Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant

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Anoop Kumar Srivastava, National Research Centre for Citrus, India ... Journals web-page: http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Journals/GSBJournals.html ...... (jeevamrutha) on the microbial population during the conversion of papermill and .... The PSD of PM was higher than industrial soil, while M. megascolex VC > E.
Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant Abbreviation: Dyn. Soil Dyn. Plant Print: ISSN 1749-6500 Frequency and Peer status: Biannual, Peer reviewed Scope and target readership: Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant publishes research papers, reviews, short communications and techniques papers on a wide range of applications of soil science, applying scientific principles to understand and solve important soil problems as they affect plant growth, development, flowering and other processes linking the plant to the soil environment. Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant also covers all aspects of soil biology which deal with floral ecology or the plant-microbe ecology and activity in soils, at different levels of organization: individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems using a range of approaches: molecular biology, genetics, ecophysiology, biogeography, ecology, soil processes, organic matter, nutrient dynamics and landscape ecology. Papers covering the following themes are acceptable: 1) Biological transformations of plant nutrients in soil; 2) Community ecology and functioning processes: interactions between plants and mineral or organic compounds; involvement of such interactions in soil pathogenicity; transformation of mineral and organic compounds, cycling of elements; soil structure; 3) Modelling of plant processes and population dynamics; 4) Nitrogen fixation and denitrification; 5) Pathogenesis: soil-borne phases of plant parasites, the ecological control of soil-borne pathogens; 6) Pesticides and their influence on soil organisms; 7) Physical, chemical and biological parameters of the soil environment brought about by biotic and abiotic influences; 8) Population biology and molecular ecology: methodological development and contribution to study microbial and plant populations; diversity and population dynamics; genetic transfers, influence of environmental factors; 9) Soil biology, physics and chemistry: occurrence of physicochemical parameters and surface properties on plant processes and population behaviour; 10) Soil pollution: the biochemistry of pesticide and pollution decomposition in soil, microbial aspects of soil pollution; 11) Soil tillage: characterization or modelling of tillage and field traffic effects on the soil environment; tillage systems (including reduced cultivation and direct drilling) suitable for specific conditions of soil, climate, topography, irrigation and drainage with the objective of improving crops, crop rotations, intensities for fertilization, degree of mechanization, and crop production for sustainable agriculture with minimum environmental impacts; tillage in weed, pest and disease control. Editor-in-Chief Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, Kagawa University, Japan Technical Editor Kasumi Shima, Japan Statistics Advisor Marcin Kozak, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland Editorial Board and Advisory Panels (Listed alphabetically) Osumanu Haruna Ahmed, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Angéla Anda, University of Pannonia, Hungary Anne J. Anderson, Utah State University, USA Christian P. Andersen, US Environmental Protection Agency, USA Ademir S. F. Araújo, Federal University of Piauí, Brazil Dimitris L. Bouranis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece Jaime Villaverde Capellán, Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología – CSIC, Spain Vittoria Catara, University of Catania, Italy Humberto Fabio Causin, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina Tracey Cuin, University of Tasmania, Australia Hany A. El-Shemy, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, USA Faouzi Haouala, Institut Supérieur Agronomique de Chott Mariem, Tunisia Xinhua He, University of California, Davis, USA Zeng-Yei Hseu, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Domingo J. Iglesias, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias,

Spain Abdelbagi M. Ismail, International Rice Research Institute, Philippines Natchimuthu Karmegam, VMKV Engineering College/Vinayaka Missions University, India Abdul G. Khan, University of Western Sydney, Australia Marcin Kozak, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland Albino Maggio, University of Naples Federico II, Italy Moahammad J. Malakouti, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran Takuhito Nozoe, National Agriculture Research Center, Japan Gopi K. Podila, The University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA P. Ponmurugan, K. S. Rangasamy College of Technology, India Gamal Hassan Rabie, Zagazig University, Egypt Anoop Kumar Srivastava, National Research Centre for Citrus, India James T. Tambong, Agric & Agri-Food Canada, Canada Boris B. Vartapetian, Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia Teferi Yeshitela, OMNIA FERTILIZER Pty., Ltd., South Africa

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Global Science Books, Ltd. Editorial Office Miki cho Post Office, Kagawa ken, Kita gun Miki cho, Ikenobe 3011-2, P.O. Box 7 761-0799, Japan Head Office: Isleworth, United Kingdom Accounting: Lagos, Portugal GSB homepage: www.globalsciencebooks.info Journals web-page: http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Journals/GSBJournals.html DSDP web-page: http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Journals/DSDP.html GSB Japan web-page: http://www17.plala.or.jp/gsbjapan GSB™ is a trademark of Global Science Books, Ltd.

Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant ©2010 Global Science Books, Ltd. All rights reserved. No parts of this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise without written permission from Global Science Books, Ltd. For additional copies, photocopies, bulk orders, or copyright permissions, please refer requests in writing to the above address, or apply online.

Guest Editor Prof. Natchimuthu Karmegam Department of Biotechnology, VMKV Engineering College, Vinayaka Missions University, India

Cover figure: Application of vermi-filter-based effluent treatment plant (pilot scale) for biomanagement of liquid effluents from the gelatine industry (Ghatnekar et al., pp 83-88). Disclaimers: All comments, conclusions, opinions, and recommendations are those of the author(s), and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, or the Editor(s). GSB does not specifically endorse any product mentioned in any manuscript, and accepts product descriptions and details to be an integral part of the scientific content. Printed in Japan on acid-free paper. Published: December, 2010.

The Guest Editor

Dr. N. Karmegam has obtained his M.Sc., (Applied Biology) and Ph.D., (Vermitechnology) degrees from Gandhigram Rural University, Tamil Nadu, India. Presently, Dr. Karmegam is working in VMKV Engineering College, Vinayaka Missions University, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India in the position of Professor of Biotechnology. His main fields of research are vermitechnology & waste recycling and Medicinal & aromatic plants. He has published more than 75 research papers in scientific journals and presented over 125 articles in various Seminars, Conferences and Symposia. He has identified the vermicomposting potential of the earthworm, Perionyx ceylanensis Mich. from Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu, India and has reported the vermicomposting efficiency and life cycle of P. ceylanensis Mich. for the first time. He is serving as Editorial board member and reviewer for more than twenty five international journals published by Elsevier, Springer, Chinese Academy of Sciences, GSB Journals, Academic Journals and Asian Network for Scientific Information. Dr. Karmegam received Dr. A.S. Ganesan “Golden Teacher Award” for exceptional performance in various activities and outstanding commitment to the institution during 2008-09. He has guided more than 16 M.Phil., students and is presently guiding 6 Ph.D. research students exclusively in the field of vermitechnology. Recently, one of his Ph.D. scholars, M. Prakash has been awarded Ph.D. in the field of vermitechnology.

Guest Editor Foreword “The generation of the humus-acids is probably hastened during the digestion of the many half-decayed leaves which worms consume. Thus the particles of earth, forming the superficial mould, are subjected to conditions eminently favourable for their decomposition and disintegration. Moreover, the particles of the softer rocks suffer some amount of mechanical trituration in the muscular gizzards of worms, in which small stones serve as mill-stones”. Charles Darwin (1881). As expected, Vermitechnology I was well received by the scientific community which encouraged us (myself and Dr. Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, the Editor-in-Chief, GSB) to go for a series of Vermitechnology special issues. First and foremost, I would like to thank the authors and reviewers who have contributed and helped us for the timely publication of Vermitechnology I and II. Various Conferences, Seminars and Workshops are being organized at national and international levels to promote the research on earthworms and vermicomposting. For example, 9th International Symposium on Earthworm Ecology held during 5th-10th September 2010 at Xalapa, Veracruz, México; Fifth International Oligochaete Taxonomy Meeting to be held during April 11 to 15, 2011 at Beatenberg, Switzerland. The continuation of Vermitechnology series of special issues is clearly indicating the need of the vermitechnologists for the dissemination of their research findings. There are 4 review articles, 2 are mini-reviews, 12 original research articles, 2 short communications and one research note in this special issue are included, and each one is distinct from one another with respect to the contents. The authors from different countries, Australia, Italy, India, Japan, Malaysia, UK, USA, Uzbekistan and Vietnam have contributed the articles, majority from Asian countries, portraying the roles of earthworms, at least a part described by Darwin (1881). The review articles by Munnoli et al., Sinha et al., Gopinath et al. and Sarma et al. are providing vast collection of information on various aspects including dynamics of the soil-earthworm-plant relationship with special emphasis on vermiculture, vermi-composting (management of most organic wastes); vermi-filtration (treatment of municipal and several industrial wastewaters); vermi-remediation (treatment and clean-up of contaminated lands); vermi-agroproduction (production of chemical-free foods by worms and vermicompost); vermi-protection (protection of human health by medicines from worms); vermi-production (production of valuable industrial raw materials from worms), utilization of vermicompost as a soil amendment in organic crop production, and vermicompost as modulator of plant growth and disease suppression. I fully believe that these four review articles with different approaches would serve as resourceful materials for the researchers in the field. The use of earthworms as a bio-monitoring method for metal pollution in soil is described by Hirano and Tamae in their mini-review article. Yet another mini-review by Rakhmatullaev et al. is concentrating on ecology and role of earthworms in productivity of arid soils of Uzbekistan. More than 50% of the articles in this issue are original research contributions, reporting vermicomposting of a variety of organic substrates, and the application of earthworms and vermitechnology in different disciplines. All the original research articles in Vermitechnology II are scholarly contributions in providing relevant resources. The study by Ghatnekar and co-authors on the application of vermi-filter-based effluent treatment plant (ETP) for biomanagement of liquid effluents from the gelatine industry, deserves special attention where the article provides a different approach to ETP of industrial effluents on pilot scale level with neat diagrams. Whereas, the article by Veeresh et al. combines biodynamic formulation ‘Jeevamrutha’ with vermicomposting worth mentioning. The articles by Daniel et al. and Sailila et al. expose the microbial and nutrient enrichment of vermicompost and nutrient elements of different agricultural wastes from vermicomposting activity in a nutshell. The last article, a research note by Smith and Stringfellow evaluates the effect of agricultural runoff water on earthworm Dendrobaena veneta. I sincerely thank all the contributors for their interest in Vermitechnology II, and I have faith in this special issue that it would serve the purpose it has been wishedfor. I duly acknowledge Prof. B.K. Senapati and Prof. T. Daniel for their inspirational foreword messages. Last, but not the least, I extend my deepest sense of gratitude to the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. A. Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva and the GSB team for all their support and encouragement in bringing out Vermitechnology II.

Prof. N. Karmegam December, 2010

Invited Foreword Prof. Thilagavathy Daniel Department of Biology, Gandhigram Rural Institute – Deemed University Gandhigram – 624 301, Tamil Nadu, India, India E-mail: [email protected]

“… there can be little doubt that the fragments, which serve as millstones in the gizzards of worms, suffer, when of a not very hard texture, some amount of attrition; and that the smaller particles in the earth, which is habitually swallowed in such astonishingly large quantities by worms, are ground together and are thus levigated. If this be the case, the “terra tenuissima,” – the “pâte excessivement fine,” – of which the castings largely consist, is in part due to the mechanical action of the gizzard; …”. Charles Darwin (1881).

Earthworms, the soil dwelling invertebrates play a multifaceted role in soil fertility and soil structure. They silently render yeoman service to agricultural systems and the farmers celebrate them as ‘friends of farmers’. Now, they have entered other services such as organic waste management, preparation of medicine, production of vermiwash and vermicomost extract, compounding of feed as vermimeal, as fish bait, as bioindicators and several others. I am happy to write foreword for the book written by my student and latter my scholar who has now developed into a promoter of vermitechnology. I, myself first handled earthworms as a specimen for type study of Annelids in my undergraduate programme and at that time I never thought that these simple worms would be my major area of research. I started working with earthworms during the late 1980s out of my own interest, and established a Vermicomposting Unit in the Department of Biology, Gandhigram Rural Institute –Deemed University, Gandhigram, Tamil Nadu, India with the financial support received from The Department of Biotechnology-DBT, New Delhi, who sponsored a research cum extension project. This project and other sources enabled us to train more than 1000 farmers, rural women and others on vermicomposting technology and a number of them started producing vermicompost for their farm use. Recently I organized a National Seminar on “Vermitechnology, Use of Biofertilizers and Solid Waste Recycling for Sustainable Rural Development” sponsored by Ministry of Environment and Forest and Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India, New Delhi, during 23-24 March 2010. Among the participants from various states of India, quite a number of young researchers and scholars showed keen interest on vermitechnology and I perceive it as a good sign for promotion of vermitechnology in the coming years in this country. As I observed from my experience, that there is an increasing awareness and interest among the farmers, the scientists and the researchers in vermitechnology and hence there is a bright future for the vermitechnologists. With the advent of publication of the volume on Vermitechnology I in 2009, I asked Dr.N.Karmegam the reason for naming the volume as Vermitechnology I, for which he answered me saying that there would be a series of publications in the coming years, as special issues on Vermitechnology, so that a resourceful platform could be developed for the benefit of researchers and users. I am glad that Vermitechnology II is now ready for publication and Vermitechnology III is under preparation. Vermitechnology II contains a total of 21 articles dealing with different aspects of earthworms and vermicomposting research. There are four review articles, two mini-reviews, 12 original research articles, two brief communications and a research note. The review by Prakash Munnoli and co-authors is a timely collection of information and covers the objectives of this special issue and the journal, Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant as well. The articles by Sinha et al., Gopinath et al. and Sarma et al. have critically reviewed the different aspects of utilization of vermitechnology for vermi-filtration, soil amendment and vermicompost as modulator of plant growth and disease suppression. The mini-review by Hirano and Tamae on earthworms, as a bio-monitor of metal contamination in soil justifies the use of earthworms as bio-monitoring agents. The role of earthworms in arid soils of Uzbekistan by Rakhmatullaev et al., is yet another mini-review which provides information on the diversity and biomass dynamics of earthworms and their impact on soil properties and plant productivity. Masciandaro et al., reports the increase of plant productivity on treatment with vermicompost and mineral fertilizer for maize and sunflower. Similarly, Pattnaik and Reddy studied the effects of urban organic wastes, their composts and vermicomposts on the growth traits of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) and tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) under field conditions. The article by Ghatnekar et al. is very interesting and finds its own way in the treatment of liquid effluents from the gelatin industry through the application of vermifilter based technology. Khwairakpam and Bhargava have compared monoculture and polyculture of three earthworm species for cattle manure vermicomposting. The inoculation of microbial consortia like jeevamrutha and cow dung together with organic substrates have significantly

enhanced the microbial density throughout the process of decomposition as reported by Veeresh et al. and it deserves a special mention. It is worth knowing that the earthworms could also be used for ameliorating soils contaminated with tannery sludge and tannery effluent (Selladurai et al.). Birch et al. have reported that aquaculture sludge from freshwater pond systems on the Mekong Delta can effectively be treated by vermicomposting and it may have the potential for subsequent use as agricultural manure. The study by Yadav and co-authors report the influence of soil characteristics on biomass growth and reproduction of earthworm, Eisenia fetida. Vermicomposting of vegetable wastes, lignite flyash, different agricultural wastes, leaf litters and leaf materials are interesting and are reporting the feasibility of utilization of different feed-stocks for vermicomposting. The majority of the studies on vermicomposting report on the physico-chemical properties and the study by Munnoli et al. show the geotechnical properties of vermicomposts of pressmud. The study by Smith and Stringfellow reports a brief note on the identification of factors from agricultural runoff water on the viability of embryos of the earthworm, Dendrobaena veneta and the study is a new contribution. I am very happy that one of our papers (Daniel et al.) is also appearing in this volume along with a variety of scholarly articles on different aspects of vermitechnology. I congratulate the Guest Editor for Vermitechnology Special Issue, Dr. N. Karmegam and the Editor-in-chief of GSB Journals, Dr. Jaime A Teixeira da Silva for all their efforts in bringing out the second volume, Vermitechnology II during the year, 2010, and also I wish that both of them would continue to uphold this piece of work and bring out many more volumes in the coming years.

Prof. Thilagavathy Daniel December, 2010

Invited Foreword Dr. B. K. Senapati Professor Emeritus, Sambalpur University (India) Presently Visiting Professor, Utkal University (India) Communication address: Postal address: QR No. TII 7/ 5, Jyoti Vihar-768019, Sambalpur University Campus, Sambalpur Dist., Odisha (INDIA) Phone: (+91) 663- 2431 328/2430309 (R), Fax No. (+91) 2430151, Mobile: (+91) 9437054309 E-mail: [email protected]

My basic understanding: Forest and agro-ecosystems are providing major support to economic and ecological benefit to man. Soil is a continuous natural body that has spatial and temporal dimensions (pedosphere). Soil has been the substratum of civilization, the source and the sink, the base for bread, bank and the brain, it has grown with time and dead with degradation, is the super organism with millions of life within a finger tip. Soil is no more dead and dirty, but is dear to the organic way of life assemblage in the pedosphere, which man has realized of late. Pedosphere buffers against the negative activities of man and climate to neutralize the deviations that drag ecosystems from its essential entities of ecological prudence. Each individual functional group of organism act in parallel guild but several such groups interlink among and between themselves to form series links so as to contribute to any ecosystem function. Biodiversity of the above ground establishes a linkage to below ground that has been hypothesized for unsustainability of conventional farming. This series guild system of function develops and differs through time and space, and thus specific to each biogeographical region. Large soil animals like earthworms display unique characteristics called redundancy i.e. they display the ability to substitute for each other in ecological functions. They largely regulate pedospheric activities in synergistic manner with the microbes. These underground engineers design and redesign soil, the platform for the whole biosphere. Any interference by man through introduction or elimination of resource lead to break this regional assemblage and the synergy. The effort should be to make it possible to move freely between ecological and social boxes, at all scalar dimensions of the problem, eventually leading to sustainability concerns. This is more urgent in the context of climate change, global warming. My major research contributions: Major contributions of the group associated with me are in Soil Ecology and Soil Biotechnology relating to the study of biodiversity, biogeography, biology, functional categories of macrofauna more specifically on earthworms on the basis of bioenergetics and biological strategies in various landuse patterns. These works have resulted in reporting new genus (Genus Senapatialla by J. M. Julka et al., Zootaxa (The Newzealand) 486:1-27 (2004) and several new species of earthworms, population distribution, dynamics, reproductive biology, life cycle patterns, ecophysiology, ecoenergetics at population, and community level of soil biota in wide spectrum of habitats ranging from natural deciduous forests, home gardens, pastures, agroforestry and various agroecosystems including both traditional (low input tribal agriculture) and conventional (high input tea agroecosystems) of Orissa, West-Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala etc. Works in selection pressure studies, sub-lethal stress physiology and development of models for daily energy budget (DEB), population and community strategies in different land use pattern are significant in terms of academic information and selection of species for development of appropriate technology for sustainable resource management. Assignment of Visiting Professorship at IRD, Univ. of Paris (France) during 2000 is another important event in my scientific career. Association with several national (DBT, DST, ICAR, CSIR, DOE, UGC, ZSI, JNU etc.) and international bodies (TSBF, GEF and FAO of UNESCO, UNICEF-India and Swiss Dev. Agency etc.) for research collaboration, consultancy and promotion of science is note worthy. My collaboration with Prof. Patrick Lavelle from IRD and University of Paris-VI (France), Prof. P.S. Ramakrishnan from JNU (India) and with Prof. J.M. Julka from ZSI (India) and help from my research associates has set my research career. Out of all the research work, I intend to site two examples that have originated at local level facility but helped to set a trend at the international level. One is development of an international patent on restoration of degraded soil and another basic research on biological control of plant parasitic nematode by earthworms. International technology patent development on the basis of local resources and international collaboration: My self from Sambalpur University (India) along with Prof. Patrick Lavelle from IRD (France) have been able to develop first international technology patent “Fertilisation Bio-organique Dans les Plantations de the” or “Bioorganic Fertilization for Plantations” in association with . This in short known as ‘FBO’ is registered since 1996, through the Ministry of Agriculture, France and assigned Patent No. 11034 granted through Institut Francais de Recherche Scientifique pour le Development (IRD) Paris, France on 17th July, 1997. This is a tri-party international patent which was first registered in Sri Lanka in 1997 and subsequently extended to several other countries. This technology is now under international transfer and application

through IRD (France) for application in agroforestry, plantation crops, agro-industries and waste biomass management for assessment and management of degraded land, organic farming etc. ‘FBO’ technology development is an example of biodiversity synchrony in terms of organic matter diversity and soil macrofauna assemblage. This is a third millennium ecotechnological achievement in Indo-French Cooperation. Restoration of the threshold biodiversity level is very important in terms of spatio-temporal and management gradients which is the key issue in degraded systems. I am presently promoting this ‘FBO’ technology through consultancy and has been duly assigned by IRD. Original research idea is more important than major facilities: A paper on ‘Nematode feeding by Tropical earthworms was published in Oikos (1980). Publication by G.W. Yeates (1981) confirmed that ‘Soil nematode populations depressed in the presence of earthworms (Pedobiologia). Subsequently another paper from my laboratory on ‘Biotic interactions between soil nematodes and earthworms published in Soil Biol. Biochem.(1992), confirmed simultaneous role of earthworm in controlling plant parasitic nematodes and promoting beneficial feeding groups of soil nematodes. A series of publications (Compost Science and Utilization (USA) 2001, Eur. J. Soil Biol (France) 2002, C.R. Biologies (France) 2004, Ecology Letters (France) 2005 etc. have already been made by different scientists confirming control of plant parasitic nematodes at physiological, biochemical and molecular level. The basic facility that was used in our laboratory since 1980 is important to set a trend that has opened up a multidisciplinary scientific activity to understand functional biology of earthworms and nematodes, plant physiology, chemoreceptor mechanism, plant production and soil fertility etc. This work is an example of setting original of research thought at low level facility that sets a global trend with high level technologies. The content and quality of the present volume: There are four review papers in this volume and 17 research papers dealing mostly with various aspects of vermicomposting. Majority of papers describe known species of vermicomposting earthworms. A review on ‘Dynamics of the soil-earthworm-plant relationship’ by Mallappa et al., deal with earthworm biodiversity, earthworm species for waste management, enzyme activities, medicinal uses of earthworms etc. along with the impact of application of vermicompost to soil fertility, soil microorganisms and crop yield. A paper on ‘Utilization of vermicompost as a soil amendment in organic crop production’ by Gopinath, et al., summarizes published data on influence of vermi- compost on productivity and quality of crops, and on soil properties particularly under organic management. Invited review by Sarma, et al., on ‘vermicompost as modulator of plant growth and disease suppression’ highlight many positive aspects of vermicomposts such as suppression of plant pathogens, nematodes there by modulating plant immunity, and simultaneously favours growth of saprophytic soil microbes against a wide range of phytopathogens. Sinha et al., review on ‘Vermitechnology - the emerging 21st century bioengineering technology for sustainable development and protection of human health and environment’ to highlight various aspects of vermitechnology and introduce several new terminologies. Research papers by Khwairakpam and Bhargava have compared mono and poly culture of three earthworms in vermicomposting of cattle manure; Veeresh et al have indicated synergistic interaction of two traditional technologies (biodynamic formulation and vermicomposting) for enhancing biological activities in soil; Selladurai et al., have dealt with dynamics of microbial diversity, micro- and macronutrients during tannery sludge treatment; Yadav et al., have examined influence of soil characteristics on biomass growth and reproduction of earthworm Eisenia fetida; Pattnaik and Reddy have compared effects of urban organic wastes, their composts and vermicomposts on the growth of two home garden vegetables under field conditions; Shrimal and Khwairakpam have looked into the effect of C/ N ratio on vermicomposting of vegetable waste; Birch et al., have studied feasibility of vermicomposting of aquaculture solid waste; Sarojini et al., have reported reduction of genotoxicity and phytotoxicity of lignite flyash through vermicomposting for Application as Soil Amendments in Farmlands; Aalok and Tripathi have compared composting and vermicomposting of different types of leaves; Mallappa et al., have assessed activities of three species of earthworms comprising Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Megascolex megascolex in press mud utilization; Daniel et al., have studied microbial and nutrient enhancement of Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala leaf material using Eisenia fetida; Sailila et al have reported on nutrient elements of different vermicomposts from agricultural wastes; Hirano and Tamae have assessed earthworm as a biomonitoring agent for metal contamination in Soil; Ghatnekar et al., have made an attempt for biomanagement of liquid effluents from a gelatine industry; Rakhmatullaev et al have reported on the ecology and role of earthworms in productivity of arid soils of Uzbekistan; Masciandaro et al., have looked into the ecological and agronomical perspectives of vermicompost utilization in Mediterranean agro-ecosystems where as Smith and Stringfellow have identified factors from agricultural runoff water on the viability of embryo of Dendrobaena veneta. It is an encouraging phenomenon that vigorous attempts are being made at different corners of the world to understand waste biomass utilization through vermicomposting, a timely approach to mitigate climate change and global warming. This purpose could be still fruitful if simultaneously we could understand the series guild functions of local specific earthworms along with other soil organisms. Majority of papers emphasize high quality resource base like animal dung but it is also important to use vast amount of low quality biomass waste which could serve soil in better manner as a trident function: (i) biophysical, (ii) biochemical and (iii) biological, helping in plant production and soil conservation. Organisms, ecosystems and the entire biosphere in a hierarchical order possess the essential thermodynamic characteristic of being able to create and maintain a high state of internal order, or a condition of low entropy. Earthworm is one such organism that has been

gifted by Charles Darwin since 1881 and the tool is for you all to develop the technology. Lastly, Dr. Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva the Editor-in-Chief of GSB (UK), and the Guest Editor: Prof. Natchimuthu Karmegam are to be congratulated for the planning and management of over all processes, and the support from the GSB publication is also note worthy. I wish all the authors to maintain the warmth of their research aptitude with involvement and axis through holistic approach and remembering that ‘soil is the last frontier’ for a sustainable Planet Earth.

Prof. B. K. Senapati December, 2010

SPECIAL ISSUE: CONTENTS Prakash Mallappa Munnoli (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Saroj Bhosle (India) Dynamics of the Soil-Earthworm-Plant Relationship: A Review

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Rajiv K. Sinha, Sunil Herat (Australia), Natchimuthu Karmegam (India), Krunal Chauhan, Vinod Chandran (Australia) Vermitechnology - The Emerging 21st Century Bioengineering Technology for Sustainable Development and Protection of Human Health and Environment: A Review

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K. A. Gopinath, Bandi Venkateswarlu, Banshi L. Mina, K. C. Nataraja, Konda Gayatri Devi (India) Utilization of Vermicompost as a Soil Amendment in Organic Crop Production

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Birinchi K. Sarma, Pratibha Singh, Susheel K. Pandey, Harikesh B. Singh (India) Vermicompost as Modulator of Plant Growth and Disease Suppression

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Takeshi Hirano, Kazuyoshi Tamae (Japan) Earthworms, as a Bio-monitor of Metal Contamination in Soil

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Alimardon Rakhmatullaev, Laziza Gafurova, Dilfuza Egamberdieva (Uzbekistan) Ecology and Role of Earthworms in Productivity of Arid Soils of Uzbekistan

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Grazia Masciandaro, Veronica Bianchi, Cristina Macci, Eleonora Peruzzi, Serena Doni, Brunello Ceccanti, Renato Iannelli (Italy) Ecological and Agronomical Perspectives of Vermicompost Utilization in Mediterranean Agro-ecosystems

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Sudhir D. Ghatnekar, Mahavash F. Kavian, Santosh M. Sharma (India), Sumukh S. Ghatnekar (UK), Gautam S. Ghatnekar, Angela V. Ghatnekar (USA) Application of Vermi-filter-based Effluent Treatment Plant (Pilot scale) for Biomanagement of Liquid Effluents from the Gelatine Industry

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Meena Khwairakpam, Renu Bhargava (India) Vermicomposting of Cattle Manure using Mono- and Polycultures of Three Earthworm Species

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Santhebennur Jayappa Veeresh, Jogattappa Narayana (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan) Influence of Jeevamrutha (Biodynamic Formulation) on Agro-Industrial Waste Vermicomposting

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G. Selladurai, N. Anbusaravanan (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), K. Prakash Shyam, Balamuthu Kadalmani (India) Dynamics of Microbial Diversity, Micro- and Macronutrients during Tannery Sludge Treatment Using Epigeic Earthworms, Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae

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Kunwar D. Yadav, Vinod Tare, M. Mansoor Ahammed (India) Influence of Soil Characteristics on Biomass Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm Eisenia fetida

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Swati Pattnaik, M. Vikram Reddy (India) Effects of Urban Organic Wastes, their Composts and Vermicomposts on the Growth Traits of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) and Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) under Field Conditions

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Shilpa Shrimal, Meena Khwairakpam (India) Effect of C/ N ratio on Vermicomposting of Vegetable Waste

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Stephanie Birch, Richard Bell, Jaya Nair (Australia), Cao Van Phung (Vietnam) Feasibility of Vermicomposting Aquaculture Solid Waste on the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: A Pilot Study

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Senguttuvan Sarojini, Govindarajan Manimegala, Mani Prakash, Sriramulu Ananthakrishnasamy, Govindarajan Gunasekaran (India) Vermicomposting of Lignite Flyash Reduces its Genotoxicity and Phytotoxicity and Improves its Agronomic Values for Application as Soil Amendments in Farmlands: A Study of Vermicomposted Flyash on Onion Crops (Allium cepa)

135

Asha Aalok, Ashutosh Kumar Tripathi (India) Composting-Vermicomposting of Different Types of Leaves using Earthworm Species Eisenia fetida

139

Prakash Mallappa Munnoli (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Saroj Bhosle (India) Geotechnical Properties of Vermicomposts of Press Mud using Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Megascolex megascolex

145

Thilagavathy Daniel, Balayogan Sivasankari, Muthu Malathy (India) Microbial and Nutrient Enhancement of Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala Leaf Materials Using Eisenia fetida

152

Norliyana Sailila, Azizi Abu Bakar, Noor Zalina Mahmood (Malaysia), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Noorlidah Abdullah, Adi Ainurzaman Jamaludin (Malaysia) Nutrient Elements of Different Agricultural Wastes from Vermicomposting Activity

155

Timothy J. Smith, William T. Stringfellow (USA) Identification of Factors from Agricultural Runoff Water on the Viability of Embryos of the Earthworm Dendrobaena veneta

159

Prakash Mallappa Munnoli (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Saroj Bhosle (India) Dynamics of the Soil-Earthworm-Plant Relationship: A Review (pp 1-21) ABSTRACT Invited Review: Increases in the human population, indiscriminate growth of cities, industrialization, and agricultural practices have led to an increased accumulation of waste materials. The present method of disposal by open dumping has made the problem more acute by disturbing the soil-air-water ecosystem, thus needing urgent attention by planners. Moreover, the most abundantly available biomass, the lignocelluloses, have attracted considerable attention as an energy resource because of their large quantity. The recovery of nutrients by modification of wastes like municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste, agricultural residues, and animal wastes, etc. is important for their management and for reducing environmental degradation. Also, the deleterious impact on the environment by chemical fertilizer urges the need for production of organic manure out of waste. Recycling organic wastes through vermiculture biotechnology is being considered as an economically viable solution. Earthworms are considered as natural bioreactors which proliferate along with other microorganisms and provide required conditions for the biodegradation of wastes. The present study examines the various dynamics of the soil-earthworm-plant relationship with special emphasis on vermiculture. The assesses the following topics: earthworm biodiversity, earthworm species for waste management, substrates, consumption rates, enzyme activities, medicinal uses of earthworms, methods of vermicomposting along with their advantages and disadvantages, impact of application of vermicompost to soil fertility, soil microorganisms and crop yield, characteristics of vermicomposts, sustainable agriculture, economic importance and future prospects. Rajiv K. Sinha, Sunil Herat (Australia), Natchimuthu Karmegam (India), Krunal Chauhan, Vinod Chandran (Australia) st

Vermitechnology - The Emerging 21 Century Bioengineering Technology for Sustainable Development and Protection of Human Health and Environment: A Review (pp 22-47) ABSTRACT Invited Review: Vermitechnology is emerging as an environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially acceptable technology all over the world consisting of several categories: vermi-composting (management of most organic wastes); vermi-filtration (treatment of municipal and several industrial wastewaters); vermi-remediation (treatment and clean up of contaminated lands); vermi-agroproduction (production of chemical-free foods by worms and vermicompost); vermi-protection (protection of human health by medicines from worms); vermi-production (production of valuable industrial raw materials from worms). The use of earthworms in composting of waste and in farm production were known for ages but have now been scientifically and commercially revived. The other uses of earthworms for the benefits of environment and society (wastewater treatment, land remediation and production of valuable medicines even to combat cancer and heart diseases are some new discoveries). We have successfully experimented with the first four technologies for management of municipal solid wastes, treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater, remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-contaminated soils and production of wheat and corn crops by use of vermicompost at Griffith University, Australia, with excellent results. Wastes are degraded >75% faster than conventional systems and compost produced are disinfected, detoxified, richer in nutrients and beneficial soil microbes; BOD loads and TSS of wastewater is reduced by over 95%; PAHs from contaminated soils are removed by over 80% in just 12 weeks; and growth of crops is promoted by 30-40% more than with chemical fertilizers. Earthworms are both protective and productive for environment and society. K. A. Gopinath, Bandi Venkateswarlu, Banshi L. Mina, K. C. Nataraja, Konda Gayatri Devi (India) Utilization of Vermicompost as a Soil Amendment in Organic Crop Production (pp 48-57) ABSTRACT Invited Review: The use of vermicompost (VC) has long been recognized as an effective means of increasing crop yields through improved soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Since synthetic mineral fertilizers are disallowed in organic crop production, there has been a renewed interest in recycling wastes into valuable organic fertilizer through vermicomposting and its subsequent utilization in organic crop production. This review summarizes published data on influence of VC on productivity and quality of crops and on soil properties particularly under organic management. Several researchers have reported that VC application give marginally lower or comparable crop growth and yield under organic management compared with that of mineral fertilizers. Furthermore, it has been well established that VC application significantly improves overall health of soil. Hence, VC has the potential to become a major soil amendment in organic crop production.

Birinchi K. Sarma, Pratibha Singh, Susheel K. Pandey, Harikesh B. Singh (India) Vermicompost as Modulator of Plant Growth and Disease Suppression (pp 58-66) ABSTRACT Invited Review: Vermicompost (VC) is a rich source of macro- and micro-nutrients and is used to enliven soils. It is mostly considered as an efficient supplement of organic matter to soils and horticultural container media low in organic content. Recently VC has also been explored extensively for its various other useful activities especially its role in enhancing plant growth promoting effect as well as in suppression of plant diseases by various mechanisms. VC is considered superior to conventional compost especially for substitution of soils or greenhouse container media for its ability to modify soil properties in a better way. The role of VC in plant growth promotion is largely believed to be due to its nutrient rich composition as well as its ability to modify soil physical and chemical properties suitably in a way to favor plant growth and development. Among its role in suppression of plant pathogens and nematodes, it is believed that it modulates a plant’s innate resistance response to resist microbial attack. Apart from this, VC-mediated soil physicochemical properties also favors growth and multiplication of saprophytic soil microbes including the biocontrol agents and thus helps in enhancing performance of most biocontrol agents against a wide range of phytopathogens. VC prepared from various sources and methods have also been identified to playing different roles in promoting plant growth and achieving biological management of phytopathogens. In the present review various roles and mechanisms of VC as plant growth regulator and disease suppressor unearthed recently are discussed. Takeshi Hirano, Kazuyoshi Tamae (Japan) Earthworms, as a Bio-monitor of Metal Contamination in Soil (pp 67-71) ABSTRACT Invited Mini-Review: Although heavy metal pollution of soil causes biological problems, such as genotoxicity to living organisms, including human beings, few methods have been developed to assess metal mutagenicity in soil. To avoid metal mutagenicity, an adequate bio-monitoring method is required. Earthworms can be used as a bio-monitor of metal contamination in soil, because significant positive correlations have been found between the concentrations of metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc, in the earthworm and the concentrations of these metals in the soil. Although many studies have been performed to establish bio-monitoring methods using earthworms, there have been few reports of bio-monitoring for soil mutagenicity. Recently, we examined the possibility of using earthworms in a bio-monitoring method for mutagenicity due to soil pollutants, such as metals. In the study, we analyzed the generation of 8-oxoguanine (8-oxo-Gua) in earthworms exposed to cadmium and nickel in soil. 8-Oxo-Gua is a major premutagenic form of oxidative DNA damage that induces GC-to-TA point mutations in genome DNA, leading to carcinogenesis. In this review, the use of earthworms as a bio-monitoring method for metal pollution in soil is described. Alimardon Rakhmatullaev, Laziza Gafurova, Dilfuza Egamberdieva (Uzbekistan) Ecology and Role of Earthworms in Productivity of Arid Soils of Uzbekistan (pp 72-75) ABSTRACT Invited Mini-Review: Earthworms are key components of terrestrial ecosystems, however, little is known about their ecology, distribution, and taxonomy in arid saline soils of Uzbekistan. This report summarizes the main issues about the ecology of earthworms and their impact on soil properties and plant productivity in saline arid soils. A total of 21 earthworm species belonging to seven different families, viz., Allolobophora, Aporrectodea, Eisenia, Eisenilla, Dendrobaena, Dendrodrilus and Octolasion were identified, of which the species Allolobophora taschkentensis, A. ferganae, A. kaznakovi and Aporrectodea roseus are endemic for Uzbekistan. The species of Aporrectodea trapezoides and Aporrectodea caliginosa dominate the earthworm fauna in arid saline soils of Uzbekistan. The diversity and number of earthworms are decreasing under cotton cultivation and increase under lucerne. Furthermore, the application of animal manure and crop rotation increased earthworm density and biomass. Grazia Masciandaro, Veronica Bianchi, Cristina Macci, Eleonora Peruzzi, Serena Doni, Brunello Ceccanti, Renato Iannelli (Italy) Ecological and Agronomical Perspectives of Vermicompost Utilization in Mediterranean Agro-ecosystems (pp 76-82) ABSTRACT

Original Research Paper: Fields experiments were conducted to treat an agronomic soil using three types of fertilizers: organic (vermicompost), mineral, and a mixture of organic and mineral (vermicompost + NPK), added to soil with two N application doses (100 and 200 kg/ha). Vermicompost was obtained through aerobic stabilization of biological sludge, performed by earthworms (Eisenia fetida). The soil was cropped with maize (Zea mays) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Plant productivity and effects of treatments on soil chemical and biochemical properties were evaluated. Results showed an increase of plant productivity (expressed as kg of seeds produced per plot) in the treatment with vermicompost and mineral fertilizer, for both plant species and application rates. Mineral fertilization reduced soil microbial activity and increased the release of carbon and nitrogen soluble compounds suggesting a degradation of native soil organic matter and impacting on environmental quality. Sudhir D. Ghatnekar, Mahavash F. Kavian, Santosh M. Sharma (India), Sumukh S. Ghatnekar (UK), Gautam S. Ghatnekar, Angela V. Ghatnekar (USA) Application of Vermi-filter-based Effluent Treatment Plant (Pilot scale) for Biomanagement of Liquid Effluents from the Gelatine Industry (pp 83-88) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: The present paper describes the application of three-tier vermiculture biotechnology coupled with vermi-filtration to convert secondary liquid effluents from a gelatine manufacturing unit into ‘bio-safe’ clean water. The experiments were conducted at a pilot scale. The protocol involved pretreatment of selected effluents using a combination of protease and cellulase. Later, mixed cultures of Aspergillus flavus (BRC - 27), A. niger (BRC - 28), Nitrobacter winogradskyi (BRC - 5), Spirulina platensis (BRC - 45), Oscillatoria princeps (BRC - 46) and Chlorella vulgaris (BRC - 47) were inoculated. The effluents were then passed through a series of 3 vermi-filter (VF) tanks, the uppermost layer of each consisting of bedding material inoculated with selected enzymes, microorganisms and colonies of Lumbricus rubellus that served as biofilters followed by a trickling filter system. The final vermi-filtered water exhibited a significant decrease in COD by 90.08 ± 0.176%, and BOD by 89.24 ± 0.544%. In 3 months, the total CFU in the upper bedding layer of specific VF tanks exhibited an exponential increase indicating expected degradation potential of the organic matter in the effluents. The bedding material gradually converted into humified vermicompost on which seedlings of Canna indica were planted. The final vermi-filtered discharge was clean and its bio-safety was evaluated by using it for secondary purposes, irrigation and Spirulina cultivation. Meena Khwairakpam, Renu Bhargava (India) Vermicomposting of Cattle Manure using Mono- and Polycultures of Three Earthworm Species (pp 89-95) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: Vermicomposting can be the most economical and sustainable option for cattle waste management. Therefore, three different earthworm species Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus in individual (monoculture) and combinations (polyculture) were utilized to conserve the potential nutrients from cattle manure. Vermicomposting resulted in lowering of pH, total organic carbon (TOC), C/N ratio, coliforms and increase in electrical conductivity (EC). Macronutrients (Na, K and Ca), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) was observed to increase with vermicomposting time, clearly indicating the conservation of potential nutrients from cattle manure. Compost stability studies revealed that the final compost -1

-1

-1

became very stable with a final oxygen uptake rate (OUR) of 2.68-3.11 mg g volatile solids (VS) day and 2.12-2.87 mg g VS -1

day . Therefore, it is evident that vermicomposting can be carried out in mono as well as polycultures without any mortality. Santhebennur Jayappa Veeresh, Jogattappa Narayana (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan) Influence of Jeevamrutha (Biodynamic Formulation) on Agro-Industrial Waste Vermicomposting (pp 96-99) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: This study aimed to determine the influence of cow dung and a biodynamic microbial consortium (jeevamrutha) on the microbial population during the conversion of papermill and sugar factory sludge into beneficial vermicompost. The bacterial and actinomycete densities were highest in the jeevamrutha-treated group and fungal density was higher in the treatment group treated with cow dung. The microbial density in earthworms of treatment groups inoculated with or without microbial culture was significantly different to that of the control group. Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between microbial density and treatment groups. The inoculation of microbial consortia like jeevamrutha and cow dung together with organic substrates significantly enhances the microbial density throughout the process of decomposition.

G. Selladurai, N. Anbusaravanan (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), K. Prakash Shyam, Balamuthu Kadalmani (India) Dynamics of Microbial Diversity, Micro- and Macronutrients during Tannery Sludge Treatment Using Epigeic Earthworms, Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae (pp 100-107) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: Indiscriminate and uncontrolled discharge of metal-contaminated industrial effluents into the environment has become an issue of major concern in developing countries. The vermicomposting of organic material with earthworms minimizes environmental pollution and health hazards. Organic and inorganic minerals in earthworm casts are high and have positive effects; pollution can be solved using vermicomposting. Tannery effluent is one of the common industrial effluents containing poisonous heavy metals and toxic compounds such as zinc, copper, iron, manganese, chromium and others. This manuscript describes the improved nutrient availability and decreased toxic effect of tannery effluent, through vermicomposting, after treatment with two earthworms, Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia fetida. The latter were as beneficial as the former in terms of vermicomposting potential. A favorable environment for microbial diversity was achieved at an optimum sludge ratio of 1: 2: 2 and 2: 2: 1 when mixed with normal soil in its lethal concentration (55.5 and 54% (v/w), respectively for E. eugeniae and E. fetida). Thus, we recommend E. eugeniae and E. fetida in the agricultural use of soils contaminated with tannery sludge and tannery effluent. Kunwar D. Yadav, Vinod Tare, M. Mansoor Ahammed (India) Influence of Soil Characteristics on Biomass Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm Eisenia fetida (pp 108-112) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: It is known that in vermicomposting soil layer in bedding of the reactor helps in earthworm biomass growth and reproduction but growth is influenced by soil characteristics such as texture, pH, and water holding capacity. The present study was conducted to asses the influence of soils on earthworm biomass growth and reproduction during the vermicomposting of source separated human faeces. The study was conducted by using the earthworm species Eisenia fetida with agriculture, saline and sandy soils. The study utilized reactors with SVFV combination (soil, vermicompost, faeces and vermicompost - bottom to top layers). All sets of reactors were examined monthly for four months for growth of earthworms and offspring production. The results of the study indicated that biomass growth of earthworms and offspring production were in the order: sandy soil > agricultural soil > saline soil. The multiplication of earthworm was 3.8-5.5–fold within 4 months. Vermicomposting helped to improve the soil characteristics such as carbon and nitrogen content, pH and conductivity. Swati Pattnaik, M. Vikram Reddy (India) Effects of Urban Organic Wastes, their Composts and Vermicomposts on the Growth Traits of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) and Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) under Field Conditions (pp 113-122) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: Three types of urban wastes – municipal solid waste (MSW), vegetable market waste (MW) and floral waste (FW) were bio-converted to composts (Cs), and vermicomposts (VCs) using three earthworm species – Eudrilus -1

eugeniae (Kinberg), Eisenia fetida (Savigny) and Perionyx excavatus (Perrier). These were applied at a rate of 5 and 10 t ha

under field conditions, and their effects on various growth traits of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L. South Indian cultivar) (‘UM-9’) and tomato plant (Solanum lycopersicum) (cv. ‘Arka’) were assessed. These experiments were conducted with a randomized complete block design. The urban organic wastes and their Cs and VCs showed significant positive effects on the growth of different traits of both plants (P < 0.001). There was a significant positive correlation between the number of leaves and dry biomass of both plants. The shoot length, number of leaves, number of branches, and dry biomass of both the plants increased significantly, except the root length, which decreased with the application of urban wastes and their Cs and VCs compared to the same traits of plants grown in soil. Growth traits, except for root length, were significantly higher with the application of VCs than those when Cs and urban organic wastes were used and were ranked as: VC of E. eugeniae > VC of E. fetida > VC of P. excavatus > C > wastes – MW > MSW > FW. This is because the VCs produced by these earthworm species possessed higher contents of nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium – compared to the C and urban organic wastes. Shilpa Shrimal, Meena Khwairakpam (India) Effect of C/ N ratio on Vermicomposting of Vegetable Waste (pp 123-126)

ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: A study (42 days duration) was conducted to evaluate the best C/N (carbon: nitrogen) ratio for vermicomposting of vegetable waste blended with cow dung and saw dust by analysis of various parameters i.e. pH, total organic carbon (TOC), electrical conductivity (EC), total nitrogen (TN), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and metals, for this study an exotic earthworm species- E. fetida was used. Four different reactors R1, R2, R3 and R4 with C/N ratios of 20, 30, 40 and 16.4, respectively were tested. After 42 days of vermicomposting, it was found that C/N ratio significantly affected the growth and reproduction of E. fetida. The decrease in COD varied significantly (p PoLMSWV > ParLMSWV > EuLMSWV > PiLMSWV > SrLMSWV. The earthworms consistently gained in weight and produced offspring in all the reactors, throughout the experiment. The results show that the nutrient quality of the final product depends on the initial properties of the material used. The hypothesis that quality of the substrate material influences the worms feeding as well as growth efficiencies has also been confirmed by this study. Prakash Mallappa Munnoli (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Saroj Bhosle (India) Geotechnical Properties of Vermicomposts of Press Mud using Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Megascolex megascolex (pp 145-151) ABSTRACT Original Research Paper: Studies were carried out to evaluate the geotechnical properties of vemicomposts (VCs) such as porosity, void ratio, density, air content, water holding capacity and particle size distribution (PSD) prepared from sugar industrial waste press mud (PM) using surface feeders Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and the deep burrower Megascolex megascolex. A comparison of the geotechnical properties of 40-day samples of VCs from field trials by a core cutter showed that the VC using M. megascolex was superior to E. eugeniae and E. fetida VCs in terms of water and air content and percentage void. The PSD of PM was higher than industrial soil, while M. megascolex VC > E. fetida VC > E. eugeniae VC (P < 0.05). This depicts an inverse bioconversion or grinding capacity of the three earthworms: E. eugeniae > E. fetida > M. megascolex. This study clearly indicates that the indigenous deep burrower M. megascolex can be used in the vermicomposting of PM while also enhancing the geotechnical properties, soil aggregation and water holding capacity of a VC. Thilagavathy Daniel, Balayogan Sivasankari, Muthu Malathy (India) Microbial and Nutrient Enhancement of Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala Leaf Materials Using Eisenia fetida (pp 152-154) ABSTRACT Short Communication: Pre-decomposed (15 days) leaves of Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala were mixed with cowdung (1: 1: 2) and subjected to vermicomposting (60 days) using an exotic earthworm, Eisenia fetida Savigny. The same substrate was kept without earthworms as control. Worm-worked (vermicompost) and worm-unworked substrates were separately analyzed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, organic carbon, NPK and colony-forming units (CFU) of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes. Activity of E. fetida increased the EC, NPK and microbial CFU. The initial bacterial population of 188±1 × 6

-1

6

-1

th

10 CFU g increased gradually during vermicomposting and it was 281.67±1.15 × 10 CFU g on the 45 day. A similar trend was also observed for fungi and actinomycetes. The results reveal that the leaf leaves of G. sepium and L. leucocephala can be converted into microbial- and nutrient-rich vermicompost using E. fetida. Norliyana Sailila, Azizi Abu Bakar, Noor Zalina Mahmood (Malaysia), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Noorlidah Abdullah, Adi Ainurzaman Jamaludin (Malaysia) Nutrient Elements of Different Agricultural Wastes from Vermicomposting Activity (pp 155-158) ABSTRACT Short Communication: Vermicomposting using the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus was conducted for 70 days subsequent to 10 days of pre-composting under glasshouse conditions. Five treatments were used as feed materials with 5 replicates per treatment: T1: goat manure, T2: paddy straw, T3: spent mushroom paddy straw compost, T4: sawdust and T5: spent mushroom sawdust compost. The treatments were placed in a microcosm or worm bin plastic container (360 mm × 280 mm × 200 mm). The effectiveness of vermicomposting was evaluated through the increment of nutrient elements contained in the vermicompost, growth (biomass weight) and reproduction (total numbers) of earthworms, as a percentage, at the end of the process. The increment of macronutrients in the vermicompost from each treatment was high, especially of organic carbon (C) in T1 and T4, and nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) in T3. Regarding micronutrients, copper (Cu) had the highest concentration in T2 and zinc (Zn) in T1 and T2. Therefore, the best vermicompost as a soil fertilizer was T3, which showed the highest increment and final content of N (+150.73%, 1.50%), P (+387.75%, 1.06%) and K (+886.09%, 2.05%). There was no significant difference between the number and weight of earthworms among the 5 treatments (P > 0.05). A C: N ratio < 20

indicates the degree of compost maturity and post-vermicomposting, as noted for T1 and T3; T1 had the lowest C: N ratio (9.86). Based on our findings, the nutritive value of our vermicompost – developed from selected agricultural wastes – can be qualitatively assessed as a value-added material against fertilizers or soil stabilizers. Timothy J. Smith, William T. Stringfellow (USA) Identification of Factors from Agricultural Runoff Water on the Viability of Embryos of the Earthworm Dendrobaena veneta (pp 159-161) ABSTRACT Research Note: Agricultural runoff water (inlet and outlet points of water storage ponds) was evaluated for its effect on earthworm using Dendrobaena veneta. Chemical analysis revealed a significant difference in pH, phosphate and inorganic nitrogen from inlet and outlet samples as well as differences in embryo viability. Among the factors tested, pH was the most important factor for viability, while phosphate and nitrate appeared to stimulate the development of the embryos. These results demonstrate the utility of Dendrobaena veneta, a water-tolerant earthworm species useful for environmental water testing.