

&!

$ %

&!'

(

&!

&!'

) *

23266.04229 N Then, Ts and Ts1 1 1365.21 N 1 2 21861 N Balance equation 34 0 67 Cc – Ts – Ts1 = 0 34 39.835

&! + !" &!'

8!

Then countinued till error of 34 almost zero. 9

( ) = 2.91 kNm :

0.00015

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia experimental concrete beam composite lips channel had collapsed at the moment of 22.3947 kNm due to shear cracks in the supporting area, and there was slip between lips channel surface and concrete.

Figure 16. Moment Curvature

Figure 15. above showed that the function of lips channel as external reinforcement on concrete beam was fully bonded condition. The beam specimen had collapsed at the moment of 22.3947 kNm due to shear extends in a staging area. At the moment of 5.1603 kNm the surface of concrete beam specimen with lips channel externally slip. Although the slip but the experimental results and the analysis almost the same. Slip may caused by weak bonding of surface lips channel and concrete [7]. IV. CONCLUSION The tensile strength of lips channel, fy, was 199.71 MPa and strain, εLC, was 0.00099 when modulus of elasticity Es was 200,000 MPa. The tensile strength of reinforcing steel bar of deform D10 was fy = 457.65 MPa and strain, εs was 0.002. The rate of specimen test of cubical concrete was f'c = 34.92 MPa. The first slip of lips channel of concrete beam at point load of 17.201 kN. This slip may caused by low shear friction of both surface of lips channel and concrete. The

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Failure of concrete beams with external steel reinforcement definitively classified as failures because the overreinforced compression; Park and Pauley (1975) mentions that one of the three kinds of failure in concrete beams supporting to the bending load is due to failure or overreinforced compression, the strain of lips channel lips was not greater than 0.00099 (the ultimate strain of lips channel) but the strain of concrete has reached the maximum strain. However, this failure of this concrete beam with externally lips channel influenced by the slip too. So that the failure was not overreinforced and not too underreinforced. This slip proved that flexure beam that support point load has compressed area on the top side of the neutral axis andtensile area on the bottom of the neutral axis [7]. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

Surendra, P. Shah, Handbook of Structural Concrete, Pitman, London, 1983. www.mhprofessional.com Park, Robert dan Pauley, Thomas, Reinforced Concrete Structure, Toronto, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1975. http://osp.mans.edu.eg/concrete/Course.htm Suhendro, Bambang, Pidato Pengukuhan Guru Besar Fakultas Teknik UGM, Yogyakarta: Fakultas Teknik UGM, 2003. Amin Ghali and Rene Fazze, Concrete Structure, Stresses and Deformation, Chapman & Hall, New York, 1986. MacGregor, JG., Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1997.

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Local Materials In Central Java For The Concrete Construction Bambang Endroyo Civil Engineering Department Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Today, concrete became a favorite building material because it has advantages over than other building materials. The advantages of concrete: it have high strength, can be shaped as desired, most can be used from local materials, and maintenance costs are relatively low. Concrete is composed of cement (called an industrial product material), also sand and crushed stone (called a natural material). Industrial product material have been standardized, but the natural materials are very diverse in quality. Almost many regions / districts / municipalities have exploitation places to capture natural material for making a concrete. The use of natural materials for the present and future, needs more serious solution because of "supplies" are depleting, while its use is expected to rise sharply. Therefore, it is necessary to arrange the use of local materials for the manufacture of concrete, in order to prevent/reduce excavation (in large-scale) of natural materials in one place. Another benefit is environmental sustainability and also the availability of new jobs in excavation and trading of local building materials. Because of that reason, it is needed a research of local natural materials. The result of the research is a mapping of the quality of local materials which can be used for a contractor or consultant (national and foreign) for guide in construction projects. Keywords-concrete; local materials; sand; crushed stone

I. INTRODUCTION Everyone knows the concrete, a hard material like a stone is often found in simple building and other heavy building. Concrete has a practical usefulness, there are: a great strength, can be created as desire, and can be made (mostly) of local materials. So, concrete very quickly popular. Concrete composed from cement and water as an ingredient binder, sand and crushed stone as filler material. Sometimes it is also mixed with additives that accelerate the hardening, slow the hardening or other purposes. A reinforced concrete construction, need steel rods placed in the body of concrete. Cement and steel are the material which the quality has been standardized, while gravel and sand are materials derived from nature which excavation of them eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Bambang E. Yuwono Civil Engineering Department Trisakti University Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

may be no attention to environmental sustainability. The use of natural materials for the present and future needs more serious solution, because of "supplies" are depleting while its use is expected to rise sharply. Therefore, it is necessary to arrange the use of local materials for the manufacture of concrete in order to reduced an excavation (in large-scale) natural materials in one place. Another benefit is the preservation of the environment and the availability of new jobs is taking and trading of local building materials. This paper will describe the feasibility of the quality of local building materials mainly for the manufacture of concrete. Discussion based on the results of research that has been done so far. II. CONCRETE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water with or without additional ingredient. The advantages of concrete:, has a high compressive strength, can be formed according to the desire of planners, resistant to weathering, the maintenance is relatively easy. Beside of that, the weaknesses of concrete are: when be demolished can’t be reused, very weight, the less bright colors as well, need a time period for hardening.. Historically, the use of lime has been initiated by the Egyptians in making pyramid. Then by the Greeks, the ancient Etruscans, Romans, France, England, also took part in the development of concrete until 1824. While, America, also taking part on development of concrete. Further efforts to improve the quality of cement is always done in conjunction with the widespread use of concrete [1]. Concrete technology is growing in two directions. The first direction is the study to get a high quality concrete for the consumption of large buildings. The additional ingredients used to increase strength and accelerate hardening of concrete mixture. All of which leads to high technology. The example of high quality concrete, according to [2], there are: high strength concrete which strength > 42 MPa (ACI Committee 363, 1992), lightweight concrete, artificial light weight aggregate (ALWA) which weight/volume = 18 kN/m3, repair materials for concrete (Epoxy resin, epoxy mortar

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia dan epoxy concrete), and synthetic materials (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer, Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer, Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer dan Polyester Fiber Reinforced Polymer). Another direction is the appropriate technology, namely how to seek concrete are cheap but qualified. The goal is simple housing and buildings. In this regard, the use of local building materials are a good alternative when prioritized cost saving factor. Another example of appropriate technology, according to [2] are: using recycling materials, using waste materials. Until now, numerous studies have be done on the quality of local materials for use in the manufacture of concrete. As the research on high technology, research on appropriate technology even this very interesting and never ending action. The composition of concrete material should be such to get the density. A good density can be achieved by using aggregate having a varies particle size, so delicate parts can fill cavities between rough parts . To achieve the necessary density, require a proper comparison between sand, coral, cement and water. Strength of concrete is highly dependent on the quality of the ingredients, the mixture composition, and the manufacturing process. The quality of cement and steel as a building material has been supervised, while the quality of natural building material still have to be tested before it is used for the appropriateness of concrete materials. In this paper, only be discussed natural concrete materials, there are sand and coral. A. Technical Terms of the Fine Aggregate The terms of the fine aggregate according to ASTM C33 - 86 are summarized [3]:  Silt content not up to 5 % .  Levels of lumps of clay that easily trimmed max. 3 %.  Levels of organic content, when soaked with 3 % NaOH , the color is not older than the standard colors.  Fine aggregate to be used for concrete that will in the wet place and humid (continually) must not contain material which have reaction to alkali.  Durable, means not destroyed by weather effects, when tested using natrium sulfate, the parts of devastated less than 10 %.  Should consist of grains of diverse, when tested by sieves test, fineness modulus between 2.3 to 3.1 . In addition to these requirements, there are some coefficients sand needs to be known and often used in the planning of the quality of concrete, namely :  Bulk density of sand.  Content of chemical substances in the sand.

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B. Technical terms of coarse aggregate The terms of the coarse aggregate according to ASTM C33-86 are summarized [3]:  Silt content not up to 1 %.  Should consist of grains of hard , weak part a maximum of 5 %.  Number of items of long and flat maximum up to 20 %.  Durable, which when tested using sodium sulfate, the part of devastated less than 12 %.  Should consist of grains with diverse, the fineness modulus between 6.0 to 7.1.  Not reactive to alkali. C. Testing aggregates Durability of sand tested by soaking for 24 hours in a solution of sodium sulfate. Once again weighed, crushed parts should not be more than 10%. Gradation grain of sand and coral tested by sieve analysis. Sand sifted through a series of sieves of the most coarse sieve until smooth, then the material is left in each sieve was weighed. Calculated with the formula fineness, Fineness modulus of sand shall be between 2.3 to 3.1 and coral 6 to 7.1. Silt contents tested by washing mud sand so that the portions were small (less than 70 microns) will be carried by the water. Washing must comply with the order and procedures specified. Having weighed the missing parts should not be more than 5%. Levels of organic substances tested by soaking the sand into the 3% NaOH solution, so the solution will be light yellow to dark brown. If the light yellow color of the water-sand bath, means a little organic matter levels and qualify, otherwise if the color of ocher water-sand bath until brown mean levels of many organic substances and are not eligible [3]. Unit weight is the weight per unit volume of sand. In this case is determined by ratio of the weight of sand or coral to the weight of water in the same volume. Test of forms done by measuring each coral/gravel and separates between the flat and long with well shaped. The maximum part of length and flat are 20%. For the hardness test, each gravel scratched with 1.5 mm diameter copper rod (according to Rockwell hardness - B 65-70), and the number is scratched a maximum of 5%. If more than 5 %, the other hardness test (eg Los Angeles abrasion experiments; trial Rudelloef violence) needs to be done. III. THE TYPE, POSITION, AND METHOD OF RESEARCH This study is descriptive, by collecting and arranging data about the quality of local materials in Central Java for the manufacture of concrete. This study is also a meta-analysis. Meta-analysis is an analysis of a set of individual research results with a view to integrating the various findings [4]. This research position is a further research, is a summary of previous similar studies.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The population was a local materials in Central Java. Sample were taken using standard guidelines for testing of building materials. Data collection using the documentation. From several research finding. Data analysis using descriptive, by summarizing the results of studies that have been carried out. IV. THE RESULT, DISCUSSION, LIMITATION The findings of this research are the following indicators of local material in Central Java: durability, fineness modulus, unit weight, silt contents, levels of organic substances. TABLE I.

No A B C D E F

Location

Fineness Modulus 6 – 7,1

Kaligarang coral (Semarang) Kaligarang crushed coral (Semarang) Jepara crushed stones (Jepara) Kudus coral (Kudus) Tegal crushed stones (Tegal)

The limitation, this research have not been investigate all of excavation places in Central Java. So, this research need to be continued.

LIST OF QUALITY OF LOCAL CORAL / CRUSHED STONES IN CENTRAL JAVA.

ASTM requirement Pudak Payung crushed stones (Semarang)

Besides those indicator, for sand also: a content of chemical substances, and for coral/crushed stones also: hardness, form test, and absorption test. The results are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1 describe technical indicators several coarse aggregate, and Table 2 describe technical indicators several fine aggregate. Figure 1 is a map of Central Java. The area/district/excavation places which have been investigated, framed rectangular boundary.

Not yet

Water

absorption -

7,80 investigated

5,43% 3,41%

Form test Flat and long max.20% 14,71% Not yet investigated

Unit weight

1822 gram 1570 gram

Sugito (1994) Suroso (2012)

-

Researcher

6,55

Not yet

investigated

9,09%

1484 gram

Lashari (1995)

6,47

Not yet

investigated

15,38%

1287,5 gram

Lashari (1995)

6,96

3,19%

15,40%

1319 gram

Subani (1993)

7,07

5,17%

13,17%

1228 gram

Subani (1993)

6,41

1,05%

18,07%

1418 gram

Suroso (2012)

Figure 1. Map of central Java.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE II. LIST OF QUALITY OF LOCAL SAND IN CENTRAL JAVA. Location

Durability

No ASTM Requirement 1

2

Muntilan Sand from Merapi mountain, Krasak river sand (Magelang)

Muntilan Sand from Merapi mountain, Putih river (Magelang)

number is scratched max 10% 10.36% 9.396% Chemical content Chemical content Not yet investigated 10.529% 11.523% Chemical content Chemical content

3

4 5

6 7 8

10,87% 9.685%

Fineness Modulus

Unit weight

Silt content

Organic content Researcher

2,3 – 3,1

-

Max. 5%

Colour: light yellow

2.771 2.498 SiO2 77.14% MgO 1.085% SiO2 79.63% MgO 0.14

1842.3 gram 1808.7 gram

2.518% 1.24%

Light yellow Light yellow

Endroyo (2002) Endroyo (2004)

Fe2O3 15.34%

Al2O3 1.96%

CaO:0.465%

Endroyo (2002)

Fe2O3 8.17%

Al2O3 10.66%

CaO 0.58%

Endroyo (2004)

2.80 2.853 2.446

1819.68 gram 1876.7 gram 1818.2 gram

3.43% 3.205% 3.410%

Light yellow Light yellow Light yellow

Kusuma(2001) Endroyo (2002) Endroyo (2004)

Fe2O3 8.963%

Al2O 1.66%

CaO 2.85%

Endroyo (2002)

Fe2O3 7.385%

Al2O 8.635%

CaO 1,7%

Endroyo (2004)

1929 gram 1748.6 gram

3.30% 3,345%

Brown Brown

Endroyo(2002) Endroyo (2004)

Fe2O3 1.345%

Al2O 1.18%

CaO 6.795%

Endroyo (2002)

Fe2O3 9.07%

Al2O 8,415%

CaO 1,465%

Endroyo (2004)

SiO2 81.79%, MgO 1.705% SiO2 78.59% MgO 0.59% 2,81 2.418 SiO2 77,125% MgO 2.12% SiO2 76,48% MgO 0.4%

Muntilan Sand from Merapi mountain, Lamat river (Magelang)

Chemical content

Pemali river sand, (Brebes)

6.6%

2.43

1397 gram

2.41%

Light yellow

Suroso (2012)

Not yet investigate

3.18 2.5 SiO2 73.24% MgO 0.47%

1354 gram 1570 gram

3.25% 3.25%

Not yet investigated

Yakin (2011) Suroso (2012)

Fe2O3 12.55%

Al2O 5.2%

CaO 2.84%

Suroso (2012)

Not yet investigated Not yet investigated Not yet investigated

Fahmiardi (2012)

Gung river sand (Tegal) Cepu sand (Cepu) Luk Ulo river sand (Kebumen) Karimunjawa sand (Jepara)

Chemical content

Chemical content Not yet investigated Not yet investigated Not yet investigated Chemical content

2.77

1332 gram

3.20%

3.98

1370 gram

2.27 %

1.79

1338 gram

2.94 %

SiO2 1.33% MgO 1.44%

Fe2O3 0.13%

Al2O 0.77%

V. CONCLUSION

Endroyo (2002)

CaO 51.57%

REFERENCES

Central Java have many excavation places of nature materials that may be used to concrete construction, named local materials. Several local material have been investigated. Several coarse aggregate, there are: Pudak payung crushed stones (Semarang), Kaligarang coral (Semarang), Kaligarang crushed coral (Semarang), Jepara crushed stones (Jepara), Kudus coral (Kudus), and Tegal crushed stones (Tegal). Several fine aggregate, there are: Muntilan sand from Merapi mountain (Magelang), Pemali river sand (Brebes), Gung river sand (Tegal), Cepu sand (Cepu), Luk Ulo river sand (Kebumen), Karimunjawa sand (Karimunjawa Island).

[1]

The technical indicators each local materials can be used for calculating cost and strength a concrete construction in several places in Central Java with regard to efficiency. It may useful for consultants and contractors (national and international/foreign) which will get a several project in Central Java.

[7]

This research may be continued by investigation at several places/excavation area that have not been studied.

Yakin (2012)

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

[8]

[9]

Murdock LJ & KM Brook, Concrete materials and practice.. Jakarta: Erlangga. 1991. Suhendro, Bambang. Development of Civil Engineering and its relation with another subject of science (ispeech in nauguration of professor) Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University, 5 April 2003. PU, Concrete guidelines, Jakarta, 1999. Neil, James. Meta-analysis research methodology. http://wilderdom.com/research/meta-analysis.html. (18/12/2007). Endroyo, Bambang, Qyality of Muntilan Sand related to excavation places and excavation season (Research Report). Semarang: UNNES, 1998. Endroyo, Bambang. Relationship between quality and cost of concrete with improved fineness-modulus of local sand at Karimunjawa Islands. (Thesis). Yogyakarta: Univ. Atma Jaya., 2002. Endroyo, Bambang. Quality of Muntilan sand as building material after eruption Merapi volcano in year of 2001, (Research report). Semarang: Lemlit UNNES, 2002. Suroso, Hery. Analysis of gradation of combine -aggregate (beach sand and local sand) as materials of watertight concrete and normal concrete Jurnal Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan, Vol. 14 No. 2, July 2012. ISSN: 1411-1772. Lashari. Comparison between application of coarse aggregate of crushed coral and coral from Kreo river to the strength of stress concrete. (Research report). Semarang: Lemlit UNNES, 1994/1995.



Water Taking Formula Through Porous Pipe Below Ground Level Edy Sriyono Department of Civil Engineering Janabadra University Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract—This research aims to generate the water intake or discharge formula (Q) through porous pipe system in sandy soil, taking into account several parameters, such as coefficient of discharge ( CD ), gravitational acceleration (g), soil permeability (k), water level (h), the area around the pipe when not holed (A), and porous pipe area (Af). This research is conducted by constructing the physical laboratory experimental, which consists of an experimental tank that built from clay brick masonry and a piece of laid porous pipes (total number of porous pipe are 9), subsequently filled with sand and fresh water at the various research parameter defined previously. Afterwards, the discharges of water flow through porous pipe at the various research parameters were then measured using the glass measure and stop-watch. The results show that according to the studied parameter, the formula of discharge through porous pipe below ground level in sandy soil is:

Q  CD Af

 k  gh , where CD  0,128   g.h   

0,412

 Af     A

0,579

This formula can be used for taking the sea water through porous pipe below ground level, taking the spring water and taking the seepage water. Keywords- taking water; porous pipe; discharge

I. INTRODUCTION This research is developed based upon the salt-water deficiency problem in the shrimp pond area which is located at the sandy beach of Kuwaru, Ponco Sari Village, Srandakan Sub-District, Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The problem is caused by the damage of sea water collection facility, that consists of dikes and iron pipe which is built juts into the sea, due to waves incursions. On the other hand, wells built by the beach for sea water collection, although this facility is safe from the wave incursion, it could not give sufficient necessity discharge. This research aims to generate the water intake or discharge formula (Q) through porous pipe system in sandy soil, taking into account several parameters, such as coefficient of discharge ( CD ), gravitational acceleration (g), soil permeability (k), water level (h), the area around the pipe when not holed (A), and porous pipe area (Af). The formula of discharge is expected to be used for designing porous pipe of taking the sea water, taking the spring water, and taking the seepage water.

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Darcy (1956) in Kashef (1986) and Hardiyatmo (2002) proposed a relationship between velocity and hydraulic gradient: v  ki , where v = water velocity (cm/sec), i = hydraulic gradient, and k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec). Seepage discharge (q) is expressed hf by the equation: q  kiA  kA , where q = seepage L discharge (cm3/sec), k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec), A = cross-sectional area flow (cm2), hf = energy losses (cm), dan L = flow distance (cm). The amount of freely flow out of the pore in a pipe can be calculated by knowing the pore hole and pore hole pattern. A simple orifice equation can be used to calculate the magnitude of the flow in cubic feet per second (Anonymous, 2004): Qp  Cd A 2 gH , where Qp = flow discharge free out through a pore (ft3/sec), Cd = coefficient of discharge = 0,60, A = cross-sectional area of a pore (ft2), g = acceleration of gravity = 32,2 ft/sec2, and H = head of water level above pore (ft). Porous pipes can be laid in the soil to a depth of 15 m from ground level and is able to stream discharge at 130 gpm/ft2 (Anonymous, 2005) or 102 lt/sec/m2 (Anonymous, 2000). Mikels and Klaer (1956), in Walton (1970) and McWhorter and Sunada (1977) conducted a "collector well" study which consists of a wells and some porous pipe are mounted radially and horizontally. The same experiment was done by Spiridonoff and Hantush (1964) in Walton (1970). Based on research conducted by Nasjono (2002), empirical equation of flow through porous pipes: 0,2366

Q  App  h    148, 41  , where Q = discharge    kLd  Ld  l   flowing through the pipe (m3/sec), k = coefficient of permeability (m/sec), L = length of pipe (m), d = diameter of pipe (m), App = area of pore (m2), l = depth of the pipe in the ground (m), and h = height of water above the pipe (m). Das et al. (2009) developed a radial collector wells consisting of a well and some porous pipes posted radially and horizontally to take on water resources and improve

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia water quality. Das et. al. (2009) assume area of pore of porous pipe is 20 percent, there is also a pore blockage is assumed to be 50 percent and the flow velocity in the porous pipe is also assumed to be 0,5 cm/sec. The cross sectional area of porous pipe can be calculated with the equation: A   LDAf 50% , where: L = length of porous pipe, D = diameter of pipe porous, Af = area of pore, assumed = 20 percent, 50 percent = the amount of pore blockages are assumed. The amount of discharge can be calculated with the equation: Q  AV , where: V = velocity of flow in a porous pipe, assumed = 0,5 cm/sec.

porous pipe in the ground, to take the average value. e. The above procedure performed for some variations according to the planed experimental design to be researched. TABLE I. D (inch)

THE COMBINATION OF POROUS PIPE MODEL L (cm)

Df (mm) 1

In a study to be carried out, it will use: three types of value k (permeability), and the soil surface is above the surface of the water because they were considered to be more appropriate to the conditions in the field.

30

2

3

II. METHOD A. Research Design Porous pipe model is designed as in Figure 1, the combination of a porous pipe model is designed as in Table 1, and the combination of porous pipe layout model is designed as in Table 2.

1

1,25

40

2

3

Df

s

s

D = 1,25

1

inch 50 Figure 1. Porous pipe model.

B. Tools and Materials This research is conducted by constructing the physical laboratory experimental, which consists of an experimental tank that built from clay brick masonry and a piece of laid porous pipes (total number of porous pipe are 9), subsequently filled with sand and fresh water at the various research parameter defined previously. Afterwards, the discharges of water flow through porous pipe at the various research parameters were then measured using the glass measure and stop-watch. See Figure 2 and 3. C. Research Implementation a. Porous pipe placed in an experimental tank as shown in Figure 2 and 3.

2

3

s (cm) 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TABLE II. THE COMBINATION OF POROUS PIPE LAYOUT MODEL k (m/det)

h (cm)

k1 = 6,1.10-4 k2 = 1,1.10-4 k3 = 2,8.10-4

35 45 55 35 45 55 35 45 55

b. The experimental tank filled with prepared sand with a thickness varied above the water level (h) and then flowed the water up to a height that varies as Table 2. c. If flow conditions are stable (Q = Q inlet = Q outlet and water level steady a spill elevation), measure discharge (Q) that comes out through the porous pipe and record the result. d. Measurement of discharge (Q) performed 3 times for each combination of head and layout of the eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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6 

2 k 4 Af A k A . 3  2 . 2 .  . 4 g Af h Af gh Af

A Af  3 Af A Thus the dimensionless number that represents the parameters that influential the research can be written as follows.

7 

1

 1/

Q Af

 k Af    f ,  gh A  gh  

(1)

In order to analyze the theoretical formula, the discharge flow through porous pipes formula used below.

Q  CD Af

gh

where: CD = coefficient of discharge = Figure 2. Water taking through porous pipe model.

(2)

 k Af   f ,  gh A   

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. The Results The results show that according to the studied parameter, the formula of discharge through porous pipe below ground level in sandy soil is:

Q  CD Af gh , where  k  CD  0,128   g.h   

Figure 3. Section A-A of water taking through porous pipe model.

D. Dimensional Analysis Influential parameters in this research are:

Q  f ( A, h, g , k , Af )

1  g 1/ 2 Af 5/ 4Q  g 2 Af 5Q 4 

 2  g 1/ 2 Af 1/ 4 k  g 2 Af 1k 4   3  g 0 Af 1 A 

Q4 g 2 Af 5

k4 g 2 Af

A Af

 4  g 0 Af 1/ 2 h 

0,412

 Af     A

0,579

(3)

This formula can be used for taking the sea water through porous pipe below ground level, taking the spring water and taking the seepage water. Furthermore, it can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 4. Based on Equation 3, Table 3 dan Figure 4, it appears that the greater the value of soil permeability (k), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be even greater. Likewise, the greater the value area of pore pipe (Af), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be even greater. Conversely the greater the value of water level (h), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be smaller. Likewise, the greater the value area of circumference pipe when not holed (A), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be smaller.

h2 Af

If the analysis was continued then:

5 

1 Q 4 Af Q  2 5. 2   4 g Af h Af gh

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TABLE III. VALUE OF

CD 

Q

k

,

Af . g.h

AND

Af A

g .h

Pump Ground level

k

Af A

%

g .h 0,0001

0,0002

0,0003

0,0004

0,0005

0,1

0,1571

0,2090

0,2470

0,2781

0,3049

0,5

0,0619

0,0823

0,0973

0,1095

0,1201

1

0,0414

0,0551

0,0651

0,0733

0,0804

2

0,0277

0,0369

0,0436

0,0491

0,0538

4

0,0186

0,0247

0,0292

0,0329

0,0360

6

0,0147

0,0195

0,0231

0,0260

0,0285

8

0,0124

0,0165

0,0195

0,0220

0,0241

10

0,0109

0,0145

0,0172

0,0193

0,0212

15

0,0086

0,0115

0,0136

0,0153

0,0176

20

0,0073

0,0097

0,0115

0,0129

0,0142

Ground water level l = 4,5m h = 3,0 m

Porous pipe berpori Figure 5. Examples of applications

Question: How much discharge flow through a porous pipe (Q). Solution: Number of pore: nf = L/s.( π.D/s) = 4,0/0,15(π.0,30/0,15) = 27.6 = 162 Figure 4. Curve of

CD 

Q Af . g.h

,

k g .h

and

Af A

B. Its Aplication In order to apply the results of research, will be given examples planning of porous pipe as shown in Figure 5. Problem: Coefficient of permeability of soil: k = 1.10-3 m/sec Porous pipe: Length: L = 4,0 m Diameter: D = 0,30 m Pore: Diameter: Df = 3 cm = 0,03 m Distance: s = 15 cm = 0,15 m The depth of the water level above the porous pipe: h = 3,0 m The depth of the ground level above the porous pipe: l = 4,5 m

Area of each porous pipe: Af = ¼.π.Df2. nf = ¼. π.0,032.162 = 0,114557 m2 The area around the pipe when not holed: A = π.D.L = π.0,30.4,0 = 3,771429 m2

Af A k

= 0,114557/3,7714 = 0,0304

gh

=

1.10-3 9,81.3, 0

= 0,000184

From Table 3 or Figure 4, be obtained: CD 

Q Af

gh

= 0,0280

Q  1.0,0280 Af g.h  1.0,0280.0,114557 9,81.3,0 = 0,0174 m3/sec So the discharge of the flow through a porous pipe: Q = 0,0174 m3/sec

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION Based on observations during the research and the analysis of research data, some conclusions can be presented as follows. 1. The results showed that the amount of flow discharge through a porous pipe (Q) is strongly influenced by the acceleration of gravity (g), sand permeability (k), porous pipe diameter (D), porous pipe length (L), pore diameter (Df), the distance pore (s), wide pore (Af), the area around the pipe when not holed (A), and the head of water above the porous pipe (h). Q = f (g, k, D, L, Df, s, A, h), or Q = f (g, k, Af, A, h), where A = f(D, L, Df, s) 2. The flow discharge formula through a porous pipe below ground level which represents the correlation Af Q k with and is as follows. CD  A Af gh g .h

Q  CD Af gh 0,412

0,579

 k   Af  CD  0,128     gh   A   This formula can be used for taking the sea water through porous pipe below ground level, taking the spring water and taking the seepage water.

3. The greater the value of soil permeability (k) and area of pore pipe (Af), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( C D ) will be greater. Conversely the greater the value of water level (h) and the area around the pipe when not holed (A), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( C D ) will be smaller. REFERENCES [1] [2]

Anonymous, Perforated Pipe Subdrains, Specification, 2000. Anonymous, Outflow from Perforated Pipe, Technical Notes, Hilliard, 2004. [3] Anonymous, Subdrainage 02620 (Spec-Data), Midwest Diversified Technologies Inc., Reed Construction Data, 2005. [4] Das, N., Saha, S.B, Rao, C.S., and Uththamanathan, T.N, Radial Collector Well, Kharagpur, 2009. [5] Hardiyatmo, H.C., Soil Mechanics I, 3rd ed, Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta, 2002, pp. 141-258. [6] Kashef, A.I., Groundwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, 1986. [7] McWhorter, D.B. and Sunada, D.K., Ground-Water Hydrology and Hydraulics, Water Resources Publications, Colorado, 1977, pp. 156-168. [8] Nasjono, J.K., “Study of Seepage Flow Discharge Through Porous Pipe”, Thesis, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 2002. [9] Nasjono, J.K., Yuwono, N., dan Triatmadja, R., “Formulation of Porous Pipe Underground Systems And Its Application”, Civil Engineering Forum Journal Vol. XII, No. 1, 2003, pp. 12-20. [10] Walton, W.C., Ground-Water Resources Evaluation, McGrawHill Inc., New York, 1970, pp 307-312.

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Q  CD Af gh 0,412

0,579


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Perception of Community Based Environmental Settlement Impact of Liquid Waste Processing Industry Tahu on Scale Household with System Constructed Wetland Nurmi Frida Dorintan Bertua P. Surabaya State University, UNESA Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected],id; [email protected] Abstract—This study is a research survey, aimed to know the uses plants typha latifolia (cattail) through the wastewater treatment tofu industry by applying the constructed wetland system. The study population is community living in the vicinity of industrial tofu-scale household sample of 30 respondents. The instrument used was a questionnaire to determine community perception of settlement-based management of the environment through wastewater treatment tofu industry with constructed wetland system (r = 0.86). The technique used is descriptive analysis of the percentage. The results of the analysis before it is applied and implemented after the constructed wetland system that uses plants typha latifolia (cattail) indicates that there is an increase in positive perception of the community towards: 1) incidence of air pollution caused by odors arising from the pile of solid waste and waste treatment, by 50%; 2) groundwater contamination from the pond / drainage sewage seeped into the ground (flavor and color of water wells), 30%; 3) the level of community health: respiratory distress, itching caused by the use of well water for bathing, washing, by 23%; 4) piles of solid waste to reduce the aesthetic (dirty), by 13%. Keywords-typha latifolia (cattail); perception; constructed wetland; wastewater

I. INTRODUCTION The number of entrepreneurs tofu in the city of Surabaya is increased significantly, based on the increasingly high tofu consumption due to people's purchasing power is still low. Tofu is a wise choice as a side dish, but on the other side knows the problem on its own wastes. Waste water treatment residual waste out until now is the industry that provide uranium to high levels of environmental pollution. Waste water containing suspended solids and knew dissolved (Nurhasan & Pramudyanto, 1991). The existence of tofu industry scale households in dense settlements pose a very significant negative impact. One example is the presence of tofu industry in eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Jambangan are located in the middle of densely populated settlements. Risks to the health of residents around the site result of tofu industry waste water from the pool of processing that goes into the surface water / river, where people around the residence and take advantage of river and ground water (wells), in the form of the emergence of various diseases such as skin, stomach, and so forth as well as negative. Accordingly, the industrial development of environmental management efforts should be coupled in the form of handling waste that is released. It is accompanied by an assessment of environmental risk activity due to the activities of industrial waste to obtain the level of risk of danger to a minimum. To overcome the above, the study was conducted to answer the problem:“Is the waste water treatment tofu industry-scale households using crop typha latifolia (cattail) in constructed wetland-based environment capable of managing the settlement?” II. BASIC THEORY A. Tofu Liquid Waste Household Scale The waste of tofu is waste generated in the manufacturing process tofu or during washing of soybeans. Waste generated in the form of solid waste and liquid waste. Characteristics of wastewater manufacturing tofu are: 1) the remaining water out which does not clot; 2) pieces of who destroyed during the process because it is less imperfect clotting process; 3) turbid and pale yellow-gray, and if left turns black and foul smelling. The resulting liquid waste containing suspended solids or dissolved, will experience changes in physical, chemical, and biological substances that produce toxic or creating media for the growth of bacteria where the bacteria can be either germs or other harmful germs either on its own or the human body. If allowed in the waste water will change color to dark brown and smelly. The stench of this will result in respiratory illness. If

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Water Taking Formula Through Porous Pipe Below Ground Level Edy Sriyono Department of Civil Engineering Janabadra University Yogyakarta, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract—This research aims to generate the water intake or discharge formula (Q) through porous pipe system in sandy soil, taking into account several parameters, such as coefficient of discharge ( CD ), gravitational acceleration (g), soil permeability (k), water level (h), the area around the pipe when not holed (A), and porous pipe area (Af). This research is conducted by constructing the physical laboratory experimental, which consists of an experimental tank that built from clay brick masonry and a piece of laid porous pipes (total number of porous pipe are 9), subsequently filled with sand and fresh water at the various research parameter defined previously. Afterwards, the discharges of water flow through porous pipe at the various research parameters were then measured using the glass measure and stop-watch. The results show that according to the studied parameter, the formula of discharge through porous pipe below ground level in sandy soil is:

Q  CD Af

 k  gh , where CD  0,128   g.h   

0,412

 Af     A

0,579

This formula can be used for taking the sea water through porous pipe below ground level, taking the spring water and taking the seepage water. Keywords- taking water; porous pipe; discharge

I. INTRODUCTION This research is developed based upon the salt-water deficiency problem in the shrimp pond area which is located at the sandy beach of Kuwaru, Ponco Sari Village, Srandakan Sub-District, Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The problem is caused by the damage of sea water collection facility, that consists of dikes and iron pipe which is built juts into the sea, due to waves incursions. On the other hand, wells built by the beach for sea water collection, although this facility is safe from the wave incursion, it could not give sufficient necessity discharge. This research aims to generate the water intake or discharge formula (Q) through porous pipe system in sandy soil, taking into account several parameters, such as coefficient of discharge ( CD ), gravitational acceleration (g), soil permeability (k), water level (h), the area around the pipe when not holed (A), and porous pipe area (Af). The formula of discharge is expected to be used for designing porous pipe of taking the sea water, taking the spring water, and taking the seepage water.

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Darcy (1956) in Kashef (1986) and Hardiyatmo (2002) proposed a relationship between velocity and hydraulic gradient: v  ki , where v = water velocity (cm/sec), i = hydraulic gradient, and k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec). Seepage discharge (q) is expressed hf by the equation: q  kiA  kA , where q = seepage L discharge (cm3/sec), k = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec), A = cross-sectional area flow (cm2), hf = energy losses (cm), dan L = flow distance (cm). The amount of freely flow out of the pore in a pipe can be calculated by knowing the pore hole and pore hole pattern. A simple orifice equation can be used to calculate the magnitude of the flow in cubic feet per second (Anonymous, 2004): Qp  Cd A 2 gH , where Qp = flow discharge free out through a pore (ft3/sec), Cd = coefficient of discharge = 0,60, A = cross-sectional area of a pore (ft2), g = acceleration of gravity = 32,2 ft/sec2, and H = head of water level above pore (ft). Porous pipes can be laid in the soil to a depth of 15 m from ground level and is able to stream discharge at 130 gpm/ft2 (Anonymous, 2005) or 102 lt/sec/m2 (Anonymous, 2000). Mikels and Klaer (1956), in Walton (1970) and McWhorter and Sunada (1977) conducted a "collector well" study which consists of a wells and some porous pipe are mounted radially and horizontally. The same experiment was done by Spiridonoff and Hantush (1964) in Walton (1970). Based on research conducted by Nasjono (2002), empirical equation of flow through porous pipes: 0,2366

Q  App  h    148, 41  , where Q = discharge    kLd  Ld  l   flowing through the pipe (m3/sec), k = coefficient of permeability (m/sec), L = length of pipe (m), d = diameter of pipe (m), App = area of pore (m2), l = depth of the pipe in the ground (m), and h = height of water above the pipe (m). Das et al. (2009) developed a radial collector wells consisting of a well and some porous pipes posted radially and horizontally to take on water resources and improve

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia water quality. Das et. al. (2009) assume area of pore of porous pipe is 20 percent, there is also a pore blockage is assumed to be 50 percent and the flow velocity in the porous pipe is also assumed to be 0,5 cm/sec. The cross sectional area of porous pipe can be calculated with the equation: A   LDAf 50% , where: L = length of porous pipe, D = diameter of pipe porous, Af = area of pore, assumed = 20 percent, 50 percent = the amount of pore blockages are assumed. The amount of discharge can be calculated with the equation: Q  AV , where: V = velocity of flow in a porous pipe, assumed = 0,5 cm/sec.

porous pipe in the ground, to take the average value. e. The above procedure performed for some variations according to the planed experimental design to be researched. TABLE I. D (inch)

THE COMBINATION OF POROUS PIPE MODEL L (cm)

Df (mm) 1

In a study to be carried out, it will use: three types of value k (permeability), and the soil surface is above the surface of the water because they were considered to be more appropriate to the conditions in the field.

30

2

3

II. METHOD A. Research Design Porous pipe model is designed as in Figure 1, the combination of a porous pipe model is designed as in Table 1, and the combination of porous pipe layout model is designed as in Table 2.

1

1,25

40

2

3

Df

s

s

D = 1,25

1

inch 50 Figure 1. Porous pipe model.

B. Tools and Materials This research is conducted by constructing the physical laboratory experimental, which consists of an experimental tank that built from clay brick masonry and a piece of laid porous pipes (total number of porous pipe are 9), subsequently filled with sand and fresh water at the various research parameter defined previously. Afterwards, the discharges of water flow through porous pipe at the various research parameters were then measured using the glass measure and stop-watch. See Figure 2 and 3. C. Research Implementation a. Porous pipe placed in an experimental tank as shown in Figure 2 and 3.

2

3

s (cm) 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TABLE II. THE COMBINATION OF POROUS PIPE LAYOUT MODEL k (m/det)

h (cm)

k1 = 6,1.10-4 k2 = 1,1.10-4 k3 = 2,8.10-4

35 45 55 35 45 55 35 45 55

b. The experimental tank filled with prepared sand with a thickness varied above the water level (h) and then flowed the water up to a height that varies as Table 2. c. If flow conditions are stable (Q = Q inlet = Q outlet and water level steady a spill elevation), measure discharge (Q) that comes out through the porous pipe and record the result. d. Measurement of discharge (Q) performed 3 times for each combination of head and layout of the eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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6 

2 k 4 Af A k A . 3  2 . 2 .  . 4 g Af h Af gh Af

A Af  3 Af A Thus the dimensionless number that represents the parameters that influential the research can be written as follows.

7 

1

 1/

Q Af

 k Af    f ,  gh A  gh  

(1)

In order to analyze the theoretical formula, the discharge flow through porous pipes formula used below.

Q  CD Af

gh

where: CD = coefficient of discharge = Figure 2. Water taking through porous pipe model.

(2)

 k Af   f ,  gh A   

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. The Results The results show that according to the studied parameter, the formula of discharge through porous pipe below ground level in sandy soil is:

Q  CD Af gh , where  k  CD  0,128   g.h   

Figure 3. Section A-A of water taking through porous pipe model.

D. Dimensional Analysis Influential parameters in this research are:

Q  f ( A, h, g , k , Af )

1  g 1/ 2 Af 5/ 4Q  g 2 Af 5Q 4 

 2  g 1/ 2 Af 1/ 4 k  g 2 Af 1k 4   3  g 0 Af 1 A 

Q4 g 2 Af 5

k4 g 2 Af

A Af

 4  g 0 Af 1/ 2 h 

0,412

 Af     A

0,579

(3)

This formula can be used for taking the sea water through porous pipe below ground level, taking the spring water and taking the seepage water. Furthermore, it can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 4. Based on Equation 3, Table 3 dan Figure 4, it appears that the greater the value of soil permeability (k), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be even greater. Likewise, the greater the value area of pore pipe (Af), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be even greater. Conversely the greater the value of water level (h), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be smaller. Likewise, the greater the value area of circumference pipe when not holed (A), then the value of the coefficient of discharge ( CD ) will be smaller.

h2 Af

If the analysis was continued then:

5 

1 Q 4 Af Q  2 5. 2   4 g Af h Af gh

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TABLE III. VALUE OF

CD 

Q

k

,

Af . g.h

AND

Af A

g .h

Pump Ground level

k

Af A

%

g .h 0,0001

0,0002

0,0003

0,0004

0,0005

0,1

0,1571

0,2090

0,2470

0,2781

0,3049

0,5

0,0619

0,0823

0,0973

0,1095

0,1201

1

0,0414

0,0551

0,0651

0,0733

0,0804

2

0,0277

0,0369

0,0436

0,0491

0,0538

4

0,0186

0,0247

0,0292

0,0329

0,0360

6

0,0147

0,0195

0,0231

0,0260

0,0285

8

0,0124

0,0165

0,0195

0,0220

0,0241

10

0,0109

0,0145

0,0172

0,0193

0,0212

15

0,0086

0,0115

0,0136

0,0153

0,0176

20

0,0073

0,0097

0,0115

0,0129

0,0142

Ground water level l = 4,5m h = 3,0 m

Porous pipe berpori Figure 5. Examples of applications

Question: How much discharge flow through a porous pipe (Q). Solution: Number of pore: nf = L/s.( π.D/s) = 4,0/0,15(π.0,30/0,15) = 27.6 = 162 Figure 4. Curve of

CD 

Q Af . g.h

,

k g .h

and

Af A

B. Its Aplication In order to apply the results of research, will be given examples planning of porous pipe as shown in Figure 5. Problem: Coefficient of permeability of soil: k = 1.10-3 m/sec Porous pipe: Length: L = 4,0 m Diameter: D = 0,30 m Pore: Diameter: Df = 3 cm = 0,03 m Distance: s = 15 cm = 0,15 m The depth of the water level above the porous pipe: h = 3,0 m The depth of the ground level above the porous pipe: l = 4,5 m

Area of each porous pipe: Af = ¼.π.Df2. nf = ¼. π.0,032.162 = 0,114557 m2 The area around the pipe when not holed: A = π.D.L = π.0,30.4,0 = 3,771429 m2

Af A k

= 0,114557/3,7714 = 0,0304

gh

=

1.10-3 9,81.3, 0

= 0,000184

From Table 3 or Figure 4, be obtained: CD 

Q Af

gh

= 0,0280

Q  1.0,0280 Af g.h  1.0,0280.0,114557 9,81.3,0 = 0,0174 m3/sec So the discharge of the flow through a porous pipe: Q = 0,0174 m3/sec

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Q  CD Af gh 0,412

0,579




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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia waste water is seeping into the ground close to water wells wells then it can not be used again. If this waste flowed into the river it will pollute the river and if still in use it will cause itching disease, diarrhea, and other diseases. B. Liquid Waste Treatment Plant Using Typha Latifolia Constructed wetland is an artificial marsh that was made to treat domestic waste water, rain water to flow and process the leachate or as a place to live other wild habitats, in addition to the constructed wetland can also be used for mining land reclamation or other environmental disturbances. Wetlands can be a biofilter that can meremoval sediment and pollutants such as heavy metals. (Wikepedia, 2007) Constructed wetland exists in various shapes and sizes, depending on the selection and evaluation of locations. This system can be adapted to almost any location and can be constructed in many configurations from small single unit which is only a few square meters to large systems with hundreds of acres of agriculture who are integrated with water or pond (USAID, 2006).

Plants serve as the surface of the bacteria grow, helping the filtration process and improve the permeability of solid materials. Plants able to increase the porosity so as to stabilize the hydraulic permeability. Plants also serve as a regulator of evapotranspiration in the wetland. Plant Typha latifolia (cattail) or better known in Indonesia by the name of a cat tail plant is a plant that has its good adaptation to their environment. Cattail can live in land where the soil is always saturated or inundated. Almost all species of cattail is a plant that has high efficiency and has many uses including for food, medicines and plants to process waste. Plant cats or typha latifolia including hydro-phyte species of plants whose habitat is in water or in damp places. This plant grows in soil soggy berumpun (both brackish or not) around the edge of lakes, ponds and slow rivers that wing in place of temperate and tropical climates around the world. This plant grows on the edge of the water and grew enormously in water depths of less than 40 cm, can adapt to drought only in a short time (Floridata, 2001). Plants play a role in translocation of oxygen into the root zone. Aquatic plants have root systems that contain rizhosphere airways where the root tip thick hair and hanging branches that grow vertically upward (Mukhlis, 2003). Plants absorb O2 in the air through the leaves and forwarded to the stem and roots (rizhoma). The presence of O2 in around the roots rizhosphere stimulate the growth of aerobic bacteria in the water and the media, especially in the area around the roots. The density of an eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

ideal plant for this system is between 40-60 square permeter plants (Steward, 2005). Plants also can be a source of carbon for the microorgani-sms in the wetland. Plant roots can absorb nutrients contained in wastewater as a nutrient. In addition, plants increase the surface area for the growth of good microorganisms in the root, rizhoma, stems or leaves as well as the sealing surface of the bed. In the FWS system of plants capable of reducing the effects of wind on the water, thereby reducing turbulence. Smallscale sewage treatment system, such as household makrophyte can provide more roles. It is possible to use a beautiful wetland plants such as yellow flag (Pseudacorus) and Canna-lilies. System the processing of waste water is aesthetically pleasing (Brix, 1994 in Ayaz & Akea, 2000). During processing, organic substances in wastewater undergo a process of oxidation and organic or inorganic compounds in the form of ions such as NO3-, NH4+ and so on, but it can be absorbed by Typha Latifollia. Plant roots absorb nutrients that come in with the flow of water. The accumulation of nutrients in the form of ions in plant roots through the help of ligand in the membrane transport roots, ion transport would then form a complex that will form the xylem and continue toward the leaf cells, after arriving in the leaves will pass plasmalema, the cytoplasm of the vacuole, where the ions will accumulate in vacuoles that will not be associated with the process fisiolois plant cells (Salisbury & Ross, 1995). Nutrients are absorbed by diffusion if the concentration in the medium waste water is higher than the concentration in the plant typha. This diffusion process can take place because the concentrations of several ions in the typha network is kept low, because it will create ions in the liquid waste into the network typha to then be converted in other forms. At this stage of NO3is reduced to NH4+ is subsequently used in the synthesis of amino acids and proteins. While H2PO4 converted into ula phosphate, nucleotides, RNA or DNA. Thus the concentration of anions in typha tissue tends to remain low and the cause for the diffusion process can continue (Lakitan, 2004). Decomposition of complex organic compounds into simpler compounds that also led to an increase in dissolved oxygen and therefore contributes to a decrease in temperature due to reduced metabolic rate and respiration of microorganisms and thus reducing oxygen consumption (Effendi, 2003). Fe metal were detected in wastewater, do not come from the materials used in the production process, but coming from the washing water used in processing and the equipment used during production (Sugiharto, 1987). Decreased Fe absorption caused by plant roots to use up the enzymes in electron transport processes, such as cytochromes and ferredoksin active in photosynthesis and respiration of mitochondria (Gardner, 1991). Iron is absorbed by plants in the form of Fe3+ in addition be used as a constituent of chlorophyll, is also used to bind free

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia N2 from the air which will be converted into amino acids in plants (Slisbury, 1995). C. Environmental Management Through Settlement Based Liquid Waste Treatment Tofu Industry Household Scale The settlements are described by Kuswartojo and Salim (1997: 21) as a housing with all its contents and activities in it. Housing as a physical container, while the settlement is a blend of the container with its contents, the man who live in a society with elements of culture and environment. The settlements are part of the environment outside the protected area, be it urban or rural environment that serves as a residence or residential environment and the activities that support the life and livelihood. The sustainability of settlements needs to consider sustainability, environmental compatibility and balance the utilization of existing resources and carrying capacity since at the planning, management and development. It is thus that the direction to grow in harmony and harmonious development, according to the principles of sustainable development both economically, environmentally and socially and culturally. Management is the human effort in maintaining or improv-ing environmental quality so that basic needs can be met by either (Soemarwoto, 1985: 70). Management of the environ-ment as part of efforts in harnessing the human environment so people can increase the quality, and environmental quality is also good (Soerjani 19: 13). Environmental management is a human activity to improve environmental quality by minimizing the risk of negative impacts and maximize benefits (Soemarwoto, 1981: 35). UU-RI No. 23 of 1997 describes the environmental management is an integrated effort to preserve the environmental functions, including regulation, utilization, development, maintenance, restoration, monitoring, and controlling the environment (Environment, 1997: 5). The goal is to achieve harmony and balance the environment, preservation of the environment; have the attitude and actions to protect and nurture the environment; ensuring the interests of generations; the control of resource utilization; protected against pollution / environmental destruction. Settlement-oriented management environment based on the use of natural resources wisely so as to support the process of long-term and sustainable development to improve the quality of Indonesian human life completely. Consideration for the environment not only means that the environment can not be modified and natural resources can not be utilized. These considerations can be made from not opposed to continuing the development process, especially if intended for human welfare. Thus, development that does not concern environmental factors, natural resource exploitation that crippled its ability to be avoided. Presenting comfortable residential, safe and can create harmony between the people who live, should start by considering the balance with the environment. Based on the above description can be synthesized definition is conceptually based residential management eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

environment that can be interpreted as the human effort in managing, exploiting, developing, and maintaining elements of the physical environment, biological and social settlements on the achievement-oriented and balance, the quality of the environment surrounding the occupant. Thus the utilization of natural resources in maintaining balance, such as the establishment of the household scale tofu industry in the midst of settlement should be based management of residential environment by applying the wastewater treatment system constructed wetland uses plants typha latifolia in order to reduce the organic content of tofu industry wastewater. III. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH Methodological work in this activity include: 1. Data Analysis: performed to check the validity and trend data, the results of data analysis perception questionnaire used as a material to draw conclusions. 2. Benchmarks are used to seeing the successful implementation of activities, among others, the effectiveness of the performance of wastewater treatment with constructed wetland systems, measured by the test characteristics of treated waste water before and after processing. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Public Perception of Environmental Management Through Settlement Based Liquid Waste Treatment Tofu Industry. Preliminary data in community perceptions about the location of tofu industry wastes before undergoing a process of processing, shown in Table 1. While Table 2 is the result of data analysis applied to the perception of citizens after the constructed wetland system for wastewater treatment tofu industry. Based on the results of the analysis of perceptions of community residents around the location of tofu industry (30 people) prior to processing, suggesting that environmental quality is very low. That is, the perception of most residents of the settlements in the management of their neighborhood is negative. TABLE I.

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTIONS TOWARD ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF SETTLEMENT

Perceptions Air pollution due to odors arising from the pile of solid waste and waste processing. Contamination of ground water from the pool / disposal of waste water channels seep into the ground (water color and taste well) Level public health: respiratory disorders, itching due to the use of well water for bathing, washing, etc. Focus on reducing solid waste aesthetics (dirty)

Frequensi Negative Positive

TOTAL

21 (70%)

9 (30%)

30 (100%)

19 (63%)

11 (37%)

30 (100%)

19 (63%)

11 (37%)

30 (100%)

24 (80%)

6 (20%)

30 (100%)

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE II. RESULTS ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTIONS TOWARD ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF SETTLEMENT AFTER IMPLEMENTATION USING LIQUID WASTE TREATMENT PLANT TYPHA LATIFOLIA Frequensi Negative Positive

Perceptions Air pollution due to odors arising from the pile of solid waste and waste processing. Contamination of ground water from the pool / disposal of waste water channels seep into the ground (water color and taste well) Level public health: respiratory disorders, itching due to the use of well water for bathing, washing, etc. Focus on reducing solid waste aesthetics (dirty)

TOTAL

6 (20%)

24 (80%)

30 (100%)

10 (33%)

20 (67%)

30 (100%)

REFERENCES [1]

12 (40%)

18 (60%)

30 (100%)

11 (37%)

19 (63%)

30 (100%)

Positive perceptions on most of the residents who live around the site of the hygiene tofu industry the surrounding environment, are presented after the constructed wetland system using typha latifolia plants for treating wastewater applied tofu industry-scale households. This means that management can improve the environmental quality of settle-ments in the neighborhood. Improved environmental quality of the response shown by most citizens, who claimed descent respiratory disorders community around an industrial site. V. CONCLUSION The results revealed: First, the wastewater treatment plant that uses typha latifolia in constructed wetland system can degrade the organic content of tofu industry wastewater the scale of the household. Second, waste water treatment tofu industry-scale households using typha latifolia plants in constructed wetland systems are able to contribute to the management of environmentbased settlements. This was demonstrated by the presence of a positive perception of the citizens who live around the

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location of tofu industry about their surrounding environment clean. That is, the use of typha latifolia plants for tofu industry wastewater treatment the scale of households that applied to the constructed wetland system can improve the quality of the surrounding environment. Improved environmental quality is shown by the response of respiratory disorders due to declining citizen community around an industrial site.

[2] [3] [4] [5]

[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Bapedal, UU-RI Nomor 23 thn 1997 tentang Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup, Jakarta: Badan Pengendalian Dampak Lingkungan, 1997. Campbell and Ogden, Construdted Wetland For Waste Water, New York: McGraw Hil, 1999l. Djajadinigrat, Pengolahan Limbah Cair Domestik, Bandung: ITB, 2002. Hammer, Waste Water Engineering, New York: McGraw Hill, 1998. Kuswartojo, Tjuk dan Suparti Amir Salim, Perumahan dan Permukiman yang Berwawasan Lingkungan, Jakarta: Dirjen Dikti, Depdikbud, 1997. Mara,Do estic Waste treatment, New South Wales, 1976. Metcalf and Eddy, Waste Water Engineering: Treatment and Disposal Reuse, New York: McGraw Hill, 1991. Nurhasan dan Bambang Pramudyanto, Penanganan air Limbah Pabrik Tahu, Yayasan Bina Karya Lestari (Bintari), 1991. Nurhasan dan Bambang Pramudyanto, Buku Panduan Penanganan Limbah Cair Industri Kecil Tapioka, 2000. Sawyer, Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, New York: McGraw Hill, 1994. Steward, Constructed Wetland, Reedbeds International, 2007. Soemarwoto, Otto, Environment Education and Research in Indonesia Universitas, Singapore: Mazuzen Asia PTE, 1981. Soemarwoto, Otto, Ekologi Lingkungan Hidup dan Pembangunan, Jakarta: Djambatan, 1985. Soerjani, M., Berbagai Masalah dan Peluang dalam Pelaksanaan Pembangunan Berwawasan Lingkungan, dalam Lingkungan Hidup Berkeadilan (Bunga Rampai), Jakarta: Puspita Sari Indah, 1993.

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Self Air Entrainment in Supercritical Flow in Steep Channels Yeri Sutopo1, Budi Wignyosukarto2, Istiarto3 and Bambang Yulistyanto4 Ph.D. student in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gadjahmada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia1 Civil Engineering, Semarang State University, Semarang, Indonesia1 Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gadjahmada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia2,3,4 [email protected]

Abstract—The purpose of this research are: (1) the availability of the formulation of the location of the point of inception in self air entrainment in steep channels in location developing aerated flow, and (2) describe the distribution of air bubble concentrations at the self air entrainment in steep channels in developing flow region, at α=15° and 20°, Q=11.5 l/s at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume.. This study used an experimental method was implemented in the Hydraulics Laboratory of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (JTSL), Faculty of Engineering Gadjah Mada University. Used in this study has a steep channel 10 m long, 0.2 m wide, 0.4 m high with a slope change from 15º, and 20º, which is fused with the wall tubs. Discharge fixed 11.5 l/s. The point of inception location experimentally compared with four equations, namely (1) Wood, Ackers, and Loveless (1983) (2) Feranndo and Rico (2002), (3) Hager and Blaser (1998), and (4) Bauer (1954). Data analysis of air bubble concentration distribution C natural experimental results compared with equation Chanson (1997) and Straub and Anderson (1958). The results of this study were (1) the method of Wood et al (1983) comes closest point of inception experimental values compared with the three other methods Hager and Blaser (1998) ; Ferrando and Rico (2002), and the method of Bauer (1954), (2) the concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α=15°, Q=11.5 l/s , at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume , theory Chanson (1997) and the theory of Straub and Anderson (1958) approximates the shape of the concentration distribution of air bubbles experiment (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case; (3) the concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α= 20° , Q=11.5 l/s , at cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume , theory Chanson (1997) approximates the form of air bubble concentration distribution experiments (Yeri, 2013), compared to the theory of Straub and Anderson ( 1958). Keywords-concentration distribution of air bubbles; self and artificial air entrainment; steep channel

I. INTRODUCTION One of the important characteristics of the flow at the surface chute spillway is air incoming from the atmosphere into the flow and mixed with water. Falvey (1980: 7) defines the air entrainment as the entry of air from the atmosphere into the water bodies. Air entrainment marked the white water into the flow. Air eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

entrainment as described above can also be referred to as self aeration. Occurrence of self-aeration process are outlined below. At the bed flow of the building spillway, boundary layer began in above of crest. Laminar boundary layer is usually short, this is caused by the flow velocity and the roughness starts to increase. After that happens turbulent boundary layer. At a certain point, namely at point C, the distance from the crest spillway is Xc, turbulent boundary layer reaches the surface of the flow. In terms of the hydraulic is fully developed. At this point the air entrainment process begins, in general, this location is referred to as the point of inception. Many researchers classify air concentration measurements into two zones, namely the mixing and underlying. One of the researchers is Anderson. Many researchers also believe that the distribution of concentrations in the mixing zone to follow the laws of the Gaussian normal distribution. They found an association between variables as presented below. 1  Cm (1)  2 1  Pg  1  Ct Value Pg is a function of the normal distribution can be obtained in the statistical text books.

Surface waves have no effect on the underlying zone. Straub and Anderson is a researcher who has develop equation of air concentration distribution in the underlying zone. Based on the assumption that the terminal velocity of air bubbles is constant, then the equation will be obtained below.

 z  C  C1    dt  z 

m

(2)

Explanation Cm : Concentration of air bubbles including between waves

Ct

:

z

:

z'

:

Concentration of air bubbles in the bottom of the mixing zone Depth is measured from the base and bed flow perpendicular Depth is measured from the bottom of the mixing zone

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dt m C Co

:

Transition depth

At α = 45º is 0,122 whereas α =15º is 0,752 Concentration of air bubbles Concentration of air bubbles at an angle of free turbulent zone C1 : Concentration of air bubbles at dt 2 Toombes and Chanson (2007: 263) argues that the concentration distribution of air bubble C in the developing region can be estimated with air bubble diffusion equation below. : : :

z   z90   (3) C  1  tanh  K ' 2* D '     K 'and D' is a function of the average air concentration, which is defined as follows (Chanson, 1995: 154-161): 2

D'  3,5722Ce3  2,3456Ce2  1,15799Ce  0,0166 K '  0,7766Ce0,9877 The average air concentration, Chanson (1993: 925)

Ce  0,9*sin  The purpose of this research are: (1) the availability of the formulation of the location of the point of inception in self air entrainment in steep channels in location developing aerated flow; and (2) describe the distribution of air bubble concentrations at the self air entrainment in steep channels in developing flow region, at α=15° and 20°, Q=11.5 l/s at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume. II. METHOD In this study used a steep channel which has length of 10 m, width 0.2 m, height 40 cm with a slope change from 15º and 20º, which is fused with the wall tubs. Channeling water into a tub made of tanks controlled by valves. Debit fixed at 11.5 l/s. Instruments such as Thompson (V Notch) is used to calibrate the flow rate. A set of video cameras used to take pictures of the movement of air bubbles. Analysis of air bubbles using a software program Ulead Video Studio 11 which comes with the ImageJ software. Air bubbles were measured at 3 cm from the side wall of the flume to the flume centre. In the longitudinal direction, the air bubbles were measured at x = 720.3 cm. Measurement location is along the zone "developing". In the vertical direction or perpendicular to the flow (z) were measured up to a depth of 25 grade categories, depending on the depth of z.

Figure 1. The layout of tools and research instruments

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Location Point of Inception Measured from Inlet Flume on Self Air Entrainment At Steep Channels, flume slope α=15° and 20° Value of the location point of inception experiments or actual measured from the inlet flume predicted using four methods, namely Wood, Acker and Loveless (1983), Hager and Blaser (1998); Ferrando and Rico (2002), and Bauer (1954). The fourth method is selected for consideration, that the parameters in the methods available in the experimental process. Other methods, such as Keller and Rastogi (1977) was not considered, because this method uses curves and tables that are not found in the literature that leads into the study . Based on Table 1, it appears that the method Ferrando and Rico (2002) deviated from the most distant point of inception value experiment compared with the method of Bauer (1954); Wood, Acker and Loveless (1983) and Hager and Blaser (1998). Method of Bauer (1954) tend to overestimate the value of the point of inception experimental because it has a deviation mean value = 28.05. Method Wood, Acker and Loveless (1983) tend to overestimate the value of the point of inception experiment because they havea deviationmean value = 6.1. Ferrando and Rico (2002) methods tends underestimate to the value of the point of inception experiment because they have a deviation mean value =(43.9). Method of Hager and Blaser (1998) tends underestimate to the value of the point of inception experiments ( -19.51 ). Based on Table 1 appears that the method of Wood et al (1983) closest to the point of inception values experimental compared with the three other methods Hager and Blaser (1998 ); Ferrando and Rico (2002), and the method of Bauer (1954). This is due to the mean deviation point of inception to the point of inception experimental value smaller than the other three methods.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE I. VALUE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS TO COMPARE THREE METHODS TO CALCULATE THE LOCATION OF THE POINT OF INCEPTION (XC) OF THE VALUE OF THE LOCATION OF THE POINT OF INCEPTION EXPERIMENTS ON Α = 15 °, 20 ° TO 11.5 L/S

Wood, dkk (1983)

Prediction method of location point of Inception from Inlet Flume Ferrando dan Bauer Rico (2002) Hager (1998) (1954)

Slope

Discharge

Xc(experiment)

Xc

E

Xc

E

Xc

E

Xc

E

(α)

Q (l/s)

(m)

(m)

(%)

(m)

(%)

(m)

(%)

(m)

(%)

15°

11,5

4,1

4

-2,44

2,4

-41,46

3,6

-12,20

5

21,95

20°

11,5

4,1

3,7

-9,76

2,2

-46,34

3

-26,83

5,5

34,15

Error average

-6,10

-43,90

-19,51

28,05

Standart deviation

5,17

3,45

10,35

8,62

Level of confidence

(-11,27;-0,92)

(-47,35;-40,45)

(-29,86;-9,16)

(19,43;36,67)

(-16,45;4,25)

(-50,8;-37,0)

(-40,21;1,18)

(10,8;45,30)

68% (E±SD) Level of confidence 95% (E±2SD)

Based on Table 1 above can be explained that the four methods: Wood, Acker and Loveless (1983), Ferrando and Rico (2002), as well as Hager and Blaser (1998) and Bauer (1954) have a confidence level of 95%, when used to predict location of the point of inception value experiments. Thus it can be recommended that in order to predict the location of the point of inception experiments on a steep channel should use methods of Wood et al (1983). B. Concentration distribution profiles of air bubbles in the α = 15 °, Q = 11.5 l / s at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, Froude number = 8 Based on Figure 2, it can be said that the air bubbles have reached the bottom of the flow. Air bubble has reached 7.47 mm from bed flow which concentration is 4.99 %. Distributed air bubbles from a depth (z) of 7.47 mm to 18.35 mm. Falvey (1980) stated that in conditions such as Figure 2 is included in developing regions due to the concentration distribution of air bubbles has not spread homogeneously, so that can not be categorized into a fully developed region. Based on data analysis, can be described that the magnitude of the mean deviation value JP between the concentration of air bubbles C theory (Chanson, 1997) and the value of C experimental (Yeri, 2013) was 5.8 %. The magnitude of the standard deviation between the concentration of air bubbles deviation (JP) C theory (Chanson, 1997) and the value of (JP) C experimental (Yeri , 2013) is 3.22 %. Based on the standard deviation value of JP 3.22% < 5.8 %, it can be said that the average value of JP (5.8 %) as an accurate representation of the difference between the two distributions. Thus, the theory of concentration distribution of air bubbles (Chanson, 1997) approached the experimental concentration distribution of air bubbles (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case.

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Figure 2. Concentration distribution of air bubbles at α = 15 °, Q = 11.5 l/s, at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, Froude number = 8

Based on data analysis, can be described that the magnitude of the mean deviation value between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) to the value of JP C experimental (Yeri, 2013) was 10.1 %. The magnitude of the standard deviation between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) to the value of JP C experimental (Yeri , 2013) is 17.45 %. Based on the standard deviation of JP is 17.45 % much to the value of 10.1 % (mean of JP), it can be said that the average mean value of JP (10.1 %) were less accurate as a representation of the difference between the two distributions. However, that does not mean absolute value was -3.3 %, so the predicted mean value < 10.1 %. Thus, the concentration distribution of air bubbles theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) approached the experimental concentration distribution of air bubbles (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case. Concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α = 15 °, Q = 11.5 l/s, at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, theory Chanson (1997) and the theory of Straub and Anderson (1958) approximates the shape of the concentration distribution of air bubbles

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia experiment (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case. C. Air bubble concentration distribution profile at α = 20 °, Q = 11.5 l / s at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, Froude number = 7.6 Figure 3 below, it can be said that the air bubbles have reached the bottom of the flow. New air bubble reaches 7.47 mm from the bed flow of 7.13%. Distributed air bubbles from 0 mm z depths up to 18.35 mm. Falvey (1980) stated that in conditions such as Figure 3 below is included in developing flow regions due to the concentration distribution of air bubbles has not spread homogeneously, so that can not be categorized into a fully developed region. Concentration of air bubbles in the surface flow of 96.97 % , this value has reached 90 %, so it can be made dimensionless curve requires z90 or concentration at z depth there that has a value of 90 %. Therefore, the experimental curve in this case is comparable to the proposed equation Chanson (1997:197); well can also be compared with the equation Straub and Anderson 1958.

Anderson, 1958) to the value of JP C experimental (Yeri, 2013) is 21 %. Based on the standard deviation value of JP C= 21 % away from the mean value of JP C= 10.8 %, it can be said that the mean value of JP C= 10.8 % less accurate as a representation of the difference between the two distributions. JP C mean value between the air bubble concentration distribution theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) and the concentration distribution of air bubbles experiment (Yeri, 2013), was very varied. However, the standard deviation value of JP C is still acceptable by Najafi and Yasi (2004 : 63), because the level of acceptance of research between 19-21 % standard deviation. Thus, the concentration distribution of air bubbles theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) is still close to the experimental concentration distribution of air bubbles (Yeri, 2013), so it still can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case. Concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α = 20°, Q = 11.5 l/s, at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, Chanson theory (1997) is closer to the form of the concentration distribution of air bubbles experiment (Yeri, 2013), compared to the theory of Straub and Anderson (1958). IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusion First , the method of Wood et al (1983 ) comes closest point of inception experimental values compared with the three other methods Hager and Blaser (1998 ); Ferrando and Rico (2002), and the method of Bauer (1954).

Figure 3. Concentration distribution of air bubbles at α = 20°, Q = 11.5 l/s, at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, Froude number = 7,6

Based on the analysis, it can be described that the magnitude of the mean deviation value between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Chanson, 1997) the value of JP C experimental (Yeri , 2013) was 6.7 % . The magnitude of the standard deviation between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Chanson, 1997) the value of JP C experimental (Yeri , 2013) is 3.83 % . Based on the standard deviation value of JP C= 3.83 % < 6.7 % (mean of JP), so it can be said that the mean deviation value of JP C (6.7 %) as an accurate representation of the difference between the two distributions. Thus, the theory of concentration distribution of air bubbles (Chanson, 1997) approached the experimental concentration distribution of air bubbles (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case. Based on data analysis, the magnitude of the mean deviation value between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Straub and Anderson, 1958) to the value of JP C experimental (Yeri, 2013) was 10.8 %. The magnitude of the standard deviation between the concentration of air bubbles JP C theory (Straub and eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Second , the concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α=15°, Q=11.5 l/s , at a cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume , theory Chanson (1997) and the theory of Straub and Anderson (1958) approximates the shape of the concentration distribution of air bubbles experiment (Yeri, 2013), so it can be used to predict the concentration distribution of air bubbles in this case. Third, the concentration distribution of air bubbles in the self air entrainment at α= 20° , Q=11.5 l/s, at cross sectiont 7.203 m from the inlet flume, theory Chanson (1997) approximates the form of air bubble concentration distribution experiments (Yeri, 2013), compared to the theory of Straub and Anderson (1958). B. Recommendation When calculating the location of the point of inception or critical point in the design of spillway dam building sloped α = 15° and α = 20°, preferably used method of Wood (1983), because of its ability to predict the value of the actual location of the point of inception , including accurate. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

Afshar, N., R., Raju, R., dan Asawa, G., L., Air concentration distribution in self-aerated flow, Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1994. Chanson, H., “Air bubble diffusion in supercritical open channel flows”, Twelfth Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, The University of Sydney, Australia, 1995, pp. 707-710.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia [3] [4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

Chanson, H., “Self aerated flows on chute and spillway”, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 119, No. 2, February, 1993. Falvey, H., T., Air Water Flow Hydraulic Structure, United States Departement of Interior, Water and Power Resources Service, 1980. Sutopo, Y., Pemasukan udara alamiah dan buatan (self and artificial air entrainment) di saluran curam, Draft laporan disertasi, Teknik Sipil FT UGM Yogyakarta, 2013. Najafi, A. dan Yasi, M., Evaluation of incipient aeration point on spillways, Hydraulics of dam and structures, Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 9058096327, 2004, pp. 58-67. Toombes, L., dan Chanson, H., Surface waves and roughness in self-aerated supercritical flow, Environ Fluid Mech, ed. 7, 2007, pp. 259-270.

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Precast Concrete Technology Yuliarti Kusumawardaningsih1 and Endah Kanti Pangestuti2 Department of Civil Engineering, Semarang State University (UNNES), Semarang, Indonesia1,2 Department of Concrete Structures, Institute of Structural Engineering, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany1 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Reinforced concrete is the most common building material, a composite material; generally constitutes by water, cement, aggregates, chemical additive, and steel reinforcement which is added to increase the tensile strength and ductility of concrete. In conjunction to reinforce concrete, polymers and other materials can also be used. In current years, there has been a significant transformation to the fabrication methods of reinforced concrete, which encouraging experts to consider the privilege of precast technology. Precast concrete is construction elements produced by casting fresh concrete in special equipped plants. The assembling of precast concrete elements will form large concrete structures. Precast concrete is known as an offshoot of reinforced concrete technology; however it needs specific considerations regard to its production, transportation, handling, structural nature, and construction process. As an industrial product which is manufactured under accurate methods, satisfactory quality controls, and also independent from weather condition; the quality of precast concrete elements could be made beyond cast-in-place concrete; thus, enhance the quality of concrete structures. Furthermore, precast concrete offers flexibility and versatility in terms of design, construction stages and speed of a project. Looking upon the benefit of this concrete technology, this paper describes the precast concrete technology full potentials, concepts, and constraints. Keywords-concrete technology; technology; reinforced concrete

precast

concrete

Certified precast concrete plants offers the fabrication of high qualified concrete products satisfying both in architectural and structural terms. Precast concrete proposes the production of a variety of shape and size of concrete elements, which means offer flexibility in design and aesthetic. The introduction of prestressing technique in precast concrete increases the tensile stress capacity of concrete, offers greater span-to-depth ratios and less use of material. Concrete elements manufactured by precasting is more durable, means that the concrete has a longer service life, as precast concrete can be produced under low water-cementitious materials ratio and under controlled environment than those produce by cast-inplace. Besides more fire resistance, thermal and energy efficiency, sustainability, and reuse chance system; other advantage of using precast concrete is the speed of the construction, wherein casting of concrete elements can be started while the foundation work is still in process. The installment of concrete elements can also be done during the year and is not limited by weather condition. However, to fully employ the benefit and cost effective use of precast concrete; when producing precast concrete, the following constrains should be taken into account: properly though connection joint designs; the shape and size freedom of producing precast concrete elements which is limited by the production, transportation, and erection available techniques and equipments [2].

I. INTRODUCTION

II. PRECAST CONCRETE

Reinforced concrete is a strong and durable composite material that can be flexibly formed into a variety of shapes and sizes of structural elements. The addition of steel to reinforce the concrete, not only improves the ductility of the composite, but also increases its tensile and shear strength capacities. While, concrete itself is good in compression strength, provides fire resistance and gives durability [1]. Reinforced concrete generally constitutes by water, cement, aggregates, chemical additive, and steel reinforcement. In order to reinforce the concrete, besides steel, polymers and other materials can also be used.

A. Design Consideration In designing and producing precast concrete, it is very important to take into account the appropriate design criteria; considering the ultimate of load, quality, and economic of the precast concrete systems. Design criteria in determination of loads, dimension, shape, reinforcement, joint connections, tolerants, limitations, detail drawings, and also its treatment techniques; for the stability and durability of the whole structure. Although, most precast concrete elements which are used for architectural and aesthetical needs are non-load bearing elements, meaning that these elements are not subjected to support other loads than their own weight.

The growth on concrete technology has encouraged people to discover new technique for a mass production of concrete elements in order to answer the demand of constructing massive and/or cost-and-time efficient structures. Thus, precast concrete has been considered by experts to have potential in responding this need. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Manuals sourced from Precast and Prestress Concrete Institute (PCI), American Concrete Institute (ACI), and many other legal codes can be used as the pole of design criteria and procedures in producing precast concrete elements [3].

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Shapes and Sizes Precast concrete are flexibly formed into a variety shapes and sizes of elements; however a maximum economy of using precast concrete is achieved when using commonly shapes and sizes of unit products demanded by markets, due to the highly cost of molding formwork. Maximum repetition of using standard shapes and sizes of precast concrete, allows multiple use of high quality of molding formwork. Another constraint is that not every shapes and sizes of unit products are available in some areas, therefore engineers should consider this restriction into their design. In addition, limited handling equipment and transportation also need to be taken into account [2]. Standard precast concrete shapes with specified sizes are: double tees, flat slabs, hollow core slabs, channel slabs, I beams, box beams, bulb tees, inverted tees, ledger beams, square and rectangular columns, piles, stadium riser units, raker beams, modular products, etc (see Figure 1). C. Applications The development of precast concrete elements assemble, its flexibility in terms of shapes, sizes, and textures, and its advancement in materials, production, finishing, and techniques require in transportation and handling systems; has made precast products to be able to use in a wide variety of applications: building structures,

parking structures, stadium, bridge structures, also other structure elements or facilities (poles, piles, railroad ties, storage tanks, monorails, retaining walls, highway and runway pavement, etc). In addition, the prestressing technique in precast concrete elements also reduces overall financing cost, add a room space needed in a structure, and answer to suit any context-sensitive environment [2]. Figure 2 shows example applications of precast concrete for structural and infrastructural needs. D. Architectural applications Many architects, owners and even experts demand complex precast concrete element having particular shapes and surface treatments in regards on architectural and structural senses. This challenge, then boosting many development, such as: in the terms of new surface textures, color, treatments and finishing on precast concrete products. The rising up of advanced material technologies such as ultra-high-performanceconcrete, polymers, carbon fibers and high strength steels also support the industry [2]. Improvement in the manufacturing process has led precast concrete elements to be made flexibly into any form, color and texture which is architectural and aestheticaly please both engineers and owners. In general, to satisfy architectural and aesthetically a structure, precast concrete are used in: art and sculpture, columns, fountains, paving, slabs, walls, towers, balconies, fences, ornamental works, etc [3].

Figure 1. Precast concrete products, slabs and beams : a) flat, b) hollow core, c) spandrel, d) ledger, e) double-tees, f) inverted-tee, g) bulb-tee, h) girder, i) box beam [2].

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Figure 2. Example application of precast concrete in: bridges, buildings, railroad ties, and wall elements [2-8].

E. Joint connections Joint connection details between precast concrete elements should be designed to compromise expected movement of structures, by providing such as: slotted or oversized holes, flexing or sliding of steel; and also to accomodate the transfer of designed vertical and horisontal loads to other elements. Connection types as: fid, rocking, slip, and in-plane; are typical joint connections used for panels structural design due to seismic loadings. Welds, shims, levelling bolts, anchorages also can be used in the connections. Adequate opening spaces should be provided as access to adjust connections in all directions. In addition, for improving and fixing irregularities, tolerating uneven surfaces, and accomodating movements; bearing pads made from elastromeric and/ or plastic materials are employed to distribute vertical and horisontal loads in the connection area [3]. F. Transportation, handling, and erection In terms of transportation, handling, and erection of precast concrete elements; a proper planning must be considered to avoid unnecessary damage, cracking and impairment; even, before the casting process of precast elements are finished, in order to install necessary handling holders. An ability to strip and handle precast elements into positions closed to final position wherein the elements will be placed in the structure, is one of

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

ways to achieve optimum economic and efficient handling techniques. Lack coordination between design of precast concrete elements and its erection implementations could impact the installment process, thus effects to the overall economy of the entire project. Therefore, effective discussions are important to be conducted among engineers, precast concrete producer, and the handlers / erectors of precast concrete elements. Figure 3 illustrates transportation, handling and erection operations of precast concrete elements. G. Future demand The growing of precast concrete industries is also followed by the development of its supporting material, machinery, and equipments industries. This rise makes the price of precast concrete become more competetive and affordable, thus more people would use precast concrete elements regards on its efficient, effective application, and flexibility form, with carefully though design, use, operational techniques. It also could be predicted that the vast majority of future demand on precast concrete is derived from construction (structure and infrastructural) markets. Residential markets will have the highest demand, followed by nonresidential markets. Architectural elements are also predicted to have large increase of demand, regards on the high desire of engineers and owners towards more complex designs.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Example of transportation (a), handle and erection operations (b) of precast concrete [2-3, 9-11].

III. CONCLUSION This paper has written about precast concrete technology, its potentials, some basic concepts, and constraints which need to be taken into account when deciding to use precast concrete elements in structure. Besides other subtopic; type of precast concrete elements, its structural and architectural application, connections, transportation and handling techniques are explained; though have not in very detail. Precast concrete is predicted has a large demand in the future, and it is indeed an alternative construction choice in the structure and infrastructural fields; however carefully design and handling to ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors write this paper as their contribution to the Engineering Faculty of Semarang State University, Indonesia. All financial assistances, provided especially by the Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education and Semarang State University, during the first author doctoral study at the University of Kassel, Germany are gratefully acknowledge.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

REFERENCES M. Bill, B. John, and H. Ray, “Reinforced concrete design”, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 6th Edition, 2007. [2] PCI Design Handbook: “Precast and prestressed concrete”, Precast/ Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), USA, 7th Edition, 2010. [3] PCI: “Architectural Precast Concrete”, Precast/ Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), Chicago, 3rd Edition, 2007. [4] Bridges, Kelana jaya light rail LRT, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.bridges.mottmac.com/bridgeprojects/metrobridges/kel anajayalightrail/ [5] Hotel club, The Transamerica pyramid, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.hotelclub.com/blog/pyramids-around-the-world/thetransamerican-pyramid/ [6] NPCA, Beat the heat with precast concrete Pt 2., accessed 15/10/2013, http://precast.org/blog/precastproducts/ [7] Skyscrapercity, Japanese at its best, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=117141&page= 4 [8] Zodev design, Jubilee church, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.zodevdesign.com/gallery.php?&page=2 [9] PPC (Pretoria Portland Cement Company), Photo gallery, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.ppc.co.za/pages/news_gallery_photo.cfm?gid=37 [10] Architectural Mould Services Ltd, About us, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.architecturalmouldservices.co.uk/about.html [11] Concrete Network.com, Superior walls of America, accessed 15/10/2013, http://www.concretenetwork.com/photogallery/site_26/%201755-pa-superior-walls-of-america-precastwall-panels-truck_58896/ [1]

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Analysis of End-of-Life Vehicle Recycle A Case of End-of-Life Vehicle due to Accident in Malang

Ardiana Rachmi Nafidah1, Youngky Reynaldi Yusuf2 and Wendha Asbet Swandita3 Industrial Engineering Brawijaya University Malang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Indonesia is a country that has big amount of vehicle volume. This volume keep increased significantly from year to year. This leads to the high rate of accidents risk in the country. So far, most of the cars resulting from an accident end as waste, which impact the environment. Regarding to this condition, Indonesia has not established a system to manage end-of-life (EoL) vehicle resulting from accidents. On the other hand, the process of recycling car accident can bring many benefits from every single sector good for the environment and also economy. Recycling save storage space, creates new jobs, production and distribution of secondary raw material and save considerable resources and the environment. This paper discuss about process, infrastructure situation, optimal technologies, caused effect on environment, and benefit on recycling of EoL vehicle resulting from accidents. Some benefits include economics benefit, such as job opportunity, and for environment. For recent year, Indonesia conduct recycling vehicle resulting from accidents on small scale. With the benefits obtained, it is expected to improve workshop that recycling vehicle resulting from accident and trigger the government to also play a role in the recycle process. Together with the government role, workshop improvement that recycle EoL vehicle resulting from accident, will gain more benefit both economically and environmentally. Keywords-recycling; end of life vehicles; suitable method in Indonesia

I. INTRODUCTION Every kind of recycling generally gives advantages to the environment, we can also say this for car recycling process, especially cars which have heavy damage from an accident. Those cars if not handling appropriately too long it will cause the decreasing of space. This activity from environment aspect can become an answer to automotive waste recycling. Besides, it will create new business opportunity which, of course create job opportunity so it will help the decreasing of jobless number. In Malang there is a famous car recycling workshop, Priyono Nasioanal Motor Malang, the workshop have been operating for 40 years, more or less. The damaged cars are sent there and after the processing will have, once again, a good performance. The process of car recycling eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

should be done carefully to avoid negative impact to the environment and social. Thus, in this research we should know the frame work and the steps of car recycling process occurred in Malang and then compare it with the ones occurred in another country so we can establish how we should do an appropriate car recycling. II. METHODOLOGY In this research the focus is on the damaged car and its processing. As for collecting data we do a field study in a workshop, Priyono Nasional Motor Malang, and some old junk collectors. With the researching data’s result we do literature study from research journals to compare it with the condition in Malang. As the result we can now the precise method of processing damaged car and can apply it in Indonesia and Malang, especially. III. EOL CAR PROCESSING IN MALANG From field study occurred in some workshops, the result is Indonesia do not have a processing system for a car which exceed its “End of Life” time and then perform a revenge logistic to the factory. Nowadays, the condition in Indonesia a car will be use forever without paying attention to its “End of Life”. It is known from a field study, car drivers in Indonesia will always repair their cars even if it worn out, damaged, or exceed its “End of Life”, including the damaged cars from an accident. The only reason the car got retired if it was heavily burnt because it can not repaired. The flow chart below is a picture of car usage in Indonesia. Car components from the supplier

Crashed Car

Vehicles

Body repair

Repair car

Sell to showroom

Scrap Iron

Melting process

Sell to steel factory

End of Life Vehicles

Burned Car

Figure 1. Car usage in Indonesia.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The focus of this research is on the processing of damaged car by an accident. As known, the damaged car has some risks if it is repaired without a precise procedure. The usage of recycling damaged car by an accident will endanger the driver if it is not repaired precisely. Some wastes which can not recycled in car recycling can become a danger when recycler do not know the right procedure. Thus, below is the picture of damaged car by an accident recycling in Indonesia. Car insurance

Accident

Personal repairable ?

The car changed hands to the insurance The car was sold to a buyer specialists car accident Body Repairing

Breakdown of car components by a mechanic

Oil Sortir

Car Body repair

dispose

Metals

sold

glass

piled

Scrap iron

Car painting

car polishing

Car Finishing repairing of car interior Repairing of car engine Selling car

Figure 3. Car recycling process in Europe. Figure 2. Damaged car by an accident recycling in Indonesia.

IV. THE PROPER DAMAGED CAR PROCESSING ACCORDING TO LITERATURE STUDY According to literature study which had been done, the result shows a new knowledge about recycling process in Europe. Recycling process is done to a car which exceed its End-of-use Vehicles (ELV) by not turn them to be a use car again. The car experience 2 steps, dismantling and shredding. In dismantling phase, then the car’s components divide into two, In-demand subassemblies and mandatory subassemblies. For the In-demand subassemblies components will be sorted to divide the ferrous and non-ferrous metal. Form the sorting process, non-ferrous components such as plastic, rubber, etc. will be recycled into new goods such as PVC piping, furniture, garbage cans, dashboard and side panels, and carpet padding. This is the flow chart of car recycling process in Europe.

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V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION From field and literature study results about ELV’s car recycling process in Malang and Europe, there are some orientation differences on recycle outcome. In Malang and Indonesia generally ELV car is recycled and then used again. This is differ with the result in Europe, USA, and Japan where the outcome of the recycling process of ELV car is inform of goods such as plastic, rubber, glass, etc. In another country, out of Indonesia, car recycling are done by using advance manufacture technology such as shredder while in Indonesia until now we do not have that kind of technology. The difference of quality standard inside and outside this country can be the reason why in ELV car recycling process also has a different outcome. People’s interest in Indonesia towards recycled cars is extremely high, as in fact, from the result of our interview which we had done with the owner of Priyono Nasional Motor Malang, that recycled cars is sent to some towns in Indonesia, not only Malang. This result is completely different with ones in another country, where from the government’s point of view which feel when car exceed its usage time or had a fatal accident is not proper to use again although it had been recycled.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Indonesia as a developing country apply this kind of method because they believe it can give them some benefit to environment, social, and economy. Those damaged cars if not handling appropriately too long it will cause the decreasing of space. From environment aspect can become an answer to automotive waste recycling. Besides, it will create new business opportunity which, of course create job opportunity so it will help the decreasing of jobless number. From those profit, also seeing the infrastructure condition, Indonesia still can not apply recycling process as in other country.

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

VI. CONCLUSION Recycling process frame work which happened in Indonesia and in other country is different, where in Indonesia ELV car or damaged car is recycled and then used again. This is differ with the result in Europe, USA, and Japan where the outcome of the recycling process of ELV car is new products according to the kind of component and not in form of use car.

[11]

[12]

[13]

REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4]

[5]

(2006, May 26). Retrieved March 21, 2013, from The Economist: http://www.economist.com/node De Brito, Maria.,”Reverse Logistics: a review of case studies,” Econometric Institute Report EI 2002-21, 2002. Fleischmann, Moritz, Quantitative Models for Reverse Logistics, Thesis, Rotterdam: Erasmus University, 2000. Francas dan Minner, Manufacturing network configuration in supply chains with product recovery, Omega 37, 2009, pp. 757 769 Hess, R.W., Hynes, M.V., Peters, J.E., Rushworth, D. Disposal Option for Ship, Santa Monica : Rand, 2001.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

[14]

[15]

Kara, S., Rugrungruang, F., Kaebernick,H., Simulation modelling of reverse logistics networks. International Journal of Production Economics 10, 2007, pp. 61–69. Lee dan Dong, Dynamic network design for reverse logistics operations under uncertainty. Transportation Research Part E 45, 2009, pp. 61–71. Liecken dan Vandaele, Reverse logistics network design with stochastic lead times, Computers & Operations Research 34, 2007, pp.395–416. Neser, G., Unsalan, D., Tekogul, N., Lauridsen, F., The shipbreaking industri in Turkey: environmental, safety and health issues, Journal of Cleaner Production 16, 2006. Nunes, K.R.A., Mahler, C.F., Valle, R.A., Reverse logistics in the Brazilian construction industry, Journal of Environmental Management, 2009, pp. 1–4. Rahadiana, R. (2012, September 18). Retrieved March 23, 2013, from Reuters: http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/09/18/indonesiaeconomy-autos-idINJ9E8CJ02J20120918 Rivera, Reynaldo., Ertel, Jurgen, Reverse logistics network design for the collection of End-of-Life Vehicles in Mexico, European Journal of Operational Research 196, 2008, pp. 930–939. Schultmann, F., Zumkeller,M.,Rentz, O., Modeling reverse logistic tasks within closed-loop supply chains: An example from the automotive industry. European Journal of Operational Research 171, 2006, pp.1033–1050. Shih, Li-Hsing., Reverse Logistics system planning for recycling electrical appliance and computer in Taiwan. Journal of Resources, Conservation and Recycling 32, 2001, pp. 55-72. Sundelin, Oskar, The Scrapping of Vessels – An examination of the waste movement regime’s applicability to vessels destined for scrapping and potential improvements made in the IMO Draft Convention on Ship Recycling, Thesis, Gothenburg : Department of Law School of Business, Economics and Law University of Gothenbur, 2008.

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The Right Alternative Cropping Patterns to Overcome Water Shortage in Cangi Irrigation Area - Lepud, Mengwi - Bali Nurhayati Aritonang Civil Engineering Departement Engineering Faculty of Surabaya State University (UNESA) [email protected]

Abstract—To improve the good cropping pattern which needs the cropping pattern regulation and the intermittent water distribute for block I toward the block II by the treatment of factor K of 0,78 for rice-rice-palawija crop and faktor K 0,47 is that rice-rice-rice crop. To increase the land use effectiveness and cropping equalization for the farmers in order that conflicts is not resulting in, so the mix cropping pattern is that rice-ricerice+palawija crop with the factor K = 0,60, water distribute with the intermittent system on the area divide on DI. In optimum for dry season II (MT III), that is: Rice cropping 1,766.39 ha (70 %), and Palawija cropping 757.03 ha (30%). By appling the cropping pattern of rice-rice-rice+palawija crop, water distribute system is flowed intermittently with the factor K of 0,6 on August I, August II and September I. Based on cropping pattern of rice-rice-rice+palawija crop can improve the cropping intensity from 270 % becoming 300 %. Keywords-block; continuous flow and intermittent flow; cropping pattern; cropping intensity

I. INTRODUCTION A. Background Watershed (DAS) Sungi Yeh river is one of the major watersheds in the Province of Bali which has natural resources such as forests , land and water potential , if managed properly , so that it can provide great benefits and can improve the welfare of the community . In Cangi Irrigation Area - Lepud area that has potential for an area of 273.85 hectares, irrigation water discharge < 2 liters per second and the water source is the river Yeh small enough Sungi are far enough away from the study area so that more often not up to the Lepud Irrigation Area. Because of this condition, the farmers only use / use existing sources of water in the rice fields surrounding the springs - springs located near the rice fields so planting patterns become irregular in other words there is no uniformity . In this case people of Lepud also not utilizing the rainfall comes in the rainy season B. Problem Formulation In this study planned to formulate the problem of : eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

1. Availability of water in the river Yeh Sungi discharge analysis mainstay 2. Water demand in the areas of irrigation water Cangi – Lepud 3. Cropping systems are most appropriate for use in the irrigation area Lepud based on the existing water supply. C. Research Objectives The purpose of this study is to find the right alternative cropping patterns and water availability in accordance with the in -take. D. Benefits of Research Its benefits are to apply the proper cropping pattern without disturbing the balance of water allocation. II. LITERATURE A. Common Sense To support the utilization of water effectively and efficiently is very necessary to have a means and an adequate water infrastructure, to reduce the loss of water during the journey to the field, usually the basic principles of irrigation. B. Rainfall in the watershed Mengwi region and subak Lepud particularly affected by the tropical climate has two seasons namely dry and rainy, dry falls in April through September and a rainy fall from October to March. Rainfall in Mengwi ½ years recorded on average at 437.32 mm average rainfall being about 100 days so dry months > of the wet months. C. Water availability and Debit mainstay. Water availability is the ability of a river or a watershed (DAS) to provide discharge information from time to time as stated in the daily average discharge, semimonthly, monthly and yearly. Discharge data used in this case is the average discharge data semimonthly. Dependable Flow is a minimum flow data for the river met the pre-determined probability that can be used for irrigation. 80 % being met possibility set (the possibility that lower streamflow discharge mainstay is 20%).

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia (KP.01, 1986). Leading Debit determined monthly for the middle period. 1. The water needs Water needs in the fields (NFR) also take into account the effective rainfall KP.01, 1985). To determine the water needs of the area under irrigation used this equation: In = ETсґор + P + P – Re

(1)

2. Cropping patterns Cropping pattern Pattern is cropping or cropping sequence on a plot of land in the past year including tillage and land fallow period (Diperta, London, 1982). 3. River discharge Some models discharge computation analysis include: Mock models , models and models Nreca Sacramento. The models used for these calculation: (1) simulate monthly water balance in a watershed that is intended to calculate the total runoff (runoff) of the value of monthly precipitation, evapotranspiratio, soil moisture and soil water availability is also influenced by the input data in the form of watershed area and crop factor, (2) simulate the mathematical description of the physical condition and include as much as possible approximate the laws of physics that deals with the surface hydrology. Physical interpretation expressed in the form of the model parameters. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research was conducted at the level II Badung Denpasar , precisely in Mengwi district irrigation area Cangi - Lepud . Lepud area which is geographically located between 8 ° 14'20 " - 8 ° 50'48 " S and 115 ° 05'00 " - 115 ° 26'16 " E is located in the lowlands with altitudes between 300-350 m above sea level with topography sloping stretches extending from south to north. For the calculation of water requirements for land preparation, use the formula van de Goor and Zijlstra (1968). This method is based on a constant rate of water in l / s during the period of land preparation which is as follows: M .ek IR  k (2) e 1 The method used in this analysis are as follows : 1. Analysis of water availability, include: (a) rainfall analysis, using the Thiessen method; (b) analysis of evapotranspiration, using the Penman method, (c) analysis of river discharge, using the method of Sacramento, Mock and Nreca; (d) reliably discharge analysis, using Statistical Methods (Probability). 2. Analysis of water demand, include: projections of population and water demand analysis used by the population, using the statistical method of regression analysis (Minitab Version 11 software for windows)

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

are presented in the form of state projections in 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2025. 3. Water balance analysis, carried out using the program package WRMM Model as a tool of analysis. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Regional Overview Flow Cangi – Lepud Distribution of monthly rainfall average maximum occurred in January of 7137 mm or 419.9 mm /month and monthly rainfall average minimum occurred in July of 1554 mm or 91.4 mm /month in the watershed Yeh Sungi. Topographic map scale of 1 : 25.000, wider catchment area is irrigated areas Cangi 39.65.ha with 36137 m elevation above sea level (mountain) . Yeh River Sungi discharge at the observation point at the weir Cangi Lepud (2,153 km2) earned an average annual discharge of 488.93 m3/second

B. Analysis of WaterAvailability Mengwi and subak Lepud areas experiencing drought especially fell in April to September and the rainy fall from October to March. BPD rainfall in recorded Mengwi ½ years on average at 437.32 mm average rainfall being about 100 days so dry months > of months basah. Pengumpulan rainfall data in the form of daily rainfall data from four rainfall stations that graduated in the study area, the station Candi Kuning, evening, Baturiti and Wangaya Gede station. The average rainfall is calculated by using the method of Thiessen :

R

R1 . A1  R2 . A2  ...  Rn An A1  A2  ...  An

(3)

with : R = average rainfall (mm) R1 , R2 ,..., Rn = Rainfall in each observation station (mm)

A1 , A2 ,..., An = Area representing the influence of rain each station (km2) C. Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration analysis completed by the Penman method, the results obtained with a daily average of between 12.1 mm to 16.2 mm. D. River Discharge Sungi Count of river discharge using several methods for comparison , namely Mock models, models and models Nreca Sacramento assisted by Microsoft Excel. From the three simulation models in the discharge, the discharge value is similar to the simulation results that the model Sacramento E. Debit Mainstay From the analysis of discharge flagship Q80 values obtained ranged from 1884 to 2897 m3/second, while the value of the discharge reliably Q100 m3/second 14452979.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE I.

VALUE DEBIT MAINSTAY RIVER YEH SUNGI WITH Q80 AND Q100 Debit (m3/sec)

Debit Mainstay

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Q80

2299

2299

2897

2897

2607

2607

2548

2548

2546

2546

2393

2393

1884

Q100

1486

2341

1559

2351

2084

2298

2979

2979

2452

2898

1445

1829

1837

Average

 ETC = ETo x kc = 4.64 x 1.10 = 5.104 m / day

F. Water Needs Existing Water Provision Division according to classes of existing tertiary irrigation areas Cangi and rules according to class can be seen in the table below:

 Percolation = 2 mm / day , Re = 1.33 mm / day  Based on the formula then ; NFR = 4.64 + 2 to 1.33 = 5.307 mm / day

TABLE II. RULES GROUP ON IRRIGATION AREA CANGI No

Period sort day

1

1 – 15

2

16 – 30

3

31 – 45

Growth

4 5 6 7 8

46 -60 61 -75 76 – 90 91 – 105 106 – 120

Growth Growth Growth Growth Growth

Group I Cultivation , nursery Cultivation , Cultivation of nursery & tandur

= 5.054 / 8.64 = 0.614 lt / dt / ha

Planting activity Group II

 Irrigation Efficiency = 65 % then, NFR = 061 /0.65 = 0.945 lt/dt/ ha = 0.945 x 84.600/1000 = 81.65 m³ / ha

The cultivation, nursery Cultivation, Cultivation of nursery & tandur Growth Growth Growth Growth Growth

In general cropping pattern in irrigated areas is rice rice - rice. For the provision of water for rice crop in normal water conditions based on field operations :Tilth : 1.25 l/s /ha, Growth : 0.85 l /s/ha, concoction: 0.30 l/s/ha.When water conditions are available according to the K factor is less than 60 % then do a turn, either turn on the main network or in the tertiary network . G. Under Water Needs Calculation In the calculation of water requirements for crops is influenced by several factors, among others :Calculation of Potential Evapotranspiration (ETo). Calculation of potential evapotranspiration using a modified Penman formula. As the calculation of the potential evapotranspiration (Et) was between 3-5 mm/day average Eto = 4.15 mm/day.

H. Existing Provision of Water and Water Requirement Calculation Corresponding calculation ai existing provision and the needs of water needed, the results can be explained as follows :  Planting l Irrigation Area Water Balance of Exis Cangi, October II water shortage period of 2,643 liters / second with a K factor of 0:40, while in November the first period of 1,457 liters / second with 0:56 K factor on the availability of water (80% discharge). Balance Water Needs DI Cangi , that in October II water shortage period of 2,823 liters / second with 0:39 K factor while in Noveber period I was 307 liters / second with a K factor of 0.86 to the availability of water ( discharge 80 % ) . If there is a shortage of water will be done according to table 3.4 . 

Planting II In the second season overall water needs are met.

1. Calculation of Land Management Requirement (IR )

 Planting III

In calculating the processing time taken land ( T ) for 15 days , S = 250 mm , P = 2 mm / day

According to the results of analysis on the third season was not that good water shortage water supply needs of existing and appropriate calculations. Overall it can be concluded that the existing water demand is less than the water demand sessuai calculation, the volume of existing water demand = 66.2 million m³, while the corresponding water demand calculation = 70.1 million m³.

 Eo = 1.1 x ETo = 1.1 x 4.64 = 5.104 mm / day  M = Eo + P = 5.104 + 2 = 7.104 mm.hari  K = MT / S = ( 7.104 x 15 ) / 250 = 0.426  2. Calculation of water requirements for rice in paddy plots ( NFR ) is as follows :  ETo = 4.64 m / day , the crop coefficient ( kc ) = 1.10 eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia I. Alternative Cropping Patterns Based on data for a balance between the availability of water from the water source to the water needs sessuai with water is needed, it will be made a few alternative cropping pattern: Rice - Rice – Crop Rice - Rice – Rice

the water or food demand factors , the form of best planting pattern in Planting III is rice crops . 7. Chosen form of rice cropping + Planting crops in Period III that the overall acreage of irrigation area can be planted by farmers Cangi. 8. For cropping : rice - rice - crops in irrigated areas can be extensive distribution optimally on Planting III are :

From the above two alternatives will be sought which is more suitable or in accordance with DI Cangi, both in terms of water, farmers and custom cropping intensity. V. CLOSING 1. Results of analysis of several alternative cropping patterns can be concluded that the average water requirement of rice in each growing season as follows:

Planting III Planting III crops

10. Improvement of the effectiveness of land use in relation to the cropping pattern and water delivery systems. REFERENCES [1]

Planting III = 0.87 to 1.4 l / s / ha [2]

Water requirements for crops = from 0.5 to 0.61 l/s/ ha Above water needs for irrigation areas Cangi whereas for the other areas the amount of irrigation water requirements depend on the type of soil, climatic factors / evapotranspiration and effective rainfall . 2. Suit field conditions cropping patterns used in accordance with the principle of adequate water or water peberian evenly based optimal strategies . 3. Technically, according to the conditions existing distribution groups can not be implemented , because it is not located in one lane irrigation network . So that the irrigation water sharing arrangements so to be implemented . 4. Forms of cropping patterns, rice - rice - rice with the water supply system with a continuous flow can only achieve 254% cropping intensity, cropping intensity in Planting Period III = 54% by a factor of K> 1. If in Period III Planting rice is grown 100% since smoothing factor to avoid conflicts between the farmers, then the turn is done in the first 3 days in 1 week for group I and three days to two to class II.. 5. With sliding tana schedule from October I sapai November II by a factor of K ≥ 1 but in Planting III is limited water availability factor K < 1 6. Due to the limited water in Planting III, then the search for the optimum planting area good views of

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

757.03 ha (30 %)

9. With rice - rice - rice + crops , it can increase the cropping intensity from 270 % to 300 %.

Planting I = 1.01 to 1.1 l / dt / ha Planting II = 0.9 to 1.1 l / s / ha

1766.39 ha of rice (70 %)

[3] [4]

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

[15] [16]

Adidarma, W., Lanny Martawati, Verifikasi Parameter NRECA. Proceding PIT – HATHI XVI, Bengkulu, 1999.. Alberta, E., Computer Program Description Water Resources Management Model (WRMM) Southern Region. Resources Management Branch. Canada, 2002. Anonimous, “ Pedoman Bercocok tanam Padi, Palawija”, Badan Pengendali Bimas, Jakarta, 1977. Anonimous, “Pedoman dan Standar Perencanaan Irigasi (KP)”, Departemen Pekerjaan Umum Direktorat Jenderal Pengairan, 1981, 1986. Anonimous, “ Mempolatanamkan Lahan Pertanian”, Dinas Pertanian Pangan Denpasar, 1982. C.D. Soemarto, “Hidrologi Teknik”, Jakarta, 1995. Clive Gray et all, “Pengantar Evaluasi Proyek”, PT. Gramedia, Jakarta, 1985. H.D.Tseng terjemahan Soewartoyo, “Pola Tanam, Jadwal Tanam dan Intensitas Tanam”, buletin Pengairan Dep. PU. No.1, 1983. Iman Subarkah, “Hidrologi untuk Perencanaan Bangunan Air” Bandung, 1980. J. Doorenbos and W.O., Pruitt, “Crop Water Requirements”, LABO voor Landrechmiek, Rome, 1977. J. Price Gittinger, “ Economic Analysis of Agricultural Project”, 2ⁿ Edition, The Johns Hopkins University Press, June 1982. Orson W. Israelsen, “Irrigation Principles and Practies”, John Wilcy & Sons,Inc, 1979. Roy K. Linsley & Joseph B. Fronzini, “Water Resources Engineers”, 3ʳ Edition, Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc, 1979. Roy K. Linsley Jr, Mas A Kohler & Joseph L.H Paulhus, “Hydrology for Engineers”, 3ʳ Edition, Mc. Graw-Hill, Inc, 1979. Suad Husnan, dan Suwarsono, “Studi Kelayakan Proyek”, BPFE Yokyakarta, 1984. Suyono Sosro Darsono, “ Hidrologi Untuk Pengairan”, PT. Pradnya Paramita, Jakarta, 1980.

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Development of Vocational High School Based On Excellent Regional (Case Study; Gresik Regency) Agus Wiyono Department of Civil Engineering State University of Surabaya Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—In process of development of area needed competence of human resources (SDM), one of them is vocational intermediate education of human resources, its usually called SMK. Vocational intermediate education prepare the students to enter world of work with give them skill suitable with world of work needed. But basic problem in intermediate education at Gresik Regency is ratio of SMK: SMA/MA (20: 80) is a long way off from target of desirable by Depdiknas (ratio of SMK: SMA is 60: 40) and inexpediency between skill of program at SMK with local superiority at Gresik Regency that affects in not suitable skill of SMK graduated with need of world of work. Therefore necessary existence of development of vocational intermediate education based on excellent Regional of Gresik Regency. Method approaches that used in this research is rationalistic, with kind of descriptive and explorative research that is make concept as base research by study of book in identify factors that influence inexpediency of SMK education with excellent Regional of Gresik Regency, later on at combine with fact at field. Therefore, previously count level of SMK service and identify excellent Regional every district (of analysis LQ) then continued with chi square analysis to detect dependability of SMK education with excellent Regional every district. After that, done delphi analysis to determine factors that causes unsuitable SMK of education with excellent Regional of Gresik Regency. End result of expected from this research is shaped concept of development of vocational intermediate education that suitable with excellent Regional of Gresik Regency as efforts of improved of competence of SMK graduated that suitable with need of world of work. Keywords-SMK Education; Excellent Regional; Human Resources (SDM)

I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study One of the strategic programs The Ministry of Education in equalization policy and access of expansion the secondary education is expanding access to Vocational High School. (Strategic plan of Ministry of Education, in 2010-2014) secondary education in Gresik eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Regency consist of 131 institution/school which is consist of 25 SMK, 44 SMA, dan 62 MA, so ratio of SMU : SMK is 106 : 25 or 80% : 20% percentage. (Education and Culture Department of Gresik Regency, 2008). The percentage is still so far from the target which have been set by the Ministry of Education (SMU: SMK = 30: 70). Problem of secondary vocational education in Gresik Regency is still low the suitability between education of SMK with corporate world and industry in Gresik Regency. (Renstra Education and Culture Department of Gresik Regency 2011-2015). Unsuitability education of existing SMK with corporate world and industry in Gresik Regency (superior sector) seen from variations of existing skills programs in 25 SMK, where Gresik regency which is an industrial city that consists of various types of industries such as industrial metals, textiles, wood, electronics, plastic, paper and printing, chemicals and so on. B. Research Question Problems of secondary vocational education in Gresik Regency is still low the suitability between skills program of SMK with local superiority (leading sector for each subdistrict) in Gresik Regency that causing discrepancy skill/competency which has by the output of SMK with the needed of working area. Based on the issue above, thus the research question are: 1. What factors are causing unsuitability between education of SMK with leading sector of Gresik Regency? 2. How is the suitable concept of SMK development with leading sector of Gresik Regency? C. Objective of the Study The objective of this study is to make development concept of SMK education based on leading sector of Gresik Regency. D. Scope and Limitations of the Study This research study will be taken in Gresik Regency which consists of 18 Subdistricts, 16 subdistricts in Java Island and 2 subdistricts in Bawean island. But, in this research, location of research study is limited only 16

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia subdistrict in Java Island. While the object research is 25 SMK in Gresik regency. The scope of the material in this study is the development of SMK education based on leading sector in Gresik Regency. Education development of SMK in this research is limited on SMK skill program development which is suitable with leading sector of each subdistrict in Gresik Regency E. Significance of the Study 1. Significance of practical that to be gained by this research is a distribution mapping that suitable with leading sector in Gresik regency. 2. Significance of theoretical that will be gained by this research is to increase development concept of SMK in Gresik Regency.

about secondary education, that is: vocational secondary education is an education in secondary education that considers the ability development of student as most important for implementing certain jobs. 2. SMK Education and Labor SMK education that has main purpose prepares the students ready to work by giving certain skills.  A graduate/Drop Out Primary School has opportunity job as an incompetent manpower.  A graduate/Drop Out Primary School and Training has opportunity job as a semi-skilled labor.  SMK graduate has opportunity job as a competent labor III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Region Development Theory Economic growth region is income increasing of a society which happened in that region, that is the rising all added value which is happened. Based on Budiono. (in Tarigan, 2005) The process of economic growth is affected by two kinds of factors: economic factors and non-economic factors. Economic factors consist of natural resources, capital resources, organization, technological progress, job division and production scale. Non economic factors are social factor, human, politic and administratif factor. (Jhingan, 2000) Perroux (in Tarigan, 2005) states that development or growth does not happen at all spatial, but just limited to certain places with variables that has different intensity. The leading sectors are (1) a sector that produce which has great contribution to the value of gross domestic regional income (GDRP), (2) a sector that provides a lot of job demand so that can increase society income; (3) a sector which has concerned degree strongly to other sectors, both forward (forward linkage) or backward (backward linkage), (4) a sector which could increase non-oil exports (produce foreign exchange), (5) a sector that exists nowadays although has small contribution to gross domestic regional income (GDRP). (Adisasmita, 2005) B. Vocational Education Concept 1. Vocational High School (SMK) Education Based on BJ. Habibie, education is a process where someone can understand and get the basic of science and technology that he needs to be competent in a certain area. (Habibie, 2004) The meaning of vocational education has many variations, such as: United States Congress (1976) says that vocational education is an education program that is related directly with the preparation of a person for a particular job or for additional preparation for someone's career. The meaning of vocational education is described more specific in Government Rules No. 29 Tahun 1990 eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

A. Research Design In this research, the writer used rationalistic approach because getting the data by examined the literature to get education concept of SMK which suitable with leading sector of Gresik regency. Kind of this research is descriptive because the research describes a condition factually and accurately about the facts of natural resource which happened in research location because the research has a purpose to look for variables and parameter from factors that influence the unsuitability of vocational education with leading sector in research location. B. Research Variable and Operational Definition Research variable is varied symptoms of the object or also can be interpreted as the factors that play a role in the event or phenomenon to be studied. (Arikunto, 2006) this research variable divided into : 1. Kind of society activity (Labor) Variable to count the service of vocational secondary in Gresik regency a. Population by school age b. Vocational high school amount c. Students population 2. Variable to analysis the concerned of SMK to leading sector for each Regency in Gresik regency a. Kind of SMK b. Kind of skill program  For each leading sector variable that used is the type of society activity (labor) Variable to determine unsuitability factors of vocational education to leading sector of Gresik regency.  Internal (School) 1) Education Infrastructure and facilities . 2) DSE (Double apprenticeship.

System

Education)



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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia 3) Ability to predict work area needed (on future). 4) Vocational High School cooperation with work area. 5) Teachers 6) Operating cost 7) Education management 8) Ability of Science and technology  External (external school) 1) Development of Science and technology 2) Economic progress 3) Globalization information

TABLE I.

ANALYSIS OF SMK NEEDED IN GRESIK REGENCY

Gresik Kecamatan Lsltp5 Lsltps Bagian (1) (2) (3) (4) Utara Dukun 1111 810 Panceng 483 290 Ujungpangkah 659 360 Sidayu 732 750 Bungah 1198 1010 Manyar 1395 1140 Tengah Duduksampeyan 445 120 Gresik 1953 1800 Kebomas 949 470 Cerme 895 930 Benjeng 703 400 Balongpanggang 703 220 Selatan Menganti 1062 600 Kedamean 883 350 Wringinanom 818 150 Driyorejo 995 490 Bawean Tambak 303 220 Sangkapura 544 440

E

a%

(5) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

(6) 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62 71,62

Murid SMK yang Kebutuhan Keteranga Belum Terlayani SMK n (7) (8) = (5) x(7)x60% (9) (10) 7,178 129 1 unit SMK Tipe B 4,608 83 7,138 128 -0,430 -8 4,488 81 1 unit SMK Tipe D 6,088 110 7,759 140 3,653 66 1 unit SMK Tipe C 11,435 206 -0,836 -15 7,234 130 1 unit SMK Tipe C 11,531 208 11,029 199 1 unit SMK Tipe C 12,724 229 15,947 287 1 unit SMK Tipe C 12,056 217 1,981 36 1 unit SMK Tipe C 2,483 45 Sslta

4) Bureaucracy (Education Department policy) C. Data Collection and Technique 1. Research data Secondary Data is a primer data which have processed by another and presenting on the form of data. (Arikunto, 2006). Primer Data is a data that taken from the respondent. (Arikunto, 2006) 2. Data collection method Data collection Method in this research is took a survey by questionnaire method to the field directly. 3. Research instrument Research Instrument that is used in the research is questionnaire to take the data by primer survey. IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Analysis is done by step, those are analysis step from secondary data which consists of LQ analysis to identify leading sector that followed by chi square analysis to analyze the concerned vocational education with leading sector. For primer data analysis (questionnaire result) using Delphi analysis to determine factors which is causing unsuitability of vocational education with leading sector. After that stage, next stage is doing descriptive analysis A. Analysis of SMK Needed in Gresik Regency Counting result of Analysis of SMK needed in Gresik regency can be seen on table 1. Based on Table 1 that 18 subdistrict in gresik regency, the subdistrict which is not required to add vocational school is a subdistrict which has score negative SSLTA, those are Sidayu subdistrict and Cerme subdistrict. There are learners who do not underserved, so need the adding of SMK. This research, to identify leading sector of each regency is by using LQ analysis

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B. Leading Sector Analysis of Each District in Gresik After doing LQ analysis that is, in North Gresik, Central, and South have two leading sectors. That is why, this research leading sector category is another sector which has score LQ > 1 and that score also bigger than another two sectors. 1. Leading sector of North Gresik Based on the table 1, North Gresik has two sectors with score LQ >1, those are agriculture and commercial sector, but LQ score of commercial sector is bigger than agriculture so, North Gresik has commercial as the leading sector. 2. Leading sector of Central Gresik Based on the table 1, Central Gresik has two sectors with score LQ >1, those are commercial and industry sector but, LQ score of industry sector is bigger than commercial sector, so Central Gresik has industry sector as the leading sector. 3. Leading sector of South Gresik Based on the table 1, known that South Gresik has two sectors with score LQ > 1, those are agriculture and industry sectors, but LQ score of industry sector is bigger than agriculture, so South Gresik has industry sector as the leading sector. C. The Concerned of Vocational High School Analysis with Leading Sector After knew the leading sector of each regency, the next step is doing the concerned analysis of kinds of SMK with leading sector of each Gresik district by using analysis tool chi square, to analyze the concerned education of SMK with leading sector of each subdistrict by using descriptive statistic analysis, if there is SMK which suitable with leading sector has ≥ 50 % percentage.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The result of chi square for the concerned analysis of vocational high school with leading sector in South Gresik is :

REFERENCES [1]

 Probability score of North gresik is 0,046

[2]

 Probability score > 0,05 (0,046 < 0,05) means rejecting H0

[3]

 Conslusion: by rejecting H0 (and receiving H1) there is relation between education of SMK with leading sector. It happened because education of SMK in South Gresik are 75% of vocational high school technique and industry and 25% of vocational high school business and management

[4] [5]

[6]

[7] [8]

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Adisasmita, Rahardjo, (2005), Dasar-Dasar Ekonomi Wilayah, Graha Ilmu, Yogyakarta Alkadri , (2001), “Manajemen Teknologi Untuk Pengembangan Wilayah” Pusat Pengkajian Kebijakan Teknologi Pengembangan Wilayah BPPT, Jakarta Arikunto, Suharsimi, (2006), Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktik, Rineka Cipta, Jakarta Badan Pusat Statistika, (2008), Gresik Dalam Angka Tahun 2008, Badan Pusat Statistika, Kabupaten Gresik Branch, Melville C. (1995). ”Perencanaan Kota Komprehensi pengantar dan penjelasan”, Gajah Mada University Press., Yogyakarta Djojonegoro, Wardiman, (1999), Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia Melalui Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, Balai Pustaka, Jakarta Departemen Pekerjaan Umum, (1987), Petunjuk Perencanaan Kawasan Perumahan Kota, Yayasan Badan Penerbit PU, Jakarta Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, (2010), Rencana Strategis Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Tahun 2010-2014, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Jakarta.

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Extraction of P. cubeba Essential Oil by Microwave Assisted Hydrodistillation: Modeling and Process Optimization Megawati1 and Prima Astuti Handayani2

Wahyudi Budi Sediawan

Chemical Engineering Department Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Chemical Engineering Department Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract— The industrial scale equipment design of P. cubeba essential oil extraction by microwave assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD), as a relatively new extraction method, requires quantitative description of the mass transfer as well as explorative studies focusing on process optimization. The quantitative modeling was generated by several mathematical diffusion formulas and verified by the experimental mass transfer phenomena, while the optimization of particle-to-water ratio (0.033, 0.05, and 0.067 w/w) and times (0-52 min) was conducted by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The results showed that the proposed mathematical model based on unsteady-state intra-particle diffusion theories well describes the rate of extraction of P. cubeba essential oil using MAHD method. The particle-to-water ratio as well as the extraction time significantly influences the oil yield. The optimum values obtained were 0.05 w/v and 32 min for particle-to-water ratio and time respectively, while the produced oil yield was theoretically 57.89%. Keywords-essential oil; mass transfer modeling; microwave assisted hydrodistillation; Piper cubeba; response surface methodology

I. INTRODUCTION P. cubeba essential oil is one of isolated essential oils from piperaceae family, members of traditional plant in many tropical and subtropical regions like Asia, African, Brazillian [1]-[4]. The chemical composition of P. cubeba oil is alkaloid, amides, terpenoid, benzoic acids, furanofuran, chormenes, chalcones, lignan (cubebin, hinokinin, yatein, isoyatein), and neolignan (kadsurin and piperenone) [1]-[2], [4]-[5]. The chemicals in P. cubeba oil can be used as spices, medicines to treat many ailments (gonorrhea, dysentery, abdominal pain, diarrhea, enteritis), antileishmanial, antimicrobial, antitumoral, fungicidal, and insecticidal [1]-[3], [5]-[5]. Extraction is one of the key technologies to isolate several essential oils. Existing methods to extract essential oil of P. cubeba seed is solvent extraction, water distillation, water-steam distillation, and steam distillation. These methods have many problems like low energy efficiency as well as high CO2 emission and high solvent consumption [6]-[7]. Recently, microwave dielectric heating as power source is emerging as safer, more efficient, energy saving, and eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

sustainable extraction process [7]. Reference [8] reported that to provide Zygophyllum album L. essential oil yield of 0.002% using microwave assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) method required an extraction time of 30 min versus 3 h of hydrodistillation (HD) method. Likewise, reference [6] concluded that microwave steam diffusion (MSDf) for extraction of essential oil from orange peel is clearly advantageous in term of energy and time; the extraction time using MSDf method of 12 min versus 40 min of conventional steam diffusion (SDf) as well as the required energy to perform the two extraction methods are 300 kWh kg-1 essential oil and 120 kWh kg-1 essential oil for SDf and MSDf, respectively. On the other hand, no significant differences in chemical composition were found for the obtained essential oils by microwave steam distillation versus by steam distillation [7], and also by MAHD versus by HD [9]. Therefore, it is important to conduct further studies on the P. cubeba essential oil extraction using microwave as power source in order to improve the efficiency of the process. As the mentioned above, the essential oil extraction methods using microwave as power source usually conducted are water distillation, steam distillation, water-steam distillation, solvent free extraction, and solvent extraction. One of all, the most economically process is water distillation (hydrodistillation). The aim of the paper is to study the P. cubeba essential oil extraction by MAHD focusing on the chemical composition as well as phsyco-chemical properties of the essential oil obtained, the modeling of the mass transfer, and the process optimization. The mass transfer theories are applied to develop the mass transfer modeling, one will contribute not only the technological analysis for fundamental understanding of the extraction but also the economic analysis for efficient process control. The mass transfer modeling of essential oil extraction can be developed in several fundamental understandings. Reference [10] has analyzed the mass transfer of ripe juniper berries oil during HD. They proposed that the oil mass transfer is basically the same as the diffusion of extractive substances through plant particles during solvent extraction (leaching). Referece [11] have studied the kinetic modeling of a continuous SD of aniseed essential oil and expressed as two regimes, (1)

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia the first one is bounded by critical oil content, and (2) the second one corresponds to slower mass transfer from deeper parts to surface of the solid particles. In their study, the critical oil content was obtained as a point of the two linear lines with two different slopes on a curve of the oil content in seeds as function of time. The change in slopes is due to changes in the mechanisms, i.e. easily accessible oil (extra-cellular surface oil) as first regime and rather difficult oil to access (intra-cellular deeper inside the particle) as second regime. The same with [11], reference [6] modeled the lavender essential oil mass transfer of MSDf. In this study, the mass transfer modeling was also generated based on the fundamental understanding that can express the P. cubeba essential oil extraction mechanism as it rises during the conducted experiment. Another aspect of this study is to find the correlation of process variable on P. cubeba oil yield. The important factor of the optimization is to find the optimum process is the selection of variables that influence the P. cubeba oil extraction using MAHD. It turned out that the process design variables of extraction using MAHD are microwave power, particle to water ratio, particle size, and time. In addition, it was observed that the essential oil extraction using MAHD method will be more efficient in the energy demand if the microwave power source is high. Meanwhile, for the particle size, the high essential oil extraction can be reached with smallest particle size. Thus, the process design variables studied were particleto-water ratio and time. Methods that can be applied to optimize the process design variable are dynamics optimization, artificial neural network (ANN) [12]-[13], and response surface methodology (RSM) [12], [14]-[16]. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages. Recently, dynamics optimization is usually to optimize the complex process design like relationship of temperature steam, pipe diameter, and steam duty on pipe construction cost. Each variable process design has a unique formula of pipe construction cost. On other hand, RSM optimization is more advantage than ANN in showing a regression equation that can express the relationship of design variables. Thus, at the present study, we conducted the optimization of P. cubeba oil extraction with RSM. A two level two factor (22) full factorial central composite design (CCD) in RSM was developed to predict the relationship between the experimental variables (particle-to-water ratio and time) and the amount of the essential oil volume (response variable). Finally, the optimal solution offered by RSM was statistically verified by the coefficient of determination (R2) based on the validation data set. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. n-Hexane Extraction of P. cubeba Essential Oil in Order to Find the Oil Content In this study, about 1 kg of dried P. cubeba seed were collected locally and it had the moisture of 2.163% w/w. The extraction procedure was referenced from the standard procedure by ASTM D5369-93(2008)e1. The grinded and screened P. cubeba seed of 5 g was extracted using 100 mL of n-Hexane in sochxlet apparatus for 20 of cycles. Then, the condensate essential oil and water has eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

evaporated until the volume of 15 mL to solvent recovery and dried by oven in order to obtain the pure P. cubeba essential oil. The solvent extractions were performed at least three times. B. The P. cubeba Essential Oil Extraction Using MAHD Microwave assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) has been conducted in a microwave oven (Samsung, ME731K, maximum output power of 800 W with 2450 MHz of microwave irradiation frequency). The reactor was a 1 L short-necked horizontal cylinder Pyrex glass. The powder P. cubeba seed of 40 g and aquadest of 600 mL (particle-to-water ratio = 0.0667 w/v) was put in the cylinder extractor and then was placed in the microwave oven that was equipped with Pyrex connecting tube to pass through the vapor to condenser. The condenser is equipped 50 mL of Pyrex burette in order to measure the essential oil and water condensate volumes every 5 minutes. The extraction was conducted until no distillate was obtained. After that, the collected condensate was separated using conical flash to remove the water from the essential oil, and then the essential oil was chemically dried under anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored at -4 o C. The experiment was repeated for various particle-towater mass ratios (0.05 and 0.0333 w/v). The properties of the essential oil was analyzed: the composition by GC-MS (Perkin Elmer Clarus 680 coupled to a SQ 8T mass spectrometer), the density by picnometer, the acid number by KOH gravimetric, and the ethanol solubility of 1:1 v/v. The operation conditions of GC-MS analysis were as follows: ionization voltage, 70eV; emission current, 40 mA; scan rate, 1 scan/s; mass range, 35–300 Da; ion source temperature, 200 oC. The MS fragmentation pattern was checked with those of the other essential oils of known composition by matching the MS fragmentation patterns with NIST 56537 mass spectra libraries and with those in the literature. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The theoretically maximum yield of P. cubeba oil extraction as a result of n-hexane extraction was about 15.4% w/w. The result of the gas chromatogram analysis was shown in Fig. 1, while the produced essential phsyco-chemical properties such as chemical composition, density, acid number, and solubility in ethanol of 1:1 ratio can be seen in Table 1. In Table 1, it can be seen that the main composition of the produced P. cubeba essential oil by MAHD were cububene (26.54% w/w) followed by naphthalene (25.85% w/w), azulene (10.39% w/w), carryopyllene (9.58% w/w), copaene (9.23% w/w), carene (1.45%). These compositions were similar to the ones of other extraction methods like n-Hexane solvent extraction which the main composition was in group of cubebin compound [5] and also extraction under sonification using MeOH [2]. The volumes of water and essential oil obtained every 5 minutes of interval time at various particle-to-water ratios were listed in Table 2. The assumptions that were taken to calculate the numbers of mole and mass were the

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia essential oil and water phases are completely immiscible, the water density = 1 g/mL, the water molecular weight = 18 g/mole, the oil density = 0.9026 g/mL (only one component, i.e. cububene), and the oil molecular weight = 164 g/mole. The calculation results of mole and mass of the oil and water in distillate are listed in Table 2.

by Fiks’s second law, the oil material balance in the particle would be as in Eq. (3).

(3) with C is the concentration of essential oil in the particel at time t (m/v), r is the radius along the direction of diffusion, and De is the diffusion coefficient. The concentration of oil at the particle surface is assumed to be zero, so the boundary condition of the process is: C(r,0) = Co and C(R,t) = 0. It is well known that Eq. (3) can be solved with the method of separation of variables and the result is as given in equation (4) [17]. TABLE II. WATER AND OIL IN THE DISTILLATE Particle to water ratio water volume, mass, Min mL g 0 0 0 12 56 56 17 112 112 22 167 167 27 221 221 32 272 272 37 323 323 42 365 365 47 365 365 52 365 365 Particle to water ratio 0 0 0 12 55 55 17 108 108 22 162 162 27 215 215 32 267 267 37 317 317 42 357 357 47 383 583 52 397 397 Particle to water ratio 0 0 0 12 50 50 17 105 105 22 160 160 27 211 211 32 261 261 37 312 312 42 362 362 47 362 362 52 362 362

0.033

Time

Figure 1. Gas chromatography of P. cubeba essential oil TABLE I.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF P. CUBEBA ESSENTIAL OIL

Retention time Area 5.325 838255680 6.445 905383744 8.376 4360846336 8.601 9091772416 8.671 18475495424 8.921 5222070272 9.186 6992571904 9.306 11103812608 9.521 29607204864 9.681 6301551104 9.891 1492988928 10.087 4207820800 10.362 1294258176 density acid number solubility in ethanol of 1:1 ratio

% Area 0.70 0.75 3.62 7.56 15.36 4.34 5.81 9.23 24.61 5.24 1.24 3.50 1.08 g/L mL KOH

Chemical compound Carene Carene α-Cubebene α-Cubebene α-Cubebene Caryophyllene Azulene Copaene Naphthalene Caryophyllene Naphthalene Azulene Azulene 0.9108 0.799 clear soluble

In exraction, the mass balance equation can be expressed by : (1)

mole 0 3.111 6 9 12 15 18 20 20 20

essential oil volume, mass, mL g 0 0 1.2 1.0930 1.6 1.4573 1.9 1.7305 2.1 1.9127 2.3 2.0948 2.4 2.1859 2.5 2.2770 2.5 2.2770 2.5 2.2770

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 20 21 22

0 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6

0 1.3662 1.7305 2.0948 2.3681 2.6413 2.9146 3.0967 3.1878 3.2789

0 3 6 9 12 15 17 20 20 20

0 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.1

0 1.6394 2.0948 2.5502 2.9146 3.2789 3.5521 3.7343 3.7343 3.7343

Mole 0 0.0067 0.0089 0.0106 0.0117 0.0128 0.0133 0.0139 0.0139 0.0139 0.05 0 0.0083 0.0106 0.0128 0.0144 0.0161 0.0178 0.0189 0.0194 0.0200 0.067 0 0.01 0.01277 0.01555 0.01777 0.01999 0.02166 0.02277 0.02277 0.02277

(2) with is the initial essential oil content in flower (15.4% w/w = 0.154) and x is the essential oil content in flower during extraction. For the mass balace formula above, the essential oil content in the flower can be calculated and result as in Fig. 2. From the experiment data as in Fig. 2, it can be logically concluded that the extraction was controlled by the diffusion of solute in the solid. By assuming that the particle is spherical, the radial diffusion can be described eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 2. Essential oil in distillate and flower of P. cubeba extraction at particle-to-water ratio of 0.033 w/v

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(4)

0,102

Oil, yield

The extracted oil mass from single particle can be expressed by:

0,082 0,062

(5) 0,042

with NA is the extraction rate that can be calculated by:

0,022 0

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

(6) (7)

Time, min

Figure 3. Essential oil yield curve of the P. cubeba microwave assisted hydrodistillation, mass transfer model (line) and experimental data (marker) at various particle to water ratios of 0.033 (circle), 0.05 (triangular), and 0.067 w/v (square).

The extracted mass fraction (essential oil yield) can be calculated with the formulation as follows:

TABLE III. CCD FOR TWO INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Run

(8)

(9) (10) The parameter  was adjusted and estimated by minimization of the sum of square of errors between the essential oil data from Table 1 and the generated mass transfer calculated. Then for n = 20, the best  values obtained were 5.2.10-4, 3.6.10-4, and 2.85.10-4 min-1 for particle-to-water ratios of 0.033, 0.05, and 0.067, respectively. The comparison between the essential oil yield from experiment data and calculated result can be seen in Fig 3. It can be seen that the model proposed can well described the extraction process. The value of diffusional coefficient can be calculated by Eq. (10) with the particle size of P. cubeba was about 0.105 mm (throught 150 mesh) and result is (2.12+0.619).10-11 m2/s. In the explorative process optimization, a total of 26 experiments were conducted to generate the CCD matrix in Table 3 and the average values were used to analysis the data by RSM software of Design Expert Version 6.0.8. From the ANOVA analysis, the suggested correlation model between the independent variables and response was a quadratic model due to the associated Prob. > F value for the model is lower than 0.0001. The quadratic model can be written as in:

(10)

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Coded value A B w/w min -1 -1.00 -1 -0.75 -1 -0.50 -1 -0.25 -1 0.00 -1 0.25 -1 0.50 0 -1.00 0 -0.75 0 -0.50 0 -0.25 0 0.00 0 0.25 0 0.50 0 0.75 0 1.00 1 -1.00 1 -0.75 1 -0.50 1 -0.25 1 0.00 1 0.25 1 0.50 1 0.50 0 1.00 -1 0.50

Real value A B w/w Min 0.033 12 0.033 17 0.033 22 0.033 27 0.033 32 0.033 37 0.033 42 0.050 12 0.050 17 0.050 22 0.050 27 0.050 32 0.050 37 0.050 42 0.050 47 0.050 52 0.067 12 0.067 17 0.067 22 0.067 27 0.067 32 0.067 37 0.067 42 0.067 42 0.050 52 0.033 42

Response Oil yield w/w 0.05465 0.07286 0.08653 0.09563 0.10474 0.10930 0.11385 0.04554 0.05768 0.06983 0.07894 0.08804 0.09715 0.10322 0.10626 0.10930 0.04099 0.05237 0.06376 0.07286 0.08197 0.08880 0.09336 0.09336 0.10930 0.11385

The RSM results were shown in the form of diagnostic plot and contour in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. Furthermore, in the diagnostic plot, the goodness of the model was checked by the correlation coefficient (R2 value) between the experimental and model of the response variable. The R2 values was about 0.9957, in which the value implies that the quadratic model was significant. In the contour, the particle to water ratio and extraction time significantly influenced the oil yield. More clearly, a regression analysis of the quadratic model (Table 4) shown that the main (A, B) and square (A2, B2) term of the independent variables were significant (P0.05).

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[3]

[4]

Figure 4. Comparison of oil yield predicted by the RSM model with experimental data

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8] Figure 5. Contour plot showing the effects of combined particle-towater ratio and time on the oil yield [9] TABLE IV. REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF THE QUADRATIC MODEL USING 22 FACTORIAL CCD Factor Intercept A B A2 B2 AB

Coefficient estimate 0.089150 0.001600 0.008490 0.000054 0.000422 5.85E-06

Standard error 0.000702 0.0016 0.00849 5.37E-05 0.000422 5.85E-06

IV.

F-value 0.087686 600.2538 3185.903 20.1398 158.4397 2.196463

P-value 0.09061 < 0.0001 < 0.0001 0.0002 < 0.0001 0.1539

CONCLUSION

The mass transfer modeling of P. cubeba essential oil extraction using MAHD can be formulated by Fiks’s second law of one-diffusional unsteady state diffusion in spherical particle with diffusion coefficient of (2.12+0.619).10-11 m2/s. In addition, the correlation of particle to water ratio and extraction time on oil yield can be expressed by quadratic regression model in which the main (A, B) and square (A2, B2) term were more significant than the interaction term (AB). By the point prediction of independent variable optimization it is obtained that the optimum values of particle to water ratio and time were 0.05 w/v and 32 min, respectively, while the theoretical oil yield was 57.89%.

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

REFERENCES [1]

V. S. Carrara, S. C. H. Vieira, R. G. De Paula, V. Rodrigues, L. G. Magalhaes, D. A. G. Cortez and A. A. Da Silva Filho, “In vitro schistosomicidal effects of aqueous and dichloromethane fractions from leaves and stems of Piper species and the isolation of an active amide from P. amalago L. (Piperaceae),” J. of Helminthology, 2013, pp. 1–6.

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[17]

Elfahmi, K. Ruslan, S. Batterman, R. Bos, O. Kayser, H. J. Woerdenbag and W. T. Quax, “Lignan profile of Piper cubeba, an Indonesian medical plant” Biochemical systematics and ecology, vol. 35, 2007, pp. 397–402. S. Kumar, R. Warikoo and N. Wahab, “Larvicidal potential of ethanolic extracts of dried fruits of three spesies of peppercorns againts different instars of an indian strain of dengue fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae)”, Parasitol Res, vol. 107, 2010, pp. 901–907. L. N. Rapado, E. Nakano, F. P. Ohlweiler, M. J. Kato, L. F. Yamaguchi, C. A. B. Pereira and T. Kawano, “Molluscicidal and ovicidal activities of palnt extracts of the Piperaceae on Biomphalaria glabrata (Say, 1818)”, J. of Helminthology, vol. 85, 2011, pp. 66–72. H. S. Bodiwala, G. Singh, R. Singh, C. Sankar Dey, S. S. Sharma, K. K. Bhutani and I. P. Singh, “Antileishmanial amides and lignans from Piper cubeba and Piper retrofractum”, J. Nat. Med., vol. 61, 2007, pp. 418–421. A. Farhat, A-S. Fabiano-Tixier, M. El Maataoui, J-F Maingonnat, M. Romdhane and F. Chemat, “Microwave steam diffusion for extraction of essential oil from orange peel: Kinetic data, extract’s global yield and mechanism” Food Chemistry, vol. 125, 2011, pp. 255–261. N. Sahraoui, M. A. Vian and M. El Maataoui, “Valorization of Citrus by-products using Microwave Steam Distillation”, Innovative Foos Science and Emerging Technol., vol. 12, 2011, pp. 163–170. N. Tigrine-Kordjani, B. Y. Meklati and F. Chemat, “Contribution of Microwave Accelerated Distillation in the Extraction of the Essential Oil of Zygophyllum album L.”, Phytochem. Anal, vol. 22, 2010, pp. 1–9. H. W. Wang, Y. Q. Liu, S. L. Wei, Z. J. Yan and K. Lu, “Comparison of Microwave-Assisted and Conventional Hydrodistillation in the Extraction Oils from Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Flowers”, molecules, vol. 15, 2010, pp. 7715–7723. S. Z. Milojevic, T. D. Stojanovic, R. Palic, M. L. Lazic, and V. B. Veljkovic, “Kinetics of distillation of essential oil from comminuted ripe juniper (Juniperus communis L.) berries”, BioChemEng J., vol. 39, 2008, pp. 547–553. M. Romdhane and O. Tizaoui, “The kinetic modelling of a steam distillation unit for the extraction of aniseed (Pimpinella anisum) essential oil”, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., vol. 80, 2005, pp. 759–766. K. Shinha, S. Chowdhury, P. Das Saha and S. Datta, “Modeling of microwave-assisted extraction of natural dye from seeds of Bixa orellana (Annatto) using response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN),” Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 41, 2013, pp. 165–171.E. Y. Yang, G. Wang, B. Wang, Z. Li, X. Jia, Q. Zhou and Y. Zhao, “Biosorption of Acid Black 172 and Congo Red from aqueous solution by nonviable Penicillium YW 01: Kinetic study, equilibrium isotherm and artificial neural network modeling,” Bioresour. Technol., vol. 102, 2011, pp. 828–834. Castro, M. J. Diaz, C. Cara, E. Ruiz, I. Romero and M. Moya, “Dilute acid pretreatment of rapeseed straw for fermentable sugar generation,” Bioresour. Technol., vol. 102, 2011, pp. 1270–1276. M. Jain, V. K. Garg and K. Kadirvelu, “Investigation of Cr(VI) adsorption onto chemically treated Helianthus annuus: Optimization using Response Surface Methodology,” Bioresour. Technol., vol. 102, 2011, pp. 600–605. S. Pinzi, J. M. Mata-Granados, F. J. Lopez-Gimenez, M. D. Luque de Castro and M. P. Dorado, “Influence of vegetable oils fattyacid composition on biodiesel optimization,” Bioresour. Technol., vol. 102, 2011, pp. 1059–1063. R. G. Rice, D. D. Do, Applied Mathematics and modeling for chemical engineers, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.

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Analysis of Maluku Phospolipase A2 Acanthaster planci Activity in Human Immunodeficiency Virus by Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Kenny Lischer1, I.K.E. Savitri2, M. Sahlan3, Anondho Wijanarko4, Aroem Naroeni5 and Fera Ibrahim6 Department of Chemical Engineering1,2,3,4, Institute Human Virology and Cancer Biology5,6 Faculty of Engineering1,2,3,4, Faculty of Medicine5,6, Universitas Indonesia Depok, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Acanthaster planci had been reported produce phospolipase A2 (PLA2) enzyme which has the ability as antiviral agent. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a global pandemic disease which is caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Since the antiviral drugs were used for HIV therapy, HIV drug resistance cases appeared and caused the decrease of HIV drugs affectivity. This research was conducted to obtain the alternative drug for HIV infection, by using PLA2. This research used CV (Crude Venom) and F20 (PLA2 with 20% fractioned by ammonium sulfate) as a sample of PLA2 obtaining from A. planci extract. Enzymatic activity of PLA2 has been determined by using the degradation of phospatidicholin and the purification has been determined by using SDSPAGE. Activity test was performed by using in vitro method using co-culture of PHA Stimulated PBMC (Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell) from blood donor and PBMC from HIV patient. F20 had activity and purity by 15.66 times bigger than CV. Antiviral test of PLA2 in vitro show the inhibition of HIV infection to PBMC. Subsequently, DNA amplification of HIV by using Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) resulted the decrease of band intensity in gag gen of HIV. By this research, this initial research show as that PLA2 has potential to become antiviral agent of HIV. Keywords- A. planci; HIV; PBMC; PLA2

I. INTRODUCTION Acanthaster planci was located around Indonesia from Sabang until Merauke. A. planci is the one of the most dangerous coral predator [1,2]. Global warming lured A. planci population become over-break which would affect on reduces of coral population [3,4]. Crude A. planci toxic was extracted from crown of thorn. This toxic show biological activity such as death, hemolytic, myonecrotic, hemorrhagic, increase capillary permeability, edema forming, PLA2 activity, antibacterial activity [5.6.7.8], anticoagulant [9] and hepatotoxic [7,10]. Composition of A. planci toxic was

PLA2 [10] [7], plancinin, and plancitoxin (DNAse II) [10]. PLA2 from snakes and bees have antiviral activity among HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus [11,12,13]. Meanwhile, PLA2 from A. planci had same characteristic with PLA2 from snakes and bees. This information could be the basic knowledge that PLA2 from A. planci could have antiviral activity among HIV. II. METHOD A. PLA2 Isolation Procedure Acanthaster planci from Moluccas Islands, East part of Indonesia, which was taken on November 2012, is used in this observation experiment. Fifty gram of thorn was collect from A. planci. Crude venom (CV) was extracted from its crown of thorns, diluted with 100 ml 0.01 M buffer phosphate pH 7.0 and 0.001 M CaCl2 by sonication 2x8 minutes. The supernatant will be centrifuged in 15,000 g for 30 minutes. Then, centrifuge would be occurred after supernatant was heated for 30 minutes. The extract was fractionated by ammonium sulfate within the variation of 20% (F20). The fractionated enzyme, then, diluted by 0,01 M buffer phosphate pH 7.0 and 0.001 M CaCl2 [14,15]. B. PLA2 Activity Test PLA2 Activity is obtained by measuring purity of egg yolk according to Marinetti method [16]. 0.1 ml of sample would added to 1.5 ml egg yolk which was diluted by 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer pH 8.0 at concentration 2 mg/ml. Absorbance is measured at 900 nm for 5 minutes. Enzyme activity causing the decrease of 0.01 in absorbance/minute was defined as 1 unit. C. SDS-PAGE Test Purity of the sample was analyzed by 12% SDSPAGE (Sodium Dodecylsulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis).

Department of Chemical Engineering Universitas Indonesia

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia D. Isolation and PBMC Culture PBMC isolation was done with Ficoll Paque from fresh whole blood. After isolation, PBMC was stimulated by PHA by 3 days. Then it would be used to obtain the growth by 14 days.

table 1 showed that activity of F20 was bigger than CV with specific activity and purity level about 15.66 bigger than CV. So, higher purity of PLA2 will give higher specific activity.

E. In Vitro PLA2 Activity in PBMC Culture In vitro analysis of PLA2 Activity was done in PBMC culture. Objective of the analysis is to know about the effect of PLA2 addition in PBMC culture qualitatively. Data was taken from 7 samples, which are control (only PBMC), CV (addition of CV), F20 5 mg/ml (addition of F20 5 mg/ml for the concentration), F20 4 mg/ml, F20 3 mg/ml, F20 2 mg/ml, and F20 1 mg/ml. Result of this test was about the qualitative PBMC survival after addition variety of PLA2. F. HIV Culture HIV culture obtained by using co-culture of PHA stimulated PBMC with addition of HIV-infected PBMC from HIV positive patient. There were three treatments done, PBMC culture as Control, PBMC with addition of HIV, and PBMC with addition of HIV and PLA2. The culture will be incubated for 7 days. After incubation, the cell was ready to use for RNA extraction for RT-PCR test.

Figure 1. PLA2 activity from CV and F20 measured by decreasing of absorbance number in measured time. Egg yolk was determined as control. Meanwhile CV was the crude venom of PLA2 and F20 was PLA2 fractioned by 20% ammonium sulfate. TABLE I. SPECIFIC ACTIVITY AND PURITY LEVEL OF CV AND F20 Sample

Concentration mg/ml

CV F20

9.87 5.17

Specific Activity Unit/mg 1.91 29.98

Purity

G. Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Supernatant must be obtained from HIV culture by centrifugation in 1300 rpm in 10 minutes. It would be used for RNA extraction using QIAGEN KIT for RNA Extraction. Obtained RNA, would be considered for amplification using SSIII enzyme. The primary HI857 and HI967C would be used for amplification of HIV gag gen. The sequence of thermo cycle process were 55 oC for 30 minutes, 94oC for 2 minutes, 35 cycle of 94 oC in 15 seconds; 55oC in 30 s; and 68oC in 90 s, and 68oC for 5 minutes.

CV was a crude toxic extracted from Acanthaster planci. There is no purification step done to purify CV. As the result, there was still another protein which also extracted into CV. Meanwhile, F20 have higher purity level due to purification step had been done with heated by 60oC and fractioned by 20% ammonium sulfate. PLA2 from F20 would not disturbed by another protein and give effective result for PLA2 activity test.

After amplification process, RNA will be run in 12% polyacrylamide gel. Electrophoresis process will be occurred at last 50 minutes at 120 volt. After running process, the result of the band in the gel will be placed to Gel Doc XR to take the picture of the gel as the result of RT-PCR.

B. SDS PAGE Identifying existence of PLA2 was done by SDSPAGE test. The protein was detected by the molecular weight of the sample from CV and PLA2. With SDSPAGE, each protein, PLA2 and non-PLA2, would be separated due to molecular weight.

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. PLA2 Activity Phospholipase A2 was extracted from Moluccas Acanthaster planci. The extracted PLA2 were CV (Crude Venom) and F20 (fractionation 20%). Concentration of CV and F20 were 9.87 mg/ml and 5.17 mg/ml. The sample, PLA2, must be used for measuring the enzymatic activity. Marinetti method was used to obtained ability of PLA2 for degradation of yolk which had role as a substrate [16]. Decreasing of absorbance was measured to know specific activity and purity level of the samples. Activity of CV and F20 was measured by the decreasing number of absorbance. From the fig. 1 and eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

1 15.66

CV and F20 were used in this test. CV was the crude extract from Acanthaster planci. F20 was the sample of PLA2 which had gets heated and fractioned by 20% ammonium sulfate. Comparison of CV and F20 would give the purity difference among both of them. PLA2 had molecular weight about 15 kDa [14]. Other molecular weight would be known as non-PLA2 protein. From fig. 2 indicated that there was protein band in both CV and F20 sample. Amount of bands in CV were more than F20. This result showed that PLA2 was not pure yet because of the presence of other proteins. F20 showed only one band at 15 kDa. Purification method was done successfully by the existence of PLA2 in F20. It showed that F20 had bigger purity than CV.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

-PLA2

Figure 2. SDS-PAGE results from CV and F20 sample. PLA2 was determined in 15 kDa

C. In Vitro PLA2 Activity in PBMC Culture Qualitative analysis objective was get to know about effect of PLA2 analysis to PBMC culture. PLA2 was varied by concentration of F20 which are, 5 mg/ml, 4 mg/ml, 3 mg/ml, 2 mg/ml, and 1 mg/ml. After addition of PLA2 sample, PBMC was incubated for 7 days. The incubated PBMC culture would be test in microscope to know the survival of PBMC culture. In the image would display survived PBMC and death PBMC. The concentration which PBMC has the most ability to survive would be selected as the basic for HIV culture. There is different result when PBMC culture adds by variation of PLA2 concentration. For addition 5 mg/ml, 4 mg/ml, 3 mg/ml, 2 mg/ml showed that there were less of live PBMC. Nevertheless, when addition 1 mg/ml F20 the result seems similar with control. Lived PBMC both control and after addition of PBMC was almost the same. Due to this effect, F20 1 mg/ml would be used for in vitro analysis in HIV culture. D. Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Antiviral activity test start by using the co-culture of PBMC with addition of HIV infected PBMC stimulated by PHA. The test consist of 3 treatments which is PBMC culture (negative control), HIV culture without addition of PLA2 (HIV, positive control), and HIV culture with addition of PLA2 (PLA2 + HIV).

Figure 3. In vitro analysis of PLA2 addition in PBMC culture after be incubated for 7 days (a) control (b) F20 5 mg/ml (c) F20 4 mg/ml (d) F20 3 mg/ml (e) F20 2 mg/ml (f) F20 1 mg/ml

HIV RNA detected results by using gel electrophoresis was shown in Fig. 4. It showed that HIV RNA detectable in cultured line K+ (control of a positive HIV RNA), HIV culture without treatment (HIV), and HIV culture added with PLA2 (PLA2 + HIV).This indicated that presence of the HIV virus in both cultures of HIV as well as PLA2 + HIV. HIV RNA was detected in the range of 105 bp. From the results of RT-PCR can be concluded that antiviral activity of PLA2 was done in the HIV virus. It can be seen from grey tape on PLA2 treatment of HIV (PLA2 + HIV) comparing to both of HIV ribbon and K + ribbon.

HIV culture incubated for 7 days for making sure there were growth from PBMC and HIV. Then, the culture will be used for Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). RT-PCR was done for showing the activity of PLA2 among HIV growth by detecting the RNA of the virus. Figure 4. RT-PCR RNA HIV fluorescence results in culture of HIV, PLA2+HIV, and PBMC. RNA HIV was expressed at k+ (positive HIV control), HIV (HIV culture), and PLA2+HIV (additional of PLA2 on HIV culture).

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia The intensity difference of the band is caused by differences in the amount of RNA expressed as PCR. It means that RNA was detected by the addition of PLA2 (band of PLA2+HIV) is less than no treatment culture (band of HIV and K+). Meanwhile, small amount of expressed RNA was caused by the growth inhibitory activity on HIV conducted by PLA2. Therefore, a growing number of HIV is slightly. By this result, it show indication that PLA2 have activity to decrease the amount of HIV. This phenomenon was due to PLA2 activity to lyse HIV membrane which has phospholipid. Phospholipid would be reacted with PLA2 resulting liso-phospoglyceride and fatty acid. This activity caused the HIV virus become not active. Replication of HIV was also inhibiting as addition benefit of PLA2 activity. This advantage make PLA2 have a potency using for HIV treatment. IV. CONCLUSION PLA2 from F20 extract have bigger activity and purity level from CV which about 15.66 times. Purification of PLA2 was done successfully by the indication of SDS PAGE result which is show PLA2 band at 15 kDa. There is indication of antiviral activity of PLA2 from Moluccas islands crown-of-thorn Acanthaster planci which decrease amount of HIV-infected PBMC showed in decrease of band shade after RT-PCR. This research suggests that PLA2 has potential to be developed as antiviral agent because in in vitro experiment showed its ability to decrease HIV infection in PBMC. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

A. Budianto, “Sang Bintang Pemburu Karang,” Warta Oseanografi, XVI. Vol. 4., 2002, pp. 17-19. M. Yamaguchi, “A. planci infestations of reefs and coral assemblages in Japan: a retrospective analysis of control efforts. Corral Reefs,” vol 5., 1986, pp. 23-30. Bachtiar, “Bintang laut mahkota duri (Acanthaster planci, Asteroidea),” Mataram : Pusat Penelitian Pesisir dan Laut Universitas Mataram. 2009.

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

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Yusuf S. “Fenomena ledakan populasi Acanthaster planci dan pola pemangsaan pada karang keras di pulau kapoposang, sulawesi selatan,” Jakarta : Simposium Terumbu Karang Nasional, 2008, pp. 18-20. K. Shiomi, Itoh K. Yamanaka, and Kikuchi, “Biological Activity of Crude Venom from Crown-of-Thorn Starfish Acanthaster planci,” Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 51, 1985, pp. 1151-1154. K. Shiomi, K. Nagai, H. Yamanaka, and Kikuchi, “Inhibitory Effect of Anti-inflammatory Agents on Cutaneous Capillary Leakage Induced by Six Marine Venoms,” Nippon Susan Gakkaishi, 55, 1989, pp. 131-134. K. Shiomi, K. Shimakura, and Y. Nagashima, “Purification and properties of phospolipase A2 from crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) Venom, toxicon, vol. 4, 1997, pp. 589-599. Fera Ibrahim, Nunuk Widhyastuti, I. K. E. Savitri, M. Sahlan, and A. Wijanarko, “Antibacterial Investigated of Phospolipase A2 from the spines venom of crown-of-thorn starfish Acanthaster planci, Journal of Pharma and Bio-Science, 2013, pp. 1-5. I. Karasudani, Koyama, Nakandakari, and Aniya, “Purification of anticoagulant factor from the spine venom of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, Toxicon, vol. 34, 1996, pp. 871-879. Watanabe, Nagashima, and K. Shiomi, “Structural Characterization of Plancitoxin I, A Deoxyribonuclease II-like Lethal Factor from the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster planci, by Expression in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells, the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science, vol. 75, 2008, pp. 225-231. Meenakshisundaram, “Hypothesis of snake and insect venoms against human immunodeficiency virus: a review,” AIDS research and Theraphy, 2009. Fenard D., G. Lambeau, E. Valentin, J. C. Lefebvre, M. Lazdunski, and A. Doglio, “Screted Phospolipase A2, a new class of HIV inhibitors that block virus entry into host cells,” the journal of clinical investigation, 1999, pp. 341-347. Fenard D., “A peptide derived from bee-venom-secreted phospolipase A2 inhibits replication of T-Cell tropic HIV-1 strainse via interaction with the CXCR4 chemokine receptor,” Molecular Pharmacology, 2001, pp. 341-347. I. K. E. Savitri, Fera Ibrahim, M. Sahlan and Anondho Wijanarko, “Rapid and efficient purification of phospolipse A2 from Acanthaster planci,” International journal of pharma and bio science, 2011, pp. 401-406 I. K. E. Savitri, M. Sahlan, Fera Ibrahim, and Anondho Wijanarko, “Isolation and characterization of phospolipase A2 from the spines venom of the crown of thorn starfish isolated from Papua island,” International journal of pharma and bio science, 2012, pp. 603-608. Marinetti, G. V., “The action of phospolipase A on lipoproteins,” Biochim Biophys Acta, vol. 98, pp. 554-565.

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The Optimation of Synthetic Indigo Dye Using Phospat Acid Catalyst Prima Astuti Handayani1 and Wara Dyah Pita Rengga2 and Megawati3 Chemical Engineering Department Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—As the technology advances, the natural dye substance now replaced by the synthetic dyeing substance. The using of natural dyeing substance, however still maintained especially in the process of making batik. Batik fabric which made by natural dye substance is more expensive due to its highly artistic value, non carsinogen, eco-friendly as well as its exclusivity. Natural blue dyeing substance can be extracted from indigo plant thtrough hidrolysis and oxidation reaction. Indikan glycosides in the leaves of the indigo plant produces indoksil hydrolyzed and glucose. Oxidized Indoksil blue substance is obtained. On phospat acid hydrolysis reaction acts as a catalyst. The purpose of this research is to obtain the optimum operating conditions for the manufacture of the indigo dyeing substance. The indigo plant that is used is about 5 months old, using the tools including reactor, stirrer, aerator, and oven. The optimazion of the parameter are the concentrate of phospat acid 0.001 – 1 M and the ration of the substance/solvent 2.5 – 10 g/125 g solvent. The indigo dyeing substance is analyzed using gravimetry method. The result data of the experiment are analysed using RSM method, the model that is apropriate is the linear model, and the mathemathic equation is Y= 0.12 A – 0.035 B + 0.35. The optimum operation condition is on the 0,5 mol/L of the concentration of phospat acid and the ingredients comparison is 6.25 g/125 g solvent and the concentration of the dyeing substance is 34.98%.

Kusdianto Chemical Engineering Department Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology Surabaya, Indonesia

The waste most of it came from the batik dyeing process using synthetic dyeing substances. If those synthetic dyeing substances are absorbed by the soil, it will surely damaged the ecosystem. Moreover those chemical substances if absorbed by human body will cause several medical issues as well. Thus, in order to ensure that the proces of making batik will not cause any harm towards the environment, those synthetic substances should be replaced with natural substances. (Brono 2010). Natural dyeing substances for textile usually obtained from the extract of plant. To be mentioned are indigofera, Ceriops Candolleana Arn, Cudraina Javanensis, Curcuma, tea, Morinda Citrifelia, Pelthophorum Ferruginum, Bixa Orelana, and guava leaf (Susanto 1973). Indigofera contains glucoside indican. After this olant being soaked in the water, the hydrolisis process by the enzym will change the indikan become indoksil (white tarum) and glucose. Indoksil can be oxydized to become blue tarum. The content of the Indigofera arecta leaf are : N 4.46 %, P2O5 0.02%, K2O 1.95 %, CaO 4.48 % according to dry weight (Adalina, dkk 2010).

Keywords-indigo dyeing substance; hydrolisis; oxidation; optimum

I. INTRODUCTION Synthetic dyeing technique has replaced the natural dyeing technique due to its simplicity in doing and the variety of its results. As time went, the need of the batik fabric increases and made the need for synthetic dyeing substance increases as well. This phenomenon causes more problems, specifically the polution. The waste disposal of the synthetic/ chemical dyeing substance to the river without any processing will surely damage the environment around batik production area (Rini et al 2011).

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Figure 1. Structure of indigo dyeing.

Indigo is a carbonic substance, it is one of the oldest recognized natural dyeing substance. It is a derivative from the organic glucosidewhich is dyeless from its “enol” form from an indoksil, such as indikan. Indigofera contains indikan glucoside. After this plant is soaked in the water the hydrlisis process by the enzym is en route. According to Hassan Shadily and Prof. Mr. Ag.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Pringgodigdo indikan glucoside also could be hydrolized using dilute acid. Darmin Sumardjo, in his book told us that the acid that is used to hydrolized glycoside cluster is mineral acid that will change indikan to be indoksil and glucose. Indoksil can be oxydized become indigo blue. (Adalina et al 2010; Shadily and Pringgodigdo 1973; Sumardjo 2006).

TABLE I. THE RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT, THE GAINED SUBSTANCE COLOR CONCENTRATION USING PHOSPAT ACID CATALYST

Run

[H3PO4], M

Rasio material/ solvent (g/125g)

substance color concentration (weight fraction)

1

0,001

5

0,0503

2

0,005

5

0,0681

3

0,01

5

0,3497

4

0,05

5

0,3123

5

0,1

5

0,4952

6

0,5

5

0,3489

II. MATERIAL AND METHOD

7

1

5

0,4572

Research materials : 4-6 months old indigo leaves. Device : reactor, stirrer, aerator, analytic scale, flask, and oven. The research : indigo leaf is hidrolized for 18 hours using spesific acid as a catalyst. The result of the hydrolysis then separated between the filtrate and its residue. The filtrate then through the process of oxidation reaction using aerator system and then being analyzed to determine the consentration of the dye. The obtained data then processed using RSM software such as Dplot and Design Expert 6.0.8. series of processing devices is in figure 2.

8

0,01

2,5

0,16

Figure 2. Design of Process Equipment.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis of indigo dye was done in two reaction steps,i.e. hydrolysis and oxidation. Phosphat acid was used as catalyst to increase the reaction rate of hydrolysis, since the proton (H+) in water influences the bond disconnection of glucosyde indican (Handoko 2006). The indican glucoside will break into indoxyl and glucose. The indoxyl was then oxidized to indigo. The more indican glucoside broken into induksil and glucose, the yield of indigo increaeses. The result shows that phosphat acid could increase the yield. The raw material used in the experiment was the 5 months old of indigo leave. The study variables that were studied in this research are the variation of concentration of acid catalyst phospat in the range of 0.001% u2013 1 M and variations in the ratio of material/solvent 2.5-10 (g/125 g). From the results of the experiment, the gained substance color concentration (weight fraction) are presented in table 1.

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9

0,01

5

0,3497

10

0,01

7,5

0,1636

11

0,01

10

0,1944

If the data of the experiment is being analyzed using Dplot software, then we can obtain a 2 dimentional contour of the sstudied variable. The graphic contour of the catalyst concentration and the ratio of the materil/solvent towards the color concentration is in figure 3.

Rasio material/solvent

(Kimet al, 2009)

Catalyst consentration Figure 3. Plotting countour of the catalyst concentration and the ratio of the materil/solvent towards the color concentration.

The obtained result of the usage of Dplot software is a 3 D image in figure 4 and 5. Picture 4 shows the research dat ain 3 D imaging whereas the color of the dot in the picture tells us about the concentration of the color substance. It goes also on picture 5, the color on the picture represents the changing of the color concentration.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE II. CCD FOR TWO INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Run

Figure 4. Distribution of research data variables catalyst concentration and the ratio material/solvent to the concentration of indigo dye.

Coded value

Real value

A

B

A

B

mol/L

g/125g

mol/L

g/125 g

Response Concentration of colouring substance Weight fraction

1

-1,000

-0,333

0,001

5

0,0503

2

-0,992

-0,333

0,005

5

0,0681

3

-0,982

-0,333

0,01

5

0,3497

4

-0,902

-0,333

0,05

5

0,3123

5

-0,802

-0,333

0,1

5

0,4952

6

-0,001

-0,333

0,5

5

0,3489

7

1,000

-0,333

1

5

0,4572

8

-0,982

-1,000

0,01

2,5

0,16

9

-0,982

-0,333

0,01

5

0,3497

10

-0,982

0,333

0,01

7,5

0,1636

11

-0,982

1,000

0,01

10

0,1944

TABLE III. REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF THE LINEAR MODEL

Figure 5. 3-D imaging cataliyts concentration and rasio material/solvent to the concentration of the color substance.

The research data the optimized using Design Expert software version 6.0.8. The optimization is held when the concentration of the catalyst concentration which is phospat acid is around 0,001 – 1 M and the variation ratio material/solvent 2.5 – 10 g/125g solvent towards color substance concentration. The result of the analysis is appropriate to the linear model of the mathematic equation as follows :

Factor

Coefficient estimate

Standard error

F-val

P-val>F

Intercept

0.35

0.070

2.14

0.1687

A

0.12

0.071

3.74

0.0819

B

-0.035

0.090

0.23

0.6425

The optimum operation condition of the making of indigo coloring substance is when the concentration of the phospat acid catalyst is 0,001 – 1 M and the ratio material/solvent (2,5 – 10g)/125g. Using Design Expert 6.0.8 software the result of the 2 D optimization are as follows on picture 6.

Y = 0.12 A – 0.035 B + 0,35 where : A = Catalyts concentration, M B = Rasio material/solvent (g/125 g) There are 11 experiments conducted to create the CCD matriks on table 2 and the average value are used to analyse the data using RSM Design Expert 6.0.8. from ANOVA analysis according to the table 3, the proposed corelation model between independent variable and respond are linear with Prob > Nilai F 0,1687.

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Figure 6. Plotting Countour between catalyst concentration and the ratio material/solvent to the concentration of dye

The result analysis of the empirical model is in line with the picture 4, obtained an optimum operation condition when the condition of the phospat acid catalyst concentration is 0.5 mol/L and the comparison of material 6.25 g/125g solvent with the concentration of coloring substance 34.98%

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia IV. CONCLUSION The making of indigo coloring substance using phospat acid catalyst pictured in line with the linear model using mathematic equation Y = 0.12 A – 0.035 B + 0.35. The optimum operation condition in this research is obtained when the concentration of the phospat acid as catalyst is 0,5 mol/L and the ratio of material 6.25g/125g solvent with the concentration of the coloring substance is 34.98%. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was funded by the State University of Semarang DIPA Number: DIPA-023.04.2.189822/2013 on December 5, 2012 in accordance with the Letter Agreement Implementation Research Decentralization: 1.14.5/PPK.3.1/2013 on May 14, 2013.

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5] [6] [7]

[8] [9]

REFERENCES [1]

Adalina, Y. et al, “Sources Material Natural Dyes For Ink Fingerprint election”. Bogor : Center for Research and Development of Forest and Natural Konservas of Research and Development, Department of Forestry, 2010.

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Handoko, D. S. P., Maltose Hydrolysis Kinetics Variation In Temperature And Acid As Catalyst type, Jember : Department of Chemistry, University of Jember, 2006. Kim, J.Y. et al., Mining And Identification Of A Family Glucosidase Enzyme With High Activity Toward The Plant Extract indican, Journal of Molecular Catalysis B : Enzymatic . 57, 2009, pp. 284-291. Mualimin A. And Handy P.A., Batik Natural Dyes From Plants Nila (Indigofera) by Acidification Method, Thesis, Chemical Engineering Program, State University of Semarang, 2012. Pitojo Setijo and Zumiati, Vegetable food coloring, Yogyakarta: Canisius, 2009. Rini, S., et all, Natural Color Indonesian charm, Jakarta : Indonesian Biodiversity Foundation, 2011. Sewan Susanto, Indonesian Batik art, Yogayakarta : BPKB Shadily, H. and Pringgodigdo, General 1973, Ensiklopedia, Yogyakarta: Canisius, 1973. Sumardjo, D., Introduction to Chemical Medicine Student Handbook, Jakarta : EGC Kedokteran, 2006. Soebandi, B., et all., Fixation Materials Exploration Menentukanjenis And Direction For Color In Pewarnaankain Batik Process With Natural Dyes (ZPA), London : Faculty of Education University of Indonesia, 2011.

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Turpentine Oil Hydration Using Trichloroacetic Acid As Catalyst N. Wijayati1, H. D. Pranowo2, Jumina3 and Triyono4 Student of Doctorate Program at Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia2,3,4 Department of Chemistry, Semarang State University, Semarang, Indonesia1 [email protected]

Abstract—Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) was used as catalyst for the hydration of α-pinene from turpentin oil using water as hydroxyl donor. The reaction was performed in batch reactor at 65oC, using aquous aceton as solvent. The TCA catalyst converted α-pinene into hydrocarbons, while the TCA catalyst was active and selective for producing alcohol, α-terpineol with selectivity of 87.56%. Keywords- pinene; hydration; terpineol; TCA

I. INTRODUCTION Turpentine is generally produceed in places having vast tracts of pine. Chemically, turpentine is a mixture of cyclic monoterpene hydrocarbons, C10H16, such as pinene, camphene. -pinene and 3-carene being -pinene the predominant constituent [1]. The chemical reactivity of turpentine varies with its composition but generally is the characteristic of -pinene. -pinene is known to react readily in the presence of acids through reactions involving either expantion to derivatives of bornane or fenchane, or ring opening to derivatives of p-memhane. Upon treatment with aquous mineral acids, complex mixtures are obtained resulting from isomerization and hydration [2-5]. The hydration of terpenes via acid catalysis is an important method for alcohol synthesis, and has several applications in the perfume and pharmaceutical industries. -Terpineol, 4-terpineol and terpineol hydrate are from commercial viewpoints, the most interesting derivatives of -pinene. -Terpineol exhibits antimicrobial activity and is used for wound healing and insect bites. Hydration and isomerization of the -pinene to several alcohol or terpenic hydrocarbons have been studied since the 1940s, when Mosher [5] studied the isomerization of the - pinene in acid media using 1-chloro-4-naftalene sulfonic acid. There is a lack of solid catalysts able to carry out the reaction of hydration of the -pinene to terpineol with high selectivity and conversion. Williams and Whittaker (2) investigated the rearrangements of acid-catalyzed hydration reactions of R-pinene and -pinene in aqueous acetic acid and in eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

anhydrous acetic acid. They compared the composition of modified products of R- and -pinene reactions, with either perchloric acid (0.0947 N in 10% aqueous acetic acid at 25 °C) or sulfuric acid (0.0982 N in 10% aqueous acetic acid at 25 °C). They observed notable differences. The maximum yield was obtained after 6 h with both acids. However, the yield was 55% with perchloric acid compared with 34% with sulfuric acid. They showed that the rate constants for the conversion of R- and -pinene in 10% aqueous acetic acid, containing 0.0982 N sulfuric acid at 25 °C, are lower for -pinene than for R-pinene. They concluded that the change from anhydrous to 10% aqueous acetic acid greatly reduced the difference between the product distributions. The direct hydration of olefins using a strong cation-exchange resin catalyst (6), which is especially suitable for lower alkenes such as propylene, resulted in a limited conversion of the olefins of less than 5%. Other groups have used homogenous catalysts, thus for example, Pakdel et al. [9] used aqueous solutions of sulfuric acid as catalyst in the presence of acetone to obtain terpineol from crude sulphated pine oil, they reported 67% of selectivity to terpineol although conversion was not reported. Robles et al. [8] used HPW12O40 as catalyst and mixtures of acetic acid and water as solvent for hydrating limonene, b-pinene and apinene, obtaining selectivity to terpineol near to 30%, with 90% of a-pinene conversion after 3 h of reaction at 25 8C. The systems before mentioned need the manufacture of catalytic supports; nevertheless, diffusivity is altered in the course of the reaction, or they present environmental problems by the disposition of the used homogenous catalysts.. The objective of this work is to study the role of trichloroacetic catalyst to hydration -pinene to terpineol using water as the hydroxyl group donor. II. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION A. Material -Pinene was obtained from isolation of turpentine oil. The trichloroacetic acid (TCA), aceton and deionized water were e-Merck products. The reagents were not purified before its use.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Instrumentation Analysis of the reaction products was performed by Gas Chromatography (GC) (Hewlett Pacard 5890 Series II equipped with flame ionization detector/FID). The column used was HP5 (% Phenyl Methyl Siloxane). The temperature of the column was adjusted to be 70oC for 5 min and then increased to 280oC by 10oC/min. The carrier gas used was helium (He) (0,1µL/min flow). The injection and detection temperatures were set to be 280 and 300oC, respectively and the split mode was 1/100. The various components were characterized by FTIR and GC-MS instrument. C. Procedure The catalytic tests were performed in a 100-cm3 threenecked-glass reactor with condenser and thermocouple. The reactor was submerged in thermostatic bath with silicone oil and magnetic stirring. In batch experiment, 0.25 mol of -pinene, 0.6 mol of water and 20 mL of aceton were first placed. After heating to the desired temperature (65oC), 0.11 mol of the trichloro acetic acid catalyst was added. Aliquots were extracted with a micropipette and immediately analyzed with GC.

carried out mainly at water/pinene interphase. The products with the higher yield using oxalic acid as catalyst were non-oxygenated compounds like limonene, terpinolene and carenes. The formation of these compounds supports the above mentioned, and oxalic acid does not promote the water/pinene interaction, so protons at organic phase promote mainly pinene rearrangement isomerization like in the isomerization process of pinene to produce camphene. As shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1, the conversion obtained using trichloroacetic acid as catalyst was 100% and the selectivity to terpineol was 87,85%, this result is notable for industrial purposes, other advantages with this catalyst are the absence of chlorinated by-products, and the capability to recover catalyst by simple recrystallization. Trichloroacetic acid is miscible with pinene and also soluble in water, due to these two factors, this catalyst, besides the formation of the proton to form the carbocation, favors the transfer of OH- to organic phase and as a result, hydration yield is the highest of the studied catalysts.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Effect of Catalyst Acids catalyze the hydration reactions of alkenes in aqueous solution. The acid transfers a proton to double bond of the alkene, forming an intermediary carbocation that reacts with water to form a protonated alcohol. The loss of H+ from the protonated alcohol generates the neutral product and the recovery of the catalyst. In the hydration of terpenes, a variety of products may be obtained depending on the catalyst and reaction conditions. To study the effect of acidity strength and organic/inorganic nature of several acids on the pinene hydration, reaction test were made at 70oC with reaction time of 30 min. Conversion and selectivity to terpineol curves, plotted against time for trichloroacetic acid catalyst are shown in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively. For the trichloroacetic acid the highest conversion is near to 90% with selectivity to terpineol of 87,56%, these values were obtained with reaction time of 30 min. The low solubility of oxalic acid limits the conversion due to the poor availability of protons in the organic phase, and hydration reaction is TABLE I.

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Figure 1. Conversion (C) and selectivity (S) over trichloroacetic catalyst vs. time.

Figure 2. Efect of temperature for turpentine oil hydratioan using trichloroacetic catalyst.

TURPENTINE OIL HYDRATION USING TCA CATALYST Selektivity, S (%)

time (min)

conversion α-pinene (%)

camphene

limonene

terpinolene

terpineol

others

30

88,21

1,80

6,21

2,87

87,56

1,55

60

89,73

9,14

22,47

9,31

23,10

10,35

120

90,74

9,59

23,95

8,44

22,71

35,31

240

94,53

7,52

25,00

7,80

25,05

34,63

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Effect of Temperature Fig 2 shows the effect of temperature on the conversion, plot under otherwise similar conditions. Selectivity of terpineol increases significantly with an increase in temperature. Hydration of -pinene is an exothermic reaction and the equilibrium shift in the reverse direction with a rise in temperature. IV. CONCLUSION The chloroacetic acid catalyst was active and selective for producing alcohols, with a conversion of 88.21% and showed 87.56% selectivity for -terpineol at 30 min. The good results were due to its strong acidity during reaction and its easy separation from reaction products. The yield obtained by using this catalyst was interesting for industrial application. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank to Directorate General of Higher Education (DIKTI), Department of National Education Republic Indonesia for the Fundamental Research grant.

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11] [12]

[13]

REFERENCES [1]

Vital J., A.M. Ramos, I.F., Silva, H. Valente., J.E., Castanheiro, Catal. Today, 56, 2000, pp. 167-172.

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[14]

Vital J., A.M. Ramos, I.F., Silva, H. Valente., J.E., Castanheiro, Catal. Today, 67, 2001, pp. 217-223. Castanheiro J.E., I.M., Foseseca, A.M. Ramos, R. Oliveira, J.Vital, Catal.Today, 104, 2005, 296-304. Mochida T., Ryuichiro O., Naoto H., Yuichi K., Toshio O., Micropor.Mesopor. Mat. , 2007, 101: 176-183. Bhatia, S.P., Food.chem.toxicol., 2008, 46 : 5275-5279. Martino L.D., Vinzenco D.F., Carmen F., Enrico M., and Felice S., Molecules, 2009, 14, pp. 2735-2746. Moreira,M.R., Cruz, G.M.P., Lopes, M.S., Albuquerque, A.A.C. dan Cardoso, J.H. L., J.Med.Biol.Res. , 2001, 34: 1337-1340. Bagheri S. M, Amirhossein S, Ahmad R. G., Soodabeth S, Maryam M, and Mehrdad I, 2010, Pharm. Biol., 48(3): 242-2463. van der Waal, J.C., H. Van Bekkum, J.M. Vital, 1996, J. Mol. Catal. A: Chemical 105:185-192 Roman-Aguirre. M.R., De la Torre-Sáenz, Wilber A.F., A. RobauSánchez, A. AguilarElguézabal, Catal. Today, 2005, 107-108 :310-314 Avila, M. C., Nora A. C., Castellon E. R., Lopez A. J., J.Mol.Catal. A: Chemical, 322,(1-2) , 2010, pp.106-112 Patricia A., Robles-Dutenhefner, Kelly A., da Silva, M. Rafiq H. S., Ivan V. Kozhevnikov, Elena V. G., J. Mol. Catal A: Chem, 175, 2001, pp. 33-42. Zhang, H. S. M. Mahajani, M. M., Sharma and T. Sridhar, References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article. Chem.Eng.Sci., 57, 2002, pp. 315-322. Pakdel, H., Sharron, S., and Roy, C., J. Agric. Food. Chem., 49, 9, 2001, pp. 4337–4341.

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Antimicrobial Edible Film from Banana Peels as Food Packaging Pudji Astuti1 and Asriningtyas Ajeng Erprihana2 Service and Product Technology1, Chemical Engineering2 Semarang State University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected], [email protected] Abstract—This research aim to utilize banana peels as main material of edible film. Banana peels are combinated with gliserol as plasticizer and clove oil as antimicrobial. Plasticizer make edible film more elastic and flexible. Clove oil as preservative of edible film that prevent growth of microba, bactery, and mushroom. This reaserch is divided two steps, first step is making banana peel starch, banana peels which have been pulverize, filtered with addition of water and press with cloth filter until grouts not produce filtrate. And the filtrate is precipitated for 34-48 hours and then its dried. Second step is making edible film which add aquadest 100 ml, banana starch 2%, gliserol 30%, and clove oil 4%. Keywords-edible; banana peel; plastic, glycerol

I. INTRODUCTION Foods are necessity for us with a big percentage. Quality and age of storage of foods will be decrease when foods interact with environment can add or relieve moisture content and odour, can trigger rancidity or contaminant of microba. In product of food that have multi component, quality, and age of storage will be decrease when moisture content, odour, or fat can move from one component to other component. For store and protect foods from environment effect is need packaging. Packaging for foods product beside for package the product during distribute and protect and preservise product, packaging must biodegradable too. In general, type of packaging that frequently used our community is plastic. Plastic Using by community is made from petroleum and natural gas that derivative from petrochemical products and non-renewable natural resources. Raw material of plastic is made and compiled via polymerization using monomer raw material, which is composed dial-connect into one in the form of polymer. Many kinds foods and beverafe packaging from plastic e.g. polyethylen, polypropylen, polystyrene, polyamide, polysulfone, polyester, polyurethane, polycarbonate, polyvinylchloride, and polyacrylonitrile. Plastics has advantage, the price is cheap, can be produce in a large amounts, light, transparant, flexible, and selective in permeability to H2O, CO2 and O2 but, plastic also has a weakness, can’t stand of heat, easily torn, can be a pollution in our environment and can contaminate the packaged food [1]. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Plastics causing environmental pollution because have non-biodegradable characteristic, beside plastic can contaminate the packaged food because presence of certain substances are potentially carinogenic than can move into the packaged food. Monomer-monomer on plastics can enter into the packages food next can enter into the body of consuming. Accumulation of chemical substance in our body are insoluble in water so can’t waste with urine and feses. Accumulation of chemical substance can make disruption our healthy and causing cancer [8]. So, we have to find packaging which have character biodegradable, elastic, and stand of heat. One of alternative to subtitute plastic is edible film. Because has characteristics biodegradable, act as barrier to oxygen uptake, and vapor transfer so edible film is harmless[3]. Components of edible film directly affects the shape morphology and characteristics of the generated packing. The main constituent of edible film component is grouped into three, those are hydrocolloids, lipids, and composites. Additional materials that are often encountered in the manufacture of edible film is antimicrobial, antioxidant, flavor and coloring. Hydrocolloid used in making edible film is protein or polysaccharide. Protein can be derived from corn, oybean, wheat, gluten, casein, collagen, gelatin, corn zein, milk protein and fish protein. Polysaccharide used is cellulose and derivatives, starch and its derivatives, pectin, seaweed extract (alginate,carrageenan, order), gum (gum arabic and karaya gun), xanthan gum, chitosan and others. Fat commonly used are natural wax (beeswax, carnauba wax, parrafin wax), acyl glycerol, fatty acids (oleic acid and lauric acid), and emulsifier. Composites are materials based on a mixture of hydrocolloids and lipids. In making edible film, is used polysaccharides as hydrocolloid. Raw material of polysaccharides for edible film-making is starch from banana peel that has composition 18.5% starch. To repair result of film characteristic so, add glycerol as plasticizer. Edible film that made from banana peel is modified with adding glycerol. Adding glycerol can make film characteristic more flexible, smooth, increase film permeability toward gas, water, and soluble substance [12]. Glycerol has chemical formula C3H8O3 with name

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia 1,2,3-propanetriol. Glycerol has characteristic soluble in water and increase water viscosity. To prevent arise patogen bacteria on edible film, is added clove oil. Clove oil (Eugenia aromaticum) is compound eugenol using as antibacteria.

formation due to temperature treatment, resulting in the formation of matrix or tissue.

II. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Priciple of edible film formation through following stages:

A. Starch of Banana Peel First, we have to sortation of raw material with banana peel that have still good. Banana peels have washed until clear, to separate dirt on banana peels. And then, banana peels cut and shredded with grater. Next, banana peels which have been pulverize, filtered with addition of water and press with cloth filter until grouts not produce filtrate. After that, filtrate is precipitated for 24-48 hours until all starch have precipitated. Supernatan liquid is discarded and precipitate washed repeatedly until starch precipitate clearer. Next, starch precipitate is dried with oven on ± 500 C for 2 hours until dry. B. Making Edible Film First, dissolve banana peels starch on 100 ml aquades which starch banana peels has concentration 2%, (w/v). The mixture was stirred with magnetic stirrer and heated with hot plate until 700 C for 15 minutes. Next, add 30% gliserol (w/w,starch). Before edible film mixture is printed, solution has to kept 24 hours in order that bubbles in solution are dissapear. If bubbles is still in solution, layer of film is deform. After, bubbles is dissapear and cool, add 4% clove oil as antibacterial agent (v/v) from edible film. After that, pour edible film on plate glass which two sides clean with alkohol 96%. And edible film leveled the mold. Last, edible film was allowed to dry for 2 days with free air. III. DISCUSSION Banana peels are compost heap from banana that have high amount. If allowed to accumulate will cause health and environment problems such as, respiratory disorders. So, banana peels to treated to prevent the buildup waste. In a fact, banana peels used only as animal feed. Banana peel still contain fairly complete nutrients such as, carbohydrates, fat, protein, calcium, phosphor, vitamin C, and water. Composition of banana peel contain lots of water that is 68.9% and carbohydrates 18.5%. Carbohydrate contained in banana peel is starch. Starch is a complex carbohydrate type. Starch is insoluble in water, has form white powder, tasteless, and odorless. Starch is a polysaccharide of hydrocolloid which is the main constituent in making edible film. Starch from banana peel potential to be used in making edible film. Starch that used in making edible film has concentration 2%. Based on the information and analysis of various sources of literature, especially from research journals. The good result of edible film has 2% concentration of starch.

Plastics are derived from natural substances can potentially for the growth of fungi and bacteria so that, need addition of clove oil to prevent it.

1. Suspending material into the solvent Formation of film solution is begin of suspending material into the solvent such as water, ethanol, and other solvents. 2. Temperature setting Temperature setting has aim to achieve a starch gelatinization temperature, so the starch can be obtained to perfect gelatinization and homogeneous films as well as intact. Gelatinization is an event which began with the formation of gel hydration starch, the absorption of water molecules by the molecules of starch. If the absence of heating, the possibility of interaction between molekul very small, so that when the film is dried to be cracked. Gelatinization can occur when water dissolves the starch is heated to a gelatinization temperature [4]. 3. Addition of plasticizer Plasticizer is a non-volatile substance that is added to a material to improve the physical properties and mechanical properties of the material [6]. In making edible films often added plasticizer to overcome fragile characteristic of film so that, would be obtained films strong, flexible, and not easily broken [11]. Plasticizer that used is glycerol. Use of glycerol concentration is about 10-60%. Excessive addition of glycerol will cause a bittersweet taste in material 4. Drying Drying is done to evaporate the solvent, it will obtain the edible film. Temperature used will affect the drying time and the resulting appearance of edible film. Mechanism of plasticizer polymer processes as a result of the addition of plasticizer through following order:     

wetting and adsorption solving and or penetration on the surface absorption, diffusion termination on the amorphous cutting structure [4]

Physical properties of edible film thicknesses show include the ability of the film to the product packaging. Thickness of the packaging will affect the shelf life of the product, if the thicker so, the water vapor transmission rate and the lower the gas [2]. In other hand, appearance of a thick edible film will give the color more opaque or non-transparent and will reduce consumer acceptance for its products become less attractive.

Edible film formation mechanism of starch, in principle, is gelatinization of starch molecules. The process of film formation is a phenomenon of gel eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Mechanical properties showed the power of film to protect against pressure products that packaged, such as friction and shocks. Physical properties and mechanics are as follows: 1. Water vapor transmission rate Water vapor transmission rate is the amount of water vapor lost per unit time divided by the area of the film. The water vapor transmission rate of water vapor determine permeability of films [3]. 2. Tensile strength Tensile strength is a measure for the strength of the film that specifically pull up to the maximum that can be achieved before the film remained broken or torn. Edible film integrity should be maintained during processing material that packaged [5]. To test this ability to do the evaluation of mechanical properties, including strength and elongation break loose 3. Water resistance Film properties are important for its application as a protective food is resistance in the water. When high water activity (when the film had contact with water) during the packaged food processing, so the film should be as minimal as possible soluble in water. Edible films with high water solubility are also desired, for example when dissolved or in hot food.

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8] [9]

IV. CONCLUSION Edible film is a thin layer that can protect foods from moisture, oxygen, and dissolved substance. One of main component to make edible film is hydrocolloid, example of hydrocolloid is starch. Starch from banana peel has high content that is 18.5% so, it can be potential to make adible film. Glycerol is added as plasticizer that has weaken the stiffness of the polymer, while increasing the flexibility and extensibility of polymer. To prevent growth bacteria and fungi need to addition and clove oil.

[10]

[11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

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Cervera, M.F., Heinamaki, J., Krogars, K., and Jorgensen, A.C, Solid-State and Mechanical Properties of Aqueous ChitosanAmylose Starch Films Plasticized With Polyols, AAPS PharmSciTech, 5, 2005, pp.15-20. Diredja, D., Mempelajari Pengaruh Penambahan Sodium Karboksimetilselulosa terhadap Karakteristik Edible film dari Protein Bungkil Kedelai. Fateta: IPB, 1996. Gennadios, A., and C.L. Edible Film, Influence of The Main Process Variable On Properties, Using Response Surface Methodolg, J. Food Tech, 57 ( 1 ), 1992, pp.190 – 195, 199. Guilbert, S., A survey on protein absed materials for food, agricultural and biotechnological uses. In Active bioplymer films and coating for food and biotechnological uses. Park,H.J., R.F.Testin, M.S.Chinnan and J.W.Park (Ed). Materials of PreCongress Short Course of IUFoST, Korea University-Seoul, Korea, 2001. Krochta, J. M. ,and C. M. ,Johnson. Edible Film and Biodegradable Polymer Film Challenger and Opportunities, Food Tech, 51 ( 2 ), 1997, pp. 61-74. Mc Hugh, T.H;and krochta, J.M., Sorbitol vs Glycerol plasticized whey protein edible films: Integrated.oxygen permeability and tensile property evaluation,J.Agric.Food chem..42:841_5, 1992. Mc Hugh, T. H and J. M. Krochta, Permeability Properties of Edible Film, dalam Krochta, J. M., E. A. Baldwin and M.O. Nisperos – Carriedo ( Eds ), Edible Coating and Film to Improve Food Quality, Technomic Pulb. Co. Inc. , Lancester, Basel, 1994. Munadjim, Teknologi Pengolahan Pisang, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1983. Seal, K.J., Test methods and standards for biodegradable plastic. In: . Chemistry and technology of biodegradable polymer: Griffin, G.J.L. Blackie Academic and Proffesional, Chapman and Hall, 1994. Siracusa, V., P., Rocculi, S., Romani,M.D., Rosa, Biodegradable Polymers for Food Packaging: AReview, Trendsin Food Science & Technology, doi:10.1016/j.tift.2008.07.003, 2008. Siswono, Jaringan Informasi pangan dan Gizi, volume XIV. Ditjen Bina Gizi Masyarakat, Jakarta, 2008.. Syarief.R., S. Santausa and Isyana, Teknologi Pengemasan Pangan, PAU Pangan dan Gizi, IPB Bogor, 1989. Ward, I.M. and D.W. Hadley, An introduction on the mechanical properties of solid polymers, Wiley, New York, 1993. Winarno, F. G., Kimia Pangan dan Gizi. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1995. Yuli Darni, Chici A, Sri Ismiyati D., Sintesa Bioplastik dari Pati Pisang dan Gelatin dengan Plasticizer Gliserol.Universitas Lampung, Seminar Nasional Sains dan Teknologi-II, 2008.

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Kinetics of Carbon Dioxide Absorption into Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Solution Promoted by N-Methyldiethanolamine and Diethanolamine Mixture Rif’ah Amalia1, Suprapto2, Ali Altway3 and Susianto4 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—The absorption of carbon dioxide with aqueous potassium carbonate solution have the potential for the carbon dioxide removal from raw gas fuel resources, synthetic gases and emission source. The advantage of aqueous potassium carbonate solution for carbon dioxide removal are high chemical solubility of carbon dioxide in the carbonate or bicarbonate system, the low energy consumption for solvent regeneration and low solvent costs, but is limited by slow absorption rates. So that promoter is considered necessary to enhance carbon dioxide absorption rates. In this work, we consider N-methyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture as promoter. This paper presents kinetic data for aqueous potassium carbonate promoted by N-methyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture. Kinetics of carbon dioxide absorption into aqueous potassium carbonate solution promoted by Nmethyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture was measured using a wetted wall column under conditions in which the reaction of carbon dioxide was of pseudo first order. Wetted Wall Column consists of a stainless steel tube 9.3 cm in length, 1.3 cm in outer diameter and contact surface area of 37.96 cm2.The aqueous potassium carbonate solution promoted by N-methyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture (30% wt. K2CO3 , 1 % vol. MDEA, 2% vol. DEA) flowed upward through the middle of thetube, and then overflow at the top, and was distributed on the outer surface formed a liquid film. The gas mixture of carbon dioxide and N2 passed through water saturator’s tankand then flowed upward from bottom of the annulus.The temperature was controlled by heated water circulation through jacket around the annulus. The liquid and gas flowrate was measured by flowmeter. Carbon dioxide concentration was analyzed by OPTIMA-7 gas analyzer. The concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ion in liquid influent and effluent was analyzed by titration. Based on the pseudo first order condition for the carbon dioxide absorption, the overall pseudo first order reaction rate constant was determined from the kinetics data measurement. The kinetic rate parameter were calculated and presented as function of temperature.

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Keywords-absorption; carbon dioxide; kinetics; promoter; wetted wall column

I. INTRODUCTION Carbon dioxide emmision is a main contributing factor greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause global warming. Some researchers have developed several methods to remove carbon dioxide, such as absorption, membrane technologies, adsorption, cryogenic, and using algae or microbial systems. Absorption process using hot potassium carbonate known as “Benfield Process” has been used commercially for a few years [4]. Compared with the amine solvent, potassium carbonate has the advantage of high stability , low cost and energy requirements for solvent regeneration is low, but the reaction rate is slow compared to alkanolamine compounds [1;3;8;17;21]. To overcome the slow reaction rate , it is necessary to the addition of a solution of potassium carbonate promoter in order to increase the rate of mass transfer of carbon dioxide [14;17;18;21]. Some reaction kinetics of absorption of carbon dioxide in the carbonate system has been widely studied. Augugliaro and Rizzuti (1987) studied the effect of arsenic promoter in potassium carbonate solution. Cullinane (2004) conducted a study determining the reaction kinetics of absorption by piperazine promoter. Xiong et al (2003) conducted a study of reaction kinetics of absorption of carbon dioxide with potassium carbonate and promoter Lithium Zirconium (Li2ZrO2). Kinetics of the reaction has also been carried out with absorbent MDEA + piperazine with the result that the addition of piperazine to increase the rate of absorption of carbon dioxide (Paul et al, 2009). Effect of the addition of the amine promoter Na2CO3 and K2CO3 solution studied by Knuutila and Svensen (2009) . Saputra (2010) studied the reaction kinetics of absorption of carbon dioxide in solution of potassium carbonate has also been made with boric acid promoter and MDEA.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia To this end, the main purpose of this work is to Determine reaction rate constant of carbon dioxide absorption into aqueous potassium carbonate solution promoted by N-methyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture using a laboratory wetted wall column at a pressure of 1 atmosphere.

For this mechanism, reaction rate equation as follows: [CO2]

(14)

For the carbon dioxide absorption into the promoted potassium carbonate, the carbon dioxide overall reaction rate can be describe as follows :

II. THEORY

rov = kov [CO2]

(15)

A. Mechanism Reaction The basic chemical reaction for carbon dioxide and potassium carbonate solution is represented by the overall reaction [20] :

where kov is overall pseudo first order reaction rate constant.

CO2 + H2O + K2CO3  2KHCO3

kov=kOH-[OH-]+kMDEA[MDEA]+kDEA[DEA]

(16)

kapp = kMDEA [MDEA] + kDEA [DEA]

(17)

Substituting the reaction rate from equation (7), (11) and (14) into equation (15), so kov can be expresses as :

(1)

As is known, when carbon dioxide is absorbed in alkaline solution, the following equilibrium reaction occur : H2O CO2 + H2O HCO3-

H+ + OHHCO3- + H+ CO32- + H+

The apparent reaction rate constant, kapp, is defined as follows :

(3)

kapp = kov - kOH- [OH-]

(4)

HCO3- + H+

(5)

HCO3-

(6)

In basic solution at pH > 8, the reaction (5) can be neglected, and the reaction (6) is the predominant and rate limiting reaction. The rate of forward reaction can be described : (7) (8) When a small amount of N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) is added into the solution, reaction will be occur is : CO2+MDEA+H2O MDEAH+ + OH-

MDEAH++HCO3MDEA + H2O

(9) (10)

For this mechanism, reaction rate equation as follows : (11) When a small amount of diethanolamine (DEA) is added into the solution, reaction will be occur is : CO2 + DEA

+

DEA COO

-

(19)

B. Wetted Wall Column Wetted wall column is a column consisting of vertical cylindrical tube in which the liquid is inserted from the top and flows along the walls of the tube in the form of thin layers (films) then exit at the bottom of the tube. In this case the gas-liquid contact time is determined as follows [6]: tc =

The second reaction is the bicarbonate formation : CO2 + OH-

(18)

(2)

Two reaction pccur for carbon dioxide in aqueous solution. The first reaction is the hydration of carbon dioxide : CO2 + H2O

kapp = k’MDEA + k’DEA

(20)

If Q ( t ) is the amount of gas absorbed per unit surface area during the contact time (t), then the absorption rate averaged over time t is Q (t) / (t) [6] : =

(21)

C. Mass Transfer The reaction kinetics can be determined from the absorption rate in the promoted carbonate solution when measuring in the fast pseudo-first-order reaction regime depending on the dimensionless Hatta number. This case is true and the Haequals the enhancement factor when the following conditions are fulfilled [6]: 3 < Ha < ½ Ei, With :

(22)

For Ha > 3, flux absorption as follows [6]: (23) (24)

(12) III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

DEA+COO- + OH-

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DEACOO- + H2O (13)

The Wetted Wall Column shown in figure 1 and 2, was used as the gas liquid contactor to measurement the kinetic data and absorption rate measurement in this work. The wetted wall column is the same equipment

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia used in the work of [4;5;7;11;12;18]. The Wetted Wall column is the same consists of a stainless steel tube 9.3 cm in length,1.3 cmin outer diameter and contact surface area of 37.96 cm2.The aqueous potassium carbonate solution promoted by N-methyldiethanolamine and diethanolamine mixture(30% wt. K2CO3, 1 % vol. MDEA, 2% vol. DEA) flowed upward through the middle of the tube, and then overflow at the top, and was distributed on the outer surface formed a liquid film. The gas mixture of carbon dioxide and N2 passed through water saturator’s tank and then flowed upward from bottom of the annulus.The temperature was controlled by heated water circulation through jacket around the annulus. The temperature was varied 30 to 50 0C. The liquid and gas flowrate was measured by flowmeter. Carbon dioxide concentration was analyzed by OPTIMA7 gas analyzer. The concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ion in liquid influent and effluent was analyzed by titration. TT Air panas keluar

Gas keluar

WWC

Larutan keluar R2

FI

FI

T3

Air panas masuk

R1 Larutan masuk

Gas masuk

TC

TT V3

Air panas keluar

Gas CO2 keluar

Liquida K2CO3 - promotor keluar Liquida K2CO3-

Air panas masuk

promotor masuk Gas CO2 masuk

Figure 2. Sketch of Wetted Wall Column

IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Absorption Effect of Temperature on Carbon Dioxide Absorption by Absorption Rate The carbon dioxide absorption experiments into 30wt% potassium carbonate solution with the addition of 1% vol N-methyldiethanolamine and 2% vol diethanolamine. The experiments were carried out over the temperature range of 303K-323K. All experiments were performed under atmospheric pressure with partial pressure of carbon dioxide near atmospheric pressure. Table 1 are the rate of carbon dioxide absorption as measured in the WWC. The effect temperature on rate of carbon dioxide absorption is shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen from that figures, that the avarage carbon dioxide absorption rate increase with temperature increases from 303 K to 323K. This indicate, reaction rate of carbon dioxide increase by increasing temperature.

V1

TABLE I.

V2

P1 T2

v.106 m3/s

P2 T1

T5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT OF ABSORPTION RATE T (K)

t (detik)

q (mol/det)

303,15

0,374534345

0,000116423

308,15

0,374534345

0,000174635

313,15

0,374534345

0,000291059

318,15

0,374534345

0,00034927

323,15

0,374534345

0,000465694

T4

T6 C

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the wetted wall column experiment 5

C P1

: Heater : Pump of aqueous potassium carbonate promoted by MDEA-DEA P2 : Pompa of water R1 : Flowmeter liquid R2 : Flowmeter gas T1 : Waterbath T2 : Reservoir Tank T3 : Overflow Tank T4 : Saturator Tank T5 : CO2 Tank T6 : Sample Tank TT : Thermo transmitter TC : Thermo control V1 : Gate valve solution V2 : Gate valve CO2 V3 : Gate valve (by pass) WWC : Wetted wall column

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Figure 3. Carbon dioxide absorption rate in 1%vol Nmethyldiethanolamine and 2% vol Diethanolamine

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia B. Reaction Rate Constants Effect of temperature and concentration of promoter on the overall kinetic constant for 30 wt% potassium carbonate solution was shown in Fig.4. As can be seen that as the temperature increased, the kov increased greatly. It is considered to be contributed by two main parts (Eq.16). According to the conditions of the fast pseudo-first order reaction regime, reaction rate constants, kapp, could be calculated from (Eq.19). The expression for reaction rate constant kapp as a function of temperature over the experimental range was obtained from an Arrhenius plot, as shown in Figure 4, with the following results:

k’DEA kg kL Kw K1 K2 q Q

: : : : : : : :

rov R tc T v z Greek Symbols µ ρ

: : : : : :

kDEA x [DEA], 1/s Gas phase mass transfer coeficient, kmol/ m2 .s Liquid phase mass transfer coeficient, kmol/ m2 .s Equilibrium water constant, kmol/m3 [HCO3-][H+]/[CO2] , kmol/m3 [CO32-][H+]/[HCO3-] , kmol/m3 Absorption rate, kmol/s Quantity of gas absorbed by unit area in time of contact t, kmol/m2 det Overall reaction rate, kmol/m3.s Gas Constant, m3.Pa/kmol.K Contact time gas - liquid, detik Temperature, (K) Liquid flow rate, m3/s Valensi ion

: Viscosity liquid, kg /m.s : Density liquid, kg/m3

REFERENCES [1]

[2] Figure 4. Overall absorption kinetic constant in 30 wt% potassium carbonate solution with 1% vol N-methyldiethanolamine and 2% vol diethanolamine as a function of temperature

V. CONCLUSION Kinetics of the carbon dioxide absorption into 30 wt% potassium carbonate solution with the addition of 1% vol N-methyldiethanolamine and 2% vol Diethanolamine was investigated at 303 K - 323 K using laboratory wetted wall column at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Based on pseudo first-order reaction rate constant measurement.

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6] [7]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge the financial supported by the “Operational Support State University (BOPTN)” ITS in 2013 Corresponding Letter of Agreement Number: 013674.131/IT2.7/PN.08.01/2013, dated May 13, 2013.

[8]

[9]

NOMENCLATURE CB0 CAi CAe d DA DB Ei h Ha kov kOHkapp kH2O kMDEA kDEA k’,MDEA

: Konsentrasi awal reaktan, kmol/ m3 : Concentration gas CO2 in interface, kmol/m3 : Concentration Equilibrium gas CO2 berkesetimbangan into solution, kmol/m3 : diameter Wetted Wall Column, meter : Diffusivity gas CO2, m2/s : Difusivity reaktan, m2/s : Enhancement factor for instaneous reaction : Height Wetted Wall Coulumn, meter : Hatta Number : Overall pseudo first order reaction rate constant, 1/s : Hydration carbon dioxide reaction rate, 1/s : k’MDEA + k’DEA, 1/s : Reaction rate constant for H2O, 1/s : Reaction rate constant for methyldiethanolamine, 1/s : Reaction rate constant for diethanolamine, 1/s : kMDEA x [MDEA], 1/s

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[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

Astarita, G., Savage, D.W. and Longo J.M., “Promotion of CO2 Mass Transfer in Carbonate Solutions”, Chem. Eng. Sci, 36, 1981, pp. 581-588. Augugliaro, V. and Rizzuti, L., “Kinetics of Carbon Dioxide Absorption into Catalysed Potassium Carbonate Solutions”, Chem.Eng, Sci, 42, 1987, pp.2339-2343. Benson, Field J.H. and Haynes W.P., “Improved Process for CO2 Absorption Uses Hot Carbonate Solutions”, Chem. Eng. Prog. 52, 1956, pp. 433-438. Bishnoi, P.S. and Rochelle, G.T., “Absorption of Carbon Dioxide into Aqueous Piperazine: Reaction kinetics, Mass Transfer and Solubility”, Chem. Eng. Sci. 55 (22), 2000, pp..5531-5543. Cullinane, J.T. and Rochelle, G.T., “Carbon dioxide Absorption with Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Promoted by Piperazine”, Chem.Eng. Sci, 59, 2004, pp. 3619-3630. Danckwerts, P. V., Gas-Liquid Reaction, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970. Dang, H. and Rochelle, G.T., ”CO2 Absorption Rate and Solubility in Monoethanolamine /Piperazine/ Water”, The First National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Washington, DC, 2001. Ghosh, U.K., Kentish, S.E. and Stevens, G.W., “Absorption of Carbon Dioxide into Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Promoted By Boric Acid”, Energy Procedia 1, 2009, pp.1075-1081. Knutilla, H and Svensen, H.F.,”Kinetics of Carbonate Based CO2 capture Systems”, Energy Procedia, 1, 2009, pp. 1011-1018. Lin, C.Y., Sariono, A.N. and Li, M.H., Kinetics Study of Carbon Dioxide Absorption Into Aqueous Solutions Containing Methyldiethanolamine + Diethanolamine, Journal of The Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 39, 2009, pp. 1-9. Mshewa, M.M and Rochelle, G.T.,” Carbon Dioxide Absorption/Desorption Kinetics in Blended Amines”, The Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, 1994. Pacheco, M.A., Mass transfer, Kinetics and Rate-Based Modeling of Reactive Absorption, Ph.D Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, TX, 1998. Paul S., Ghosal A.K. and Mandal B., “Kinetics of Absorption of Carbón Dioxide into Aqueous Blends of Piperazine and Methyldiethanolamine”, Chem. Eng. Sci, 64, 2009, pp.1618-1622. Rahimpour, M, R and Kashkooli, A, Z., “Modeling and Simulation Of Industrial Carbon Dioxide Absorber Using AminePromoted Potash Solution”, Iranian Journal of Science & Technology, Transaction B, 28, B6, 2004. Rao, A.B. and Rubin, E.S., “A Technical, Economic, and Environmental Assessment of Amine–Based CO2 Capture

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[16]

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Technology for Power Plant Greenhouse Gas Control,” Environ. Sci. Tech, 36, 2002, pp. 4467–4475. Saputra, E, A., Kinetika Reaksi Absorpsi CO2 dengan Menggunakan Kalium Karbonat (K2CO3) Berpromotor, Tesis, Jurusan Teknik Kimia, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, 2010. Shen, S., Feng, X., Zhao, R., Ghosh, U.K., Chen, A., (2013-a), “Kinetic Study of Carbon Dioxide Absorption with Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Promoted by Arginine”, Chem. Eng. Journal, doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.02.093 Thee, H., Smith, K, H., Silva, G, d., “Carbon Dioxide Absorption into Unpromoted and Borate-Catalyzed Potassium Carbonate Solutions”, Chemical Engineering Journal, 181-1182, 2012, pp.694-701. Xiong, R., Ida, J. and Lin, Y.S., “Kinetics of Carbon Dioxide Sorption on Potassium-Doped Lithium Zirconate”, Chem. Eng. Sci, 58, 2003, pp. 4377-4385. Yi, F., Kui Zou, H., Wen Chu, G., Shao, L., Feng Chen, J.,”Modeling and Experimental Studies on Absorption of CO2 by Benfield Solution in Rotating Packed Bed”, Chem. Eng. J, 145, 2009, pp. 377-384. Yih, S., M and Sun, C., “Simultaneous Absorption of Hydrogen Sulphide and Carbon Dioxide into Potassium Carbonate Solution with or without Amine Promoters”, The Chemical Engineering Journal, 34, 1987, pp.66-72.

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Process of Extracting Oil From Solid Waste Rubber Seed with Microwave-assisted Extraction Achmad Wildan

Indah Hartati

Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Farmasi “Yayasan Pharmasi” Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Departement of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Faculty Wahid Hasyim University Semarang, Indonesia

Widayat Departement of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Faculty Diponegoro University Semarang, Indonesia

Abstract—Rubber ( Hevea brasiliensis Muell . Arg ) is one of the important agricultural commodity for Indonesian and International scope. Indonesia is the largest producer of natural rubber in the world's after Thailand. Rubber is one of the many support the agricultural economy of this country. In addition to producing latex, rubber plantations also produce rubber seed. Rubber seeds have a very high oil content. In the mechanical method or pressing, derived rubber seed oil yield about 20 to 30 %. Though the rubber seed oil content is about 50-60 %. Thus the remaining oil content in the solid waste rubber seed is still much. The process of taking oil from solid waste rubber seed can be carried out with a microwave-assisted extraction method. Microwave-assisted extraction has advantages compared with conventional extraction, including extraction time more quickly, increasing the yield and selectivity, needs less solvent and solvent can use a lower purity. The purpose of this study is the use of multiple process variables to get the amount of solid waste rubber seed oil yeid is optimum with microwave-assisted extraction method and chemical analysis of physical properties of solid waste rubber seed oil. This study uses the solvent n - hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol. The results yield optimum levels of oil from solid waste rubber seed obtained 38,98 % by using the solvent n hexane, material and solvent ratio = 1 : 20 and 1 mm particle size. The oil chemical physical properties with optimum conditions were obtained , among others, viscosity 56.4261 cp, specific gravity 0.9298,refractive index 1,468, iodine number 148.5670 mg / g, saponification number 178.0487 mg KOH / g, acid number 38,6246 mg / g.

about 50-60 % [1]. Rubber seed oil potential to be exploited. Along with the development needs of the fuel, the use of rubber seed oil more widely studied. Composition of rubber seed oil contains fatty acids which have benefits and high economic value, such as palmitic acid, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic [1]. Rubber seed oil taken by the pressing method using a hydraulic press machine. Withdrawal of rubber seed oil from the seeds using the pressing process will result in the form of solid waste rubber, while the solid waste from the rubber has yet to be developed for use.

Keywords-rubber; microwave assited extraction; waste rubber seed oil; yeild; solvent

Extraction solid waste rubber as a series of events that includes the diffusion mass transfer of oil from the solids to the surface of a solid, mass transfer of oil from the solids into a liquid solvent in the pores of the solids and oil diffusion in a liquid solvent.

I. INTRODUCTION Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell . Arg) is one of the important agricultural commodity for Indonesian and International scope. Indonesia is the largest producer of natural rubber in the world's second largest after Thailand, rubber is one of the many support the agricultural economy of this country. In addition to producing latex, rubber plantations also produce rubber seed. Rubber seeds have a very high oil content. The rubber seed oil content is eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Solid waste rubber seed results from pressing process still contain the composition of rubber seed oil. Extraction of rubber seed waste can quote remaining oil after pressing process. Extraction will get optimum results when performed with appropriate methods and solvent. One of extraction method can be used it is Microwaveassisted extraction. The principle of microwave-assisted extraction is using microwave heating by direct collisions with polar materials or solvents and is governed by two phenomena that ionic conduction and dipole rotation. Microwave assited extraction is influenced by several factors, including the type of solvent, solvent volume, power and extraction time. Selection of solvent based on the solubility of the target compounds. The interaction between the solvent and the nature of the matrix material or the ability of a solvent to absorb microwave energy [2].

Solid liquid extraction speed depends on two main phases, namely diffusion in solids to the surface of solids and mass transfer from the liquid to the solid surface. If the speed difference is almost the same second stage, the extraction rate is determined by two processes, but if the difference in speed of the two phases is large enough, then

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia the extraction speed is determined by the speed of the slowest process [3] . Microwave-assisted extraction has advantages compared with conventional extraction, including extraction time more quickly, increasing the yield and selectivity, needs less solvent and solvent can use a lower purity [4,5]. II. MATERIAL AND METHODS First, Rubber seed samples obtained is separate by wet sorting samples with other plant parts and impurities, and then do the washing with running water for 3 times. To obtain the dry seeds then dried using an oven at 700C for 30 minutes. Before the dry seeds pressed, done steaming with boiling water for 15 minutes in order to soften the hard seed coat of rubber so easily in the rubber seed presses. Furthermore rubber seed pressed using a hydraulic press with a pressure of 20 ton/inc2. Furthermore solid rubber blended to gain size with certain degrees of fineness. Separation particle size by sieve to get particle size of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this study conducted an experiment with the variables that influence the type of solvent, and a weight ratio of material and solvent, material size and extraction time. The process of solvent extraction with 3 kinds, namely n - hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol. The third purpose of the solvent is to determine the effect of solvent polarity on oil yield and oil characteristics are obtained. Stages of the process are extraction and degumming process. Extraction process to obtain oil from waste rubber seed and degumming process aims to separate the oil with impurities such as gum. Results obtained from degumming process is pure oil . The yield of pure oil results obtained from microwave assited extraction method by various solvent and variation of particle size shown in Fig. 1.

Oil extraction from solid waste rubber seed is done by using n - hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol. The third is used based on the difference polarity. Overall experimental work carried out in the boiling flask 1000 ml type flash that has been assembled with upright cooler. Boiling flask included in the Microwave Extractor at certain positions that microwaves give maximum effect to the mix to be extracted. Extraction is done using Microwave Extractor with a total power of 900 W. Microwave frequency used is 2450 MHz. The degumming method used is wet degumming , crude oil from waste rubber solid is heated at a temperature of 80-90 °C while stirring using a magnetic stirrer, and then added to a solution of 20 % (v/w) phosphoric acid and left for 15 minutes. Then the oil mixture is introduced into a separating funnel, add hot water (80 – 90 oC) by spraying over the surface of crude oil, and then allowed to stand until the gum and water separates from the oil, make sure the wash water was neutral (using litmus paper). The resulting oil product analysis by chemical physical properties test include acids number, saponification number, density test, viscosity test, iodine number. In the first phase of the experiment used fixed variable time of extraction 10 minute, and the weight ratio of the material and the volume of solvent 1 : 20. While the variable that changed was the type of solvent and the particle size. In the second phase of the experiment used fixed variable the weight ratio of material and the volume of solvent and optimum size 1 mm material and variable that changed is operating time. In the third stage of the experiment to vary the weight ratio of material and the volume of solvent and optimum of the size of the particle 1 mm and the optimum operating time 30 minutes.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 1. Graph showing the relationship with the material particle size and % pure oil yield

Based on Fig. 1 above, the amount of the highest yield obtained was of 26.71 %. This is due to the smaller particle size of the solvent will be more easily extracting the oil that is in the material because the surface area of contact between the material and the solvent will be even greater, so that the solvent will be easier to get into the pores of the material. Greatest yield obtained from the nhexane solvent. This is due to the nature of the non-polar oil so it will be easily extracted with a non-polar solvents such as n-hexane. The yield of pure oil results obtained from microwave assited extraction method by various solvent and variation exctraction time shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2.

Graph showing the relationship with the extraction time and % pure oil yield

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Based on Fig. 2 above, the amount of the highest yield obtained was of 38.98 %. This is due to the longer the contact time between solvent and material, more oil is extracted from the material. In the comparison of materials and extraction with solvents, visible residue levels of rubber seed oil yield was highest in material and solvent ratio is 1: 20 with n-hexane solvent. It can be seen in Fig. 3.

(including oxidized oil), enzymes lipoksidase, metal catalyst, and Fe - organic catalysts. Warming will cause the rubber seed oil is also heating components contained in the seeds. With increasing temperature and duration of heating the heat energy received by seeds or by components in the seed oil will be even greater. This situation will encourage chemical reactions in the oil component to its cause several changes occur in the oil component. Heating oil at high temperatures in the presence of oxygen will lead to the destruction of acid unsaturated fatty acids contained in the oil. One indicator of the damage caused by heating oil is decreasing iodine number. Saponification number can be used to determine the molecular weight of oils and fats in the rough. Saponification numbers are bigger then the oil is composed of fatty acids with short chain. Saponification number of edible oil between 183-253 mg KOH/g [5].

Figure 3. Graph showing the relationship between the ratio of solvent to raw material and % oil yield

Based on Fig. 3 above, the amount of the highest yield obtained was of 38.98 %. this is due to the increasing number of solvents, the more oil that can be attracted by the material. Further oil yield optimization process results physicochemical analysis as shown in Table 1. TABLE I.

TABLE 1 . OIL PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTE RUBBER SEED

No

Physicochemical Properties of Test

Values

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Viscosity ( cp ) Specific gravity Refractive index Iodine number (mg/g) Saponification number (mg/g) Acid number (mg/g KOH)

56.4261 0.9298 1.468 148.5670 178.0487 38.6246

Value of viscosity, specific gravity and refractive index of rubber seed oil dregs produced show the fatty acid composition comprising unsaturated and saturated fatty acids. Iodine number can express the degree of unsaturation of oils or fats. The higher the iodine number, the double bonds contained more in oil. The iodine number of rubber seed oil obtained by soxhletation methods might be due to oxidation occurs caused by heating process. The process has cause the unsaturation of the oil decrease because the double bond of the fatty acid is turn into single bond. The decreasing of the unsaturation will impacted on the decreaasing of the iod value. Moreover, the higher the temperature applied, the more the oil that is oxidized. The oxidation process is happen when the oxygen interact with the oil of the seed or oil that has been removed from the seed matrix. The oxidation process is the main process that plays a role in reducing the unsaturation oil. This process can be accelerated by high temperatures, presence of peroxide compounds

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Acid number is one of the parameters that determine the quality of the oil. Measurement of this acid value indicates how much the amount of free fatty acids contained in the oil due to hydrolysis. The higher the value of an oil acid number, the higher the level of damage due to the amount of triglyceride molecules even more. Thus, the quality of the oil will be lower. Formation of free fatty acids in the oil can occur due to processing (preparation of materials). Hydrolysis process can take place at the time the oil is still in the seed tissue that has been harvested, during processing, and storage. IV. CONCLUSION These results indicate % highest pure oil yield obtained by microwave assited extraction methods with 30 minute, material and solvent ratio = 1: 20 and 1 mm particle size material. Solid waste oil from rubber seed have specific physico-chemical properties are influenced by the composition of free fatty acids. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors of this work wish to gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Directorate of Higher Education through Hibah Bersaing Research Project with Agreement Letter no. 036/K6/KL/SP/2013. REFERENCES [1] [2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

S. Ketaren, “Oils and fats food” Jakarta:UI- Press, 1986. B. Kauffman, S. Rudaz, S. Cherkaoui, J. L. Veuthey, Infuence of Plant matrix on MAEP, The case of Diosgenin extracted from Fenugreek, Phytochemical Analysis, 2007, pp 70-76. V. Mandal, Y. Mohan, S. Hemalatha, Microwave assited extraction-An innovative and promising extraction tool for medicinal plant research, Pharmacognosy Reviews, vol 1, 2007, pp. 18. Y. Chen, M. Y. Xie, X. F. Gong, Microwave assisted extraction used for isolation of total triterpenoid saponins from Ganoderma atrum, Journal of Food Engineering, Vol. 81, 2005, pp. 170-172. Q. C. Xiao, L. Qin, Z. Fan, Microwave assisted extraction of polysaccharides from Solanum nigrum, Journal of Central and South University Technology, vol 12, 2005, pp. 556-560.

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Development of Downdraft Biomass Gasification System for Multi Biomass Feedstock Sukamta1, Slamet Hani2, Hary Wibowo3 and Anak Agung Putra Susastriawan4 Department of Chemical Engineering1, Department of Electrical Engineering2, Department of Mechanical Engineering3,4 Institute of Science and Technology, AKPRIND Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract—Various efforts have been done to overcome the limitations of fossil fuel source. Biomass gasification, one of many renewable energy conversion systems, has a potential to apply in Indonesia. Gasification process takes place in a reactor called a gasifier. Producer gas for gasification can be used as a heat source or sources of energy for electricity generation. However, it is only particular gasifier models suitable for the particular type of biomass. Biomass with different characteristics requires a different gasifier designs that ensures the performance of gasifier. This study aims to design and develop a downdraft biomass gasifier that compatible for multi biomass feedstock. It is expected that gasifier has similar performance for different type of biomass. The main components of gasifier system are reactor, cyclone, cooler, filter and blower. The gasifier is tested with saw dust. The test conducted in order to obtain compatibility of gasifier for very fine particle size of biomass. The result shows gasifier can be manufactured with simple manufacturing method, however the design have to be optimize to obtain the optimum temperature in reactor zone for gasification occurs. Keywords-gasification; compatibility; continuity

producer

gas;

biomass;

I. INTRODUCTION The depletion of fossil fuels became a serious problem for last several years. Efforts have been done for solving the problem. Many researchers have investigated various sources of renewable energy and developed the energy conversion system for those sources. One of feasible energy conversion system is biomass gasification. Biomass gasification is a thermo- chemical process of converting solid biomass into combustible gas called producer gas by means of partial oxidation carried out in reactor called gasifier[1] (Khisore, 2008). Biomass gasification occurs through a sequence of complex thermo-chemical reactions. In first stage, partial combustion of biomass producing gases and char occurs along with generation of heat. This heat is utilized in the drying of biomass to evaporate its moisture as well as for pyrolysis to bring out the volatile matter and for further reduction to generate producer gas. This gas consists of a mixture of combustible gases such as Carbon monoxide (CO), Hydrogen (H2), and traces of Methane (CH4) and other hydrocarbons. Normally, air is used as gasifying agent; however, the used of oxygen can produces higher eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

caloric value gas but is not usually done due to the cost implication. Compared than solid biomass, producer gas has advantages: gases are easy to clean, to transport and to burn efficiently with a low excess of air and little resulting pollution. Further, gases can be burned in an internal combustion engine and can be easily applied in combined cycles[2] (Swaaij, 1981). Under high temperature, the biomass loses its moisture and is then subjected to pyrolisis resulting in its decomposition into char and volatile. The volatile products are a mixture of a large number of short chain hydrocarbons which may crack further to yield compounds such as Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide, water vapor and tar. These pyrolytic yields react with oxygen in high temperature combustion zone where oxidation and reduction reactions yield producer gas[3] (Kumar A, 2006). Operating parameter on producer gas has been investigated by many researchers. An effect of biomass sources and particles size on producer gas has been reported by Kumar. A[4] hard wood typically gives a higher caloric value of producer gas than softwood. Hardwood and ordinary wood shows marginally better gasifier power output as compared to softwood. The percentages of Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen, and calorific value of the gas decrease with initial increasing in particle size. Dogru et al. [4] investigated hazelnut shells gasification in downdraft gasifier. The quality of product gas is to be dependent on smooth flow of the biomass in the reactor. Flow characteristics of biomass in the gasifier reactor play an important rule for optimum operation of gasifier. Composition of combustible gas CO, H2, and H4 was found to be dependent on gas flow rate. Increase in gas flow rate results in increasing CO, H2, and CH4 composition, hence higher calorific value of producer gas at higher gas flow rate[5] (Singh, et al., 2006) Many types of biomass feedstock have been tested for in gasification system. Vyarawalla et. al.[6] utilizing wood and rice husk as fuel type downdraft gasifier small scale with 9 kW power output is used to drive the water pump. Various fruits shell have also been explored as a possible fuel biomass gasifier. Dried shell of Jatropa[7]

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia (Vyas and Singh, 2006), cashewnut shell[5] (Singh et al, 2006), Pongamia pinnata shell[8] Typically, particular gasifier is only suitable for particular biomass. The performance of gasifier reduces when for different type of biomass. Biomass with different characteristics requires a different gasifier designs to ensure the performance of gasifier. Hence, this work aims to design and develop a downdraft biomass gasifier that compatible for multi biomass feedstock. The gasifier is expected has a similar performance for different type of biomass. II. METHODOLOGY The work is started with designing and manufacturing downdraft gasifier system. The reactor is made from stainless steel. Other main components are cyclone, cooler, filter, and blower. Typically in downdraft gasifier, biomass is fed from top of the reactor. Air enters the gasifier in the oxidation zone through air nozzles (tuyer) by means of suction blower. Remains gasified biomass flow through the grate region at the bottom of gasifier. Producer gas flows in the recirculation duct from the bottom of reactor and exits at the top of reactor. Producer gas is cooled by heat exchanger cooling unit. Further, gas is cleaned in the filter from dust and particle present in producer gas.

Figure 2. Flame produced.

The problem is probably due to temperature in reaction zone is not high enough for gasification occurs and also air supply into the reactor is not appropriate. Only pyrolisis occurs instead of gasification when temperature in the reaction zone is low. This is shown by white color of producer gas from gasification. Another possibility is the porosity in reactor is very low. This is because of very fine particle of sawdust.

Figure 3. White color of producer gas from gasification. Figure 1. Downdraft gasifier design

Biomass is balanced and loaded into the reactor from the top up to ¾ reactor height. To generate the flame inside a reactor, biomass in the reactor was initiated by holding the flame in a form of a blowtorch or wick near to an air nozzle. After 10-15 minutes generated producer gas in the burner was flared. Time required to produce combustible gas and duration of gas combustion flame is measured. After gasification process, the height of reactor is measured to get the amount of biomass is been gasified. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From experimental work of sawdust gasification, it is observed that producer gas from gasification of sawdust cannot be ignited well till 30 minutes gasification. Only a few second of flame produced from producer gas as show on Figure 2. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

IV. CONCLUSION The gasifier is tested with saw dust. The test conducted in order to obtain compatibility of gasifier for very fine particle size of biomass. The result shows gasifier can be manufactured with simple manufacturing method, however the design have to be optimize to obtain the optimum temperature in reactor zone for gasification occurs. For very fine particle, sawdust can be briquetted prior to gasification process to obtain good quality of gas. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to thank to “DIKTI” for providing a funding for this work through Hibah Kompetitif DIKTI 2013

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia REFERENCES [1] [2] [3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

Khisore, VNN, ‘Renewable Energy Engineering and Technology’, Knowledge Compendium, TERI Press, New Delhi, 2008. Van Swaaij, W.P.M, ‘Gasification-The Process and Technology’, Resources and Conservation, Vol. 7, pp. 337-349, 1981. Kumar, A., ‘Simulation Of A Biomass Gasifier-Engine System’, PhD thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department IIT Delhi, New Delhi, 2006. Dogru, M., Howarth, C.R., Akay, G., Keskinler, B., Malik, A.A., ‘Gasification of hazelnut shells in a downdraft gasifier’, Energy, Vol. 27, pp. 415-427, 2002. Singh, R.N., Jena, U., Patel, J.B., Sharma, A.M., ‘Feasibility Study of Cashew Nut Shells as An Open Core Gasifier Feedstock’, Renewable energy, Vol. 23, pp. 481-487, 2006. Vyarawalla, F., Parikh, P.P., Dak, H.C. and Jain, B.C.,’Utilization of Biomass for Motive Power Generation-Gasifier Engine System’, Biomass, Vol.5, pp.227-242, 1984. Vyas, D.K., and Singh, R.N., 2007, “Feasibility Study of Jatropha Seed Hush as an Open Core Gasifier Feedstock”, Renewable Energy, Vol. 32, pp. 512-517. Sonkar, A., Garg, A. and Gupta, P., ‘Generation of Producer Gas From Pongamia Shells and Integration of Downdraft Gasifier, Producer Gas Engine and Oil Expeller’, BTech Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department IIT Delhi, New Delhi, 2007.

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Optimization Variables Process of Adsorption Lead and Cadmium Using Xanthated Coffe Pulp Indah Riwayati1, Indah Hartati2, Suwardiyono3 and Helmy Purwanto4 Chemical Engineering1,2,3, Mechanical Engineering4 Wahid Hasyim University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Coffe pulp was modified by xanthation reaction to introduce sulphur groups. This compound has properties of an bioadsobent. An investigation was performed to evaluate performamce bioadsorbent to remove cadmium and lead metals in aqueous solution model. Adsorption was influenced by pH, rasio adsorbent-solution and contact time. Concentration of cadmium and lead was confirmed by spectroscopic analysis. The result of experiment was exhibited a good potential adsorption at initial pH : 8, rasio adsorbentsolution 1: 100 and contact time : 1 hour for Pb and 1.5 hours for Cd. Keywords-coffe pulp; xanthation; optimization

I. INTRODUCTION Heavy metal contamination exists in aqueuos streams of many industries such as metal purification, metal finishing, chemical manufacturing, mining operating, smelting, battery manufacturing and electroplating which threatens to the environment and human severely [1], [2]. Most of heavy metal ions are toxic to living organism. These metal ions are nondegradable and are persistent in the environment. These are member of a loosely-defined subset of element that exhibit metallic properties, which mainly includes the transition metals, some metalloids, lanthanides and actinides [10]. Certain heavy metal such as iron, copper (cu), zinc and manganese are required by humans for normal biological functioning. However, heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium are toxic to organism. Most of the health disorder are linked with specific tendency of heavy metals to bioaccumulate in living tissues and their disruptive integration into normal biochemical processes [1]. Therefore, the elimination of heavy metal ions from wastewater is important to protect public health. Sorption is considered as a very effective and economical process for metal ion removal from wastewater [3]. Adsorption technology is one of alternative for this purpose. Recently, widespread industrial use of low-cost adsorbents for wastewater treatment is strongly Directorate General of Higher Eduaction (DIKTI)

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recomended due to their local availability, technical feasibility, engineering applicability and cost effectiveness. However, using the biological adsorbents directly may suffer from lack of specificity and poor adsorption capacity. It is observed thet appropriated modification of the raw adsorbents by crown esters, amines, polyethylamine and sulphur bearing groups like sulfides, thiols, dithiocarbamates, dithiophosphates and xanthates can eliminate the drawbacks and improve their performance significantly. Xanthates are most prominent because they are highly insoluble, easy to prepare with relatively inexpensive reagents and have high stability constant values of the metal complexes formed. Xanthates are formed by reacting an organic hydroxyl-containing substrate with carbon disulfide under caustic condition [2]. After picking of coffe cherries, the fruit has to undergo several processing steps in order to remove the outer parts ot the fruit,i.e. skin (exocarp), pulp (mesocarp), the mucilage layer and the endocarpal parchment (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Morphology coffe cherry

Pulp and mucilage consists to a large extend of proteins and sugars [4]. Sugars is mostly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, pigment and other low molecular weight hydro-carbons. Many of these contain several hydroxyl functional groups, which make coffe pulp a potential substrate for synthesis of xanthates. Xanthates are formed by reacting on organic hydroxyl-containing substrate

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia with carbon disulfide ubder caustic condition. The basic chemical reaction is show below.

II. EXPERIMENTAL A. Material All chemical used in this study were of analytical purity. Stock solutions of single heavy metal were standard solution of Lead (Pb) and Cadminum (Cd) consentration 1000 ppm from Merck and diluted with distilled water to desired concentrations. HCl and NaOH were used to adjust the pH value of experimental solutions. Cofee pulp was obtained from Kampung Kopi Banaran Farm Semarang. B. Preparation of Coffe Pulp Xanthate Coffe pulp was washed with double distilled water and dried at 70 0C inside a convection oven for 24 h. The product was crushed and named as PK for further treatment process.

percent removal were calculated by using equation (1) and (2) respectively:

C  Ce qe  o V m C  Ce % Removal  o x100% Co

(1) (2)

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Optimization Variable pH To investigated the optimal pH for maximum adsorption of Pb and Cd metal, the experiment was examined over a pH : 2, 4, 6 and 8. Pb initial concentration of 100 mg/Liter. The effect of different pH to the amount of Pb, Cd absorbed and % removal is depicted in Fig. 2. and Fig. 3. The optimum adsorption of Pb and Cd metal was obtained at pH 8 with amount of Pb and Cd adsorbed were 10 and 9.64 mg/g adsorbent or 100 and 96.45 % removal respectively.

About 50 g of PK were pretreated by soaking in 250 ml ethanol and 250 ml 1% NaOH solution in room temperature (25 0C) for 24 h to remove pigments and other low relative-molecular-mass compound. After decantation and filtration, the treated biomass was washed with double distilled water until the solution reached a neutral pH value around 7.0 and then dried at at 70 0C inside a convection oven. This dried product was named as PKK. About 200 ml of NaOH 4 mol/.L was added into a 300 ml erlenmeyer flask cointains 15 g of PKK. The flask was stirred at room temperature (25 0C) for 3 h and for another 3 h after addition of 10 ml carbon disulphide (CS2). This mixture was then allowd to settle for 1 h. After that, the supernatant was decanted and excess alkali was removed by washing with double distilled water. The mixture was then washed with acetone and dried in vacuum condition.The final product was abbreviated as XPK [2]. C. Optimization Variables Adsorption Process All off the adsorption test were carried out batch wise and for single metal ion adsorption. About 0.5 g XPK were taken into flask contains 200 ml solution metal with initial concentration 100 mg/L. The flask were shaken at 100 rpm for 0.5 hours at 25 0C. For optimization parameter process, pH were adjust (2, 4, 6 and 8), contact time 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 hours and rasio adsorbent-solution 1:100, 1:80, 1:60 and 1:40. After adsorption, the mixtures were filtered by Whatman No. 42 filter pape . D. Analytical prosedure The filtrat containing ion metal (Pb and Cd) were analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Shimadzu) at wavelength of 283.3 nm and the amount of metal absorbed (qe, mg/g) and

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Figure 2. The Effect of pH to the amount of Pb and Cd Absorbed under experiment condition: initial concentration of metal 100 mg/L, temperature 25 0C, contact time 0.5 hr, rasio adsorbentsolution 1:100

The effect of pH can be expained considering the surface charge on the adsorbent material. At low pH , adsorption of Pb and Cd metal was intensively decreased towards a fixed number of adsorption sites due to high positive charge density of protons on the surface sites. This is a result of competition between metal and H3O+ for binding sites [5]. With increasing pH, electrostatic repulsion decrease due to reduction of positif charge density on the sorption sites thus resulting in an enhancement of metal adsorption to get optimum value [6]. Beside, the pH was below 4 will lead decomposition of xanthate [7]. From the experimen before using many varied of xanthated biomaterial, results that the maximum adsorption of Pb was obtained at pH 4 using xanthate from apple juice residue [6]. Insoluble corn starch xanthate results optimum pH at 3 to 6 to remove Cu [7]. pH 4 was considered as the optimal for susequent Pb (II) adsorption using xanthate rubber leaf [5]. For adsorption Pb2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Zn2+, Ni2+ using xanthated orang peel showed that pH optimum was reachead at 5-5,5 [2].

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Figure 3. The Effect of pH to % removal of Pb and Cd under experiment condition: initial concentration of metal 100 mg/L, temperature 25 0C, contact time 0.5 hr, rasio adsorbent-solution 1:100

Figure 5. The Effect of contact time to % removal of Pb and Cd under experiment condition: initial concentration of metal 100 mg/L, temperature 25 0C, contact time 0.5 hr, rasio adsorbentsolution 1:100

B. Optimization Variable Contact Time Experiments were conducted for the effect of the contact time on the adsorption of Pb and Cd metal on to xanthated pulp coffe. Investigation performed at contact time 0.5; 1; 1.5 and 2 hour. The result is showed at Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.

Figure 6. Effect of initial Pb (II) concentration and contact time of Pb (II) adsorption by xanthated rubber leaf (adsorbent weight : 0.02 g, pH: 4, volume : 50 ml, shaking speed: 120 stroke/min)

Figure 4. The Effect of contact time to the amount of Pb and Cd Absorbed under experiment condition: initial concentration of metal 100 mg/L, temperature 25 0C, contact time 0.5 hr, rasio adsorbent-solution 1:100

From Fig.4 and 5 showed the optimum contact time obtained at 1 and 1,5 hour with amount of metal absorbed were 3.99 and 7.34 mg/g absorbent for Pb and Cd respectively or 39.9 and 73.4 % removal. Futher increase in contact time did not show a significant increase in adsorption. It can be observed that adsorption occured in two stages, initial rapid and subsequent slow uptake of heavy metal ion. The initial fast phase occured due to high availability in the number of active binding sites on the adsorbent surface (diffusion process). Further increase in contact time did not show a significant decrease of heavy metal concentration, which occured due to diffussion of Pb and Cd into inner part of the adsorbent [8].

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Adsorption using xanthated lagenaria vulgaris shell showed high biosorbent efficiency in removing Pb(II) ions: maximum adsorption efficiency was obtained in the first 20 min of sorbent-sorbate contact, when 90.96% of total Pb (II) ions was removed. The sorption equilibrium was reached after about 40 minutes of cantact time, resulting in an increase of removal efficiency to 96.78% [8]. The upon copper removal test, the experiment for adsorption for adsorption isoterm were conducted to investigated the reaction rate of insoluble corn starch xanthate. The reaction rate of the insoluble corn starch xanthate could effectively remove 99.9% of copper for the aqueous solution in 20 minutes [7]. Adsorption of Pb (II) onto xanthated rubber (hevea brasiliensis) leaf powder showed in Fig.6. The time required to reach equilibrium was 20 min for 20 mg/L Pb(II), but increased to 60 min for 80 mg/L. At low Pb (II) concentration, there would be plenty of adsorption sites available. The ratio of Pb (II) ion to the number of adsorption sites, however increased as Pb(II) concentration increased. Therefore, more time was required to allow more Pb (II) ions to be adsorbed [5].

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia C. Optimization Variable Rasio Adsorbent: Solution The result of optimization process on variable rasio adsorbent: solution showed in Fig. 7.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Directorate General of higher education (dikti), the ministry of Education Indonesia. REFERENCES [1]

[2]

Figure 7. The Effect of Rasio adsorbent:solution to the amount of Pb and Cd Absorbed under experiment condition: initial concentration of metal 100 mg/L, temperature 25 0C, contact time 0.5 hr, rasio adsorbent-solution 1:100 (1=1:40; 2=1:60;3= 1:80; 4=1:100)

From Fig. 5 shows the result of Pb and Cd removal experiments under the condition employed in various adsorbent/solution rasio. From the Figure 5, the removal of Pb and Cd was optimized with adsorbentsolution rasio betwen 1:80 and 1:100. And the amount of Pb and Cd adsorbed for Pb and Cd were 10 and 6.16 mg/g adsorbent respectively.

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

IV. CONCLUSION This experiment indicated that adsorbent by modification of xanthate group onto the surface of coffe pulp could be usedas viable bio-sorbent for the treatment of waste water stream contain Lead and Cadmium. The optimum conditions for for Lead and Cadmium removal treatments by xanthate processes are (i) the pH of aqueous solutions is 8, (ii) contact time are 1 hour for Pb and 1.5 hour for Cd, (iii) rasio adsorbent-solution is 1:100.

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[7]

[8]

Sheen, O.P., “ Utilization of Mango Leaf as Low Cost Adsorbent for the Removal of Cu Ion from Aqueous Solution”, a project report to the Department of Chemical Science Faculty of Science, University Tunku Abdul Rahman, 2010. Sha, L., XueYi, G., Ning-chuan, F., Qing-hua, T., “ Effective Removal of Heavy Metals From Aqueous Solution by Orange Peel Xanthate”. Transactions of Nonferous Metals Society of China.Vol 20, 2010, pp. 187-191. Zhao, G., Wu, X.,Tan, X. and Wang, X., “Sorption of Heavy Metal Ions from aqueous Solutions:A Review”, The Open Colloid Science Journal, 2011, 4, pp. 19-31. Avellone, S., Guyot, B., Michaux-Ferriere, J. P.,Guiraud, E., Olguin Palacios, J., M., Brillouet, “cell Wall Polysaccharides of Coffe Bean Mucilage. Histological Characterization during Fermentation “ Proceedings of the 18th International Scientific Colloquium on Coffe Science (ASIC), Helsinki, 26 August 1999, pp. 463-470. Khalir,w., K., A., W., M., Hanafiah, M., A., K., M., So’ad, S., Z., M., Ngah, W., S., W., “Adsorption behavior of Pb (II) onto xanthated rubber (hevea brasiliensis) leaf powder” Polish Journal of Chemical technology, 13, 4, 2011, pp. 8288. Bashyal, D., Homagai, P.L., Ghimire, K.N., Removal of Lead from Aqueous Medium Using Xanthate Modified Apple Juice Residue. Journal of Nepal Chemical Society, 2010, Vol 26: pp. 53-60. Chang, Y., K., Shih, P., H., Chiang, L., C., Chen, T., C., Lu., H., C., and Chang, J., E., “ Removal of heavy metal by insoluble starch xanthated” Environmental Informatics Archives, Volume 5, 2007, pp. 684-689. Kostic, M., Mitrovic, J., Radovic, M., Ljupkovic, R., Krstic, N., Bojic, D., Bojic, A., “Biosorption Pb(II) Ions Using Xanthated Lagena vulgaris Shell” Reporting for Sustainability, 2013.

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CO2 Solubility in Aqueous Solution of Potassium Carbonate Promoted with MDEA and The Correlation Using E-NRTL Model Saidah Altway1, Era Restu Finalis2, Sholichatun3 and Kuswandi4 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology Surabaya, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Gas absorption largely intends to separate acid impurities from the gas stream. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an acid gas which is a harmful impurity in industrial process. Chemical absorption using aqueous solution of potassium carbonate and amine as a promotor is one of the separation method that is widely used in chemical industries to separate CO2 from the gas stream. This process is known as the Benfield process. CO2 solubility data are required for rational design and optimal operation of CO2 absorption column in chemical industries. The objective of this study is to obtain CO2 solubility data at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas 10, 15, and 20% with 30% of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) as a solvent and variation of weight percent of Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) as a promotor 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10% at 30oC and atmospheric pressure using the wetted wall column. The data obtained from experiment were correlated using the Electrolyte Non-Random Two Liquid (E-NRTL) model. The deviation of correlated CO2 partial pressure with the experimental data is 12.5%. The binary interaction parameters of E-NRTL model for CO2K2CO3-MDEA-H2O system were also obtained using Least Square method. The results of this study indicated that CO2 loading increased with the increase of weight percent of MDEA at the same partial pressure of CO2. The increase of CO2 partial pressure can enhance CO2 loading. Moreover the addition of MDEA increased the amount of CO2 reacted and CO2 dissolved. Keywords-chemical absorption; CO2 solubility; Methyldiethanolamine; E-NRTL model; Binary interaction parameter

I. INTRODUCTION Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an acid gas which is a harmful impurity and corrosive. CO2 gas can damage the utility and the piping system in industry. In addition, CO 2 is a poison to the ammonia synthesis catalyst, hence CO2 has to be removed before entering to the ammonia synthesis unit. Besides, CO2 gas can decrease the heating value of combustion in the turbine. In the natural gas liquefaction process, CO2 is harmful, because at very low temperature, it will freeze, which can cause blockage of the piping system and damage the tube in the main heat exchanger. Therefore, it is important to separate CO2 from the gas stream. Further, CO2 that has been captured eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

and separated from the gas stream can be utilized. CO2 gas can be used in carbonated beverages, urea production process, fire extinguisher, and also can be used as dry ice, supercritical carbon dioxide, etc. Wide variety of processes have been developed to capture and separate CO2 from the gas stream, such as membrane, cryogenic, adsorption, and the most commonly used in industries is chemical absorption [1]. Absorption method is the most economical method to separate the CO2 from the gas stream. Absorption of CO2 by chemical solution is a well-developed technology and has been applied in various commercial processes. Many studies have been done on this technology, especially in the development of knowledge of the characteristics of the solvent type. Cullinane [2] indicated that alkanolamine and “hot” potassium carbonate (K2CO3) are the most effective solvents for CO2 removal process. The advantages of alkanolamine are high absorption rate and low cost. While the drawbacks of alkanolamine are high heat absorption (20-25 kcal/mol), high vapor pressure, can form a stable carbamate compounds, especially in primary amine (Monoethanolamine and Diglycolamine) and secondary amine (Diethanolamine and Diisopropanolamine), can be degraded at temperature above 100oC, cannot separate the mercaptan compounds. Further, it can occur reaction that produce byproducts which cannot be degraded [3]. K2CO3 has a high stability, low cost, and low heat regeneration but the absorption rate is low compared to alkanolamine. Several studies [2, 4, 5, 6] have indicated that the use of alkanolamine as a promotor in K2CO3 aqueous solution can accelerate the absorption rate and improve the performance of K 2CO3, where this process is known as the Benfield process. Therefore K2CO3 promoted by alkanolamine can be used as an effective solvent in the CO2 absorption process. Many researchers have investigated the CO2 solubility in various kinds of solutions. Kaewsichan et al. [7] predicted the solubility of acid gases in Monoethanolamine (MEA) and Methyldiethanolamine

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia (MDEA) solutions using the Electrolyte-UNIQUAC Model. Dang and Rochelle [8] investigated the absorption rate and solubility of CO2 in Monoethanolamine/Piperazine/Water. Benamor and Aroua [9] conducted modeling of CO2 solubility and carbamate concentration in DEA, MDEA and their mixtures using the Deshmukh-Mather Model. Leron et al. [10] investigated the solubility of CO2 in the aqueous blended amine system of Triethanolamine and Piperazine. Al-Rashed and Ali [11] conducted modeling the solubility of CO2 and H2S in DEA-MDEA alkanolamine solutions using the electrolyte-UNIQUAC model. The solvent used in this study was K2CO3 with MDEA as a promotor. MDEA is a tertiary amine group that have higher acid gas loading, higher corrosion resistance, higher fouling and foaming resistances, higher degradation resistance, lower heat regeneration, and lower vapor pressure compared to other alkanolamine [12]. Thus MDEA can be used as an effective promotor to improve the performance of K2CO3 as a solvent. In the present study, CO2 solubility data in 30% of K2CO3 as a solvent and variation of weight percent of MDEA as a promotor 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10% with 10, 15, and 20% of CO2 concentration in the feed gas were measured at 30oC and atmospheric pressure using the wetted wall column. The experimental data were correlated with the Electrolyte Non-Random Two Liquid (E-NRTL) model. The binary interaction parameters of E-NRTL model for CO2-K2CO3MDEA-H2O system were also obtained using Least Square method.

Figure 1. Absorption column typed wetted wall column

II. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION The experiment of this study was done at 30oC and atmospheric pressure to obtain CO2 solubility data at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas 10, 15, 20% and 30% of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) promoted with Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) at 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10% of weight. MDEA was obtained from HESS company. The CO2-N2 gas mixture was purchased from Trigases and K2CO3 with the composition 99% was purchased from Bratachemical. The experimental data were correlated with the Electrolyte Non-Random Two Liquid (E-NRTL) model using Matlab version 6. The experimental apparatus used in this study was an absorption column typed wetted wall column (WWC) which can be seen in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram for experimental apparatus

V1 : K2CO3 - MDEA Aqueous Solution Tank PI : U Pipe V2 : Mixing Tank TI : Temperature Indicator V3 : Water Tank R1 : Solution Rotameter V4 : K2CO3 – MDEA Feeding Tank R2 : Gas Rotameter E1 : WWC Absorption column PG : Pressure Gauge P1 : K2CO3- MDEA Aqueous Solution Circulation Pump P2 : Water Circulation Pump eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia A series of experimental apparatus are used in this study as shown in Figure 2 with wetted wall column absorber as the main apparatus. In detail wetted wall column can be seen in Figure 1. Wetted wall column consists of two coaxial cylinders and there is a tube made of stainless steel inside. The tube is a place where K2CO3-MDEA aqueous solution are supplied. K2CO3MDEA aqueous solution are flowed into the tube with the bottom up flow. Then, the solution will come out on top of the tube and form a thin film in the tube. Meanwhile, CO2 - N2 gas mixture is supplied at the outer side of the tube with the bottom up flow and contact with the film of K2CO3-MDEA aqueous solution. Furthermore, water is circulated in the annulus as a temperature controller system. pH was checked and the composition of outlet CO2 gas was analyzed until equilibrium was reached. The outlet CO2 gas composition was analyzed using Orsat and titration method was used to determine CO2 reacted. Then, the data of CO2 partial pressure obtained from experiment were correlated by E-NRTL model [13]. The correlation was performed to calculate activity coefficient of CO2 and partial pressure of CO2. Activity coefficient calculation was intended to evaluate the non ideal solution system. In general, E-NRTL model contains two contributions, one from local interactions developed from the interaction between all species and the other from the long-range ion-ion interactions developed from the interaction between ionic species. To calculate the local interactions uses the model based on NRTL expression [14]. To calculate the long-range interactions uses unsymmetric Pitzer-Debye-Huckel (PDH) model [15]. The activity coefficients for molecular species, cationic species, and anionic species can be calculated from Equation (1) – Equation (3) [13].

XG  XG j

j

k

  c

  a

c

a

jm

k

jm

 m'

km

X m ' Gmm ' k X k Gkm'

 X G    mm '  k k km ' km '   k X k Gkm'  

 X G  Ya X c Gmc ,ac   mc ,ac  k k kc ,ac kc ,ac   k X k Gkc,ac  k X k Gkc,ac 

X G  Yc X a Gma ,ca   ma ,ca  k k ka ,ca ka ,ca  k X k Gka,ca  k X k Gka,ca

 m

XG  XG k

k

X m Gcm k X k Gkm

   

m

 c

a'

k

X m Gam k X k Gkm

ka ,ca ka ,ca

k



ka ,ca

 X G   am  k k km km  k X k Gkm 

   

X G  Ya ' X c Gac,a 'c   ac,a 'c  k k kc ,a 'c kc ,a 'c k X k Gkc,a'c  k X k Gkc,a 'c

  (3)  

Where : j, k = m, c, a

X i  Ci xi

 cm   Ya m,ca

 am   Yc m,ca c

a

Xc c' X c'

Xa Ya  a ' X a '

Yc 

Gcm   Ya Gca ,m

Gam   Yc Gca ,m

a

 cm  

c

ln(Gcm )

 am  

 cm

 mc,ac   cm  mc ,ac   cm 

k

kc , ac kc , ac

k

Gmc,ac Gma,ca

(1)

ln(Gam )

 am

 ma ,ca   am  ca ,m ( ca ,m   m,ca )  mc ,ac

 ca ,m ( ca ,m   m,ca )  ma ,ca  exp( mc, zc mc,ac )  exp( cm mc,ac )  exp( ma ,ca ma,ca )  exp( am ma,ca )

ln  iPDH   1000   ln  iPDH    Ms 



kc , ac

 X G   cm  k k km km  k X k Gkm 

1 2

1 RT

 G ex , PDH   ni

 2 z 2 A  i  

   T , P ,nji

(4)

 z 2 I 1 2  2 I 1x  ln(1  I 1x 2 )  i x  1  I 1x 2 

2

  

(5)

Where 1  2N A d x  A    3  1000 

   

 Y X G  X k Gka,c'a ka,c'a a c' c' Xa Gca,c'a  ca,c'a  k X G k k ka,c'a  k k ka,c'a eic.ft.unnes.ac.id



k

k

PDH model is used to calculate the long-range ionion interactions. The activity coefficient for species i by PDH model can be derived as follows :

cationic species :

1 ln  clc   Ya zc a

XG  XG

1 ln  alc   Yaca za c

 ma ,ca   am 

molecular species : ln  mlc 

anionic species :

Ix 

  (2)  

3 2

 Qe2      kT   x  2 1 i ni z i

1 2

1  xi zi2  2 2 i

N

The binary interaction parameters of E-NRTL model for CO2-K2CO3-MDEA-H2O system were obtained by minimizing the squared residual as follows :

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2 N  cal exp  S   P P  CO (i ) CO (i )  i  1 2 2  exp

and PCO

2

are the calculated and

2

experimental CO2 partial pressure, respectively, and N is the number of data. The binary interaction parameters were initially adjusted from Cullinane [2]. The deviation of correlated CO2 partial pressure with the experimental data was calculated as follows : 2  exp     Pcal P  N   CO2 (i ) CO2 (i )    Error     2  i  1  exp     P  CO (i )    2   

0.5

(7)

6x10

-5

5x10

-5

3x10

-5

2x10

-5

10% of CO2 Feed Gas 15% of CO2 Feed Gas

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION In this study, the CO2 solubility data of CO2-K2CO3MDEA-H2O system were determined at 30oC and atmospheric pressure at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas 10, 15, and 20% with 30% of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and variation of weight percent of Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) as an additive 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10 %. An absorption column typed wetted wall column was used as a main experimental apparatus. Contact between the film of K2CO3-MDEA aqueous solution and CO2-N2 gas mixture was intended in order to absorb CO2 gas into K2CO3-MDEA solution. In CO2 absorbed, there was CO2 reacted and CO2 dissolved. This study was conducted until equilibrium in the gas phase and liquid phase was reached. The parameter of the equilibrium between the gas phase and the liquid phase was constant pH of the solution and the composition of the outlet gas equal to the composition of the inlet gas. After the equilibrium was reached, samples were taken for density of solution measurement and titration analysis. Titration analysis was conducted to determine the concentration of CO32- and HCO3- in solution. Analysis of HCO3- concentration in solution was performed to determine the amount of CO2 gas reacted with K2CO3 aqueous solution. 2.0

CO2 Dissolved (mole)

cal

Where PCO

(6)

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the amount of CO2 reacted and MDEA weight percent. From the figure, it can be seen that the amount of CO2 reacted will increase with increasing weight percent of MDEA with a range of 0-10% for each CO2 feed gas. This is due to the addition of MDEA as an additive enhances the ability of potassium carbonate which reacts with feed gas. In an absorption process with chemical reaction, MDEA serves as a catalyst that accelerates the reaction of potassium carbonate with CO2 in the feed gas, so the increase of MDEA weight percent in potassium carbonate aqueous solution will be followed by the increase of CO2 reacted, the decrease of CO32– concentration, and the increase of HCO3- concentration.

20% of CO2 Feed Gas

0 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Weight Percent of MDEA

Figure 4. The relationship of CO2 dissolved with MDEA concentration (% weight) at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas (% mole)

Figure 4 shows the effect of MDEA addition with a range of 0-10% on the increase of CO2 dissolved. CO2 dissolved in the solution here is CO2 that not reacts with potassium carbonate. The calculation of the amount of CO2 dissolved uses the formula of equilibrium constant, with the reaction as follows : CO2 + 2 H2O HCO3- + H2O

H3O+ + HCO3H3O+ + CO32-

2 K 2 HCO   3  CO  2e K1CO 2    3 

 

K1 K2

(8)

Where [CO2]e is the amount of CO2 dissolved in

10% of CO2 Feed Gas 15% of CO2 Feed Gas

CO2 Reacted (mole)

1.6

equilibrium.

20% of CO2 Feed Gas

The equilibrium constant can be calculated from Equation (9) :

1.2

ln K = C1 + C2/T + C3 ln T + C4T

0.8

The value of C1, C2, C3, and C4 can be seen in Austgen and Rochelle [16].

0.4

0.0

(9)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12


Figure 3. The relationship of CO2 reacted with MDEA concentration (% weight) at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas (% mole)

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

For all mole percent of feed gas with a range of 1020%, the amount of CO2 dissolved increase with increasing MDEA concentration. Because the amount of CO2 dissolved in the solution is equilibrium with the amount of HCO3- formed. The amount of CO2 reacted

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia increase with the increase of the addition of MDEA, so that the amount of HCO3- formed will also increase. With increasing the amount of HCO3- formed, it will enhance the amount of CO2 dissolved. It can also be seen from Figure 3 and Figure 4 that the greater the mole percent of CO2 in the feed gas, the greater the amount of CO2 reacted and CO2 dissolved. With increasing the amount of CO2 in the feed gas, the amount of CO2 absorbed and CO2 reacted will increase. Thus the amount of HCO3- formed and CO2 dissolved will also increase. 20000

0% of MDEA 2% of MDEA 5% of MDEA 8% of MDEA 10% of MDEA

PCO2 (Pa)

15000

10000

5000

range of 2-10%, the greater the percentage of average CO2 loading increase compared to the solution without MDEA promoted. With the addition of MDEA with a range of 2-10%, the percentage of average CO2 loading will increase 20.56%, 54.29%, 84.30%, 102.19% for 2, 5, 8, 10% MDEA, respectively. TABLE I.

THE BINARY INTERACTION PARAMETERS OF E-NRTL MODEL

Interaction Pair

Binary Interaction Parameter (τ)

 CO2 , H 2O

2.866

 H 2O , CO2

3.475

 H 2O , MDEA

1.107

 MDEA, H 2O

9.472

 MDEA,CO2

-10.151

 CO2 , MDEA

-0.886

0 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035

12.023

CO2 Loading

-45.975

Figure 5. The relationship of CO2 partial pressure ( PCO ) with CO2 2

8.956

loading at varied MDEA concentration

1.078

From Figure 5, it can be shown that CO2 loading increases with the increase of weight percent of MDEA at the same CO2 partial pressure. The increase of CO2 partial pressure can enhance CO2 loading. CO2 loading is the ratio of the total amount of CO2 absorbed to the amount of K+ and MDEA. The total amount of CO2 absorbed is the amount of CO2 reacted and CO2 dissolved. The greater of CO2 loading shows the greater the total amount of CO2 absorbed. Thus the concentration of CO2 in the liquid phase will also increase. With the effect of the addition of MDEA, it will enhance the ability of solution to absorb CO2 gas, so that CO2 loading will be greater.

-18.148 -4.753 20.884 20.884 -9.600 -9.600 16.569 16.569

120 20000

Exp. at 0% MDEA Exp. at 2% MDEA Exp. at 5% MDEA Exp. at 8% MDEA Exp. at 10% MDEA E-NRTL Correlation

84.30%

90

15000

54.29%

60

PCO2 (Pa)

Average of CO2 loading (%)

102.19%

20.56%

30

10000

5000

0

0% 0

2

4

6

8

10

12


Figure 6. The relationship of the increase of average CO2 loading (%) with the weight percent of MDEA

Figure 6 represents the effect of MDEA additon to the increase of average CO2 loading in percent. It can be seen in the figure that the greater the addition of MDEA with a eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

0 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035

CO2 Loading

Figure 7. Figure 7. The relationship of the calculated CO2 partial pressure from the E-NRTL model and the experimental CO2 partial pressure with CO2 loading

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia It can be seen from Figure 7 that the correlation results and the experimental results represent the same profile. With increasing weight percent of MDEA at the same CO2 partial pressure, CO2 loading will increase. And also CO2 loading will increase with the increase of CO2 partial pressure. This Figure indicates that the ENRTL model correlated well the experimental data with the deviation of calculated and experimental CO2 partial pressure is 12.5%. The nonrandomness parameter (α) for molecule-molecule pair and water-ion pair is fixed at 0.2 based on Renon and Prausnitz [17]. For amine-ion pair and carbon dioxide-ion pair, the nonrandomness parameter is 0.1. The binary interaction parameters of ENRTL model are obtained in this study as seen in Table 1. IV. CONCLUSION CO2 solubility data were obtained at varied CO2 concentration in the feed gas 10, 15, and 20% with 30% of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) as a solvent and variation of weight percent of Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) as a promotor 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10% at 30oC and atmospheric pressure using the wetted wall column. The addition of MDEA increased the amount of CO2 reacted and CO2 dissolved. The CO2 loading increased with increasing weight percent of MDEA at the same CO 2 partial pressure. The increase of CO2 partial pressure can enhance CO2 loading. The experimental data were correlated well with the E-NRTL model. The deviation of calculated and experimental CO2 partial pressure is 12.5%. The binary interaction parameters of E-NRTL model for CO2-K2CO3-MDEA-H2O system were also obtained by Least Square method. NOMENCLATURE Aφ Ci ds Ix k Ms NA Qe xi Ya Yc zi

Debye-Huckel parameter equal to zi for ionic species, and equal to 1 for molecular species Density of solvent, g/cm3 Ionic strength Boltzmann constant, 1.38054 x 10-16erg/K = 1.38054 x 10-16 cm2.g/s2.K Molecular weight of solvent, g/mol Avogadro’s number, 6.02251 x 1023/mol Absolute electronic charge, 4.8032 x 10-10 cm3/2.g1/2.s-1 mole fraction of component i Anionic charge composition fraction in local interactions Cationic charge composition fraction in local interactions Charge number of species i

Greek letters α Nonrandomness parameter γ Activity coefficient εs Dielectric constant of solvent ρ Closest approach parameter, 14.9 τ Binary interaction parameter

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15] [16]

[17]

Rao, A.B. and Rubin, E.S., “A technical, economic, and environmental assessment of amine-based CO2 capture technology for power plant greenhouse gas control,” Environ. Sci. Tech., 36, 2002, pp. 4467-4475. Cullinane, J.T., “Thermodynamics and kinetics of aqueous piperazine with potassium carbonate for carbon dioxide absorption,” Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin, 2005. Bartoo, R.K., Gemborys, T.M., Wolf, C.W., “Recent improvements to the Benfield process extend its use,” Paper presented at Nitrogen '91 Conference, June, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1991. Savage, D.W., Sartori, G., Astarita, G., “Amines as rate promoters for carbon dioxide hydrolysis,” Faraday Discuss. Chem. Soc., 77, 1984, pp. 17-31. Rahimpour, M.R. and Kashkooli, A.Z., ”Enhanced carbon dioxide removal by promoted hot potassium carbonate in a split-flow absorber,” Chem. Eng. Proc., 43, 2004, pp. 857-865. Cullinane, J.T. and Rochelle, G.T., “Carbon dioxide absorption with aqueous potassium carbonate promoted by piperazine,” Chem.Eng. Sci., 59, 2004, pp. 3619-3630. Kaewsichan, L., Al-Bofersen, O., Yesavage, V.F., Selim, M.S., “Predictions of the solubility of acid gases in monoethanolamine (MEA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) solutions using the electrolyte-UNIQUAC model,” Fluid Phase Equilib.,183-184, 2001, pp. 159-171. Dang, H. and Rochelle, G.T., “CO2 absorption rate and solubility in monoethanolamine/piperazine/water,” Paper presented at The First National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Washington, DC, May 14-17, 2001. Benamor, A. and Aroua, M.K., “Modeling of CO2 solubility and carbamate concentration in DEA, MDEA and their mixtures using the Deshmukh-Mather model,” Fluid Phase Equilib., 231, 2005, pp.150-162. Leron, B.R, Chung, P.Y., Soriano, A.N., Hui Li, M., “Solubility of carbon dioxide in the aqueous blended amine system of triethanolamine and piperazine,” 16th Asean Regional Symposium on Chemical Engineering, Phillippines, 2009. Al-Rashed, O.A. and Ali, S.H., “Modeling the solubility of CO2 and H2S in DEA-MDEA alkanolamine solutions using the electrolyte-UNIQUAC model,” Sep. Purif. Technol., 94, 2012, pp. 71-83. Polasek, J. and Bullin, J.A., “Selecting amines for sweetening units,” Proceedings GPA Regional Meeting,"Process Considerations in Selecting Amine" Tulsa, OK: Gas Processors Association, 1994. Chen, C.C. and Song, Y., “Generalized electrolyte-NRTL model for mixed-solvent electrolyte systems,” AIChE Journal, 50, 2004, pp. 1928-1941. Chen, C.C., “A segment-based local composition model for the gibbs energy of polymer solutions,” Fluid Phase Equilib., 83, 1993, pp. 301-312. Pitzer, K.S., “Electrolytes. From dilute solutions to fused salts,” J.Am.Chem.Soc., 102, 1980, pp. 2902-2906. Austgen, D.M., Rochelle, G.T., Chen, C.C., “Model of vaporliquid equilibria for aqueous acid gas-alkanolamine systems. 2. Representation of H2S and CO2 solubility in aqueous MDEA and CO2 solubility in aqueous mixtures of MDEA with MEA or DEA,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 30, 1991, pp. 543-555. Renon, H. and Prausnitz, J.M., “Local compositions in thermodynamic excess functions for liquid mixtures”, AIChE Journal, 14, 1968, pp. 135-144.

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Esterification of Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate As a Feedstock of Biodiesel Production Supriyono1 and Argoto Mahayana2

Giuliano Dragone Melnikov

Chemical Engineering Department Setia Budi University Surakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Departamento de Engenharia Biologica Universidade do Minho Braga, Portugal

Abstract—Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) is byproduct resources came from Palm Oil Mill Industry. This material was come with very high Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content it is about 50% or more, for this reason economical value of PFAD is low. Esterification of PFAD using Methanol as alcohol source and Sulfuric Acid as catalyst will convert FFA into Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) thus decreasing FFA value will increase the economical value of PFAD because with FFA less than 2% it could be process as biodiesel over alkaline transesterification process.

After reaction was complete, the product then pour into separation funnel where 2 layers was formed in an overnight settling, one is oil phase and the other one is water phase. Oil phase consist of triglyceride, FAAE, alcohol, and the rest of FFA that does not react, while water phase consist of water, Sulfuric Acid, and alcohol. Oil phase then could be use as biodiesel feedstock on conventional alkaline catalyzed transesterification if the FFA value is less than 1% while if FFA value more than 1% it will be make difficulties on purification of biodiesel product cause by soap formation on washing step.

Esterification process depends on temperature, time of reaction, quantity of methanol and Sulfuric Acid variable. Correlations of the variables were analyses by using Central Composite Rotatable Design and Response Surface Method. It was found that for the initial value on Free Fatty Acid 67%, could be decreased to less than 2% on the operational conditions Methanol to Oil ratio 69.89 %v/v, Sulfuric Acid to Oil Ratio 2.36 %v/v, Temperature of reaction 48.5 0C and time of reaction 99.09 minute. Keywords-PFAD; FFA; esterification; transesterification

I. INTRODUCTION Palm oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PAFD) is a byproduct of Palm Oil Industry which had a high Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content, by this reason it has low economical value compared to palm oil. At least there is about 1% of PAFD was dispose to waste pond in Palm Oil Mill. While the total National Product of Crude Palm Oil is about 30 million ton in 2012 this mean at least 300 000 tons of PAFD was dispose to water system and increasing cost for waste water treatment without any financial advantage. Biodiesel in one of the most promising source for substituting petrodiesel, however there is a lack problem on the feedstock in which try to solve by exploring other source such microalgae, waste cooking oil, fat and other non edible vegetable oil, one of this was Palm Oil Distillate. Palm Oil Distillate which naturally comes with high FFA could be considered as a feedstock of Biodiesel production by converted FFA to Fatty Acid Alkyl Ester (FAAE) catalyzed by strong Acid such Sulfuric Acid by the reaction as follow: R1

COOH + R2

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

OH

R1

COO

R2 + H20

(1)

II. MATERIAL AND METHOD A. Materials Palm oil Fatty Acid Distillate was bought from CV Anugrah Pratama with initial FFA is 67%w/w. Methanol was use as alcohol source in technical grade supplied by Asia Lab Yogyakarta, other chemical such Sulfuric Acid as catalyst, Potassium Hydroxide for acid value analyses was analytical reagent grade from Sigma Aldrich. Preference using methanol as alcohol source base on the fact that methanol is more reactive than ethanol and also in a view of economical price that lower than ethanol, while using technical grade on methanol is base in the next future on the development of Industrial scale where it is not possible to use analytical reagent for esterification process. B. Equipments Experiment was performed on 250 mL three neck rounded glass flasks reactor equipped with water condenser for condensing methanol that vaporized on the reaction, thermometer to measure reaction temperature, water bath equipped with temperature controls to maintain temperature during esterification reaction. C. Experimental Methods One hundred grams of Palm Oil Fatty Acid Distillate (PAFD) was poured into flask reactor then heated to certain temperature, followed by mixture of Methanol and Sulfuric Acid and time was starts to count. After certain time, reaction as stopped, and flask was immersed into cool water. After temperature of the product is close to ambient temperature the mixture then poured into separation funnel and leave for overnight settling. In the

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia next day it will be appears 2 layers, on the bottom is water phase and on the top is oil phase. After separation process, oil phase was analyzed the Acid value by using volumetric methods using Potassium Hydroxide 0.1 M as titrant and Phenolphtalein as indicator. TABLE I.

PALM OIL FATTY ACID DISTILLATE COMPOSITION

Acid Saturated fatty acids Myristic Palmitic Stearic Arachidic Monounsaturated fatty acids Palmitoleic Oleic Ecosenoic Tetracosenoic Polyunsaturated fatty acids Linoleic Linolenic

Formula

Structure

14:0 16:0 18:0 20:0

1.0 45.6 3.8 0.3

C16H30O2 C18H34O2 C20H38O2 C24H46O2

16:1 18:1 20:1 24:1

0.2 33.3 0.2 0.6

C18H32O2 C18H30O2

18:2 18:3

7.7 0.3

 Xi  X0 

(2)

Xi

The level and range of the variable in esterification process are shown in table 2. The experimental results were fitted with a secondorder polynomial equation by multiple regression analysis. The quadratic model for predicting the optimal point was expressed according to Eq.( 3) TABLE II. LEVEL AND RANGE OF THE VARIABLE Independent Variable

Acid Time Temperature Methanol

n

n

i 1

i 1

n 1

n

y i  b0  bi X i  bi X i2    bij X i X j where

yi

= response variable.

eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

i 1 j  i 1

= number of studied variables.

Xi X j

= independent variables.

A statistical analyses was used to identify variables that influence on esterification process. From the experiment data, the effect estimates, standard errors, ttest and p-values for the reduction of FFA content in Palm Fatty Acid Distillate according to the full-factorial Cental Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) is presented in table 3. TABLE III. RESULT OF FULL FACTORIAL CCRD Variable and interactions Acid (L) Acid (Q) Methanol (L) Methanol (Q) Time (L) Time (Q) Temperature (L) Temperature (Q) Acid Methanol Acid Time Acid Temperature Methanol Time Methanol Temperature Time Temperature

(3)

Estimated Effect -0.017 0.244 0.504 -0.104 0.138 0.256 -0.136 -1.143 -0.110 0.105 -0.160 -0.187 -0.032

Standard Error 0.129 0.342 0.129 0.342 0.129 0.342 0.129 0.342 0.317 0.317 0.317 0.317 0.317

tvalue -.129 0.719 3.889 -.303 1.062 0.749 -.045 -.341 -.799 0.763 -.163 -.362 -.236

pvalue 0.899 0.483 0.002 0.766 0.306 0.466 0.313 0.005 0.437 0.458 0.264 0.194 0.817

-0.277

0.317

-.017

0.063

Analyses of data from the experiment were found that critical value of the variable is as shown in table 4. TABLE IV. CRITICAL VALUE Factor

Level and range -1 0 1 1 2 3 60 90 120 40 50 60 40 50 60

Symbol

H2SO4 concentration (% v) Time of reaction, minute Temperature of reaction, 0C Methanol to Oil ratio, v/v

n

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

D. Experimental Design Three level four factors of Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) was use to performed influence of each variable, this lead to 29 sets experiment. Variables that use in the experiment are temperature of the reaction in degree Celcius, volume ratio of methanol to oil (Methanol), time of the reaction(Time, min) and ratio of Sulfuric acid to oil (Acid) in % v/v . For the purpose of statistical analysis, independent variables were coded according to Eq. (1), where each independent variable is represented by xi (coded value), Xi (real value), X0 (real value at the center point) and ΔXi (step change value). The coding will be use for the computation of regression analysis as shown in equation 1

xi 

bi and bij = regression coefficient.

The quality of the fitted polynomial model was expressed by the coefficient of determination R2, and its statistical significance was checked by the F-test. The significance of the regression coefficients was tested by t-value. Results were analyzed by the Experimental Design Module of the Statistica 8.0 software (Statsoft, USA). The model permitted evaluation of the effects of linear, quadratic and interactive terms of the independent variables on the chosen dependent variables.

%w

C14H28O2 C16H32O2 C18H36O2 C20H40O2

= interception coefficient

b0

Acid Methanol Time Temperature

Minimum Observed 1.00 40.00 60.00 40.00

Critical Value 2.36 69.89 99.09 48.50

Maximum Observed 3.00 60.00 120.00 60.00

Esterification of free fatty acid (FFA) is reversible reaction between Methanol and FFA which catalyzed by H2SO4 to produce Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) and water ( Berios, 2007) as shown in equation 1. The initial FFA value will affect to H2O produced. To ensure the reaction shift to right side, water must be removed from the product line. For this reason previous

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia research recommended multi step esterification for high FFA value oil (Foidl, 1996; Canakci, 2001) in which there are separation process between stages. In this research, the oil which come with initial FFA value 67% will convert to biodiesel by single step esterification process. Other previous research for esterification with high FFA were done using methanol as alcohol source. Tiwari (2007) decreasing FFA value of Jatropha curcas oil from 14% to less than 1% in the optimum condition 1.43% v/v H2SO4, 0.28 v/v methanol to oil ratio, 88 minute reaction time, all of the experiment were conduct at 60 0C. Azhari (2008) found in the optimal condition 60 oC, 1% methanol to oil ratio, 0.6 w/w methanol to oil ratio, 180 minute time of reaction 25.3% FFA in the initial value of oil could decreased to less than 0.5%. In this research, experiment shown that optimized critical values were found to be 2.36 % v/v H2SO4, 69.89 % v0v Ethanol to Oil ratio, 48.500C reaction temperature and 99.09 minute reaction time in which resulted reduction FFA value from 67 % to the final FFA value less than 2%. In the atmospheric pressure condition, temperature of the reaction was limited by temperature of boiling point of the alcohol that use on reaction, however some part of the alcohol will vaporized under boiling point, in this view point it is important to keep the temperature as low as possible, the other advantage of reaction in lower temperature is low energy consumption. In a view point of reaction kinetics low temperature reaction will give longer time of reaction. However some previous research works that done by Tiwari (2007) and Azhari (2008) using methanol as alcohol source, they mantain temperature of reaction at 60oC in which this mean a few degree below methanol boiling point. Even boiling point of ethanol is higher than methanol, this work shown that by using optimum condition temperature of reaction could carried out at 48.5oC. The effect of Methanol to oil ratio in the esterefication also shown in table 3. Trend of the effect is liniear to FFA reduction, this because in physically viewpoint Methanol could diluted on the oil and decreasing viscosity of the oil. In a low viscosity, mixing process will give higher Reynold number that enable molecular collision performed chemical reaction. High Methanol to oil ratio also increasing probability of the chemical reaction between FFA and Methanol, thus will give high reduction of FFA value on the oil. On further analyses, the maximum conversion will gain on methanol to oil ratio 69.89% in which does not perform on this experiment Time of the reaction will contibute and significantly influence on the chemical rate and equilibrium, however in the esterification process in which reversible reaction, time dependence will not affect anymore when the reaction came into their equilibrium. The equilibrium of reaction could be shift to product side if the product was removed from the system. In this case, water that formed

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in a reaction will absorbed by both Sulfuric Acid and Methanol, this could explain why excess Methanol could performed higher FFA reduction In a chemical reaction, catalyst contribute on the decreasing activation energy that need for initializing reaction, thus reaction could be completely performed on the lower energy consumption, lower temperature and shorter time of reaction, however catalyst itself does not affect on the final conversion of the reaction. In the esterification process, Sulfuric acid 98% was use as catalyst on a range of 1% to 3% which give the optimum result for esterification process on the concentration of 2.36% v/v. IV. CONCLUSION One step estrification process could performed on the operation condition 48.50C , 99.09 minute, 69.89% v/v ratio methanol to oil and 2.36% v/v ration of Sulfuric acid to oil and converted about 97% FFA on PAFD into FAME. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We thanks the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia, for financial support of this work through Hibah Penelitian Dosen Pemula under contract : 002/LPPMUSB/DP/IX/2013. REFERENCES [1]

Azhari M, Faiz M, Yunus R, Ghazi T, Yaw T. Reduction of free fatty acids in crude Jatropha curcas oil via an esterification process. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 2008, 5(2): 92–98 [2] Canakci M, Gerpen J V. Biodiesel production from oils and fats with high free fatty acids. Transactions of the ASAE. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2001, 44(6): 1429–1436 [3] Çetinkaya M, Karaosmanoglu F., Optimization of base-catalyzed transesterification reaction of used cooking oil. Energy & Fuels, 2004, 18(6): 1888–1895 [4] Dorado M, Ballesteros E, de Almeida J, Schellert C, Lohrlein H, Krause R., An alkali-catalyzed transesterification process for high free fatty acid waste oils. Transactions-American Society Of Agricultural Engineers, 2002, 45(3): 525–530 [5] Jena P C, Raheman H, Prasanna Kumar G V, Machavaram R. Biodiesel production from mixture of mahua and simarouba oils with high free fatty acids. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2010, 34(8): 1108–1116 [6] Kumar Tiwari A, Kumar A, Raheman H., Biodiesel production from jatropha oil (Jatropha curcas) with high free fatty acids: an optimized process. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2007, 31(8): 569–575 [7] Marchetti J M, Errazu A F. Esterification of free fatty acids using sulfuric acid as catalyst in the presence of triglycerides. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2008, 32(9): 892–895 [8] Syam A, Yunus R, Ghazi T, Yaw T., Methanolysis of jatropha oil in the presence of potassium hydroxide catalyst. Journal of Applied Sciences, 2009, 9(17): 3161–3165 [9] Vicente G, Coteron A, Martinez M, Aracil J., Application of the factorial design of experiments and response surface methodology to optimize biodiesel production. Industrial Crops and Products, 1998, 8(1): 29–35 [10] Yuan X, Liu J, Zeng G, Shi J, Tong J, Huang G. Optimization of conversion of waste rapeseed oil with high FFA to biodiesel using response surface.

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Monolayer Interpretation of Adsorption Isotherm of Non Azeotropic Solution onto Porous Adsorbents Awang Bono1, NurAbidah Ramlan2, Norina Yadin3, and Farm Yan Yan4 and Chu Chi Ming5 School of Engineering & IT Universiti Malaysia Sabah Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Adsorption isotherm is essential component in the understanding of the adsorption process. Several methods of the measurements, analysis and interpretation of adsorption from solution have been reported in the literature. Most of the measurements of adsorption isotherm from solution were involved the measurement of excess isotherm conducted at low region of sorbates concentration. Direct interpretation of excess adsorption isotherm as adsorption isotherm is always been practice. Therefore, in this work a study on the measurement of the adsorption isotherm from solution of non-azeotropic organic solvent mixture onto porous adsorbents for whole range of liquid concentration was conducted. The study included the measurement of excess adsorption isotherm using conventional technique. Theoretical analysis and interpretation of adsorption isotherm from the excess isotherm were conducted using Pseudo Ideal Adsorption, Gibbs Dividing Plane Model and Langmuir-Fruendlich binary isotherm model. For organic solvents, acetone and propanol were chosen as the adsorbates due to the nonazeotropic properties in the mixture. Activated carbon and silicalite were chosen as adsorbents due to the different in their porosity such as macro porous and micro porous structure. The result of the study has revealed that the adsorption isotherm of non-azeotropic mixture onto activated carbon and silicalite can be interpreted as monolayer type of adsorption. Keywords-pseudo-ideal adsorption; Gibbs dividing plane model;Langmuir-Freundlich binary isotherm; excess isotherm

I. INTRODUCTION Adsorption process is a well-established technology in the separation process due to its relative simplicity of design, insensitivity to toxic substances, ease of regeneration and low cost [1]. Adsorption process have been widely employed in the industrial applications such as removal of unwanted component from a solution [2], removing dye from colored textile wastewater [4], removing color and taste [5], [6] and also phenol removal from water and wastewater [7]. In order to utilize the technology of adsorption process, knowledge in adsorption isotherm and adsorption kinetic is essential. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

The information of adsorption isotherm is always required for the basis of analysis, design and prediction of adsorption processes[8]. For example, adsorption isotherm, plays an important role in predictive modeling for analysis and design of adsorption systems [3,9], and gives useful information, such as determination of surface area, volume of pores, size distribution of adsorbent [10], description of the adsorbates interacts with adsorbent and thus optimizing the adsorption of adsorbent [3,11] and determination information of relative adsorptivity of a gas or a vapor on a given adsorbent with respect to chosen standards [12]. Therefore precise measurement and accurate analysis of adsorption isotherm is vital key of success in the prediction of realistic industrial scale adsorption processes. Many measurement and models of adsorption isotherm are reported in the literatures [ 8,11], [13–15]. Most of measurements were conducted in lower liquid concentration [13, 16-17] and the adsorption isotherms were directly interpreted from measured excess isotherm [18]. The models of adsorption isotherm are also well documented in the standard text book [19]. The measurement of adsorption across whole range of mixture concentration will provide a lot of information on the behavior of the adsorption of the adsorbates onto the adsorbent itself [19–21]. There are few analysis of adsorption isotherms based on the combination of measured excess isotherm across whole range mixture concentration and the theoretical model and are available in the literature [15], [20–22]. Thus, in this work a study on the determination of adsorption isotherm from across whole range of liquid mixture concentration was conducted. Non-azeotropic binary mixture, acetonepropanol was chosen as adsorbates and activated carbon and silicalite were chosen as the adsorbents. The selection of solvent was based on the similarity of molecular size. Nevertheless, the selection of the adsorbent was based on pore structure. Activated carbons are usually having macropore structure, whereas silicalite contain micropore structure. The molecular size of solvents and adsorbent pore size properties were selected due to the capability to form monolayer adsorption behavior. Three theoretical modelswhich were Pseudo-Ideal monolayer theory, Gibbs

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia Dividing Plane monolayer model and LangmuirFreundlich isotherm model were chosen for the analysis and interpretation of adsorption isotherm along with the measured excess isotherm. II. MATERIAL AND METHOD A. Materials Two types of adsorbents, activated carbon and silicalite were used in this work. Activated carbon was purchased from FLUKA, whereas silicalite from Zeolyst International. Both solvents used (acetone and propanol) were HPLC grade and purchased form Fisher Scientific. B. Excess Adsorption Isotherm A conventional technique of excess adsorption isotherm measurement was employed in this study [21]. The quantities of adsorbent and liquid solvent mixture were set to a weight ratio of 1:10. To achieve equilibrium, the mixture of adsorbent and liquid sorbates were kept in a 250 ml sealed conical flask and placed in orbital shaker at 30oC and 100 rpm for 4 hours. The system of the experimental work was designed as shown Table 1. TABLE I.

ADSORPTION SYSTEM OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK

System

Component

1

acetone-propanol

2

acetone-propanol

Adsorbent commercial powdered activated carbon Silicalite (alumina free ZSM-5, MFI framework)

Preference Adsorbate Acetone Acetone

The liquid phase concentration of the adsorption system was determined using GCMS. The method was involved, the withdrawal of liquid sample using 0.45µm Whatman syringe filter. Samples were then injected into Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) using auto sampling device. The compositions of initial mixture, x10 , equilibrated mixture, x1 , weight of liquid mixture, W0 and the weight of adsorbent, Ws were then used for the determination of the numerical value of excess adsorption isotherm of component 1, as in (1), [20, 23-24].

1 

W0 ( x10  x1 ) Ws

(1)

C. Analysis Procedure of Mixture Composition The mixture liquid phase concentration was determined using AGILENT GCMS Model 7890. Capillary column, 24079 Supelcowax types of column was used with helium as carried gas at 35kPa and 1.6 mL/min. The injection volume was 1 µL and the initial temperature was kept at 400C for 2 minutes before it was ramped at 250C/min to 650C with holding time for 1 minute. Finally, the GCMS oven as ramped at 250C/min to 1000C and held for another 1 minute and injector temperature was set at 1500C with split ratio value of 100:1.

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III. ADSORPTION ISOTHERM ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION For the purpose of analysis and interpretation of adsorption isotherm, Gibbs Dividing Plane isotherm Model [15,25], Pseudo-Ideal monolayer adsorption theory [20,23-24] and Langmuir-Freundlich isotherm model [22] were used. Following section will discuss and explain briefly of the theory and model used here. A. Gibbs Dividing Plane Model Based on excess isotherm of adsorption in whole range of sorbates concentration , the volume of sorbates adsorbed can be identified using Gibbs Dividing Plane monolayer adsorption model [15]. The volume of adsorbed layer, atot (Ce ) was calculated by the addition of experimentally measured excess adsorption numerical value and the product of the equilibrium adsorbates concentration on the specific volume of adsorbed layer as shown in (3). Whereas, the specific adsorbed volume of sorbates, Va was calculated using the information of the negative of gradient of excess isotherm as shown in (2). Specific volume of adsorbed layer: d (Ce ) Va   d (Ce )

(2)

Volume adsorbed layer:

atot (Ce )    Ce   Ce .Va (3) In getting the value of excess isotherm gradient, the excess isotherm itself was plotted in mole/m2 unit and the equilibrium concentration (Ce ) in mole fraction. B. Pseudo Ideal Monolayer Adsorption Theory Pseudo-ideal monolayer adsorption was derived from the combination of the materials balance of adsorption system and idealized equilibrium adsorption equation [20]. Below are the important equations that derived from the theory and used in the analysis in this work; Conformity of Pseudo-Ideal Equation:

x1 x2 1  1 Ns

1    x1  K  1  

(4)

Concentration of adsorbed phase:

x1s 

Kx1 1   K  1 x1

(5)

Number of moles of adsorbed phase:

n1s  N s

Kx1 1   K  1 x1

(6)

Here, K is the equilibrium constant, N s is the total mole of adsorbed phase (adsorption saturation value), x1s is the concentration of component 1 in adsorbed phase and n1s is the mole of component. 1 adsorbed

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia C. Langmuir-Freundlich Isotherm Model For the curve fitting purposes, isotherm model of the Langmuir-Freundlich of binary adsorption [22] as shown in Equation(7) was used. The value of adsorbed concentration, x1s was calculated using Equation (8), this equation was derived from the material balance of adsorption system as explained elsewhere [20]. In order to use Equation (8), the value of excess isotherm, Γ1 was obtained experimentally and the values of total adsorption, Ns were obtained from the intercept of the plot of Equation (4). The values of parameters K12 and m, were estimated using Solver of Microsoft Excel. The solver is devised to minimize a nonlinear sum of squares (SSQ) function subject to the constraints given [26].

x1s 

( K12 x12l )m 1  ( K12 x12l )m

(7)

x1s 

Γ1  x1 Ns

(8)

IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The excess adsorption isotherms for both binary mixtures of non azeotropic solution onto activated carbon and silicalite were determined experimentally as shown in Fig. 1. The excess isotherm for both systems (acetonepropanol/ activated carbon and acetonepropanol/silicalite) obtained confirmed to mono-layer type of U shape as classified by Schay and Nagy [27]. The U-shape excess isotherm indicates a preference for one component from the mixture/solution over the entire concentration range [28]. It can be seen clearly that the excess adsorption of silicalite is higher than activated carbon in comparison with the same binary mixture which is acetone-propanol. It shows that silicalite were able to be more selective toward smaller sorbates molecule compare to activated carbon. This behavior is also can be related to the porous structure of the adsorbents used. This trend is similar as reported by Farhadpour and Bono [20,21] and Swiatkowski et. al [22].

with the pore volume of activated carbon is higher than silicalite used. Similar observation is also reported by Jones et al. [29]. The adsorption of acetone for both adsorbents was found to be predominantly monolayer fashion. This is essentially consistent with the same behavior observed previously for the adsorption organic effluent components on the surface of reversed-phase phenyl modified adsorbents [15].

Figure 2. Analysis of adsorbed amount of acetone in binary mixture onto activated carbon and silicalite using Gibbs Dividing Plane Model.

The analysis of both adsorption systems using Equation (4) has shown conformity to Pseudo-Ideal monolayer adsorption theory. The slopes and intercepts of the plots of Equation (4) were used for the determination of the equilibrium constant, K and saturation adsorption capacity, Ns as presented in Table 2. The total adsorption sorbates onto activated carbon shows higher compared to the adsorption onto silicalite as expected due to the porosity volume of activated carbon is higher than silicalite. The adsorption plot based on Pseudo-Ideal monolayer adsorption theory is presented in Figure 2b, it also show that the adsorption of acetone in activated carbon is higher than silicalite. Both of adsorption isotherms are also showing the monolayer behavior across sorbates concentration range. TABLE II. TABLE 2: EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K SATURATION VALUE OF ADSORPTION, NS OF ADSORPTION ACETONE-PROPANOL MIXTURE System Activated Carbon Silicalite

K 2.00 3.00

Parameters Ns (mmol/g) 62.50 45.45

Figure 1. Excess adsorption isotherm for binary organics solvent nonazeotropic mixture onto activated carbon and silicalite at 300C.

Surface specific adsorption isotherm using Gibbs Dividing Plane Model was shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the total adsorption of acetone onto activated carbons were slightly higher than onto silicalite which is in line eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Figure 3. Analysis of adsorbed amount of acetone in binary mixture onto activated carbon and silicalite using Gibbs Dividing Plane Model.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia In the curve fit exercise of adsorption isotherm of non-azeotropic adsorption using Langmuir-Fruendlich isotherm model as in (7), the adsorbed phase concentration were calculated using (8) with the value of excess isotherm obtained experimentally. The values of total adsorption were obtained from the Pseudo-Ideal monolayer adsorption isotherm analysis as in (4) and the numerical value are shown in Table 2. The values of parameters of Langmuir-Fruendlich binary isotherm model, K 12 and m were obtained by fitting (7) using Solver of Microsoft Excel. The values are shown in Table 3.

V. CONCLUSION The excess adsorption isotherm of acetone from non azeotropic mixture of acetone and propanol onto activated carbon and silicalite was confirmed to U-shaped of preference adsorption isotherm. Silicalite shows more on the preference adsorption of acetone over activated carbon due to the micropore structure. The total adsorption of sorbates for adsorption carbon found to be higher than silicalite which is in line with the pore volume of activated carbon is higher than silicalite. Both adsorption of acetone from non-azeotropic mixture are explainable as mono-layer type across entire range of concentration.

TABLE III. EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, K AND SATURATION VALUE OF

ADSORPTION

REFERENCES [1]

Parameters System Activated Carbon Silicalite

K 12

m

1.22 1.72

1.05 0.96

The plots of Langmuir-Freundlich binary isotherm are shown in Fig. 4. Both adsorption isotherms of acetone onto activated carbon and silicalite are fitted well with Langmuir-Freundlich isotherm model and also showed that their well explainable as mono-layer adsorption type.

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

(a) [8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

(b)

[12]

Figure 4. Experimentally measured and predicted of acetone adsorbed onto (a) activated carbon and (b) silicalite based on LangmuirFreundlich isotherm model.

[13]

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M. L. Soto, A. Moure, H. Domínguez, and J. C. Parajó, “Recovery, concentration and purification of phenolic compounds by adsorption: A review,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 105, no. 1, Jul. 2011, pp. 1–27. J. Rahchamani, H. Z. Mousavi, and M. Behzad, “Adsorption of methyl violet from aqueous solution by polyacrylamide as an adsorbent: Isotherm and kinetic studies,” Desalination, vol. 267, no. 2–3, Feb. 2011, pp. 256–260. M. J. Ahmed and S. K. Theydan, “Equilibrium isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics studies of phenolic compounds adsorption on palm-tree fruit stones.,” Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, vol. 84, Oct. 2012, pp. 39–45. N. M. Mahmoodi, R. Salehi, and M. Arami, “Binary system dye removal from colored textile wastewater using activated carbon: Kinetic and isotherm studies,” Desalination, vol. 272, no. 1–3, May 2011, pp. 187–195. R.S. Juang, S.H. Lin, and C.H. Cheng, “Liquid-phase adsorption and desorption of phenol onto activated carbons with ultrasound.,” Ultrasonics sonochemistry, vol. 13, no. 3, Apr. 2006, pp. 251–60. J. Hanzlík, J. Jehlicka, O. O. Sebek, Z. Weishauptová, and V. V. Machovic, “Multi-component adsorption of Ag(I), Cd(II) and Cu(II) by natural carbonaceous materials.,” Water research, vol. 38, no. 8, Apr. 2004, pp. 2178–84. S. Rengaraj, S.H. Moon, R. Sivabalan, B. Arabindoo, and V. Murugesan, “Agricultural solid waste for the removal of organics: adsorption of phenol from water and wastewater by palm seed coat activated carbon.,” Waste management (New York, N.Y.), vol. 22, no. 5, Jan. 2002, pp. 543–8. S. J. Allen, Q. Gan, R. Matthews, and P. A. Johnson, “Comparison of optimised isotherm models for basic dye adsorption by kudzu.,” Bioresource technology, vol. 88, no. 2, Jun. 2003, pp. 143–52. B. H. Hameed, A. A. Ahmad, and N. Aziz, “Isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics of acid dye adsorption on activated palm ash,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 133, no. 1–3, Sep. 2007, pp. 195–203. S. Qi and L. C. Schideman, “An overall isotherm for activated carbon adsorption of dissolved natural organic matter in water.,” Water research, vol. 42, no. 13, Jul. 2008, pp. 3353–60. M. A. Abdullah, L. Chiang, and M. Nadeem, “Comparative evaluation of adsorption kinetics and isotherms of a natural product removal by Amberlite polymeric adsorbents,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 146, no. 3, Feb. 2009, pp. 370–376. R.C. Bansal, and M. Goyal. Activated Carbon Adsorption. CRC Press Taylor and Frances Group, 2005, pp. 1-167. M. J. Ahmed, A. Halim, A. K. Mohammed, A. Amir, and H. Kadhum, “Fluid Phase Equilibria Prediction of multi component equilibrium isotherms for light hydrocarbons adsorption on 5A zeolite,” Fluid Phase Equilibria, vol. 313, 2012, pp. 165–170.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia [14] Y. Al-Degs, M. A. M. Khraisheh, S. J. Allen, M. N. Ahmad, and G. M. Walker, “Competitive adsorption of reactive dyes from solution: Equilibrium isotherm studies in single and multisolute systems,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 128, no. 2–, Apr. 2007, pp. 163–167. [15] F. Chan, L. S. Yeung, R. LoBrutto, and Y. V. Kazakevich, “Interpretation of the excess adsorption isotherms of organic eluent components on the surface of reversed-phase phenyl modified adsorbents,” Journal of Chromatography A, vol. 1082, no. 2, Aug. 2005, pp. 158–165. [16] O. Abdelwahab, “Evaluation of the use of loofa activated carbons as potential adsorbents for aqueous solutions containing dye,” Desalination, vol. 222, no. 1–3, Mar. 2008, pp. 357–367. [17] L. S. Chan, W. H. Cheung, and G. McKay, “Adsorption of acid dyes by bamboo derived activated carbon,” Desalination, vol. 218, no. 1–3, Jan. 2008, pp. 304–312. [18] O. Hamdaoui, E. Naffrechoux, L. Tifouti, and C. Pétrier, “Effects of ultrasound on adsorption-desorption of p-chlorophenol on granular activated carbon.,” Ultrasonics sonochemistry, vol. 10, no. 2, Mar. 2003, pp. 109–14. [19] M. Palm, O. Board, B. B. Bangi, L. Pantai, and K. Lumpur, “Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Palm Carotenoids Puah Chiew Wei , 1 Choo Yuen May , 1 Ma Ah Ngan and 2 Chuah Cheng Hock Department of Chemistry , Faculty of Science , University of Malaya,” vol. 1, no. 6, 2005, pp. 264–269. [20] F. A. Farhadpour and A. Bono, “Adsorption from Solution of Nonelectrolytes by Microporous Crystalline Solids : EthanoIWater / Silicalite System,” vol. 124, no. 1, 1988.

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[21] A. Bono, R. Sarbatly, D. Krishnaiah, P. M. San, and F. Y. Yan, “Effect of ultrasound on liquid phase adsorption of azeotropic and non-azeotropic mixture,” Catalysis Today, vol. 131, no. 1–4, Feb. 2008, pp. 472–476. [22] A. Świątkowski, A. Deryło-Marczewska, J. Goworek, and S. Błażewicz, “Study of adsorption from binary liquid mixtures on thermally treated activated carbon,” Applied Surface Science, vol. 236, no. 1–4, Sep. 2004, pp. 313–320. [23] F. A. Farhadpour and A. Bono, “Sorptive separation of ethanolwater mixtures with a bi-dispersed hydrophobic molecular sieve, silicalite: measurement and theoretical analysis of column dynamics,” Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, vol. 35, no. 2, Mar. 1996, pp. 157–168. [24] F. A. Farhadpour and A. Bono, “Sorptive separation of ethanolwater mixtures with a bi-dispersed hydrophobic molecular sieve, silicalite: determination of the controlling mass transfer mechanism,” Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, vol. 35, no. 2, Mar. 1996, pp. 141–155. [25] Y. V Kazakevich, R. LoBrutto, F. Chan, and T. Patel, “Interpretation of the excess adsorption isotherms of organic eluent components on the surface of reversed-phase adsorbents. Effect on the analyte retention.,” Journal of chromatography. A, vol. 913, no. 1–2, Apr. 2001, pp. 75–87.

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Acid Demethylation of Banana Peel Pectin to Produce Low Methoxyl Pectin Laeli Kurniasari1, Indah Hartati2 and Nur Satik3 Chemical Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering, Wahid Hasyim University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract— Pectin are polysaccharides which main structure are the linier chain contain (1-4)-linked α-D-galacturonic acid. Pectin can be found in many plants, especially fruit peels. Based on its degree of esterification (DE), pectin is classified into two groups. Pectin whose its DE is more than 50% belongs to HMP (high methoxyl pectin), while pectin with DE below 50% belongs to LMP (low methoxyl pectin). LMP are usually used to form gels with or without sugar in the presence of divalent cations. It is mostly used as a gelling agent in low-sugar product, but it can also be used in other application, such as a biosorbent for high metal contamination in solution. Comercially, LMP is produced from HMP by further de-esterification or demethylation. This paper contains demethylation process of pectin produced from banana peel using acid. Design of researh use factorial design 2 level with three variable observed, temperature, time of demethylation and pH. From effect calculation, time is the most affecting variable (-24,25). Temperature and pH also affected the demethylation. Increasing temperature or using high acid concentration both will cause pectin depolymerization. Keywords- banana peel; acid demethylation; pectin

I. INTRODUCTION Pectic substances are complex mixtures of polysaccharides containing units of galacturonic acid as the main chain [1]. Basic structure of pectin is α-D-(1-4)linked galacturonic acid, but they also contain neutral sugars such as rhamnose, galactose and arabinose. Pectin is found in the primary cell wall of most plants where it gives mechanical strength and flexibility due to its interaction with other wall components [2]. The acidic component of pectin can be partially esterified with methanol and the ratio esterified galacturonic acid : total galacturonic acid is called degree of esterification (DE), which is one of the most important parameters of pectin’s quality. Pectin with DE more 50% is called high methoxyl pectin (HMP), while pectin with DE equal to or under 50% are described as low methoxyl pectin (LMP) [3, 4]. As one component of cell wall, pectin can be found in many parts of plants, but the most highly part enriched in pectin is the fruit cell walls. It may account for up to 35% of their total weight [5]. Comercial pectin usually uses Sponsor : Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture the Republic of Indonesia

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citrus peels and apple pomace as raw material, although actually there are many other agricultural product and agro waste that can be used as pectin sources. Banana peel is one of agro waste that potential as pectin source. It contains around 40% of the total weight of the fruit being wastes which can be used to extract pectin [1]. The large usage of pectin is in food industry, where pectin is used as gelling materials. But besides, pectin is also applied in the pharmaceutical, dental and cosmetics industries. High methoxyl pectin forms gel after heating in sugar solutions at concentration higher than 55% and pH lower than 3,5. In such kind of pectin, the junction zone are formed by the cross linking of homogalacturonan through hydrogen bond and the hydrophobic interaction between methoxyl groups [6]. On the other hand, formation of gel with a low methoxyl pectin requires the presence of calcium ions, with or without sugar [3,7]. In this pectin, junction zones are formed by calcium cross linking between free carboxyl groups [6]. LMP, therefore, are used in low calorie or dietetic foods. Another application of LMP is in biosorption process, as a heavy metal removal agents. The functional groups of pectin have been traditionally associated to heavy metal binding, especially carboxyl groups [8]. Low methoxyl pectin is commercially produced from HMP by demethylation process. There are four different methods of pectin demethylation for the preparation of low methoxyl pectin from HMP; using acid, alkali, enzyme and ammonia in alcohol [3, 4]. Among those processes, acid demethylation is commonly used to manufacture LMP. The objective of this study were preparing LMP from banana peel HMP by acid demethylation. II. MATERIAL AND METHOD A. Pectin Extraction High methoxyl banana peel pectin obtained in the laboratory (DE = 89%) was used to prepare LMP. HMP was obtained from dry banana peel using acid extraction. The extraction method refers to Emaga’s method [1] with slight modification in drying process. Banana peels were removed from ripe banana and extracted using acid in pH 2, 900C for 1 hr. The product is filtered and precipitated

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia using alcohol 960. The pectin then washed using ethanol 700 and aquadest, and finally was dried, milled and characterized its DE.

TABLE I.

Run

B. Demethylation of Banana Peel Pectin Banana peel pectin resulted from the extraction is dispersed in distilled water at concentration of 50mg/g. pH of dispersion was adjusted to 1 or 4 using HCl. Demethylation was conducted using magnetic stirrer in 50 or 800C for 1 or 4 hour. After finishing the demethylation, pectin is precipitated using ethanol 96%. The precipitate was washed 3-4 times with 700 ethanol to remove acid excess and dried under 400C. The demethylated pectin then analyzed for its DE and recovery percentage. C. Analytical Method 1. Degree of esterification (DE) The DE of pectin was determined by titrimetric method [9]. Dried pectin (500 mg) was moistened with 2 ml ethanol and dissolved in 100 ml aquadest. After pectin was completely dissolved, three drops of phenolphthalein were added. The sample was titrated with 0,1N sodium hydroxide and the result was recorded as initial titer (It). Then, 30 ml of 0,1 N sodium hydroxide were added and sample was stirred at room temperature and allowed to stand for 30 min to de-esterified the pectin. Next, 30 ml of 0,1 N hydrochloric acid were added to neutralized the sodium hydroxide. The mixture was further titrated with 0,1N sodium hydroxide in the present of phenolpthalein. The total titration volume was recorded as final titer (Ft). The degree of esterification was calculated using the equation below: (1) 2. Recovery Percentage The recovery percentage of demethylation process was calculated as the gravimetric ratio of recovered dried powdered pectin with its initial weight used or using below equation : (2) D. Statistical Analysis The demethylation of banana peel pectin were carried out using experimental design 2 level. Factorial design is more efficient for the experiment that involve study of the effect of two or more factors [9]. There were 3 variables/factors observed; temperature (50-800C), heating time (1-5 hr) and pH (1-4). Factorial design of type 23 will have 8 run and the design was shown in Table 1.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

FULL TWO STATE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR BANANA PECTIN DEMETHYLATION Variable Temperature 50 80 50 80 50 80 50 80

Time 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5

pH 1 1 4 4 1 1 4 4

Response (%DE) R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8

Response will be based on the DE after demethylation process. The data gained will be used to calculate the effect of process. There were 2 effect observed, single and interaction effect. Each of the effect was calculated using equation below : Mean effect = (R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+R6+R7+R8)/8 Effect of temperature = (-R1+R2-R3+R4-R5+R6-R7+R8)/4 Effect of time = (-R1-R2-R3-R4+R5+R6+R7+R8)/4 Effect of pH = (-R1-R2+R3+R4-R5-R6+R7+R8)/4 Effect of temp-time = (R1-R2+R3-R4-R5+R6-R7+R8)/4 Effect of temp-pH= (R1-R2-R3+R4+R5-R6-R7+R8)/4 Effect of time-pH = (R1+R2-R3-R4-R5-R6+R7+R8)/4 Effect of temp-time-pH = (-R1+R2+R3-R4+R5-R6-R7+R8)/4

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Equation (4)-(6) were used to calculate single effect, while equation (7)-(10) were used to calculate interaction effect. The most affecting variable will be chosen from effect which has the highest absolute score. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The DE of banana peel pectin after demethylation were shown in Table 2, while effect calculation was shown in Table 3. Form Table 2 we could conclude that demethylation process was carried out with the result in lowering DE. Acid demethylation is commonly method used to manufacture LMP [4]. From Table 3 we could see that time was the most affecting variable for acid demethylation. The result agreed with Alemzadeh [3] which said that the main disadvantage of acid treatments is the slowness of the reaction. The DE of pectin in various time could be seen in Table 4. Demethylation is process to reduce the methoxyl content of pectin. It can be conducted using mild acid with the result is pectin and methanol. When it is conducted in short time, the reduce of DE is relatively small. This might be caused that the reactant need more time to contact for reaction. As the contact time longer, the reactant will have higher chance to meet and react, resulting in less DE. Alemzadeh [3] suggested to reach favorable results in acid demethylation, longer treatment time and lower temperature should be used.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE II. THE DE OF PECTIN AFTER DEMETHYLATION Variable

TABLE V. DE OF PECTIN IN VARIOUS TEMPERATURE

Temperature

Time

pH

Response (%DE)

50 80 50 80 50 80 50 80

1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5

1 1 4 4 1 1 4 4

85 86 74 84 52 70 50 60

Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

TABLE III. EFFECT CALCULATION Effect

Score

Average effect Effect of temperature Effect of time Effect of pH Effect of temeperature-time Effect of temperature-pH Effect of time-pH Effect of temperature-time-pH

70.125 9.75 -24.25 -6.25 4.25 0.25 0.25 -4.25

TABLE IV. DE OF PECTIN IN VARIOUS TIME Run 1 5 3 7 2 6 4 8

Temperature 50 50 50 50 80 80 80 80

Time 60 300 60 300 60 300 60 300

pH 1 1 4 4 1 1 4 4

%DE 85 52 74 50 86 70 84 60

The DE of pectin in various temperature could be seen in Table 5, while the DE of pectin in various pH could be seen in Table 6. From the Table 5. above we could see that DE of pectin will reduce more when the temperature of demethylation is low (500C). Temperature will affect the rate of demethylation and the product characteristics. Acid demethylation at higher temperatures resulted in partial pectin depolymerization. Demethylation at temperatures higher than 650C resulted in the break down of pectin to smaller molecular species. Studi of pectin demethylation at 80 and 900C yielded pectin with poor gelling characteristics and molecular weight decreased with increased temperature of demethylation [4]. Better result in pH 4 might relate to the hydrolysis effect. Hydrolysis will cause depolymerization which hydrolyzes pectin’s glycosidic bonds [4]. Depolymerization is higher at high concentration of acid used. Therefore, the highest depolymerization is observed at pH 1[3]. Diaz et al [10] also reported that when pectin solutions were heated at pH 3,5 or lower, there was an increase in reducing sugar production as the pH was decreased. He also suggested that pectin degrades via acid hydrolysis below pH 3,8.

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Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Temperature 50 80 50 80 50 80 50 80

Time 60 60 60 60 300 300 300 300

pH 1 1 4 4 1 1 4 4

%DE 85 86 74 84 52 70 50 60

TABLE VI. DE OF PECTIN IN VARIOUS PH Run 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 8

Temperature 50 50 80 80 50 50 80 80

Time 60 60 60 60 300 300 300 300

pH 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4

%DE 85 74 86 84 52 50 70 60

Recovery percentage of pectin was shown in Table 7. From this table it could be seen that recovery percentage of pectin after demethylation was between 50-70%. The result was similar with Alemzadeh [3] that had 66% recovery for pectin after demethylated at pH 2, 500C for 4 hours. The low recovery could be related to an impurity of the sample. It also affected by the concentration of the acid, due to the high degradation of pectin at high concentration of acid [3]. TABLE VII.

RECOVERY PERCENTAGE OF PECTIN Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

% recovery 61,5 58,5 61,5 71 51,5 67,5 59,5 51,5

IV. CONCLUSION Acid demethylation of banana peel pectin was conducted using en experimental design 2 level. There were three variables observed; temperature, time and pH. From the effect calculation, time is the most affecting variable of acid demethylation. This is caused by the slowness of the reaction. While for temperature, increasing temperature will cause the depolymerization of the pectin. Acid concentration was also affecting the process, due to high degradation of pectin at high concentration of acid. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors greatly acknowledge the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture the Republic of Indonesia for its financial support through Competitive Grant 2013.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia REFERENCES [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

Emaga, T.H., Ronkart, S.N., Robert, C., Wathelet, B., Paquot, M., Characteization of Pectins Extracted from Banana Peels (Musa AAA) under Different Conditions Using an Experimental Design, Food Chemistry 108, 2008, pp. 463-471. Fertonani H.C.R., Scabio A., Carneiro, E.B.B., Schemim, M.H.C., Nogueira A., Wosiacki, G., Extraction Model of Low Methoxyl Pectin from Apple Pomace Effects of Acid Concentration and Time on The Process and The Product, Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology Vol 52 n.1, 2009, pp. 177-185. Alemzadeh, I., Saifkordi, A.A., Kahforooshan, D., Nahid, P., Production of Low Ester (LM) Pectin by De-esterification of High Ester (HM) Apple Pectin, Scientia Iranica Vol. 12 No. 3, 2005, pp. 306-310. Constenla, D and Lozano, J.E., Kinetic Model of Pectin Demethylation, Latin American Applied Research Vol. 33, 2003, pp. 91-96 Osorio, S., Castillejo, C., Quesada, M.A., Escobar, N.M., Brownsey, G.J., Suau, R., Heredia, A., Botella, M.A., Valpuesta, V., Partial Demethylation of Oligogalacturonides by Pectin Methyl Esterase 1 is required for Eliciting Defence responses in Wild Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), The Plant Journal 54, 2008, pp. 43-55.

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[6]

Pinheiro, E.R., Silva, I.M.D.A., Gonzaga, L.V., Amante, E.R., Teofilo, R.F., Ferreira, M.M.C., Amboni, R.D.M.C., Optimization of Extraction of High Ester Pectin from Passion Fruit Peel (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) with Citric Acid by Using Response Surface Methodology, Bioresource Technology 99, 2008, pp. 5561-5566 [7] Woo, K.K., Chong, Y.Y., Li Hiong, S.K., Tang, P.Y., Pectin Extraction and Characterization from Red Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus): A Preliminary Study, Journal of Biological Science 10 (7) , 2010, pp. 631-636. [8] Mata, YN., Blazquez, ML., Ballester, A., Gonzalez, F., Munoz, JA, Sugar-beet Pulp Pectin Gels as Biosorbent for Heavy Metals: Preparation and Determination of Biosorption and Desorption Characteristics, Chemical Engineering Journal 150., 2009, pp. 289-301. [9] Wai, W.W., Alkarkhi, A.F.M., Easa, A.M., Effect of Extraction Conditions on Yield and Degree of Esterification of Durian Rind Pectin : An Experimental Design, Food and Bioproducts Processing 88, 2010, pp. 209-214. [10] Diaz, J.V., Anthon, G.E., Barrett, D.M., Nonenzymatic Degradation of Citrus Pectin and Pectate during Prolonged Heating: Effects of pH, temperature and Degree of Methyl Esterification, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55, 2007, pp. 5131-5136.

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The Application of Response Surface Methology in Hydrotropic Microwave Assisted Extraction of Andrographolide Indah Hartati1, Laeli Kurniasari2 and Yance Anas3 Department of Chemical Engineering1,2, Department of Pharmacy3 Wahid Hasyim University Semarang, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract—Andrographolide of Andrographis paniculata is reported thas a broad category of pharmacological activity. Various attemps have been done in order to improve the andrographolide extraction performance. Hydrotropicmicrowave assisted extraction provides an effective method in andrographolide extraction. In this study, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) along with central composite design (CCD) was applied to optimize the hydrotropicmicrowave assisted extraction of andrographilde. The effect of extraction time (X1), solid-liquid ratio (X2), and hydrotropes concentration (X3) were investigated. The result showed that the most suitable condition for extraction of andrographolide was found to be extraction at 32,5 minutes, solid liquid ratio of 0,95 and hydrotropes concentration of 4M. The maximum extraction percentage experimentally (5,45%) was found to be very close to its predicted value. It was also found that hydrotropes concentration was the most influencing variable. The mathematical model for the hydrotropic-microwave assisted extraction is : 2 2 2 Y  4.812  1.66 X 1  2.366 X 1  0.478 X 2  2.473 X 2  2.216 X 3  0.983 X 3 0.385 X1 X 2  0.476 X1 X 3  0.429 X 2 X 3

Keywords- andrographolide; hydrotrope; microwave asisted extraction; response surface methodology

I. INTRODUCTION Hydrotrope solutions provide safe and effective media for the microwave assisted extraction of andrographolide, the major bioactive chemical constituent of plant Andrographis paniculata. Generally, Andrographolide was extracted from leaves and aerial parts of A. Paniculata. It is reported has a broad category of pharmacological activity, such as hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, antimicrobial, anticancer, antihyperglycemic, antiinflamatory, antioxidant, antidiarrheal and antimalarial activities [1,2] Conventional methods employed in the andrographolide extraction though were reported as an effective methods, they were also reported as the cause for the thermal degradation of heat sensitive compound [3], the degradation of andrographolide [4,5] and leave traces of toxic solvents in the solute [6,7]. eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

Combination of microwave assisted-extraction and the utilization of hydrotrop as the extraction medium is already proved as a potential alternative for the separation of andrographolide. Hydrotropes in general are watersoluble and surface active compounds which can significantly enhance the solubility of organic solutes such as esters, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons and fats. Hydrotropy has been employed in the extraction solute that sparingry soluble in water including piperine [8], curcuminoid [9,10], limonine [11], and forskolin [12]. Meanwhile microwave assisted extraction has been employed in the extraction of sylibinin [13], gossypol of cottonseed [14], poliphenol and cathecin of tea [15]. Moreover, MAE is reported offer several benefit such as much lowered extraction time, much lowered temperature, enhanced product purity, and enhanced efficiency. The beneficial effects of MAE are due to the unique heating system of it. Direct interaction of microwaves with the free water molecules presents in the glands and vascular systems, causes a tremendous increase in internal pressure inside the plant cell. It is due to evaporation of the internal moisture content which result in the subsequent rupture of the plant tissue and the release of the active compounds into the organic solvent. Therefore, MAE is an interesting alternative to conventional extraction methods, especially in the case of extractions of thermolabile compounds [13, 16]. The hydrotropic-microwave assisted extraction is affected by several process parameters such as microwave power, time, solid liquid ratio, hydrotropes concentration and agitation speed. Process optimization is an urge in order to determine the most influencing variable and determine the optimum process parameters. When many factors and interactions affect the desired response, response surface methodology (RSM) is an effective tool for optimizing the process, which was originally described by Box and Wilson. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is widely employed for constructing and exploring estimated functional relationship between a response variable and

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia design variables [17]. The main advantage of RSM is the reduced number of experimental trials needed to evaluate multiple parameters and their interactions. Therefore, it is less laborious and time consuming than other approaches required to optimizing a process. Response surface methodology has been successfully used to model and optimize biochemical processes including extraction processes [18]. In this study, we used hydrotropic microwave assisted extraction to extract the andrographolide of Andrographis paniculata. The effects of extraction time, ratio of liquid to solid, and hydrotropes concentration on extraction percentages were investigated and extraction conditions were optimized using response surface methodology by evaluating response of the extraction percentages. II. MATERIAL AND METHOD A. Raw Material and Chemicals The aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata were collected from local plantation in Gunungpati, Semarang. Sodium benzoate (Sigma-Aldrich, 99%) were purchased from CV. Damai Sejahtera Prima. B. Apparatus Hydrotropic-microwave assisted extraction was conducted in a modified domestic microwave. The microwave was modified and equipped with extraction flask and a spiral condensor. Response Surface Methodology A three factor of central composite, non factorial, surface design was used in this study. Time (10-20 minutes), ratio of solid –liquid (0,05-0,1) and hydrotrope concentration (1-3 M) were input variables, the factor levels were coded as −1 (low), 0 (central point), and 1 (high). The optimization experiments were design by utilized Central Composite Design of the software of Statistica 8.0. The experimental design was comprised of 16 sequences as listed on Table 1. The behavior of the system is explained by the following quadratic equation [1]. 3

3

j 1

j 1

Y  0    j X j    jj X 2j   ij X i X j

(1)

i j

where, Y is the process response or output, k is the number of the patterns, i and j are the index numbers for pattern, β0 is the free or offset term called intercept term, x1, x2,···,xk are the coded independent variables, βi is the first-order (linear) main effect, βii is the quadratic effect, and βij is the interaction effect. C. Extraction Aerial parts of Andrographis paniculata were collected, dried and powdered. 20 grams of dried powder was subjected in 200 ml of hydrotrope solution. The mixture placed in 500 ml round bottom flask and extracted in a modified microwave extractor for several minutes at system powers of 119.7W. The mixture then was allowed to stand for 1 hour and then filtered. The residu was washed with water and double volume of eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

demin water was added. The extract was then centrifuges for 15 minutes at 4000G, dried and weighed. TABLE I. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Time (minute) 10,00000 10,00000 10,00000 10,00000 30,00000 30,00000 30,00000 30,00000 3,18207 36,81793 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000

THE EXPERIMENTAL SET UP Ratio of solid:liquid 0,050000 0,050000 0,100000 0,100000 0,050000 0,050000 0,100000 0,100000 0,075000 0,075000 0,032955 0,117045 0,075000 0,075000 0,075000 0,075000

Hydrotrop Concentration (M) 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 2,000000 2,000000 2,000000 2,000000 0,318207 3,681793 2,000000 2,000000

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION surface methodology was a good tool for optimization of extraction conditions [17]. Table 2 presents the experimental design and corresponding response data for the extraction of the andrographolid. The regression coeficient used in the mathematical modelling of the hydrotropic microwave assisted extraction of andrographolide were achieved with the aid of Statistica 8. The relationship of the three variables, that is, time (X1); ratio of solid liquid (X2); concentration of hydrotrope (X3) and the persentage of the andrographolide extraction (Y) is shown by equation [2]. 2 2 2 Y  4.812  1.66 X 1  2.366 X 1  0.478 X 2  2.473 X 2  2.216 X 3  0.983 X 3

(2)

0.385 X1 X 2  0.476 X1 X 3  0.429 X 2 X 3

The significant terms in the polynomial model were found by analysis of variance (ANOVA) for each response. They were considered statistically different when P < 0.05. The adequacy of model was checked by accounting for the coefficient of determination (R2) and adjusted-R2 (R2ad j). Table 3 showed the coefficient of determination coefficient, R2, value was 0.978. This implies that the sample variation of 97.8% % could be attributed to the independent variables and the model did not explain only 2.2 % of the total variations. More over, the value of the adjusted coeficient of determination coefficient, R2adj, was 0.946, indicating a high degree of correlation between the observed and its predicted values.

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Engineering International Conference 2013 Proceeding p-ISBN: 97925-2784 November 21st, 2013, Semarang, Indonesia TABLE II. RESPONSE OF THE OPTIMIZATION PROCESS No

Time (minute)

Ratio of solid:liquid

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

10,00000 10,00000 10,00000 10,00000 30,00000 30,00000 30,00000 30,00000 3,18207 36,81793 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000 20,00000

0,050000 0,050000 0,100000 0,100000 0,050000 0,050000 0,100000 0,100000 0,075000 0,075000 0,032955 0,117045 0,075000 0,075000 0,075000 0,075000

Hydrotrop Concentration (M) 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 1,000000 3,000000 2,000000 2,000000 2,000000 2,000000 0,318207 3,681793 2,000000 2,000000

extraction with increasing value of hydrotrope concentration. From its effect value, can be cncluded that hydrotropes concentration was the most influencing variable. On the other side, factor time shows a significant negative Pareto linear effect Effects; on Variable: the Extraction percentage of the Chart of Standardized percentage 3 factors, 1 Blocks, 16 Runs; MS Residual=,174437 andrographolide extraction.

Extraction Percentage (%) 0,17 1,64 0,19 2,13 1,30 3,34 1,64 4,93 0,16 2,70 1,04 1,53 1,49 5,29 4,17 5,45

DV: Extraction percentage (3)Hydrotrope concentration (M)(L)

9,805255 -9,01147 -9,01147

Ratio of solid liquid(Q)

-8,62234 -8,62234

Time (minute)(Q)

7,357853 7,357853

(1)Time (minute)(L) Hydrotrope concentration (M)(Q) (2)Ratio of solid liquid(L) 1Lby3L 2Lby3L 1Lby2L

-3,58268 -3,58268 2,115107 2,115107 1,613885 1,613885 1,453893 1,453893 1,213482 1,213482 p=,05

TABLE III. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR THE FITTED QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL MODEL X1 X1 X1 X2 X2 X2 X3 X3 X3 X1 X2 X1 X3 X2X3 Error Total

SS 9,44367 12,96849 0,78038 14,16543 16,77090 2,23901 0,25687 0,45434 0,36873 1,04662 48,85641

df MS F 1 9,44367 54,13800 1 12,96849 74,34482 1 0,78038 4,47368 1 14,16543 81,20654 1 16,77090 96,14303 1 2,23901 12,83561 1 0,25687 1,47254 1 0,45434 2,60462 1 0,36873 2,11380 6 0,17444 15 2 RObserved =0,978; R2Adj:0,946 vs. Predicted Values

p 0,000323 0,000134 0,078814 0,000105 0,000065 0,011606 0,270543 0,157679 0,196204

Figure 2. Pareto chart showing the effects of observed factors and their combined impact on the extraction percentage of andrographolide.

The interpretation of the interactions simplifies using of three-dimensional plots for the regression model. Such three-dimensional surfaces can provide useful information about the behaviour of the system within the experimental design, facilitate an examination of the effects of the experimental factors on the responses and contour plots between the factors. When two variables within the experimental range were displayed in three-dimensional surface plots, the third variable was kept constant at the intermediate level.

3 factors, 1 Blocks, 16 Runs; MS Residual=,174437 DV: Extraction percentage

As shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, when the hydrotrope concentration (X3) was fixed at 2 level, the extraction percentage increased as the extraction time (X1) and ratio of solid liquid (X2) increased.

6

5

4

Predicted Values

Standardized Effect Estimate (Absolute Value)

The extraction percentage was positively correlated with the extraction time and ratio of solid liquid when extraction time was lower than 32.5 minute and ratio of solid liquid was lower than 0.95. Moreover, it was negatively correlated when extraction time was higher than 32.5 minute andVariable: ratio Extraction of solid liquid was higher than Fitted Surface; percentage 3 factors, 1 Blocks, 16 Runs; MS Residual=,174437 0,95.

3

2

1

0

-1 -1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

DV: Extraction percentage

Observed Values

Figure 1. Observed versus predicted value.

The closeness of the observed and predicted value of the andrographolide extraction percentage was shown of Fig 1. The Pareto chart (Fig.2) illustrates the standardized effects of the independent variables and their interactions on the dependent variable. In the Pareto chart, the effect of each factor as well as the level of its effects on responses is expressed by the length of its bar in the graph. Fig. 2 shows a significant positive effect of linear factors of hydrotrope concentration. It is indicating the increase of the percentage of the andrographolide eic.ft.unnes.ac.id

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, Accessed on 19 January 2008, 20.39. ERMaper accessed on 28 july 2007, 16.05. Prahasta, Eddy, Konsep-konsep Dasar Sistem Informasi Geografis, Bandung : Informatika, 2005. QuickBird Satellite Image Gallery and Satellite Specifications Ssstellite Imaging Corp_files . Accessed on 3 March 2008, 11.06. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 23 tahun 2007 tentang Perkeretaapian, URL:www.bpkp.go.id., Accessed on 9 Januari 2008, 10.59.

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