E-waste Management in Urban Cities: A Situation

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE MONOGRAPH SERIES Number 39

July 2015

ISBN 81-7791-138-4 Series Editor: Anand Inbanathan © 2015, Copyright Reserved The Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore The Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC) is engaged in interdisciplinary research in analytical and applied areas of social sciences, encompassing diverse aspects of change and development. ISEC works with central, state and local governments as well as international agencies by undertaking systematic studies of resource potential, identifying factors influencing growth and examining measures for reducing poverty. The thrust areas of research include state and local economic policies, issues relating to sociological and demographic transition, environmental issues and fiscal, administrative and political decentralization and governance. It pursues fruitful contacts with other institutions and scholars devoted to social science research through collaborative research programmes, seminars, etc. The Social and Economic Change Monograph Series provides an opportunity for ISEC faculty, visting fellows and PhD scholars to disseminate their ideas and research work. Monographs in the series present empirical analyses and generally deal with wider issues of public policy at a sectoral, regional or national level.

Publication of this Monograph has been made possible through the generous support of Sir Ratan Tata Deferred Endowment Fund.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE MONOGRAPHS

39

E-waste Management in Urban Cities: A Situation Analysis of Bangalore

S Manasi N Latha Bibhu Prasad Nayak

Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore 2015

Foreword With increased urbanization, more than half of the world’s population are living in cities. Much of these cities face several challenges, of which environmental pollution is detrimental to urban ecology. Lately, newer forms of pollution have emerged and ‘Electronic waste’ or ‘E-waste’ pollution, largely the outcome of the IT boom causes serious threat to the environment and human health. E-waste, needs special handling as it comes under the purview of toxic wastes. However, given its commercial value, it is largely processed informally by waste processors, the unorganized sector, which will cause harsh implications due to unsafe and harmful practices adopted by them. It is pertinent that the issue of e-waste management is addressed, especially in the developing countries. This monograph is a study of the e-waste management in Bangalore city. The monograph has explored the emerging trends in e-waste management in Bangalore. It includes good documentation on the processes followed by both formal and informal e-waste recycling enterprises, ewaste dumping methods and discusses the problems associated with them. In addition, the various locations where informal waste is processed are identified. The roles and limitations of existing institutions in channelizing ewaste and e-waste regulations are elaborated along with a brief discussion on its impacts of indiscriminate dumping on urban environment as well. It was based on intensive fieldwork supported by focus-group discussions, participatory observations and interviews along with primary and secondary data collection from key informants and departments respectively. There are some important suggestions made for improving management of ewaste, options and their feasibility like need for participatory governance models of e-waste to ensure proper implementation of E-waste regulations, customized awareness and sensitization programs for informal workers, ensuring extended producer responsibility, reuse and recycle options. I am sure the study will be quite useful to the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board and other institutions, researchers and students working in the area of city environs. I congratulate all the authors and research of this monograph for their excellent work. July 2015 Bangalore

M R Narayana Director in Charge, ISEC

CONTENTS Abbreviations List of Tables List of Figures/Graphs List of Boxes List of Maps List of Flow Charts List of Plates List of Annexures Acknowledgement

1

INTRODUCTION 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

2

E-waste Generation Illegal Dumping E-waste Hazards

E-WASTE – AN OVERVIEW 2.1. 2.2. 2.3.

Definitions Categories of E-Waste Hazardous and Non-hazardous components of E-waste

vi viii viii ix ix ix ix x xi

1-7 1 4 5

8-16 8 9 14

3

REGULATIONS ON E-WASTE

17-23

4

EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF IT INDUSTRY

24-32

4.1. 4.2.

5

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 5.1. 5.2. 5.3.

6

Bangalore Scenario Growth of IT and ITES Professionals

Study Area Bangalore’s Population Growth Methodology

E-WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BANGALORE – A SITUATION ANALYSIS 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.

Bangalore’s Mounting E-waste E-waste Generation Flow of E-waste Formal Disposal Site – Treatment Storage and Disposal Facility

27 30

33-36 33 34 35

37-67 37 37 40 43

6.5.

Informal E-waste Recycling in Bangalore 6.5.1. Informal E-waste Recycling Process 6.5.2. Employment 6.5.3. Monetary Benefits 6.6. Formal Recyclers 6.6.1. E-Parisara 6.6.2. Ash Recyclers 6.6.3. Nishanth Technologies 6.6.4. Chitra Technologies 6.6.5. Attero Recycling 6.6.6. E-Ward

7

“CFL REVOLUTION”- A BOON OR BANE! 7.1. 7.2.

8

ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN E-WASTE MANAGEMENT 8.1.

9

Initiatives

On Environment Grave Health Impacts of Improper E-waste Recycling and Disposal

CONCLUSIONS

AND

68-72 68 71

73-81 77

PRESSURES OF E-WASTE ON URBAN ECOLOGY 9.1. 9.2.

10

CFLs – Concerns CFL Sales

45 49 53 55 58 59 64 65 66 66 67

POLICY OPTIONS

10.1. Options for Improved Management

82-94 82 88

95-100 96

ANNEXURE

101-106

REFERENCES

107-109

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS E-Waste IT ITES CFL WEEE STP STPI NASSCOM DGFT CRT TV PC MoEF UNEP MAIT IRG NGO UK EPR DVD OECD LCD BFR CFC HCFC CPU CPCB PVC EMPRI KSPCB ODS EOU EHTP EPCG EU USA USD GDP BPO IDC FY CAGR

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

Electronic Waste Information technology Information Technology Enabled Services Compact Fluorescent Lamp Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Software Technology Park Software Technology Park of India National Association of Software and Services Companies Directorate General of Foreign Trade Cathode Ray Tube Television Personal Computer Ministry of Environment and Forests United Nations Environment Programme Manufacturers’ Association for Information Technology International Resources Group Non Governmental Organisation United Kingdom Extended Producer Responsibility Digital Versatile Disc Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Liquid Crystal Display Brominated Flame Retardant Chloro Fluro Carbon Hydro Chloro Fluro Carbon Central Processing Unit Central Pollution Control Board Poly Vinyl Chloride Environment Management and Policy Research Institute Karnataka State Pollution Control Board. Ozone Depleting Substances Export Oriented Units Electronics Hardware Technology Parks Export Promotion of Capital Goods European Union United States of America US Dollar Gross Domestic Product Business Process Outsourcing International Data Corporation Financial Year Compound Annual Growth Rate

vi

BWSSMP BCC BESCOM MSDC CEO ISO TSDF BHEL CDROM RAM UPS IBM ABB HP ABS HIPS PP PE LED INR CHWTSDF

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

CSE : ECO-Asia CDCP : NCPA : BIS : BCIL : PDT : EPR : MoEF : BMZ : SECO EMPA GTZ ASEM SENS ELCIA EWA CSR PCBs PBDE MAC EPA

: : : : : : : : : : : :

Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Master Plan Bangalore City Corporation Bangalore Electricity Supply Company Limited Mass Storage Device Class Chief Executive Officer International Organization for Standardization Treatment Storage and Disposal Facility Bharat Heavy Electronics Limited Compact Disc, read-only-memory Random Access Memory Uninterrupted Power Supply International Business Machines Corporation Asea Brown Boveri Hewlett Packard Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene high impact polystyrene Poly propylene Polyethylene Light-Emitting Diode Indian Rupee Common Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage & Disposal Facility Centre for Science and Environment ECO-Asia Clean Development Climate Programme National Centre of Policy Analysis Bureau of Indian Standards Biodiversity Conservation (India) Ltd Pill Dosing Technology Extended Producer Responsibility Ministry for Environment and Forests, Bundesministerium Für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit (German Federal Ministry for Economic Development Cooperation) Swiss Confederation’s competence centre Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology German Technical Cooperation Advisory Services in Environmental Management Swiss Foundation for Waste Management Electronics City Industries’ Association E-Waste Agency Corporate Social Responsibility Polychlorinated biphenyls Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ethers Maximum Allowable Concentration Environmental Protection Agency

vii

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 : Table 2 : Table 3 : Table 4 : Table 5 : Table 6 : Table 7 : Table 8 : Table 9 : Table 10 : Table 11 : Table 12 : Table 13 : Table 14 : Table 15 : Table 16 : Table 17 : Table 18 : Table 19 : Table 20 : Table 21 : Table 22 : Table 23 : Table 24 : Table 25 : Table 26 : Table 27 : Table 28 : Table 29 : Table 30 :

List of Elements and their Location in E-Waste Products Components Present in WEEE (by Category) Possible Hazardous Substances in E-waste Growth of Operating and Exporting Units Soft ware Exports (` In Crores) State-wise Exports by STP Registered Units (` in crores) Revenue Performance of STPI (` In Crores) Number of IT Registered Companies in Bangalore Knowledge Professionals Employed in the IT-BPO Sector Trends in IT Employees Growth in Bangalore Population Growth of Bangalore City Over the Years Sources of E-waste Collection Areas and E-waste Processing Enterprises in Bangalore Highly Active Areas in E-waste Processing E- waste Recycling Areas of Bangalore Collection Areas of E-waste in Bangalore Reusable Parts of E-waste Selling Price of Recycled Materials by Informal Recyclers Prices at Sunday Bazaar Purchase Price of E-waste by E-Parisara Formal Recycling Units in Bangalore Companies Registered with E-Parisara Percentage Share of Materials Obtained from Recycling CFL Manufacturing Companies and Sales in Bangalore CFL Manufacturing Companies and Sales in Bangalore Local CFL Brands Collection Points City Based Initiatives of E-waste Management E-waste Recycling Areas and Dumping Methods Followed by Informal Recyclers in Bangalore Environmental and Health Hazards from E-waste

10 12 15 24 25 26 27 29 31 32 34 38 40 46 48 50 52 53 56 56 57 58 59 64 71 72 80 81 87 90

LIST OF FIGURES/GRAPHS Figure 1: Figure 2: Graph 1: Graph 2: Graph 3:

Categories of E-waste Segregated E-waste Increase in Investment in IT Sector in Bangalore Over the Years Volume of Software Exports Indian IT and ITES Sectors: Growth of Professionals,

viii

10 13 29 30 31

LIST OF BOXES Box 1: Box 2: Box 3: Box 4: Box 5: Box 6: Box 7: Box 8: Box 9:

Recycling Benefits Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amended Rules, 2003 DGFT (Exim policy 2002-07) Uniform Draft Legislations by WEEE Directive in Europe Facts on IT Sector in India Pavement Selling The Clean Computer Concept E-Toxics in Computers – Health Risks Sustainable Product Designs

14 17 18 20 32 49 78 91 96

LIST OF MAPS Map 1: Map 2: Map 3: Map 4:

Bangalore City Map Showing Its Growth through Different Phases Formal and Informal Recycling Units in Bangalore Informal Recycling Areas of Bangalore with Ward Numbers and Processing Types Map Indicating Informal CFL Recycling Site

35 45 48 70

LIST OF FLOW CHARTS Chart 1: Informal E-waste Recycling Process in Bangalore Chart 2: E-waste Processing Chart 3: Flow Chart Showing Demanufacturing Process of Different Types of Electronic Wastes Chart 4: Different Processes Involved in Obtaining Different Forms of Plastics Chart 5: Steps Involved in Recycling CRT Glass Cullets into Another CRT Chart 6: Picture Showing Tube Light Crushing under Vacuum Traps Chart 7: Metal Processing Chart 8: Flow Chart of E-waste Processing at Ash Recyclers Chart 9: Overview of Indo-German-Swiss Partnership Project WEEE, Bangalore Chart 10: Institutional Coordination in E-waste Management

43 53 62 62 63 63 63 65 75 75

LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Plate 2: Plate 3:

Informal Recyclers Segregating E-waste, Gowripalya, Bangalore Extracting Copper from Wires, Gowripalya, Bangalore An Informal Recycler Segregating E-waste, Padarayanapura, Bangalore ix

47 47 54

Plate 4: Plate 5: Plate 6: Plate 7: Plate 8: Plate 9:

E-waste Stored in Informal Recycling Shops, Gowripalya, Bangalore Gold Plated Idols Produced out of E-waste Obsolete Computers Stored at Nishanth Technologies, Bangalore E-waste Collection Bins CRT Tubes are Dumped in Municipal Dustbins and Open Drains Burning E-waste on Open Sites, Hosur Road, Bangalore

55 61 65 80 83 86

LIST OF ANNEXURES Annexure 1: Annexure 2: Annexure 3: Annexure 4:

Recoverable Elements in a TV Recoverable Elements in a PC (Typical) Materials Recovered from Refrigerators (Typical) Average Weight and Composition of a Few Selected E-Appliances Annexure 5: Materials Obtained during Recycling Annexure 6: Impact of E-waste Recycling and Disposal on Human Health

x

101 102 103 103 103 104

Acknowledgements We owe special thanks to the Institute for Social and Economic Change for giving us this opportunity to carry out the study. We thank all the research staff, Ms B R Sugandhini, Ms Thilaka Rani R, Ms S Kavitha, and Mr Subash for their enthusiasm and interest during the fieldwork. But for them, it would not have been possible to complete the study. We are thankful of officials of the various institutions – government departments, NGOs, private organizations for providing us with the required data and information. We are also thankful to the informal waste recyclers who helped us to understand the challenges in e-waste management. We are grateful to the then Director Prof R S Deshpande for all the support and encouragement. We would also like to thank Prof K N Ninan, former Head, CEENR, for his support. We offer our gratitude to Col. Ashutosh Dhar, Registrar, B P Appachoo, Accounts Officer and Mr B R Prakash at the Institute for helping us with administrative and accounts work. To all of them, we remain indebted. We extend our sincere gratitude and appreciation to the anonymous reviewers for their vital comments and valuable suggestions that helped us to improve the value of our manuscript. We are thankful to Dr Anand Inbanathan, the Editor, ISEC Monograph Series for his timely attention on publication of this monograph. The financial support from ISEC-SRTT is duly acknowledged. S Manasi N Latha Bibhu Prasad Nayak

xi

1. INTRODUCTION Electronic waste (E-waste) is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world. The discarding of electronic products worldwide has intensified in recent years, with 20-50 million tonnes being generated every year, according to Greenpeace, an international environmental group. Globally, E-waste is most commonly used term for denoting electronic waste, though there is no standard definition offered for E-waste. However, in most cases, e-waste comprises relatively expensive and generally durable components used for data processing, telecommunications or entertainment in private households and businesses. World over, management of colossal generation of E-Waste is fast emerging as one of the major challenges, especially in urban areas. The presence of valuable and recyclable components attracts both informal and unorganised sectors leading to major environmental and health impacts due to unsafe and environmentally harmful practices adopted by them. Hence, there is a pressing need to address the issue of e-waste management, especially in the developing countries. In view of the concentration of IT-industries in developing countries, say for example, India, and the rise of the middle class in countries like India and China are just the beginning of this development (Sinha-Khetriwala et al, 2005). But, if handled properly, recycling of e-waste can facilitate the addressing of all the three dimensions of sustainable development i.e. environmental soundness, economic growth, and equity (E-Parisara, 2009). The increasing “market penetration” in developing countries, “replacement market” in developed countries and “high obsolescence rate” make E-waste one of the fastest growing waste streams (MoEF, 2008). Personal computers make up about 25% of the global E-waste bulk and are expected to continue to rise given the trend of increased use of computers in all spheres of activity, along with a higher obsolescence rate; the annual obsolescence rate of computers is said to be around 30%. This could be attributed to the fact that the computers are not only getting cheaper but also that it is relatively more convenient to buy new machines with more and better features, a fall out of technology, than upgrading the old ones. 1.1. E-waste Generation As far as the global trends in the generation of E-waste are concerned, every year 20 to 50 million tonnes of E-waste is generated worldwide. The United States generated 2.4 million tonnes of e-waste in 2010 and China generated 2.3 million tonnes making these countries the largest generators

2

E-waste Management in Urban Cities

of e-waste. India generates 12.5 Metric tonnes of e-waste per year and ewaste generation is increasing constantly over a period of time. In developed countries, e-waste equals to 1% of the total solid waste generated on an average, and is expected to grow to 2 % by 2010. In USA, it accounts for 1% to 3% of the total municipal waste generation. In EU, historically, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) has been increasing by 16-28% every five years, which is three times the average annual municipal solid waste generation. The per capita generation of WEEE or E-waste works out to 4 to 20 kg per annum for EU15 countries (Hilty. L. M., 2005) whereas in developing countries, it ranges from 0.01% to 1% of the total municipal solid waste generation. In countries like China and India, though annual generation per capita is less than 1 kg, it is growing at an exponential rate and will continue to rise at the same rate for the next 30 years (UNEP, 2007). Although no definite official data exist as to how much waste is generated in India, there are estimations based on independent studies conducted by the NGOs or government agencies. According to the estimates carried out by Toxics Link, India annually generates about $1.5 billion worth of e-waste. According to the MAIT-GTZ e-waste assessment study, the annual generation of e-waste in India works out to 3, 30,000 metric tonne and is expected to touch 4, 70,000 metric tonne by 2011. According to the Comptroller and Auditor- General’s (CAG) report, 4 lakh tonne of electronic waste is generated in the country annually (Ravi Agarwal, 2010). In 2005, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimated India’s e-waste at 1.47 lakh tonne or 0.573 MT per day. A study released by the Electronics Industry Association of India (ELCINA) at the electronics industry expo – ‘Componex Nepcon 2009’ – had estimated the total e-waste generation in India at a whopping 4.34 lakh tonne by the end of 2009 (Sandeep Joshi, 2009). Another survey conducted by the Delhi-based International Resources Group (IRG), reveals that India churns out 146,180 tonne of e-waste annually with the Indian IT industry contributing 30 per cent of the waste. Sixty-five cities in India generate more than 60% of the total e-waste. On the other hand, states generate about 70% of the total e-waste in India including Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Of the top ten cities generating e-waste, Mumbai ranks first followed by Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkota, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur. Further, the average lifespan of computers in developing countries is observed to have dropped from six years in 1997 to just two years in 2005. The e-waste

Introduction

3

inventory based on this obsolescence rate in India for the year 2005 estimated at 146180 tonnes is expected to exceed 8,00,000 tonne by 2012 (MoEF, 2008). A report by a New Delhi-based NGO, Toxics Link, on computer waste, estimates that in India, business and individual households find approximately 1.38 million personal computers obsolete every year (Agarwal et al, 2003). The problems associated with e-waste in India started surfacing after the first phase of economic liberalisation i.e., after 1990. As is well known, there was a major economic policy shift in 1991 which triggered off an increase in the consumption pattern (mainly because of the removal of quantitative restrictions on imports). This period also witnessed a shift in the pattern of governance in terms of an era of infrastructure reforms and e-governance through the application of information technology in a big way. The liberalisation and globalisation process also opened up new avenues for the growth of service sector and knowledge economy. India, with its huge base of skilled and cheaper personnel for information technology (IT) and information technology enabled services (ITES), has become a preferred destination for investments, resulting in booming of IT companies and BPO agencies across India. This apart, India has also experienced a significantly higher rate of growth post-liberalisation period, resulting in increased purchasing power. The technological revolution has made electronic gadgets cheaper and user-friendly. The changing life styles and the IT boom have contributed to this quantum jump in their usage and subsequently to the piling up of e-waste. For instance, the growth in per capita PC ownership in India between 1993 and 2000 was 604% as compared to a world average of 181% (WISTA, 2002). In India, of the total generated quantity of e-waste, only 19,000 metric tonne are recycled due to high refurbishing and reuse of electronic products and poor recycling infrastructure. Currently e-waste recycling, especially processing, remains concentrated in the informal sector, which, in turn, due to poor processing technologies, contributes largely to pollution and environmental degradation. According to Toxic Link, a Delhi-based NGO, trading in e-waste is a thriving business in India, estimated at $1.5 billion. Thousands of workers from the unorganised sector work in poorly ventilated enclosed areas without masks and technical expertise. 25,000 workers are employed at scrap yards in Delhi alone, where 10000 to 20000 tonnes of e-waste are handled each year, with 25 per cent of this accounting for computer related e-waste.

4


1.2. Illegal Dumping E-waste is routinely exported by developed countries to developing ones, often illegally, from Europe, US and Japan to Asia in violation of the international law. Inspections of 18 European seaports in 2005 found as much as 47 per cent of waste destined for export, including e-waste, which was illegal. In UK alone, at least 23,000 metric tonnes of undeclared or ‘grey’ market electronic waste was illegally shipped in 2003 to Far East of Asia, India, Africa and China. Further, it has been reported that 50 – 80 per cent of the e-waste generated in industrialised countries, such as the US is recycled in Asia (BAN and SVTC, 2002). Asia receives the maximum at 12 million tonnes each year. More than 15,000 tonnes of colour television sets were exported from the EU to African countries in 2005. On an average, 35 tonnes, or more than 1000 units of used television sets, arrive every day in Ghana, Nigeria or Egypt (Ghana Business News, 2009). India is one of the main destinations of e-waste from OECD countries, with an estimated 50 K tonnes of e-waste imported every year (Manomaivibool, 2009). Same figure was depicted by GTZ-MAIT (2007) which estimates that about 50,000 tonnes of WEEE were imported to India every year. Of the e-waste imported to India, it is estimated that approximately 80% is imported from the US, while the remaining 20% is imported from the EU (Skinner, 2010). The Basel Convention on the Control of the Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Refer Section 3.0) was adopted in 1989 which came into force in 1992 with the objective of preventing the economically-motivated dumping of hazardous wastes from the rich to poor countries. However, this has not been effectively implemented despite a 1997 Supreme Court directive preventing the import of hazardous waste into India. Primary investigations carried out for Basel Action Network reveal that indigenous as well as imported computer waste has in fact led to the emergence of a thriving market for computer waste products and processing units in India. Thus, trading in e-waste is camouflaged in India, in the form of obtaining ‘reusable’ equipment or ‘donations’ from developed nations. This is not only convenient but also easy as laws to protect workers and the environment are either inadequate or not properly enforced. The developed countries find it more convenient and economical to export e-waste to the third world countries than managing it themselves because of high environmental and economic costs involved. The cost of recycling computer monitors in the US is ten times greater than what it is in India or China, as estimated by Greenpeace, thus making these countries the most favourable grounds for dumping e-waste. In the US, it costs

Introduction

5

companies approximately $20 to recycle one computer. Instead, they make a profit by selling the scrap to an Indian trader for $5,” as explained by Toxics Link director Ravi Agrawal (The Indian Express, 21 March 2004). This practice is legal in USA because it has not ratified the Basel Convention. Cyber-laws relating to the environment are as good as non-existent making it tough to control the situation, says cyber law expert Pavan Duggal. “There are laws dealing with computers and networking, but there is a silence on how to scientifically eliminate obsolete machines.”(The Times of India, January 6, 2004). 1.3. E-waste Hazards Highly toxic chemicals found in different components of computer parts can contaminate soil, groundwater and air, besides affect workers of various units and the communities living around them. Moreover, workers engaged in computer waste recycling operations generally get exposed to potentially dangerous health hazards because of the fact that at work places health and environmental conditions are compromised. Hence, there is a clear reason to be concerned about e-waste trading, the technology in practice and the existing poor disposal practices of computer waste in India. The management of electronic waste has to be assessed in a broader framework of Extended Producer Responsibility and Precautionary Principle, so as to ensure that future policy responses are more responsive to addressing this issue. At present, e-waste management options are extremely polluting in nature and hence are of a grave concern. In fact, this issue has assumed a global dimension, of which India is an integral and affected part. Interventions for checking polluting systems of recycling and providing options for better management of computer waste can best be suggested only after an assessment has been carried out. “There is total lack of awareness about hazardous nature of ewastes. Most often e-waste is mixed with municipal waste and this is a cause for serious concern,” says TV Ramachandra of the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (E-waste: A Health Hazard, The Indian Express, April 11, 2004). A recent study conducted by the Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata, finds that people in Delhi are twice as likely to suffer from lung ailments as compared to those in the countryside. While traffic pollution is the main cause, doctors say the smelting electronic parts at factories on the city’s edges should not be discounted. Environmentalists also fear critical contamination of soil and ground water from discarded ash and plastic residues.

6


As the problem is getting serious, it is imperative that safety steps are undertaken keeping in view environment and health concerns. Various governments have launched several initiatives to handle this problem. Apart from governments, many NGOs and private companies are also pitching in to address this issue. On the one hand, they are doing their bit to safely dispose off e-waste, and on the other, they are creating more awareness among the general public. For instance, Greenpeace activists targeted software giant, Wipro, to highlight what they termed as the growing menace of e-waste and the casual manner in which it was being disposed off by the corporates. As part of this exercise, the activists dumped Wipro-branded assorted e-waste at the headquarters of the IT giant. Mr Ramapati Kumar, toxics campaigner, Greenpeace India, claimed that they had sourced the Wipro-branded e-waste from illegal recycling yards in Delhi, Chennai and Bangalore during investigations. Here, these products were scrapped under appalling conditions, exposing workers and environment to hazardous substances. They sought an assurance from the company that it would develop a system to deal with its end-of-life products. At the same time, they claimed that the state pollution control board had sent a notice to Wipro seeking an explanation for moving significant volumes of e-waste to unauthorised recycling yards (Business Standard, September 10, 2005). With this backdrop, the present study intends to provide insights into the emerging challenges of e-waste generation and management in Bangalore. The study captures situation analysis of e-waste management in Bangalore, exploring issues and constraints facing various stakeholders apart from looking into the role of various institutions in creating an integrated framework. The objectives of the study were: •

• • •

To explore the emerging trends in e-waste management in Bangalore, and assess the quality, safety and pricing of recycled products emerging out of these management processes. To analyse the roles and limitations of existing institutions in channelising e-waste. To assess impacts of indiscriminate dumping on urban ecology To suggest strategies for improved management of e-waste and different options and their feasibility.

The following part of this monograph is divided into various sections, beginning with an overview of e-waste in section 2, followed by regulations concerning e-waste in section 3; details of study area and methodology in

Introduction

7

section 4; situation analysis based on focus group discussions relating to ewaste generation and management process, formal and informal recyclers in section 5; the role of institutions in e-waste management in section 6 and possible implications of e-waste management on urban ecology and health in section 7 and ending with conclusions and suggestions for better management in section 8.

2. E-WASTE - AN OVERVIEW 2.1. Definitions Globally, E-waste is the most commonly used term for denoting electronic waste. Although there is no standard definition of e-waste, in most cases, e-waste comprises relatively expensive and generally durable components used for data processing, telecommunication or entertainment in private households and businesses. In other words, e-waste is the term used for describing old, end-of-life electronic appliances such as computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, mobile phones, mp3 players etc, discarded by their original users. According to another definition, ‘Electronic waste’ is the component, which is dumped or disposed or discarded rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling operations. A number of countries have come out with their own definitions, interpretations and usage of the term “E-waste”. The most widely accepted definition relates to the EU directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). WEEE Directive (EU, 2002a) “Electrical or electronic equipment which is waste including all components, subassemblies and consumables, which are part of the product at the time of discarding.” Directive 75/442/EEC, Article 1(a) defines “waste” as “any substance or object which the holder disposes of or is required to dispose of pursuant to the provisions of national law in force”1. Basel Convention Basel Convention covers all discarded/disposed materials that possess hazardous characteristics as well as all wastes considered hazardous on a national basis. Annex VIII, refers to E-waste, which is considered hazardous under Art. 1, para. 1(a) of the Convention. Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP 2005) E-waste refers to: “The reverse supply chain which collects products no longer desired by a given consumer and refurbishes for other consumers, recycles, or otherwise processes waste.” 1

(a) ‘Electrical and electronic equipment’ or ‘EEE’ means equipment which is dependent on electrical currents or electromagnetic fields in order to work properly and equipment for the generation, transfer and measurement of such current and fields falling under the categories set out in Annex IA to Directive 2002/96/EC (WEEE) and designed for use with a voltage rating not exceeding 1000 volts for alternating current and 1500 volts for direct current.

E-waste - An Overview

9

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD 2001) WEEE/ E-waste have been defined as “any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its end-of-life.” Basel Action network (Puckett and smith, 2002) “E-waste encompasses a broad and growing range of electronic devices ranging from large household devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, cell phones, personal stereos, and consumer electronics to computers which have been discarded by their users.” The E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 In India, under The E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011, E-waste means waste electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded; and Electrical and electronic equipment means equipment which is dependent on electrical currents or electro-magnetic fields to be fully functional. 2.2. Categories of E-waste E- waste is categorised in diverse ways based on the source of generation, functional utilities and the type of components they contain. MoEF guidelines (MoEF, 2008) classify E-waste mainly into three main categories, Viz. Large Household Appliances, IT and Telecom and Consumer Equipment. Refrigerator and Washing Machine represent large household appliances; Personal Computer, Monitor and Laptop represent IT and Telecom, while Television represents Consumer Equipment. Each of these e-waste items have been classified into twenty-six common components, which could be found in them. These components form the “Building Blocks” of each item and, therefore, are readily “identifiable” and “removable” such as metal, motor/ compressor, cooling, plastic, insulation, glass, LCD, rubber, wiring/ electrical, concrete, transformer, magnetron, textile, circuit board, fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamp, heating element, thermostat, BFR-containing plastic, batteries, CFC/HCFC/ HFC/HC, external electric cables, refractory ceramic fibers, radioactive substances and electrolyte capacitors (over L/D 25 mm). However, for easy understanding, various types of e-waste can be classified as follows.

10


Figure 1: Categories of E-waste

Source: E-Parisara, 2009 However, the above categorisation of e-waste does not necessarily include all waste streams as there are several waste streams within these various types of e-waste generated which are also a cause for concern. Ewaste contains various elements of toxic components including Mercury, Lead, Cadmium, Polybrominated Flame Retardants, Barium and Lithium that are harmful to human health and environment. Table 1 gives an overview of the same. Table 1: List of Elements and their Location in E-waste Products Elements

Location

Lead

solder, CRT monitors (lead in glass), lead-acid batteries solder, coatings on component leads copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, component leads light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys for marine and avian environment nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of power (heatsinks), electrolytic capacitors. filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease used on heatsinks for CPUs and power transistors,[17] magnetrons, X-raytransparent ceramic windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum tubes, and gas lasers. steel chassis, cases and fixings glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards.

Tin Copper Cadmium Aluminum Beryllium oxide

Iron Silicon

contd...


Nickel and cadmium Lithium Zinc Gold Mercury

Sulphur Carbon

11

nickel-cadmium batteries lithium-ion battery plating for steel parts connector plating, primarily in computer equipment fluorescent tubes (numerous applications), tilt switches (pinball games, mechanical doorbells, thermostats) lead-acid batteries steel, plastics, resistors. In almost all electronic equipment.

Source: Compiled from WEEE and Hazardous waste, A report produced for DEFRA, March 2004, AEA Technology The substances present within the above mentioned components which are a cause of concern are heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium (VI), halogenated substances (e.g. CFCs), polychlorinated biphenyls, plastics and circuit boards that contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFR can produce dioxins and furans during incineration. Other materials and substances present are arsenic, asbestos, nickel and copper. These substances may act as a catalyst in terms of increasing the formation of dioxins during incineration. A description of some of these substances that exhibit an element of uncertainty regarding their “level of concern” is given in table 2.

12


Table 2: Components Present in WEEE (by Category) Large Household IT & Telecom Consumer Appliances Equipment Refirdge- Washing Personal Personal Laptop Television rator Machine Computer Computer (Base & (Monitor) Keyboard) • • • − − •

Metal Motor compressor Cooling Plastic Insulation Glass CRT LCD Rubber Wiring/Electrical Concrete Transformer Magnetron Textile Circuit Board Fluorescent Lamp (in ballast) Incandescent lamp Heating element Thermostat BFR – containing plastic Batteries CFC, HCFC, HFC, HC External electric cables Refractory ceramic fibers Radioactive substances Electrolyte capacitors (over L / D 25mm)

• • • • •

• − • − •

• − • − −

• •

• • •

− • − •

− − − − − − − − •

− • •

−

− −

− −

− − • − − • • − − − −

• − • − − − • • − •

− − • − − • − − • − •

•

− − −

− −

−

−

−

• •

• −

− • • −

− − − −

− − − −

− − − •

− − − •

•

•

− −

− −

− −

• •

− •

−

• − •

− − •

• − •

− − •

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

• Present as a component

Source: CPCB Guidelines on E-waste, 2008


13

The growth of e-waste has significant economic and social impacts. Although there is no large-scale organised e-waste recycling facility in India, there are two small e-waste dismantling facilities functioning in Chennai and Bangalore. Most of the e-waste recycling units operate in the unorganised sector. The informal recycling is often crude and they do not have the appropriate facilities to safeguard environmental and human health. The stripping of metals in open pit acid baths, the removal of electronic components from printed circuit boards by heating over a grill, chipping and melting plastics without proper ventilation and recovering metals by burning cables and parts are common practices. The informal recycling process releases heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants into the soil, water, and air. It is estimated that totally 4.5 lakh children are engaged in e-waste management in India. Operations for the recovery of copper wires through the burning of polyvinyl chloride and flame retardant-protected cables (i.e., polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs) can release toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs/PBDDs) and furans (PCDFs/PBDFs), and the open burning of computer casings and circuit boards to recover metal parts can produce toxic fumes and ashes containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Figure 2: Segregated E-waste

Source: E-Parisara, 2009

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The e-waste activities cause severe damage to the workers and to the local residents because of exposure to toxic chemicals through inhalation, dermal exposure and oral intake (of contaminated food). Once inside the body, toxic organic chemicals are stored in fatty tissues, leading to bioaccumulation and increases body burden of persistent toxic substances. The importance of recycling of e-waste lies in halting further degradation of environment if processed properly. Apart from ecological utilities, e-waste recycling has a great economic potential in terms of generating employment and income for many. Box 1: Recycling Benefits E-waste, if processed properly, can provide several opportunities for sustaining livelihoods, saving on energy and protecting the environment. (Refer annex tables 1-5) Recycling of every tonne of Steel saves on • 75% of energy needed to produce steel from virgin material • 40% of water required in production • 1.28 tonne of solid waste • Reduction of air gas emissions by 86% • Reduction of water pollution by 76% Every tonne of Aluminium recycled saves on • 6 tonne of bauxite • 4 tonne of chemical products • 14MWh of electricity It takes 70% less energy to recycle plastics It takes 40% less energy to recycle glass Source: E-Parisara, 2009 Every tonne of paper recycled saves on 17 full-grown trees Every ton of Paper recycled saves 17 fully grown trees.

2.3. Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Components of E-waste Environmentalists and officials claim that e-waste contains more than 1,000 different toxic substances – hazardous and non-hazardous – harmful to human beings and the environment. Broadly speaking, it consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood and plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete and ceramics, rubber and other items. Of them, iron and steel constitutes about 50% followed by plastics (21%), non-ferrous metals (13%) and the remaining by other constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of copper, aluminum and precious metals like silver, gold, platinum, palladium etc. The presence of elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium,


15

selenium, hexavalent chromium and flame-retardants in e-waste beyond threshold quantities is classified as hazardous waste (UNEP, 2007). A major culprit lurking in the hazardous waste material concerns the computer monitor and television cathode ray tube (CRT), which contain five to eight pounds of lead. The non-biodegradable material from e-waste and other sources often ends up in land-fills or incinerators where toxic substances present in lead, cadmium, lethal mercury, carcinogenic asbestos, tin plates, arsenic, PVC and plastic waste, lead and cadmium batteries etc. contaminates land, water and air, posing serious health hazards apart from affecting the surrounding environment The substances present in the above mentioned components, a cause for concern, are the heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium (VI), halogenated substances (e.g. CFCs), polychlorinated biphenyls, plastics and circuit boards that contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFR can generate dioxins and furans during incineration. Other materials and substances that can be present are arsenic, asbestos, nickel and copper (table 3). These substances may act as catalysts in terms of increasing the formation of dioxins during incineration. “If we do not wake up now, in the next five years, it will boomerang on us,” said Bakul Rao, a consultant with the Environment Management and Policy Research Institute, a research body set up by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board. Table 3: Possible Hazardous Substances in E-waste Components

Possible hazardous content

Cooling Plastics Insulation

ODS Phthalate plasticize, BFR Insulation ODS in foam, asbestos, refractory ceramic fibers CRT Lead, antimony, mercury, phosphorous LCD Mercury Rubber Phthalate plasticize, BFR Wiring / electrical Phthalate plasticize, Lead, BFR Circuit board Lead, Beryllium, Antimony, BFR Fluorescent lamp Mercury, Phosphorous, flame retardants Thermostat Mercury BFR containing plastic BFRs Batteries Lead, Lithium, Mercury, Cadmium. CFC, HCFC, HFC, HC Ozone depleting substances External electric cable BFRs, Plasticizers Electrolyte capacitors (over L/D25 mm) Glycol and other unknown substances Source: Compiled from WEEE and Hazardous waste, A report produced for DEFRA, March 2004, AEA Technolo

16


The substances present in the above mentioned components, a cause for concern, are the heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium (VI), halogenated substances (e.g. CFCs), polychlorinated biphenyls, plastics and circuit boards that contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFR can generate dioxins and furans during incineration. Other materials and substances that can be present are arsenic, asbestos, nickel and copper (table 3). These substances may act as catalysts in terms of increasing the formation of dioxins during incineration. “If we do not wake up now, in the next five years, it will boomerang on us,” said Bakul Rao, a consultant with the Environment Management and Policy Research Institute, a research body set up by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board. Studies have indicated that the environment in south China has been grossly polluted by heavy metals as well as by persistent toxic substances such as organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, and mercury (Liang Y et al, 1999; Zhou HY et al, 1999; and Zhou HY et al, 2000). The uptake of contaminants appeared to relate to the feeding modes of fish, with carnivorous fish species taking up the highest concentrations of organic contaminants (Zhou HY et al, 1999 and Zhou HY et al, 2000). Several studies in Guiyu, a city in south eastern China, highlight the health implications of e-waste which are difficult to isolate from poverty and poor sanitation. Guiyu is known as the largest e-waste recycling site in the world and the city’s residents show signs of substantial digestive, neurological, respiratory and bone problems. For example, 80 per cent of Guiyu’s children experience respiratory ailments and are especially at risk of lead poisoning (Anna O W Leung et al (2008), “Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust From E-Waste Recycling and its Human Health Implications in Southeast China”, Environmental Science and Technology 42 (7): 2674-80). Another study by Brett Robinson (2009) indicate that the wind patterns in southeast China (Guiyu where recycling of e-waste is carried out) disperse toxic particles released by open-air burning across the Pearl River Delta Region, home to 45 million people. The toxic chemicals from ewaste enter the “soil-crop-food pathway,” one of the most significant routes for heavy metals’ exposure to humans. These chemicals are not biodegradable—they persist in the environment for long periods of time, increasing exposure risk (Brett H Robinson, 2009). A study by Liangkai Zheng et al (2008) highlights the close relationships between the Blood Lead Levels (BLL) and Blood Cadmium Levels (BDL) in children, and the primitive e-waste recycling activities in Guiyu. Environmental pollution, especially lead pollution, has affects the health of children living around e-waste recycling site.

3. REGULATIONS ON E-WASTE Earlier with hardly any stringent laws and safe disposal processes, cities struggled to cope up with this chaos. In India, there were no specific environmental laws or guidelines in place for managing e-waste. None of the existing environmental laws had any direct reference to electronic waste nor referred to its handling as hazardous in nature. However, several provisions of these laws were applied to various aspects of electronic waste management. Since e-waste or its constituents fall under the category of ‘hazardous” and “non hazardous waste”, they shall be covered under the purview of “The Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2003”, an amended version of “Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rule 2000” which includes detailed listing categories of waste, rules for processes and waste streams of units generating hazardous waste and concentration limits of constituents in the wastes. The responsibility for identification of sites for the establishment of common treatment, storage and disposal facilities and procedures relating to the import and export of hazardous waste for recycling and re-export of illegal waste come under the Basel Convention. However, even in these rules, e-waste is mentioned in the context of export and import and not recycling (Schedule 3, List A and B). Thus, there is a pressing need for devising a more comprehensive legislation, which will also regulate the disposal and recycling of e-waste. In this respect, all generators of e-waste, especially the IT industry, need to work in tandem with other stakeholders including the government bodies, recyclers and NGOs for formulating and implementing such a policy. Box 2: Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amended Rules, 2003 These define hazardous waste as “any waste which by reason of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when on contact with other wastes or substances.” In Schedule 1, waste generated from the electronic industry is considered as hazardous waste. Schedule 3 lists various kinds of waste, including electrical and electronic assemblies or scrap containing accumulators and other batteries, mercury switches, glass from cathode ray tubes and other activated glass and PCB capacitors, or contaminated with constituents such as cadmium, mercury, lead, polychlorinated biphenyl or from which these have been removed, to an extent that they do not possess any of the constituents. Source: MoEF, 2008

18


Porst et al (1989) observes that there is no policy in place either at the State or National level in India to address the challenges posed by ewaste and that the State Governments could consider incorporating Extended Manufacturers Responsibility in their IT Policies containing guidelines that the manufacturers and user industries have to follow while disposing of their e-Waste. Currently, most of the IT companies are registered with the Software Technology Park under an EOU/STP/EHTP scheme. This scheme allows them to import or procure locally, without payment of duty, all types of goods including computers and peripherals. Under this scheme, computers must remain under a custom bond. There are then three options available to the companies - Donation to non-commercial educational institutions, charitable hospitals, public libraries and government organisations, physical destruction of computers so as to render them useless for secondary sale. The companies are then allowed to sell the material as scrap after paying the customs duty and getting them released from the bond. The IT industry, on the other hand, insists that it is against the physical destruction of computers, instead, prefers to donate. However, finding appropriate donors is also difficult as government schools and other non-profit educational institutions have a limited use for computers. In Bangalore, all the 1,322 software companies coming under the Software Technology Park of India and 36 hardware manufacturers can thus import equipment including computers duty free. It is a well-known fact that all these companies do make use of this regulation for importing their equipment duty free. As mentioned before, under this regulation, computers remain under a custom bond, which implies that they cannot be sold. Reports from service engineers also indicate that 50% of computers donated to schools do not function and mostly end up as scrap. In few other cases, large organisations prefer to store obsolete computers in warehouses rather than destroying them. Box 3: DGFT (Exim policy 2002-07) Second hand personal computers (PCs)/laptops are not permitted for import under Export Promotion of Capital Goods (EPCG) scheme through the provisions of para 5.1 of the Exim Policy, even for service providers; Second-hand photocopier machines, air conditioners, diesel generating sets, etc, can also not be imported under EPCG Scheme under the provisions of Para 5.1 of EXIM Policy even if these are less than ten years old. Source: http://www.dgft.org/DGFT_Export_Import_Exim_Policy_Circular.html

Regulations on E-waste

19

Customs duty Some of the big firms import computers in order to avail of waiver on excise duty, while being aware of the fact that as per the central excise and customs duty rules, they cannot dispose of computers as and when they become obsolete; further, they have to take permission from Software Technology Parks of India for disposing of the same. Basel Convention Basel Convention is an international treaty formed to control the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and its disposal, including its illegal dumping specifically from developed to developing countries. It also aims to minimise the amount and toxicity of wastes generated and ensures their environmentally sound management2 as closely as possible to the source of generation, and also assist developing countries in this respect. It is a global agreement, ratified by several member countries (there are 168 member countries to the Basel Convention, 2006) and the European Union for addressing problems and challenges posed by hazardous waste. The Secretariat, in Geneva, Switzerland, facilitates the implementation of the Convention and related agreements. However, despite several original obligations laid down in the Convention, the enormous economic pressures to import hazardous waste by many developing countries have, on occasions, threatened to undermine the Basel Convention’s goals of national selfsufficiency, waste minimisation and minimisation of its transboundary movements. For this reason, the Parties to the Basel Convention adopted a decision in 1994, calling on all the countries belonging to the OECD group of states to ban the export of hazardous wastes to non-OECD countries. Later in 1995, the parties reiterated their concern by incorporating the ban as an amendment to the Convention. The Basel Ban Amendment prohibits the export of all hazardous wastes from member states of the OECD, the European Union (EU), and Liechtenstein to all other countries, and will come into legal force after it receives 62 ratifications. As of now 37 countries have ratified it. The USA has not only declined to participate but also has continued to lobby with Governments in Asia to establish bilateral trade agreements to continue dumping their hazardous waste after the Basel Ban came into effect on January 1st 1998. 2

ESM means taking all practical steps to minimise the generation of hazardous wastes and strictly controlling its storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and final disposal, the purpose of which is to protect human health and the environment.

20

E-waste Management in Urban Cities Box 4: Uniform Draft Legislations by WEEE Directive in Europe

Various member states within Europe have already drafted legislations (Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, Italy, Finland and Germany). The new draft WEEE Directive, therefore, harmonises all these countries’ initiatives in terms of allowing industries to operate uniformly throughout Europe. 

















Phase-out the use of mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium and two classes of brominated flame-retardants in electronic and electrical goods by the year 2004. Full financial responsibility on producers to set up collection, recycling and disposal systems. Between 70% to 90% by weight of all collected equipment must be recycled or re-used. In the case of computers and monitors, 70% recycling must be met. Recycling does not include incineration, so companies won’t be able to meet recycling goals by burning the waste. For disposal, incineration with energy recovery is allowed for 10% to 30% of waste remaining. However, certain components are to be removed before dumping into landfills, incineration or recovery. Member states shall encourage producers to integrate an increasing quantity of recycled material with new products. Member states must collect information from producers on a yearly basis about quantities of equipment put on the market, both by numbers of units and by weight, as well as on the market saturation in the respective product sectors. This information will be transmitted to the EU Commission by 2004 and every three years after that date. Producers can undertake the treatment operation in another country, but this should not lead to shipments of WEEE to non-EU countries where no or lower treatment standards than in the EU exist. Accordingly, producers shall deliver WEEE only to those establishments, which comply with the treatment, and recycling requirements set out in the proposal and producers shall verify compliance through adequate certifications. It is envisaged that the extra costs of waste management will be reflected in 1% to 3% higher retail price on some items. However, the EU believes this is likely to diminish as economies of scale and innovation bring down the costs of separately collecting and treating WEEE. Also, the issue of who should pay is at the heart of Extended Producer Responsibility, since it is actually an extension of and mechanism to implement the “polluter pays” principle. Consumers who buy the product should pay the full price of that product’s waste management rather than the general taxpayer who may never purchase that particular product. Companies that learn how to produce products that are less hazardous and easier and less costly to recycle will develop a competitive edge, since their recycling costs will be lower.

Source: WEEE Explanatory Notes, EU 1999


21

The Basel Convention with regard to the control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes3 and Disposal was signed by India on 15th March 1990 and ratified and acceded to in 1992. Although the ratification of this convention obliges India to address the problem of transboundary movement and disposal of dangerous hazardous wastes through international cooperation, as per the Basel Convention, India cannot export hazardous wastes listed in Annex VIII of the Basel Convention to the countries that have ratified the ban agreement. However, the convention agreement does not restrict the import of such wastes from countries that have not ratified the Basel Convention. It is because of the orders of the Honourable Supreme Court that the import of such wastes is now banned in the country. Batteries (Management and Handling) Rule, 2001, applies to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler, auctioneer, consumer and bulk consumer involved in manufacture, processing, sale, purchase and use of batteries or components thereof. These rules confer responsibilities on the manufacturer, importer, assembler and re-conditioner; they govern the registration of importers, the customs clearance of imports of new lead acid batteries, procedures for registration/renewal of registration of recyclers and also the responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer and those of auctioneers. Presently, in India, e-waste is covered in Schedule 3 of “The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2003”. Under Schedule 3, E-waste is defined as “Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment including all components, sub-assemblies and their fractions except batteries falling under these rules”. “Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste, 2008,” formulated by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, classified e-waste according to its various components and compositions, and mainly emphasises on the management and treatment practices of e-waste. The guidelines incorporated concepts such as “Extended Producer Responsibility”. The E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 This is the very recent initiative and the only attempt in India meant solely for addressing the issues related to e-waste. These rules came into effect from 1st May, 2012. According to this regulation, ‘electrical and electronic equipment’ means equipment which is dependent on electric currents or electro-magnetic fields to be fully functional and ‘e-waste’ means 3

The categories of hazardous waste covered by the convention includes toxic, poisonous, explosive, corrosive, flammable, eco toxic and infectious.

22


waste electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded. These rules are meant to be applied to every producer, consumer or bulk consumer involved in manufacturing, sale purchase and processing of electrical and electronic equipment, collection centers, dismantlers and recyclers of e-waste. Responsibilities of producers, collection centres, consumers, dismantlers, recyclers etc. are defined and incorporated in these rules. The lack of public awareness regarding the disposal of electronic goods and inadequacy of policies to handle the issues related to e-waste amplify the problem. Rarely do some IT companies practice Extended Producer Responsibility or Take Back Policies. Proper implementation of the “E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011” is essential to address the ever growing pile of e-waste in the country. Extended Producers Responsibility (EPR) Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is an environmental policy approach in which a producer’s responsibility for a product is extended to the post consumer stage. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2001) defines EPR as “an environmental policy approach in which a producer’s responsibility for a product is extended to the post-consumer stage of a product’s life cycle… It is a strategy designed to promote the integration of environmental costs associated with goods throughout their life cycles into the market price of the products”. According to Kojima et al (2009), EPR aims at “giving electronic appliance manufacturers and importers responsibility for the collection and recycling of discarded electronic equipment” (p. 263), thus relieving the financial burden of e-waste recovery and disposal off the public sector (SinhaKhetriwal et al, 2009) and to divert a significant amount of WEEE from the landfill (Ongondo and Williams, 2011). In other words, the responsibility to treat and dispose of end-of-life e-waste as well as their packaging will be shared with or shifted to the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) or producers with the costs built into the product’s price, thus reducing the cost of managing waste (Widmer et al, 2005; Quinn and Sinclair, 2006; Kojima et al, 2009). EPR legislation is also intended as an incentive for producers to make design changes that reduce waste (Walls, 2003) as well as a tool to achieve sustainable development (Kiebert, 2004). EPR may consist one or a combination of the following, 1. Prolong product life. Manufacturers must design and build durable products which can last longer before they become obsolete. Although


23

this will reduce its market turnover and producers’ profitability, they must also bear some social and humanitarian responsibilities to protect the environment and human health. Future EE products must also be designed for easy reuse and recovery (van Schaik and Reuter, 2010). Some electrical chain-retailers are taking their own initiatives to prolong products’ life by offering extended warranty schemes for products purchased from their outlets. For example, for a small fee, Seng Heng will repair their electrical products purchased from their outlets during the warranty period, which ran up to five years. If the product is beyond repairs within the stipulated warranty period, the retailer will replace and dispose the defective products for free. 2. Modular design to ease upgrading, disassembly and recycling. Product engineers and designers must also come up with products with modular design to allow easy maintenance and replacement of faulty or broken parts. 3. Take back programme (TBP) incentives. Voluntary (in some countries mandatory) take back programme calls for the collection of WEEE by the OEMs. Producers operate drop-off or collection locations for WEEE across the country. Overall aim of TBP is to divert WEEE from the landfills. Consumers can return their unwanted WEEE directly or by mail. Motives of TBP include reducing production costs, enhancing brand image, meeting changing customer expectations, and protecting aftermarkets (Toffel, 2004). 4. Replace materials used. Manufacturers must also do further research to develop new raw materials that pose less or no toxic danger during recovery, reuse, recycle or disposal processes. The EU’s RoHS Directive for example, requires producers to phase out hazardous substances in their products (Nordbrand, 2009). Some companies such as LG, Sony Ericsson, Nokia, Samsung, Wipro and Infosys have taken proactive steps to reduce/eliminate the use toxic chemicals and materials from their products (Abul Hasan et al, 2010). There are two types of EPR— voluntary and mandatory— and it “may be implemented through a mixture of regulatory, economic and voluntary policy instruments” (Gottberg et al, 2006: 39). Today, several multi-national companies such as computer maker Dell and Acer, and cellular telephone makers Motorola, Nokia and Apple are undertaking voluntary EPR programmes (Kojima et al, 2009).

4. EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF IT INDUSTRY Over time, Indian IT-BPO has achieved significant growth in terms of revenue, employment generation and value addition, apart from becoming globally well known for its products and services. Domestic IT-BPO revenues are expected to grow at almost 8.5 per cent to reach INR 1,088 billion in 2010. There is abundant availability of skilled labour in that India’s graduate outturn has more than doubled over the past decade, with an addition of 3.7 million graduates in 2010 indicating a positive scenario for the IT industry. The industry has remained quality focused in terms of maintaining high standards and best practices in corporate governance leading to the satisfaction of its customers. Apart from this, timely government policy interventions and increased public private participation have played a major role in creating an enabling business environment in India. Over the last two years, there has been a 32 per cent increase in the number of global delivery centres with the outreach expanding to 12 new countries. Lately, focus has been on sustainable growth based on ‘green technologies’ to develop a business model that is both competitive and sustainable with minimal environmental impact. In 2008-09, 572 new units were registered under STP scheme. As on March 31st 2009, 8455 units had become operative out of which 7214 units were actually exporting. The growth in the number of operating and exporting units over the last 8 years is given in Table 4. Table 4: Growth of Operating and Exporting Units Year 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Operating Units

Percentage Growth

Exporting Units

Percentage Growth

4279 4644 5587 5806 6383 7543 8188 8455

8.53 20.3 3.91 9.93 18.17 8.55 3.26

3429 3544 3910 4379 5116 6321 6842 7214

3.35 10.33 11.99 16.83 23.55 8.24 5.44

Source: STPI, Annual Report 2008-09 The industry is estimated to aggregate revenues of USD 73.1 billion by 2010 with the IT software industry accounting for USD 63.7 billion.

Evolution and Growth of IT Industry

25

Further, during this period, direct employment is expected to reach nearly 2.3million, an addition of 90,000 employees, while indirect job creation is estimated at 8.2 million. As a proportion of national GDP, the sector revenues have grown from 1.2 per cent in 1998 to an estimated 6.1 per cent in 2010, whereas its share of exports is observed to have increased from less than 4 per cent in 1998 to almost 26 per cent in 2010. Export revenues are estimated to cross USD 50.1 billion by 2010, growing by 5.4 per cent over 2009 and contributing 69 per cent of the total IT-BPO revenues. Software and services exports are expected to account for over 99 per cent of total exports, employing around 1.8 million employees (NASSCOM Strategic Review, 2010). Exports by STP Units have registered an impressive growth in spite of the global recession from ` 180155.31 in 2007-08 to ` 207357.92 in 2008-09, a growth of 15.01%. The growth of software exports (registered by STP units) since 2000 is given in Table 5. Table 5: Software Exports (` In Crores) Year 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Software Exports

Percentage Growth

20051 29523 37176 51458 74019 100965 144214 180155 207358

47.24 25.92 38.42 43.84 36.40 42.84 24.92 15.10

Source: STPI, Annual Report 2008-09 Table 6 provides details on software exports across states over the last three years and indicates that Karnataka is the largest exporter of software.

26


Table 6: State-wise Exports by STP Registered Units (`` in crores) SN

Name of the State

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Andhra Pradesh Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Delhi Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu Kashmir Karnataka

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Pondicherry Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

18582.00 345.00 2.00 4146.00 564.00 9287.00 1.00 2.00 48700.00 (33.77 %) 750.00 220.00 27625.00 732.00 44.00 195.00 312.00 20745.00 8453.00 9.00 3500.00

26122.00 455.11 0.22 5264.00 681.00 10960.00 1.10 1.28 55000.00 (30.53%) 1201.00 185.22 35374.00 844.00 64.00 227.56 275.30 28295.00 10695.21 9.31 4500.00

31039.00 539.00 1.83 1762.00 1268.13 12410.00 0.75 1.74 70375.00 (33.94%) 1803.00 198.00 42360.88 1162.00 78.65 230.00 358.00 28355.58 10264.36 21.00 5129.00

144214

180155.31

207357.92

Total

http://www.stpi.in/index1.php?langid=1&level=1&sublinkid= 168&lid=177 accessed as on 27.09.2010 STP’s financial performance indicates an increase in the total revenue income from ` 150.75 crores in 2007-2008 to `165.64 crores in 2008-09. The following table indicates the trends in revenue and expenditure growth.


27

Table 7: Revenue Performance of STPI (` In Crores) Years 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Income

Expenditure

29.73 40.03 54.85 78.05 117.2 127.8 109.5 125.25 131.7 125 129 150.75 165.64

15.12 24.7 38.64 45.025 88.3 104.2 89.62 88.37 84.46 64.4 60.36 52.76 64.9

Source: STPI, Annul Report 2008-09. 4.1. Bangalore Scenario During 1991-92, Bangalore had just 13 IT units accounting for ` 5.6 crore worth of exports. According to the Information Technology and Biotechnology Department, currently there are 1584 registered IT firms – foreign and domestic – functioning in Bangalore with a total investment of ` 2,288 crores as registered in the year 2005. The growth recorded in 2004-05 was 52 per cent. During the first four months of the fiscal year 2004-05, 64 new firms opened their offices in Bangalore, including 43 with a foreign equity of ` 1,181 crores, a growth of 10 per cent over ` 1,073 crores invested in the previous year. According to Government officials, Bangalore bagged investments of over ` 900 crore from 65 new technology companies in a short span of four months in 2005, representing an increase of around 20 per cent over the corresponding period previous year (Software Technology Parks of India, Bangalore). During the entire fiscal 2003-04, Bangalore witnessed a phenomenal growth, with the industry growing by 46 per cent in terms of software exports as against the national average of 30.5 per cent over the previous fiscal (The Times of India, July-07-2004). The UNDP survey places Bangalore in the fifth place in the world as a technology hub (The Financial Express, September 28, 2005). In the year 2001, the cumulative investment made amounted to around US $1.3

28


billion across the software industry. Besides, about 146 new software technology park units in 2001, 110 in 2002 and 116 during 2002-03were established. According to Partha Iyengar, Vice President, Gartner India, while IT services sector is projected to grow at 35 per cent, the BPO sector is expected to grow by 45 per cent (Deccan Herald, August-31-2005). According to study, the share of IT services in business process outsourcing (BPO) would grow from 12 per cent in 2003 to 23 per cent by 2008. “In 2003, users worldwide spent more than $400 billion on outsourcing business processes and functions, of which just 12 per cent was on IT services,” says a study conducted by the research firm IDC. IDC had forecast that the IT component of BPO would rise dramatically within the next four years and that by 2008, 23 per cent of the BPO spending would be accounted for by IT-related services. In value terms, IT services accounted for around $50 billion of the $400 billion BPO market and by 2008, it would account for approximately $156 billion of the $680 billion BPO market (Deccan Herald Jul-13-2004). According to Software Technology Parks of India (STPI), Bangalore continued to attract 2.5 firms every week in the year 2005 as against two every week last year (The New Indian Express, Jun-29-2004). The Export made by the IT and ITES sector is ` 27,600 crore per year, which is forty six per cent of the country’s total software exports as against the national average of 30.5 per cent over the previous fiscal. The export is rising over the years. Software exports between April and July 2005 touched ` 6,800 crores as against ` 5,700 crores during the corresponding period of fiscal year 2003-2004. During the year 2005, the city exported $6.5 billion worth of IT services, which was targeted to reach $10 billion by fiscal 2007 (The Hindu September-13-2005). While the year 2000-01 saw a growth rate of 69.99% in software exports, the year 2001-02 experienced a growth rate of 33%, with the year 2002-03 indicating a growth rate of 25%. Below (Table 8) are the details of the growth of software exports from Bangalore.


29

Table 8: Number of IT Registered Companies in Bangalore Year 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08

No. of Companies

Software Export (` in Crores)

13 29 53 79 125 163 207 267 782 928 1038 1154 NA NA 1584 (512 are Multinationals) NA NA

5.6 20.6 90 200 480 980 1,700 3,200 4,400 7,475 9,903 12,350 17,474 24,840 33,840 43,740 67,436

Source: NASSCOM Graph 1: Increase in Investment in IT Sector in Bangalore Over the Years

Source: NASSCOM http://www.karnataka.com/industry/software

30


The graph below shows the growth of software exports from Bangalore in comparison to other cities in India during the year 2000-01. Graph 2: Volume of Software Exports

Source: NASSCOM Software exports from Karnataka have grown by 20 per cent in the first quarter of 2005. The State is targeting a 35 per cent growth for both software and hardware exports, which stood at Rs 30,000 crores in 2004 (The Business Line, Thursday, Aug 11, 2005) 4.2. Growth of IT and ITES Professionals India’s efficient education framework has ensured a sufficient flow of human resources, both technical and non technical, to meet the increasing demands of the IT-BPO sector. The total number of IT and ITES professionals employed in India grew from 162,000 in 2000-01 to 1,996,000 in 2007-08. Graph 3: Indian IT and ITES Sectors: Growth of Professionals

1045000

1000000 750000 500000 250000

56000

160000

430114 284000

522250

841500 670000

0 1 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 -9 -9 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 90 96 99 00 01 02 03 04 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20

Source: NASSCOM

162,000 70,000 198,114 430,114

IT services and Software exports BPO Exports Domestic Markets

Total

522,250

170,000 106,000 246,250

2001-02

670,000

205,000 180,000 285,000

2002-03

19

90

0

250000

500000

750000

1000000

Source: NASSCOM

830,000

296,000 216,000 318,000

2003-04

1,058,000

390,000 316,000 352,000

2004-05

1,293,000

513,000 415,000 365,000

2005-06

160000

522250

1045000

5 4 7 3 0 2 1 1 -0 -0 -9 -0 -0 -0 -9 -0 04 03 96 02 99 01 00 19 20 20 19 20 20 20

56000

430114 284000

841500 670000

Graph 3: Indian IT and ITES Sectors: Growth of Professionals

Source: NASSCOM Note: Figures do not include employees in the hardware sector

2000-01

Details

Table 9: Knowledge Professionals Employed in the IT-BPO Sector

1,621,000

690.000 553,000 378,000

2006-07

1,996,000

865,000 704,000 427,000

2007-08

Evolution and Growth of IT Industry 31

32

E-waste Management in Urban Cities Box 5: Facts on IT Sector in India

• Industry employee base crossed 1 million mark in FY 2004-05 • IT Software and services employee base grew at a CAGR of 23.6%, from 242, 000 in FY 2001-02 to 697,000 in FY 2004-05 • ITES-BPO employee base grew at a CAGR of 52.6%, from 42,000 in 2001-02 to 348,000 in FY 2004-05 • Indirect employment attributed to IT-ITES was 2.5 million in FY 2004-05 • Indian IT-BPO to reach USD 60 billion in exports and USD 73-75 billion in overall software and services revenues by 2010. • India has the largest English speaking IT talent pool in the world, with over 120,000 trained IT professionals with approximately 3 million other graduates being added each year Source: http://www.nasscom.in/download/ites_bpo.pdf

Bangalore claims the highest number of software professionals in the world displacing Osaka, Japan, from first place with the highest growth rate (Table 10) within a span of 20 years. Presently there are 2,85,000 IT professionals in the city, growing at the rate of over 30 per cent. According to the State Government officials, there are roughly about four new companies getting registered every week in Bangalore. Table 10: Trends in IT Employees Growth in Bangalore Year 1997 2002-03 2004 2005

Number of IT employees

Percentage increase

68,350 80,000 1,73,000 2,85,000

117 216 165 -

Source: Compiled from News paper articles There has been a steady growth in investments, with the number of software firms steadily increasing over the years. The Director of Software Technology Parks of India, Bangalore, B.V. Naidu, outlines the first direct impact of BPO boom on the city as follows: “Each direct employment in BPO is expected to generate 4-5 times the secondary employment opportunity through ancillary industries. There has been major growth of ancillary industry in real estate, transportation, food and other logistic services, supporting corporates and creating jobs in the social infrastructure to support software employees and their families.” Taking this into consideration, the total number of indirect employment generated in Bangalore is estimated at 12 to 15 lakh.

5. STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 5.1. Study Area Bangalore, situated in the Deccan Plateau in the south of India, has emerged not only as the Silicon Valley of India but also as one of the top IT destinations in the world. Due to its altitude, the year-round temperatures remain significantly lower than in the surrounding plains. With the liberalisation of the economy in the early 1990s, the computer software industry started booming in Bangalore which was not surprising as it had been serving as a major centre for the growth of several manufacturing and hi-tech industries (earth moving machinery, aircraft, electronics and telecommunications, precision equipment, and so forth), and also for higher education in the natural sciences. Thus, computer industry has been attracting many major foreign multi-national computer as well as other firms. In recent years, the city also has emerged as a premier biotech research centre in the country. Software boom of the 1990s brought in hundreds of software Multi National Companies along with many highly paid professionals to the city. The readily available world class IT infrastructure and specialised human resources, quality-oriented research and development institutions and the pleasant climatic conditions and cosmopolitan environment of the city are seen as some of the main driving forces behind the software boom. The sudden spurt in the number of IT firms has had its impact on various aspects, particularly in the form of increased demand for various supportive resources – human resources, infrastructure and transport in particular. The software growth has brought in both positive as well as negative impacts; the positive being in the form of a significant economic development with substantial progress made in terms of software exports, accounting for 40 per cent of the country’s exports. Other positive impacts include business expansions, employment generation, improvement in standard of living and purchasing power. On the other hand, rapid economic growth has led to changing lifestyles such as increased use of automobiles, use and throw-away culture, which exerts immense pressure on resources (energy) and the environment, while increased demand for water and related services adds to the pressure. However, coping with changing lifestyles has brought about many other social, psychological, environmental and ecological impacts on the city. Views concerning the changes, positive accompanied by negative impacts on physical and mental health, changing lifestyles, congestion, pollution leading to an increase in waste generation, e-waste in particular and increase

34


in demand for resources particularly land and water, have been aired by academicians, professionals, officials, politicians and the general public. 5.2. Bangalore’s Population Growth The population of Bangalore has grown from less than 1 million in 1951, to about 5 million in 1991, to 8 million in 2001. In the process, it has shattered its earlier boundaries to grow from 66 sq km to around 450 sq km (D R Wooley and G K Bhat, 2000). The high decadal growth rate in the 1970s is partially attributed to change in urban boundaries (BWSSMP, 2002). Table 11 gives details on the population growth in Bangalore City since 1901. The urban agglomeration is spread between North and South taluks of Bangalore, covering a population density of 2979 individuals/sq.km (Census of India, 2001). Table 11: Population Growth of Bangalore City Over the Years Year

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

BCC Area

Metropolitan Area

Population (M)

Growth Rate

Population (M)

Growth Rate

0.16 0.19 0.24 0.31 0.41 0.78 0.91 1.42 2.48 2.65 4.29

19 26 29 32 90 17 57 75 7 62

0.22 0.26 0.31 0.40 0.51 0.99 1.21 1.66 2.91 4.08 5.7

18 20 29 28 94 22 38 75 40 39

Source: Population Census, 1998.

36


questionnaires keeping in view various areas based on their specialisation in processing – segregation, collection or extraction of specific components like gold, plastic, CRT tubes etc. However, it was not possible to administer the questionnaires as – (a) the respondents (informal recyclers) were reluctant to provide information as they felt threatened due to the ban imposed on informal e-waste recycling by PCB; (b) respondents were unable to answer the questions as they had not kept any account of information on, for instance, the quantity of waste processed, potential health problems involved in the processing type etc. With respect to understanding the impacts on urban ecology, we were mainly able to identify the locations where the e-waste was generally dumped and the possible effects it could have on the immediate environment and health of the people. As the impacts could be long term, it requires a more detailed study with scientific inputs through testing of the samples.

6. E-WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BANGALORE A SITUATION ANALYSIS 6.1. Bangalore’s Mounting E-waste Increased E-waste, one of the recent outcomes of the IT boom, is seen as a major threat to the already deteriorating environment in Bangalore. With little awareness among the majority about the magnitude of the problem, e-waste has been accumulating almost unhindered becoming one of the most serious management challenges in the recent times. Experts have cautioned against the potentially harmful impact of e-waste and the need for its safe disposal. Home to more than 1,200 foreign and domestic technology firms, Bangalore figures prominently in the danger list of cities faced with e-waste hazard (Habib Beary, 2005). As IT firms continue to swamp India’s technology hub of Bangalore, the city is beginning to choke under the impact of e-waste generated. According to Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) sixty-five cities in India generate more than 60% of the total E-waste generated in the country. Among them, Bangalore ranks third after Mumbai and Delhi. E-waste or Waste from Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) is no longer a subject for academic discussions at environmental forums. Instead, there is a growing realisation that the issue may assume dangerous proportions over the next few years if it continues to be left unaddressed. Efforts are being made to involve IT companies with a view to making them responsible. However, with hardly any data available on the number of unregistered companies, tracking them remains a problem. Pollution Control Board is taking steps to ensure safe disposal. Though The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 2003, with major amendments covers various aspects in detail, implementation has not been effective. 6.2. E-waste Generation There are several estimates on the quantity of e-waste generated in Bangalore. According to one estimate, Bangalore produces 8,000 tonne of computer waste annually. During discussions, PCB officials reported 13000 tonne of e-waste generation in 2009, which excluded household appliances. As estimated by E-Parisara, Bangalore generates12000 tonne of the 3,30,000 tonne generated in India every year, with another 50,000 tonne being illegally imported. Secondary market for old PCs accounts for 40tonne/ hr while it is 4000tonne/hr for the whole world. Manufacturers and

38


assemblers generate about 1800 tonne of electronic scrap every year. According to another estimate, about 1,000 tonne of plastics, the same equivalent of iron, 300 tonne of lead, 0.23 tonne of mercury, 43 tonne of nickel and 350 tonne of copper are generated as e-waste in Bangalore and this figure might increase by ten-fold in 2020, with the city generating onethird of the total of state’s e-waste. According to a study carried out by a IT trade body ASSOCHAM, Bangalore generated over 57,000 metric tonne (MT) of electronic waste in 2014 and stands third in the country after Mumbai (generates 96,000 MT) followed by NCR (National Capital Region – generates 67,000 MT) (Table 12). The quantity of e-waste generation is growing at a compounded rate of 20 per cent a year in Bangalore. According to a survey conducted by eparisara (a formal recycling unit located in Bangalore) in 2012, on an average, a citizen from a middle-income household generated 21 kg of e-waste a year. Table 12: Region-wise Quantity of E-waste Generated in India Regions

Quantity of E-waste Generated in Metric Tons

Mumbai NCR Bangalore Chennai Kolkata Ahmadabad Hyderabad Pune

96,000 67,000 57,000 47,000 35,000 26,000 25,000 19,000

Source: Prajavai, 22, April 2014 Discussions with the officials of the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board have revealed that the quantity of waste generated is based on the obsolescence rate of computers in the IT industry. An estimate indicates that around 30,000 computers become obsolete every year in the IT industry in Bangalore alone due to an extremely high obsolescence rate of 30 % per year. “Bangalore has more than 100 illegal dump pits for ewaste. At the rate at which technological changes are taking place, not only in computers and cell phones but also in domestic appliances such as washing machines, refrigerators, microwave ovens and TV sets, the problem seems to be compounding (The Indian Express, 21 March 2004).

E-waste Management in Bangalore

39

Bangalore, owing to its concentration of IT companies, is becoming a “dumping ground” for e-waste generated by the industry. Out of the total e-waste generated in Bangalore, nearly 90 per cent is handled by unorganised sector and remaining 10 per cent by organised sectors registered with pollution control board and process e-waste scientifically (Deccan Herald, 13, November, 2013). In 2011, only 5 per cent of the e-waste generated in the city reached formal recyclers and at present, it has increased to around 10 per cent. Most of the e-waste generated is handled by children of the age of 10-14 years (Prajavani, 22 April 2014). In a recent development, it was observed that many newspaper recyclers are also collecting electronic scrap to extract metals such as copper which is profitable. Some of them burn the components to melt the metal and most of the informal recyclers do it by hand. A Greenpeace International Report (2005) found that toxic heavy metals and organic compounds can be released from e-waste when computers are broken down during the recycling and disposal process. A report by Environment Management and Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) (2004) says that over 1,000 toxic gases are released while burning the ewaste and the quantity of dioxins, copper and lead found in the soil is 20 times higher than the permissible level. As many as 1,000 tonne of plastic, 300 tonne of lead, 0.23 tonne of mercury, 43 tonne of nickel and 350 tonne of copper are annually generated in Bangalore alone. Article published in The Hindu, dated May 12, 2005, highlights that, “The e-wastes produced in small and medium sectors mainly end up with the informal recyclers where recycling is done in a very crude and hazardous manner causing danger not only to the environment but also to the people involved in the recycling activity”. In India, over 95 per cent of e-waste (including e-waste generated within the country and imported illegally) is handled and recycled by informal recyclers. Since about 90 per cent of Indian companies do not have an ewaste disposal policy, this material has captured the attention of the large, existing informal sector. It is estimated that around 25,000 people work in the informal e-waste sector and earn wholly or partly their living out of it, as per an e-waste case study Bangalore city (e-waste guide, 2009) E-waste generating sources include IT companies, public and private sectors, hospitals, factories, commercial establishments, computer retailers, manufacturers and households (Table 13). Types of e-scrap collected from various sources include both electric and electronic items such as computers, printers, mobile phones, scanning machines, TV and all kinds of medical equipments like scanning machines, microscopes etc. The waste is generally

40


collected through tenders notified by particular institutions and forums or through other middlemen (nearly 50 %). The quantity of waste collected varies across recycling units and is mainly dependent on their capability to invest. Usually they collect in bulk (ranging approximately between one to five tons). Table 13: Sources of E-waste Collection Source

Forms of E-waste Collected

Households (by small scrap dealers, serving shops etc) Hospitals(Victoria, Nimhans, Manipal)

TVs, Refrigerators, Music systems, Washing machine, Ovens, etc Medical equipments like X-ray, ECG, Scanning Machines, Computers, Microscopes etc Computers, Microscopes, Ups including others also.

Institutions (Bangalore Medical college, Bangalore University, & other colleges) Factories, Small scale and large scale industries (BESCOM, MSDC) Banks (Canara bank, Sydicate Bank)

Computers, Meter boards, Batteries, Printers, tube lights etc Computers, Printers, tube lights and other electrical equipments

Source: Based on information collected from respondents 6.3. Flow of E-waste One of the major constraints involved in disposing e-waste is the absence of scientific landfills. As mentioned earlier, in India, the average lifespan of computers is getting shortened drastically. In the absence of scientific and formal e-waste management mechanisms and policy guidelines, the user industries that have custom bonded electronic equipments such as computers are forced to dispose of their piles of obsolete computers to illegal traders. In 2004, the IT and manufacturing units in Bangalore destroyed ` 160 million worth of computers in order to auction the pieces to scrap dealers. Dr Bob Hoekstra, CEO, Philips, said that storing obsolete equipment is difficult for IT companies. The disposal and treatment of e-waste is a distinct production chain, and as such, should not be treated solely as a way of disposing waste, because it involves both reuse and recycling. But the character of the production chain differs from the formal to the informal sector, as the formal


41

sectors is constrained by regulations, either governmental or international modes of self-regulation (ISO 14001 standards). Three factors are of major interest here: First, sources of e-waste are both domestic and international and e-waste is imported, even though it is illegal, unless 1) the purpose is direct reuse, or 2) e-waste is handled in an environmentally sound way (Basel-convention, Toxic Link, note that e-waste has only been classified as hazardous by law in India since 2008, E-Parisara 2009). Second, formal e-waste treatment plants are new in the Indian context (E-Parisara was established in 2005) which explains the third fact that 95 % of the e-waste is handled by informal recyclers (E-Parisara, 2009, Sinha-Khetriwala, 2005). Thus, the process of formalisation of e-waste management in India has just begun. This process faces the dynamics and dilemmas generally associated with what some researchers have conceptualised as the “informal” economy. In the case of India, 40% of GDP is generated by the informal sector, consisting mainly of small firms outside the reach of government policies and regulations (Thimmaiah, 2009). This sector is generally characterised by the lack of social and environmental awareness and responsibility, low wages and a multiplicity of health risks, and is mainly driven by decentralisation and outsourcing of production (Portes et al, 1989). Thus, informalisation is a way for large companies, both domestic and international, to exploit what one could denote as “labour arbitrage” (low wages and avoidance of social security provisions imposed by labour unions or governments) and “regulatory arbitrage” (avoidance of environmental regulation, pollution control etc.). But, if you apply a bottom up perspective, the interpretation of the informal sector changes. In developing countries, e-waste recycling is a lucrative business, which provides livelihood for quite a large number of people. Thus, the question is whether these people have got any real alternatives to informal recycling, or they are stuck with environmental and health hazards out of economic necessity (for a general argument of this kind, see Portes et al 1989). This stipulates that government intervention in the informal e-waste sector should be carefully designed so as to address the issues of livelihood and environmental problems. The current dynamics and infrastructure of e-waste sector pose some barriers to such intervention. First, E-Parisara (the first formal recycling plant in Bangalore) receives e-waste from large companies only due to domestic and international factors. Large international companies (IBM, Intel etc.) often face demands from stakeholders (costumers, investors etc.) for documenting their corporate social and environmental responsibility, which is why they, to some extent, follow certain standards of self-regulation in this respect. A formal recycling unit like E-Parisara in a developing country,

42


with an ISO 14001 certification, is thus ideal for their purpose in terms of legitimising the disposal in India. Even ISO 14001 is not foolproof, because during field visits it was observed that ventilation systems were inadequately repaired, proving that the effectiveness of these standards is highly dependent on monitoring and auditing. Domestically, formal disposal of ewaste has recently become mandatory in Karnataka. This has, to some extent, reduced the e-waste flow to the informal sector. However, the law faces some constraints, with regards to the capacity of the formal sector to absorb large quantities of e-waste (i.e. the general problem of the lack of infrastructure), and the multiple ways adopted to circumvent the regulations. This is actually achieved through donations of used equipment to schools or NGO’s, or through disposal for reuse (in India, you are paid for e-waste disposal because there is a far larger market for reuse and recycling – and the price offered in the informal sector is higher than in the formal sector, whereas you have to pay for the disposal of e-waste in Europe (E-Parisara, 2009). Eventually, the equipment might end up in general households, which do not face any constraints in disposing it off. In the absence of any kind of waste collection infrastructure, the informal recyclers step in. Thus, in the current situation, it is difficult to ignore the role of the informal sector in ewaste management. Formal recycling of e-waste channelised from source to recycling centre and finally to the disposal site accounts for hardly 5% of the total ewaste generated. Hence, it is the informal e-waste recycling process that raises serious concerns. In informal recycling, several levels of management are in place. The physical flow of e-waste begins with agents, waste dealers and even ordinary Kabadiwalas who acquire computer systems from the public and private sectors. After segregation, both agents and small waste dealers sell the waste to the mediating waste dealers. In the case of small waste dealers - some of the waste is sold to the public as second hand goods while the remaining is diverted to the open market. From the mediating waste dealers, the scrap flows to the service industry (as purchase parts for repair and maintenance of old computers). Again, some residuals from the service industry get back into the open market while the rest is sold to large waste dealers. From the large waste dealers, it gets channelised again in three ways: (1) Recycling of certain parts; (2) Selected waste sold to specific individuals; (3) Certain parts come back to the open market. At the other end of this chain, there is a network of dealers operating from large cities like Mumbai and Delhi through agents, middlemen and company agents. All of them approach large dealers in Bangalore to acquire scrap directly or through the open market. The process can be better understood in the form of a flow chart.


43

Flow Chart 1: Informal E-waste Recycling Process in Bangalore

Corporate Sector inclusive of Public Sector

Kabadiwalas

Agents

Waste dealer

Small waste dealer General Public Open market Medium waste dealer

Service people

Certain amount of waste recycled

Open market

Selected waste sold to specific individuals (second hand dealers)

Large waste dealer

Certain waste goes to open market

Balance waste

Agents from designated companies

General middleman

Agents from companies

NATIONAL NETWORK OF COMPANIES BASED IN MUMBAI, DELHI and other parts of the country

As there are few formal recycling units (in all 11) in Bangalore, some companies store, donate and dispose of their e-waste to informal recyclers through open auctions. The informal recycling activity is thriving with small and large-scale dealers doing brisk business in their backyard recycling units where materials like gold, copper etc are recovered using dangerous chemicals and processes in an unscientific way. The informal recyclers mainly operate in 7 major congested and thickly populated clusters in the city, comprising both residential and business establishments. People working in the informal e-waste sector are struggling to be recognised by informal to formal sectors as their livelihoods are wholly or partly dependent on this trade (E-Nam, 2008). 6.4. Formal Disposal Site – Treatment Storage and Disposal Facility The Pollution Control Board, in association with GTZ, a German Engineering Firm, has set up an e-waste disposal landfill site, with an

44


investment of ` 55 crore, 50 km off Bangalore at Dobbaspet near Tumkur road. The landfill has been operating since February 2009 despite opposition from activists, local residents and politicians fearing hazardous impact on health and environment. The landfill, known as ‘Treatment Storage and Disposal Facility’ (TSDF) is spread over an area of 93 acres with a potential storage capacity of 40,000 tonne of industrial and biomedical waste every year and actual storage capacity of 8,00,000 tonne which is enough to last for two decades. Other landfill sites in India are located in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra while others are being established in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal - all under the supervision of respective Pollution Control Boards. The process of disposal involves three steps wherein waste is segregated and treated with chemicals to ensure its breakdown into simpler components, followed by mixing with environment-friendly clay, forming a compound called Bentonite. Bentonite is layered between two layers consisting of gravel, steel linings, clay and a layer of soil and rocks. Then, the entire chemically treated block is buried at the site. According to the hazardous waste and management rules framed by the Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi, which came into effect in 1989, landfill project can only be built on sites that are above 800 feet from the ground level, receive minimal rainfall and are sparsely populated. Maridi Eco Industries and Semb Ramky Environment Management Private Limited are the two companies involved in the management of the entire process. Industries registered with Karnataka (numbering more than 2000) are required to pay between ` 1500 to ` 2500 for each tonne of waste for using the TSDF. So far, more than 8000 tonne of hazardous waste has been land filled on the site and companies like BHEL, Volvo and Toyota have used this facility. However, the industries have to follow all the regulations properly so that the environment is not affected.


45

Map 2: Formal and Informal Recycling Units in Bangalore

Note:

Two formal recycling plants that process Bangalore’s e- waste are not marked in the above map as they are located outside the geographical area

6.5. Informal E-waste Recycling in Bangalore Informal e-waste recycling is carried out in certain pockets of Bangalore (Table 14) which are highly congested, densely populated with low-income levels and populated by minority communities. Recyclers are engaged in various forms of partnerships for carrying out e-waste business. It could be a single individual or partnerships at various levels based on the financial investments that they can afford. For instance, they pool their investments for purchasing e-waste from companies and process it to share profits or set up individual businesses by establishing small business enterprises, employing labour for processing waste.

46


Table 14: Areas and E-waste Processing Enterprises in Bangalore S.N.

Areas

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Nayandalli Kenchenahalli Tannery road Hebbal Bommanalli Singasandra Nagavara Thanisandra and Sarai palya Arabic college Hegde nagar Rajajinagar New Guddahalli Old Guddahalli Satellite town (Bapuji nagar) Rajarajeshwari nagar Sunday market Jolly moholla Wannarpet Neelasandra Ashoka nagar Tilak nagar Gowripalya and Padarayanapura Seepings road and Thimmaiah road Balajinagar New Gurappanpalya Bismillanagar J.C road Total

Source: Compiled during field visits

Ward no 131 160 48 21 175 191 23 6 6 6 99 134 136 134 160 30 30 71 69 76 58 44 79 64 64 64 46

No of Enterprises 18 1 16 27 2 1 6 3 1 2 15 2 5 3 3 15 7 1 10 6 6 22 5 10 1 2 20 220


47

Plate 1: Informal Recyclers segregating E-waste, Gowripalya, Bangalore

Photo: Manasi S Plate 2: Extracting Copper from Wires, Gowripalya, Bangalore

Photo: Manasi S

48


Map 3: Informal Recycling Areas of Bangalore with Ward Numbers and Processing Types

Among the areas specified earlier, the following table (Table 15) highlights the highly active areas of e-waste processing. Table 15: Highly Active Areas in E-waste Processing Sl. Area No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Nayandalli Jolly Mohalla Sunday market Gowripalya Padarayanapura Sweepings road and Thimmaiah road Tilak nagar Bismillanagar (Bannerghata road)

Ward number

Categories of Number of scrap collected enterprises

131 139 79

*** *** * * * *

18 7 15 22

153 -

** *

5 2

Total

75

5

Source: Based on information collected during field visits Note: Categories of scrap collected: Electrical and Electronic (*), Electronic and computer plastic scrap (**) and Electrical, Electronic and computer plastic scrap (***)


49

Box 6: Pavement Selling Sunday Bazaar is a local shandi/market near Jolly Mohalla where vendors sell various electronic components. Electrical appliances, electronic items and its components are all sold at relatively low prices. Around 8 to 10 vendors were found selling electronic goods during our field visits (the number may vary every Sunday). Interestingly three of the vendors had a few computers including printer and scanner for sale at a low price of ` 4000/- while other vendors were observed selling different parts of a computer like Mother Board, Hard disk, CPU controller and Keyboard. Source: Based on field observations

6.5.1. Informal E-waste Recycling Process These recyclers run small enterprises (an area of 4x4 sq feet for small enterprises and 20x20 sq feet for large enterprises) where they process waste in various combinations (Table 10). Usually, 25% of the total computer scraps collected is reusable. The general trend is that they accumulate waste up to 1 tonne and later sell it to second hand dealers specialised in processing of respective components. Generally recyclers specialised in certain processes or combination of processes congregate in specific areas. For instance, there are recyclers who collect only wires and sell them to large scale dealers and there are those who just collect scrap, to sell them to large dealers (Table 16). While recyclers in Gowripalya are specialised in extraction, recyclers in Nayandahalli and Tilak Nagar areas process plastic waste – all these aspects have been documented in detail across various areas (See map 3 and table 16).

++ + +

++ +

+ +

+

+ +

+

* ***### * *

30 30 71 69

+

+ +

contd...

15 52 1 10

3

15 2 14 3

3 1 2

153 1 115 27 2 1 6

##

+ +

+

160

+ + + +

+

+

+

* * #* *

+

+

+

+

99 42 42 42

+

+

+ +

## * ###

++ + + + + +

12 12 12

+

+

#* *** #* * ## ### *

39 17 90 96 135 191 12

Nayandalli Kenchenahalli Tannery road Hebbal Bommanalli Singasandra Nagavara and thanisandra Saraypalya Arabic college Govindapura and Hegde nagar Rajajinagar New Guddahalli Old Guddahalli Satellite town (Bapuji nagar) Rajarajeshwari nagar Sunday market Jolly moholla Wannarpet Neelasandra

++ + ++ + + + +

Ward Categories Collec- Dismant- Segre- Shredd- Mould- Metal Metal Metal Second Granulat- No of no of Scrap tion ling gation ing ing extrac- extracextrac- hand ing shops collected tion tion gold tion sale & Copper) (Copper)

Area

Table 16: E-waste Recycling Areas of Bangalore

50 E-waste Management in Urban Cities

*

* 64

* *

79

64

64 46

Total

* # # ## *

76 58 44

Source: Field survey

Ashoka nagar Tilak nagar Gowripalya and Padarayanapura Seepings road and Thimmaiah road Balajinagar New Gurappanpalya Bismillanagar J.C road +

+ *

+

+ ++ +

+

+

+

+ + +

+

+

+

+ + + +

+

+

+

+

+

220

2 20

10 1

5

6 51 22

E-waste Management in Bangalore 51

52


Table 17: Collection areas of E-waste in Bangalore Sl. Area No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Tannery road Nagavara ring road and Thanisandra Rajajinagar Satellite town (Bapuji nagar) Rajarajeshwari nagar Tilak nagar Neelasandra Balajinagar

Ward number

Categories of Number of scrap collected shops

90 12

# *

1 6

165 42

* *

15 3

160 58 69 64

## # * *

3 1 10 10

Total

49

Source: Based on information collected from respondents and own observations. Note: Categories of scrap collected: Electrical and Electronic (*), Electronic and computer plastic scrap (**), Electrical, Electronic and computer plastic scrap (***), only computer plastic scrap collection (#) and only electrical scrap collection (# #) E-waste recycling involves the following steps: Dismantling and Segregation: The scrap collected/purchased from various sources is segregated into reusable and recyclable components. While the reusable ones are sent to different markets, the recyclable components are dismantled manually and further segregated and sent to respectable recycling markets. Recycling: The segregated reusable waste is further tested for suitability through assembling across various components and formed into a workable system, for example, components from different computers are assembled to form a new workable computer or cathode ray tubes of colour monitors are used in making colour Television sets. Extraction: After recycling, dismantling and segregation, some materials containing metals are categorised into motherboards, mobile phone handsets, processors, scanning machine etc and metals like gold, copper, silver, nickel, platinum extracted in crude forms. The quantity of gold recovered from 50 processors comes to about 3-4g and is sold or used personally for making ornaments.


53

Flow Chart 2: E-waste Processing Recycling (Delhi)

E-waste collection

Dismantling

Segregation

Refurnishing

Second hand dealers

Directly to Consumers

Table 18 provides a list of various components recovered from various items that are reused after dismantling. Table 18: Reusable Parts of E-waste E-waste

Reusable Components

Computer

Condenser, capacitor, CD-ROM, RAM, Hard disk, Keyboard, Mouse, CRT [only from colour monitors] Condenser, capacitor, CD-ROM, RAM, Hard disk, Keyboard, Mouse Whole set Tuner, cartridges, covers, paper roller etc Iron, compressor, starter, switches, rubber

Television Fluorescent lamp Printer Fridge

Source: Based on discussion with respondents 6.5.2. Employment Recyclers (owners of the recycling units) and employees mostly belong to the age group 25-35 years of age. However, children below 14 years of age are also engaged in the recycling process. While most do simple chores like collecting specific kinds of waste from various shops, some are involved in segregation and dismantling. Besides women, both young and old, are employed in processing of waste at households. Unprocessed e-waste is provided at their doorstep and segregated waste collected towards the end of the day. Labourers employed are usually paid on a daily basis (ranging between ` 75 and ` 90 for women and `100/ to 120/day for men), while a few are hired on a monthly basis (` 5000 6000/-) depending on the e-waste procured. Most of the workers appointed happen to be from the states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.


55

Plate 4: E-waste Stored in Informal Recycling Shops, Gowripalya, Bangalore

Photo:

Manasi S

6.5.3. Monetary Benefits Informal recyclers purchase e-waste in bulk from companies, institutions and households at prices depending on the type of material purchased. For instance, recyclers buy e-waste at a lower cost, with a nonworking computer purchased at about ` 200 and a non-working UPS at `150. Second hand computers are purchased at ` 1500 and sold at ` 2000 with selling price varying between ` 2000-3000 depending on the configuration. Similarly, profits vary depending on the capital invested. For instance, if they invest ` 50,000, they might make a profit of ` 5,000. Further, details of prices at which they sell various components are given in Table 18. However, a study carried out by Saahas differs on prices charged by informal recyclers.

56


Table 19: Selling Price of Recycled Materials by Informal Recyclers Material recovered

Purchase Sale Price Price (`/kg)

Sale Price (Saahas study)

Copper Aluminum [6 varieties] Iron Silver Gold Aluminum Plastic [4 varieties] CPU outer box Computer Cabinet Wires outer casing Refilled cartridges Recharged batteriesb Printed circuit board (P4) Second hand computer

20-120 30-50 20-25

190-200 70 30-40

126-174

2-25

10-70 14 25-60

20-50

20-30 6000 6000/10 gms 40-95 12-35

3-18 1500/piece 3000/piece 250-300/piece 2000-3000/piece

Source: Based on discussions with respondents Note: Cartridges are more expensive than Printers, hence, people purchase new printers while recyclers reuse cartridges. b Waste batteries are re-charged and sold as second hand products Table 20: Prices at Sunday Bazaar (In rupees) Name of the parts sold Motherboard Hard disk CPU power supplier Keyboard

Selling price / Piece 70-90 50-70 300-450 50-100

Source: Based on field observations A computer, along with printer and scanner, is generally priced at ` 6,000. Prices of components vary across vendors as they purchase nonworking computers from different offices spread across different parts of Bangalore, dismantle and segregate components, which can be reused and reassembled to make a working system for sale at Sunday Bazaar.


57

E-wastes processed by formal recyclers are purchased at different prices the details of which are presented in Table 21. Table 21: Purchase Price of E-waste by E-Parisara Waste Electronic/Electrical Material

Price per Tonne (in `)

Category A CPUs, Laptops, Servers, Telecom networking switching station etc. Scanners, Fax, Monitors, CRTs, Photocopy, old telephones, Washing machine, Vacuum Cleaners, Card Readers, Swipe machine, Fans, etc. Plastic waste, Printers, PCBs, CDs, Storage devices, Thumb drives, Power Control units, IO device, Key boards, Mouse, Plastic parts, Handsets, Chargers, Calculators etc. Metal waste, Speakers, Multimedia, Electrical Items (Regulators, Meters, Switches, Starters, Chokes, Wires, Cables etc), CPU cabinets, etc.

2500.00 1500.00

1500.00

1500.00

Category B Tube lights, CFLs, Bulbs, Batteries (other than Lead acid batteries), Floppies, LCDs, Toner Cartridges, Transformers and Condensers containing cooling oil, etc. Note:

15.00

a) E-Parisara buys materials mentioned in Category-A from the generator. b) For materials mentioned in Category- B, the generator shall pay disposal charges.

The study found that the price mechanisms of e-waste trading vary across formal and informal recyclers. The formal recyclers have categories across waste collected and purchased at a fixed price from various companies, whereas informal recyclers have no stipulated price fixed as they purchase in bulk and quote based on their experience, making guesstimates and may gain or lose in terms of the material purchased as reported by the recyclers. However, the sale prices of materials recovered remain almost the same across various informal recyclers, indicating that recyclers have a better future in terms of e-waste business.

58


Table 22: Formal Recycling Units in Bangalore Organization and inception year

Types of e-waste collected

Source of collection

Process involved

Metals extracted

E-parisara2005

Computer scrap and all types of electrical and electronic appliances

IT companies, Government organisations (ELCIA.) NGO (SAHAAS)

Manual dismantling, segregation, shredding, crushing, pulverising and density separation

Gold, silver, palladium and lead

Ash Recyclers 2007

Only computer scarp

Rag pickers and e-waste collection agents from various areas of Bangalore

Manual dismantling, segregation and metal extraction

Gold, platinum and copper

Nishanth Technologies 2007

Computers, laptops, landline phones

IT companies

Collection, segregation and dismantling manually

-

K.G Nandini enterprises 2008

Computer scrap, IT companies cell phones Printers, Electrical cables, motors & transformers

Shredding D elaminating S creening Fluid bed separation

-

E-Ward

Electronic items

IT companies & Watch factory

Dismantling Segregation

Attero

Electronic goods

Households and IT companies

Collection Dismantling Mechanical separation

Metals

Source: Based on discussions with respondents

6.6. Formal Recyclers The authorised dealers receive e-waste from corporates for scientific recycling of waste. There are eleven authorised recycling units in Bangalore. In addition, there are 17 e-waste dismantling units in the study area. Organised recycling companies are equipped to process e-waste at different degrees of competence. However, even though the competence in treating e-waste varies across formal e-waste units, it is important that the formal


59

recycling is in place, while the processes can always be upgraded. Apart from processing e-waste, formal recyclers are also involved in awareness programmes in collaboration with NGOs and schools. The formal recyclers are supposed to abide by rules and regulations in processing e-waste, including safety aspects concerning employees. Some insights (Table 22) into recycling units might provide an overview of their functioning and management of e-waste. 6.6.1. E-Parisara E-Parisara, the first formal e-waste recycling unit in India, is spread over an area of 1.5 acre and was established with a capital cost of 2.5 crore in 2005. Its current e-waste processing capacity works out to 3 tons /day and a full-scale capacity of 10 tons/day with energy consumption of 66 HP per day and water consumption of 700 litres per day. About 78 employees work in the firm, with scope for more. E-waste at E-Parisara is derived from different kinds of electronic materials, especially computer components. Around 194 companies and three government sector firms have registered with E-Parisara (Table 23). Being a formal recycling unit, E-Parisara has got a number of big companies such as IBM, Sony, Philips, ABB and Motorola, HP, Lucent, Mphasis etc as its sources of e-waste. Once registered with E-Parisaraa, the institutions have to abide by certain terms and conditions. Its main aim is to work towards maximum material recovery, non-incineration, minimum power and water use and also minimum landfill. The Plant also has an environmental policy that is “committed to conduct electronic waste management in an environmental responsible manner” (E-Parisara, 2009). Table 23: Companies Registered with E-Parisara Type of industry

Number 4

Private IT companies Government Sector5 NGOs Other organisations

Quantity in tonne/yr

194 3 1 (SAHAAS) 1 (ELCIA)

50-60 10-15 2 22-25

Source: E-Parisara, 2009 4

Private IT companies registered with E-parisara include Intel, IBM, Infosys, GE, Lucant technologies, Monsanto imagine, ABB, TATA ELXSI, Mphasis, Philips, Motorola, Siemens, Sony, Ingersoll Rand, Wep Peripherals.

5

Government sector firms include BHEL, ISRO and IISc

60


Salient Features 











E-Parisara goes through all the Environmental Health and Safety audits by its customers and their counterparts from abroad. Illegal imported wastes are not handled as a policy. E-Parisara collects e-waste on payment, follows safety procedures, assures data destruction, defacing and light destruction, and provides logistics support apart from guiding customers on legal procedures. It follows the Form 9 manifest of Hazardous Management Rules. EParisara charges its customers based on type of waste and purchases not less than 1 tonne. E-Parisara’s downstream vendors are approved from PCB. As EParisara does not have the required technology to recover metals from circuit boards, it sends shredded circuit boards to Belgium with due permission from the MoEF. With regard to environmental initiatives, E-Parisara is an ISO 14001:2004 certified company – certified by TUV sud. Company. It monitors air, water and noise pollution levels periodically. It is also conducts periodic training programmes for workers and evaluation, besides conducting environmental awareness training programmes to educate employees. With regard to health and safety initiatives, it conducts periodic health checkups for all employees, emergency response plans, mock drills, first aid trainings and provides insurance policies. Safety nets are in place, with appropriate equipments like fire extinguishers, fire buckets, emergency showers etc. As part of its initiatives towards corporate social responsibility, it has participated in various exhibitions, video shooting promoted through telecasts, sponsored awareness programmes at schools, donation of computers to schools, provided training to informal recyclers in adopting safety measures and alternative methods during extraction. Training requirements for workers are periodically monitored and adequate hand and power tools provided.

Surface Chem Finishers is a sister concern set up by E-Parisara which makes beautiful gold plated idols out of E-waste collected.

62


In the primary stage, equipments like CPUs, monitors, servers, printers, etc, are manually dismantled and components like mild steel, plastics, CBs, cables, different sub-assemblies, etc., are segregated. Men handle heavier equipments like telecommunication equipments, servers, etc., while lighter equipments like keyboards, mouse, hard drives, etc, are handled by women. In the secondary stage, the sub-assemblies like hard disks, CD drives, Floppy drives, etc are further dismantled and materials segregated. Flow Chart 3: Flow Chart Showing Demanufacturing Process of Different Types of Electronic Wastes PCBs Computers and peripherals

Entertainment ICs and Components

Telecom CRT Refurbished

DEMANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY Reuse reassembly components Metals (Cu, Al, fe, Au, Ag, Pb Tin)

Plastics (ABS, HIP, PP. PE, PC) Glass (Pb glass etc)

After the de-manufacturing process, different metals, plastics and glass are obtained and refurnishing and subassembly of components done (refer Flow chart 3 to 5). Metals like copper, aluminum, iron, silver, lead, gold etc are obtained. Different forms of plastics are obtained such as ABS, HIP, PP, PE, and PC. Recovered plastic materials are transferred to authorised vendors for recycling. Flow Chart 4-: Different Processes Involved in Obtaining Different Forms of Plastics

Source:

E-Parisara


63

Flow Chart 5: Steps Involved in Recycling CRT Glass Cullets into Another CRT

Source:

E-Parisara

Flow Chart 6: Picture Showing Tube Light Crushing under Vacuum Traps

Source: E-Parisara Flow Chart 7: Metal Processing

Source:

E-Parisara

64


Table 24: Percentage Share of Materials Obtained from Recycling Materials Mild Steel Stainless Steel Glass Plastics Copper Aluminum Other materials Hazardous Materials

Percentage 23 8 27 27 3 3 8 1

Source: E-Parisara Some hazardous components handled during the process of dismantling such as dry cells, Toners (Carbon), Different Batteries, LCD, LEDs are stored in huge storage rooms, with water used during recycling process reused. Finally, e-waste is sent to the e-waste disposal site constructed close to the company. 6.6.2. Ash Recyclers Ash Recyclers collect only computer scraps, which can be reused. The recycling unit offers to pick up of any obsolete electronic equipment and pays for it. It also receives computer scraps through primary and secondary collectors (rag pickers) directly or indirectly from specific areas in Bangalore (Frazer town, Yeshwanthpur, Jayanagar, Shivajinagar, Indiranagar) and also from the neighboring country, Dubai. Unlike EParisara, Ash Recyclers do not accept e-waste from IT companies and NGOs directly as the material must be physically broken down before processing it as e-waste due to custom bond. The collected e-waste is stored in 16 storage units in various parts of the city. Ash Recyclers operate at two centers in Bangalore - Tammiah Road and Hoskote. The unit at Hoskote is exclusively used for the extraction of certain metals like gold, platinum and copper, while the unit located at Tammiah Road deals only with repairs and refurnishing of computers. About 80% of computer scraps collected are recycled and the remaining 20% sent for component recovery. As mentioned earlier, women are also engaged in processing of e-waste. Ash Recyclers has about 60 – 80 employees and it engage the poor and socially-secluded women (divorcees, widows) belonging to minority communities. They operate from their houses where unprocessed e-waste is delivered and segregated waste collected back.


65

Methods Flow Chart 8: Flow Chart of E-Waste Processing at Ash Recyclers Collection of E -waste

Harzardous material segregation and recovery

Safe storage

Material recovery

Manual dismantling and sorting

Automated separation

Recycled material storage and transport

The organisation donates refurbished computers to schools which cannot afford new ones at the cost of INR 2000-4000 with an agreement that they would be handed back after their lifespan for safe recycling (The Hindu, November 08, 2006, Recycling e-waste with care). Ash Recyclers also conduct awareness programmes for informal recyclers and school children, highlighting the importance of proper disposal. Informal recyclers are also taught about the harmful impact of improper disposal of e-waste on the environment and health and trained in the basic skills of operating computers. 6.6.3. Nishanth Technologies Nishanth technologies is located at Dyavasandra industrial area near Whitefield. The type of e-waste collected includes computers, laptops, landline phones etc. The processes involved are collection, segregation and manual dismantling. The dismantled products are sent to scrap dealers. The waste obtained is stored for about 2 years, and at present, it receives only computers and laptops from software companies in the form of ewaste. Plate 6: Obsolete Computers Stored at Nishanth Technologies, Bangalore

Photo:Latha N

66


6.6.4. Chitra Technologies Chitra Technologies located in White field, is currently closed. Chitra technologies started in 1994 with an investment of ` 20 lakhs. The industry was mainly involved in refurbishing and rebuilding old black and white CRT tubes and cathode guns, collected from all over India (sourced from households, service shops, small scrap shops, small traders) at ` 100-200/ CRT and sold to TV servicing shops on S.P Road. The industry was shut down due to downward trends in business: (1) Innovations in technology; (2) Production of new models; (3) Competition in the market for new models such as colour TV, home theaters; (4) a slump in the demand for old and second hand LCD models and a gradual decline in the market price for these models; (5) Price variations and inability to compete with Chinese and Thailand products available at lower prices. 6.6.5. Attero Recycling Attero Recycling unit is an integrated end-to-end electronic waste recycling company, with an interesting tie up with Kormangla-based treesforfree.org. A tree is planted in the name of the person who passes on e-waste to Attero Recylers. It mainly focuses on collecting e-waste from households. E-waste is collected at doorsteps and the unit can be contacted by phone. It also provides data destruction facility to ensure data security. Attero has set up an automated and integrated Electrical & Electronic Waste recycling plant in Roorkee, spread over an area of more than 100,000 sq ft. The plant processes WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), such as used computers, cell phones, network gear, TVs etc. in an environmentally-friendly manner with a very high recycling efficiency. It has close technical collaboration with a leading US company for mechanical separation processes. Recently, a first-of-its kind indigenous metallurgical process was also developed in-house. The plant houses an automated facility for integrated E-Waste recycling. Hazardous substances recovered during the process of recycling of e-waste are disposed off through the Common Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage & Disposal Facility, commonly known as CHWTSDF, authorised by the Pollution Control Board, in the prescribed manner. Attero’s recycling process involves mechanical separation of complex materials and metallurgical treatment, resulting in the minimisation of the labor-intensive manual disassembling. The recycling process in Roorkee involves various stages of manual segregation, mechanical separation and plastic recycling, followed by metallurgical treatment for separation of non-ferrous metals into constituent metals. This allows Attero Recycling to achieve higher efficiency and


67

exceed recycling and recovery rates across different WEEE categories. This is an indigenously developed process by Attero, a pioneer in transforming non-recyclable plastic into carbon black. 6.6.6. E-Ward E-Ward, the first informal recycling unit, was converted into a formal unit in May 2008 with an investment of ` 10 lakh. The unit is located at Bommanahalli headed by Mr Asif Pasha and a team of informal e-waste recyclers supported by Indo German Swiss e-waste initiative (MOEF, GTZ, EMPA) and KSPCB. The main function involves safe dismantling and segregation of e-waste. The employees are equipped with protective glass, masks, gloves, air-monitoring systems, dust collectors and many other facilities. The installed capacity is one tonne per day. Titan (watch industry) is one of the clients of E-ward and the unit collects old watches from the company during exchange offer to facilitate safe e-waste recycling.

7. CFL REVOLUTION - A BOON OR BANE! Power shortage, due to increasing consumption, is a major crisis faced by the country in recent days. To overcome the issue of increasing power demand and concerns regarding global warming, several initiatives are being taken up with one of them being efficient lighting programmes. The Compact Fluorescent lamps (CFL) used for this purpose have several benefits, and in terms of efficiency, it is four times better, lasts 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, with a life span between 6000 to 15,000 hours, produce less heat compared to other lighting systems besides being cost effective. In terms of its environmental benefits, CFL reduces not only energy demand on generating stations powered by fossil fuels but also greenhouse gas emissions. Further, CFL consumes less power as compared to incandescent lamps, i.e., 70-75%. However, there are several disadvantages in that with CFL, objects look slightly different in relation to incandescent bulbs, cannot be used with some electronic timers, photocells, and dimmers or motion detectors, or under extreme temperatures or high humidity environments; CFL bulbs aren’t effective in areas where lighting is only briefly needed, such as closets or bathrooms and can burn out prematurely if they are frequently turned on and off. 7.1. CFL – Concerns Substandard Quality and Illegal manufacturing - Demand for CFL is increasing at the rate of 25-35%, with 40-50% of the market being dominated by the unorganized sector. None of the CFL manufacturers has got registered with the CPCB for disposal and recycling of mercury waste and also there is a strong pressure from manufacturing industries to push back the revised BIS standard to another 6 months, says Sunita Narain, director, CSE. A recent research report by USAID ECO-Asia Clean Development Climate Program (ECO-Asia CDCP) shows that 50% of CFLs manufactured in the Asian region are sub-standard with no regional framework to define product quality or provide consumers and manufacturers with the right price signal on product quality. The report by National Centre of Policy Analysis (NCPA) reveals that the quality of CFLs does not conform to the claims made by the manufacturers, who promise a run of 10,000 hours for these bulbs. The report said that ban on use of traditional incandescent bulbs could backfire as poor quality CFLs had apparently more deficiencies than benefits (US agency, 2008). CFLs manufactured in India seem to be of poor quality in terms of power factor and life span. In November 2008,

CFL Revolution - A Boon or Bane!

69

BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) increased the power factor of CFLs from 0.5 to 0.85 with 6000 hrs fixed as the minimum life for all CFLs; increased power factor decreases transmission and distribution losses. Increase in unauthorised CFL Brands - Many local brands of CFLs are being marketed in various cities at relatively low prices with low quality. They sell fake CFLs at doorsteps by claiming to be authorised representatives of the government for promoting energy saving bulbs. One such instance of selling fake CFLs in Jayanagar 4th T block was reported in City plus newspaper on 2 October 2009, where conmen cheated residents of the area by claming to be representatives of BESCOM for creating awareness about CFLs and sold bulbs at prices higher than the prevalent market rates. Lack of Disposal systems and Environmental impacts - Absence of disposing and recycling systems can lead to the release of Mercury into the Environment during the breaking down of CFL waste causing serious health hazards, says Mr. Parvinder Singh, Toxic links (2007). Mercury is seen as one of the leading environmental contaminants in the world today, as it is lethal even in small amounts, and can travel a long distance from the original source of emission. Although there is a strong global campaign against this silvery heavy metal, backed by a large number of health studies, it continues to be used in a host of products and applications (Toxic linksParvinder Singh, 2008). Although CFL contains a small amount of mercury, its impact on environment and human health is high. For instance, the presence of mercury in one CFL has the potential to contaminate 6000 gallons of drinking water beyond safe levels besides adversely affecting the nervous system, kidneys and brain. CFLs produce high levels of radio frequency radiation “dirty electricity”, which, in turn, might adversely affect health in the form of muscle and joint pain, headache, nausea, sleep disorders, respiratory problems, rashes along with anxiety and depression, says Professor Magda Havas in his latest research paper on Electromagnetic Hypersensivity. In spite of all this, the State Governments are promoting the usage of CFLs through different schemes. None of the State Governments have made it a point to resolve the issue of CFL disposal, except Delhi which has authorised a Swedish firm called MRT Sustem International AB Lumavagen to collect and recycle burnt out bulbs from Hospitals and clinics. In Bangalore, the only company authorised to recycle CFL is EParisara. During the study, it has been observed that CFL is recycled informally near Hennur in Bangalore (see map 4) but it is not evident in any

70


other e-waste processing areas. The informal recycler is found to be an immigrant, working in a glass factory. During the process of recycling, CFLs are broken down for extracting various compounds like phosphor, nickel, plastic, glass etc. with no precautionary measures in place except hand gloves. The ill effects of Mercury and Phosphor that form the coating of bulbs are very high. Recycling of CFL seem to be marginal, but the environment hazards of recycling CFL in an unorganised way, mainly in residential areas, are undoubtedly high. Government measures are appreciable, but with a 72% increase in sales, it is important that we take a serious relook at the functioning of processing systems. Map 4: Map Indicating Informal CFL Recycling Site

CFL Revolution - A Boon or Bane!

71

Technical Constraints – Technically, it is extremely difficult to limit the weight of liquid mercury (generally a CFL contains at least 3 to 5 times the prescribed norms by Indian and International standards, and most of the CFL manufacturers worldwide use liquid mercury due to cost effectiveness and simpler technology). Another aspect is its delicateness, which makes it difficult to transport for disposal. Once a CFL breaks, the small amount of mercury present can have harmful impacts on the surrounding environment. There are no special equipments available that can actually hold it firm. 7.2. CFL Sales In Bangalore, more than 75% of the population uses power saving CFL lights, with 25% actually claiming to use only CFL lights in their homes, says Chandrashekar Hariharan, CEO, BCIL (Biodiversity Conservation (India) Ltd). Ten to twelve manufacturing companies mainly dominate CFL industry in India. In Bangalore, (Table 25) Wipro leads in CFL sale with an annual turnover of ` 45 crore, followed by Usha Lexus with ` 3 crores, and Philips electronics with ` 12 lakh. Osram sells about 55,000 CFLs per month in Bangalore through distributors all over the city, each covering 8-10 km, targeting 100-150 Electrical shops. They have their own disposal spot of CFLs in Timber Yard layout. Table 25: CFL Manufacturing Companies and Sales in Bangalore Sl. No.

Company Name

Sales Value

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Wipro consumer care and lighting Usha lexus Philips electronics ltd Osram India Pvt ltd Crompton Greaves ltd Bajaj Electricals ltd

45 crore 3 crore 12 lakh 8,40,000 lakh 8,57,143 lakh 1.75 lakh

Source: Based on discussion with Companies Apart from the known companies, there are a few local brands of CFLs that sell with no warranty, under different trade names like Sunlite, Nitelite, Syrin etc (these are popularly called as Chinese brands) in shops of Bangalore at varying prices (Table 26).

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Table 26: Local CFL Brands Sl. No.

Brand name

1. 2. 3.

Sunlite Syrin Nitelite

Selling Price (`/piece) 60 30 30

Source: Based on market survey Difficulties in estimating CFL usage – Estimating the total quantity of CFLs used and disposal methods by various companies is difficult due to the lack of data and access to companies. Further, not all companies use branded CFLs, making it further difficult. Based on discussions with a few companies, it appears that most of them dump their CFL-waste along with the regular waste. However, some companies do follow some precautionary measures, for instance, Satyam uses Crompton and Osram CFL brands, about 410 per year, out of which 60-80 CFLs are disposed of after use in a separate cotton box and passed on to scrap vendors, but is unaware of how vendors dispose them of. To sum up, the impact of improper disposal and processing of CFLs are a serious issue which needs immediate attention. The Government should take stringent action against manufacturing companies that fail to follow quality standards apart from implementing BIS Standards immediately, specifying the power factor, the quantum of mercury based on the watt and the lifespan of CFLs. Using of Green CFLs should be made compulsory. For instance, Pill Dosing Technology (PDT) uses amalgamated mercury which is less harmful compared to the use of conventional liquid mercury. Further, CFLs with only 1.0 mg or less than 1.5 mg of mercury per bulb need to be encouraged. It is also important that special kits designed for storing and disposing waste CFLs are made mandatory. Besides, there should be a strict control on the increasing number of local brands, considering the fact that the process of recycling CFL waste, though informally prevalent across Bangalore, is still in its infancy.

8. INSTITUTIONS’ ROLE IN E-WASTE MANAGEMENT The roles and responsibilities are unclear as yet in managing ewaste and until such time, the blame would continue. Most consumers of electronic waste are unaware of the health and environment implications. Large corporate offices and households have not given much thought to what happens to e-waste after it is sold as scrap. The general view of the industry is that the government should regulate scrap trade through authorised dealers. However, there is a larger issue concerning Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) in the sense that producers are now called upon to take up the responsibility of safe disposal of their products after it has reached the end of their shelf life. This has become an internationallyaccepted practice being regulated by appropriate legislation in other parts of the world. However, in the Indian context both multinational and domestic companies seem unwilling to embrace this practice. The IT industry, as also other generators of e-waste, are yet to fully comprehend their role in dealing with the problems related to e-waste disposal. Although the IT industry is aware of the problems concerning ewaste, most of the companies consider donating of computers as the most convenient option with regard to e-waste disposal. There is no attempt being made to follow up on the equipment donated. Thus, it is evident that collection and recycling processes need to be strengthened and systematised. As mentioned earlier, the present legislation does not seem to be effective in addressing these problems adequately. Given this scenario, there is a need for ensuring that there is an appropriate legislation in place to address the problems concerning e-waste. The government, industry, users and NGOs have started taking notice of the hazards of e-waste disposal alongside a growing consensus that recycling and resource recovery should be environmentally compatible. Several organisations have taken up various initiatives in managing e-waste. An overview of their aims and functioning highlight their efforts in strengthening the institutional structure in managing e-waste. Indo-German-Swiss e-waste initiative, involving several partners – Ministry for Environment and Forests, Central Pollution Control Board, BMZ, German Technical Cooperation, SECO and EMPA – is a case in point with regard to coordinated management of e-waste. Further, the Ministry of Environment & Forests is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government for planning, promoting, co-coordinating and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes. The Ministry is also the Nodal agency in the country for the

74


United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The Central Pollution Control Board is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the apex organisation in India for prevention and control of pollution. Among its many functions, CPCB plays an important role in drafting guidelines, advising the MoEF on policy issues, conducting field tests and coordinating the activities of the state pollution control boards. The German Federal Ministry for Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) develops the guidelines and concepts of German development policy. It determines the long-term strategies for co-operation with different participants and defines the rules for their execution. This principal task results in the development of common projects with the partner countries in the same way at the international level. The GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) is an international cooperation enterprise for sustainable development with worldwide operations. Advisory Services in Environmental Management (ASEM) is a joint programme of the GTZ and the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), focusing on urban and industrial environmental management and sustainable development. The SECO is the Swiss Confederation’s competence centre for all core issues relating to economic policy, and in 2003, SECO initiated the Knowledge Partnerships programme in e-waste for developing and transition countries. EMPA is an independent, neutral institution for multidisciplinary research on sustainable materials and systems engineering. Within EMPA, the competence centre for electronic waste recycling forms part of the technology and society laboratory, which analyses the impact of technological developments on the society and environment. EMPA is the technical control body for e-waste recyclers in Switzerland, contracted by two system operators SWICO Recycling Guarantee (SWICO) and Swiss Foundation for Waste Management (SENS) for carrying out regular audits in recycling facilities. E-waste recycling is one of EMPA’s research topics, both at the levels of material flow and components. The role of KSPCB, as is known, is to enforce laws, and with Ewaste being an emerging issue, it is working in coordination with other agencies in e-waste management. KSPCB received first application in 2005 for re-cycling e-waste in Karnataka and was the first one to give such an authorisation to E-Parisara followed by other formal recyclers. The above mentioned institutions partner and work as specified in the Flow chart - 9

Institutions’ Role in E-waste Management

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Flow Chart 9: Overview of Indo-German-Swiss Partnership Project WEEE, Bangalore

Source: http://india.ewasteguide.info/partners Flow Chart 10: Institutional Coordination in E-waste Management Indo‐German‐Swiss Project WEEE

India

German

Swiss

MoEF

GTZ

EMPA

CPCB

BMZ

SECO

City initiatives EWA

E‐waste activities

NGO ‐ Saahas

Apart from the national initiative, the city initiative is also specified in the above Flow chart - 10. WEEE Task force - The government has formed a WEEE (European community directive) task force, comprising the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board), the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Ministry of IT & Electronics, Industry associations, NGOs and some independent experts. Indo-German-Swiss e-waste initiative is a joint project involving India, Switzerland and Germany. The vision of this initiative is to establish a clean e-waste channel aimed at establishing (a) a convenient collection and disposal

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system for large and small consumers to transfer all their e-waste safely; (b) a voluntary system for producers concerned to take care of their products post their useful life; (c) a financially secure system that makes environmentally and socially responsible e-waste recycling viable. The initiative also aims to work towards (a) reducing risks to the population and pollution of the environment resulting from unsafe e-waste handling; (b) focusing on knowledge transfer to and skills upgradation of all the stakeholders through trainings and seminars; (c) targeting the existing informal recyclers for their maximum but safe participation in future ewaste management by facilitating their growth and integration with the formal structure. Electronics City Industries’ Association (ELCIA) was formed by the industries located in the Electronics City in 1992. ELCIA is an umbrella organisation representing all the companies operating in the Electronics City, Bangalore, and is already taking proactive steps in terms of setting high environmental standards for its members. The main objective of ELCIA is to provide an e-waste management system for the companies in Electronics City for disposing of their waste. It has, in this respect, organised various eco-friendly programmes, including a waste sensitisation programme on plastics besides encouraging its member companies to move all their ewaste including tube lights and CFLs to the collection point. In one such instance, within a span of two months (from June to August of 2008) 16 companies including WIPRO, Infosys, Timken and others collectively handed over 21 tonne of e-waste to the collection point. The waste collected was then handled over to E- Parisara, the authorised e-waste recycler. ELCIA is also working on a Data Assessment questionnaire, which will allow ELCIA to define the capacity of the clean e-waste channel, including details like quantity, type, quality etc of e-waste generated. E-waste agency (EWA) - is a nodal agency for e-waste management in Bangalore formed by IT companies, NGOs and the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board with the main objective of curtailing unregulated dumping of electronic waste in Bangalore. EWA constitutes representatives from the IT sector such as Nasscom, MAIT and STPI, the State and Central pollution control boards and various recyclers like Ash Recyclers, E-Parisara, and NGOs like Green peace, Centre for Sustainable Development, Saahas, Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and Toxic links. Currently EWA, with the support from the Indo-German-Swiss e-waste Initiative, is engaged in training groups from the informal sector, towards an eco-friendly management of e-waste. The objective is to mainstream them into the growing list of authorised recyclers. Besides, EWA has also helped form an


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association called ‘Eco–Bird’ consisting of 11 recycling units from the unorganised sector in Gowripalya. 8.1. Initiatives IT companies In 2006, Wipro Infotech, launched an ‘E-Waste Disposal Service’ to its end-use-customers by identifying suitable disposal mechanisms such as service points across the country, technically competent disposal agencies and a complete process for the disposal of e-waste. Under this arrangement, the end-use-customers can dispose of their obsolete Wipro range of PCs, laptops and servers. The company has identified 15 locations across the country where the company executives are authorised to collect e-waste from its customers and safely dispatch it to certified agencies like Trishiraya Recycling and Ash Recyclers in Bangalore for recycling and disposal. Customers will have to pay ` 5-7 per kg of material towards freight and logistics. As per a rough estimate, the cost works out to around ` 170 for a typical computer system consisting of a CPU, monitor and keyboard. Besides, the statutory levy such as duty, tax or octroi will also have to be borne by the customers, according to an official release by the company. This service initiative covers all aspects of e-waste collection, recycling, monitoring and adherence to relevant pollution control laws. The company also monitors the disposal of its customers’ e-waste by the agencies and also their compliance with pollution control norms (Business Standard, Sept 7 2006, DNA Solutions, September 7, 2006). A recent survey conducted by Ipsos-MORI, London-based research collaboration, reveals that most people in nine out of ten countries are willing to pay an additional amount for more environment-friendly computers and also expect that companies be made accountable to deal with their hazardous waste from PCs. After a sustained campaigning by Greenpeace late last year, Wipro, an Indian IT company listed on the New York Stock Exchange, became the first Indian electronics company to commit to “greener electronics”. RoHS is an EU directive that makes it obligatory on the part of the electronics industry to eliminate heavy metals like lead, cadmium and mercury from its products. In Bangalore, WeP Peripherals Limited in association with Saahas, an NGO, has launched an e-waste collection drive programme at various locations in the city with WeP contributing a major part of the funding for Saahas for e-waste collection. WeP also has set up the Social Development Trust with a contribution from its net profit. Besides, WeP has taken initiatives

78


in addressing the growing threat of e-waste disposal by consciously introducing and promoting environment-friendly products like green toner, green printer, and green printer program. This “Green Print Program” is an eco-friendly printing business model introduced by WeP Peripherals Limited. Through this programme, they sell their Laser Printers and Multi Function Printers to customers, allowing them to re-sell the same to WeP, after 4 years from the date of purchase at an attractive rate of 50% of the base printer value. Environment management is one of the key initiatives under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) along with Corporate Governance, Employee Welfare, Human Rights policies, Health & Safety and Community Development. Box 7: The Clean Computer Concept Many companies have demonstrated that they can design cleaner products. Although the industry is making some progress in terms of designer products, we need to move beyond pilot projects and ensure that all products are upgradeable and non-toxic. • Hewlett-Packard Company has developed a safe cleaning method for chips, using carbon dioxide as a substitute for hazardous solvents. • Printed circuit boards can be redesigned using a different base material, which is self-extinguishing, thereby eliminating the need for flame-retardants. • Matsushita is “accelerating efforts to eliminate toxic substances and develop more environmentally benign materials such as lead-free solder, nonhalogenated lead wires and non-halogenated plastics”. Matsushita has also developed “the first ever lead-free solder for flow soldering applications and have recently launched, in Japan, their first totally-recyclable television sets.” • Sony Corp has developed a lead-free solder alloy, which is usable in conventional soldering equipment. There is a range of lead-free solders now available. Obviously, substitutes need to be tested for safety. • Pressures to eliminate halogenated flame-retardants and design products for recycling have led to the use of metal shielding in computer housings. • In 1998, IBM introduced the first computer that used 100% recycled resin (PC/ABS) in all major plastic parts for a total of 3.5 pounds worth of resin per product. • Researchers at Delft University in Holland are investigating the design of a wind-up laptop similar to the wind-up radio that plays for one hour for every 20 seconds of hand winding. • Toshiba is working on a modular upgradeable and customisable computer to cut down on the amount of product obsolescence. It is also developing a cartridge, which can be rewritten without exchanging parts or modules allowing the customer to upgrade the same at a lower cost. Source: WITSA, 2002


79

State Government Initiatives Various initiatives have been taken to introduce policies and guidelines for managing e-waste. In India, Ministry of Environment and Forests in association with the Central Pollution Control Board has developed Guidelines for environmentally sound management of E-Waste in March 2008. Several NGOs and civil society groups like Green Peace, Toxics Link and GTZ in coordination with Manufacturers Association for Information Technology (MAIT) framed the rules and submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Under the new E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, each manufacturer of electronic gadgets will be ‘personally’ responsible for the final safe disposal of e-waste. Eighteen electronic brands have begun implementing plans on toxic chemical phase-out and take-back of old end-of-life products in India (http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/ business/india-prepares-strictest-rules-on-disposing-of-ewaste_100234233.html) The Government plans to prepare a report listing the best practices of e-waste management. The move aims to manage e-waste recycling effectively. “There is a need to prepare a guidance manual listing best practices of e-waste management. The manual could split specific e-waste management practices into those that could be managed by small sector units and those that need be managed by large scale, organised units,” said Dr V. Rajagopalan, Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), speaking at a seminar on ‘Green Cities’ organised on the eve of World Environment Day. The CPCB plans to start a registration process for ewaste management units and following it up, all IT companies in Bangalore would be asked to dispose of their e-waste only at registered e-waste disposal units. NGO in E-waste Management SAAHAS works on integrated waste management systems. It has been working towards introducing regulations in the use and disposal of plastic and other household hazardous wastes like batteries, light bulbs, and electronic waste. Saahas, in association with E-Parisara, has set up a collection drive for handling collection, transportation and recycling points to ensure minimal impact on health and environment. The initiative began in 2006, and currently; they are into the collection of batteries, CDs and floppies only, as all others require different ways and means to recycle. These collection points have specially made bins technically suitable for collecting and transporting e-waste.

80


Table 27: Collection Points Collection points

Numbers

Public Collection points Schools Apartments and complexes

9 20 5

Total

34 Plate 7: E-waste Collection Bins

Photo: Latha N An overview of initiatives undertaken across various organisations in Bangalore is presented in Table 27.


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Table 28: City-based Initiatives of E-waste Management Organization Involved ELCIA

EWA

IT companies like WeP Peripherals Ltd etc

Saahas (NGO)

Formal Recyclers (6)

Objective

Initiatives and Activities

• Established the Clean e-waste Channel and Data assessment to define the capacity of Clean e-waste Channel to get an overview of quantity and type of e-waste generated by companies To find a sustainable • Providing trainings for informal and eco-friendly solution sector recyclers on eco-friendly to the problem of procedures. Formation of groups electronic waste. • Formation of Eco–Bird which includes 11 recycling units from the unorganised sector • E-WARDD is an association of informal e waste recyclers who are in the process of being upgraded as formal recyclers. To undertake initiatives • Promoting environment-friendly for improved management products like green toner, green through EPR printer, green printer program • Formulated Social Development Trust wherein environment management is one of the key initiatives in CSR E-waste collection, • Established e-waste collection awareness creation and points in various part of act as a link between Bangalore. producers and formal • Undertaking safe collection, recyclers. disposal of e-waste and other hazardous waste from households. • Creating awareness on environmental issues by working along with educational institutions and corporate offices To promote safe • Recycling process involving nonprocessing and disposal incineration technology-manual of e-waste dismantling, segregation, shredding, crushing, pulverising and density separation To provide an environment- friendly e-waste management system for companies in Electronics City free of charge

Source: Based on discussions with respondents during field visits

9. PRESSURES OF E-WASTE ON URBAN ECOLOGY Bangalore’s urban ecology has already been under great stress due to various forms of pollution. With the problem of e-waste increasing at a rapid rate, the effects could be serious. After a summary of the probable impacts of e-waste on ecology in this section, we have documented the inappropriate disposal methods adopted by informal recyclers in Bangalore. Given the fact that it requires more time to understand the impact on urban ecology, it is not possible to identify the exact evidences through lab testing of samples of air, water and soil. However, discussions with respondents reveal that Bangalore will face a dangerous situation if e-waste disposal is not tackled early and effectively, considering the pace at which e-waste is being generated. 9.1. On Environment Electronic components contain several toxic substances which adversely affect environment and human health. The hazards might become even more serious if e-waste components are not recycled properly. The most common practices adopted for disposal of e-waste relate to acid baths, land filling and open air burning. When electronic equipments are burned, they release abundant toxic fumes which are dangerous for environment and health, way beyond our imagination and estimation. Improperly monitored landfills can cause environmental hazards. Mercury can leach when certain electronic devices, such as circuit breakers, are destroyed. The same is true for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from condensers. When brominates flame retardant plastic or cadmium containing plastics are land filled, both Poly Brominated Diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and cadmium may ingress into soil and groundwater. It has been found that significant quantities of lead ion from broken lead containing glass, such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes, get mixed with acid waters, a common occurrence in landfills. Heavy metals like phosphor, lead and barium etc are not only harmful for humans but also for soil, underground water and air. Heavy metals also enter the food chain when fish gets affected. Studies in China indicate that ccontamination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediment and fish samples collected from rivers in Guiyu, China, where electronic waste (e-waste) is recycled and disposed, were found with total PBDE concentrations ranging from 4434 to 16088 ng/g (dry weight) in Nanyang River bank sediment, from 55 to 445 ng/g in Nanyang River bottom sediment and 51.3 to 365 ng/g in Lianjiang River bottom sediment. The mean concentrations of total PBDEs in mixed muscles of tilapia

Pressure of E-waste on Urban Ecology

83

(Oreochromis spp) was found in Lianjiang River, while highest mean PBDE concentration was obtained in liver (2687 ng/g ww), followed by abdomen muscle (1088 ng/g ww) of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) collected from Nanyang River. Open burning and dumping of e-waste are the major causes for PBDE contamination (Qian Luo et al, 2007) (source: www.ewasteguide.info/biblio/polybrominate). Many western countries have banned the usage of landfills due to their potential harmful impacts on the environment. Further, most of the advanced countries have taken steps towards holding manufacturers responsible for e-waste disposal. In fact, one can find relevant legislations enacted for enforcement of such stringent steps by Western countries. However, developing countries have a long way to go in this respect. Open dumping of e-waste results in the break down of toxic substances present in them, ingresing into soil and groundwater. Electronic waste accounts for nearly 70 per cent of the overall toxic waste currently found in open field dumps. Depending on the location of the landfills or dumping fields, the absorption of poisonous substances into groundwater can take place immediately or over a long period of time. Wherever open dumping is practiced, particularly in and around water bodies, leachates can enter surface and groundwater immediately and also the concentrations of these leachates tend to decrease during post-monsoon season and increase during pre-monsoon season in the case of ground water. Plate 8: CRT Tubes Dumped in Municipal Dustbins

Photo: Manasi S Dissolved heavy metals from e-waste released into water bodies might cause some adverse effects such as: • Alkalinity of water, reducing uptake of essential nutrients by living organisms in water

84

• •


Reduction in penetration of light into deeper layers of water bodies Disturb pH of water and depending upon its chemical composition, can have specific toxic effects on aquatic plants • Change the floristic composition of water bodies, which in turn, can cause the death of aquatic plants • Bioaccumulation of Methylated forms increasing the flow of metal toxicity to aquatic plants and thereby affecting the growth of lower plants • Inhibition of photosynthesis and growth in most of the algae • Zinc, copper and lead accumulation can have adverse effects on chlorophyll content on under water plants • Inhibitory effect on the enzymes required in chlorophyll production • Increase in biological oxygen demand, lowers the content of dissolved oxygen in water, causing suffocation and death of aquatic flora and fauna. The recycling units in Bangalore cannot be easily identified, as from the outside, they appear like regular households, as most of them are in residential areas. In practice, the entire process is carried out in small rooms within the house exposing family members to toxic fumes. The oven is fitted into a hole made in the wall. The impacts on health remain unknown with hardly any research done on the extent of damage on human health. Half of children in a city like Bangalore already have blood lead levels at about 10 micrograms per decilitre, which has resulted in a reduction in their intelligence quotient which seems like the tip of the iceberg (Business News, 2005). In Bangalore, scrap dealers adopt crude methods for retrieving goods of value. Apart from exposing themselves to toxic fumes, they also damage the environment in different ways in the process. For instance gold extraction is seen to take place in small rooms with no ventilation. Here chips from printed circuit boards containing tiny specs of gold are heated with nitric acid, posing significant environmental and human health risks. For instance in Guiyu, China, a village intensively involved in e-waste processing, ICP-OES analysis of surface dust samples from recycling workshops and adjacent areas showed high presence of heavy metals Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn (Pb 110 000, Cu 8360, Zn 4420, and Ni 1500 mg/ kg in workshop dust and Pb 22 600, Cu 6170, Zn 2370, and Ni 304 mg/kg in dust of adjacent roads). Lead and Cu in road dust were 330 and 106, and 371 and 155 times higher, respectively, than non e-waste sites located 8 and 30 km away. Levels at the schoolyard and food market showed that public places have been adversely impacted. Risk assessment predicted that Pb


85

and Cu originating from circuit board recycling had the potential to pose serious health risks to workers and local residents of Guiyu, especially children, warranting an urgent investigation into heavy metal related health impacts (Leung, A O W et al, 2008 URL: cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=20226894). In Bangalore, after the final retrieval using cyanide, waste is flushed into the open drain outside the unit. Even recycling of plastic is done in a hazardous manner. A very basic machine is used for crushing monitors and television casing units, with no protection against dust and noise provided to workers involved in the process. Recyclers, many of them women and children, melt computer parts with acids, releasing a smoke-like stream of lead, dioxin and other toxins. Workers are ‘‘bound to inhale lead fumes’’, says Kishore Wankhade of Toxics Link, a group monitoring the handling of electronic waste. PC waste leaves in its wake toxic taste (The Tribune, 22 March 2004). The situation is no different in Bangalore. Contaminants from e-waste are released into the atmosphere when waste is crushed or incinerated during the process of recycling. Incineration at low temperatures releases more pollutants than in a controlled incineration process. Emissions from open air burning triggers asthma attacks, respiratory infections, and other ailments such as coughing, wheezing, chest pain and eye irritation. Chronic exposure to open burning emissions may lead to diseases such as emphysema and cancer. Often open fires will result in forming carbon monoxide, which poisons the blood stream when inhaled. The residual particulate matter in the form of ash is prone to flying around in the vicinity and can also be dangerous when inhaled. The dissolved metals released in to the environment during the process of burning e-waste are known to cause some adverse effects on plants and other micro flora in and around the burning sites. Some of those are: • Decrease root growth and chlorophyll content of plants. • Accumulation of metals on the surface of pollen grains can lead to poor quality of honey, seriously affecting bee population and quality of honey • Cause depletion in the uptake of micronutrients by plants, leading to their chlorophyll loss • Inhibit enzyme systems in plants • Bring about changes in the biochemical activities of plants • Changes in the structure of metals after they are burnt might pave way for metals’ entry into the food chain which in the long term can cause bioaccumulation.

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•

High accumulation of some metals on the surface of plants can lead to Eutrophication. Adverse effects on plants can be a cause of concern with regard to plant diversity and it may become a much more serious issue where burning and dumping of e waste occur close to agricultural fields.

•

The major environmental problems of e-waste stem from open burning of plastic–metal parts and from precious metals leaching techniques that utilise acids (Jianxin Yang et al, 2008). Trace metal contamination was observed in the sediments of Guiyu, China, where primitive e-waste processing activities had been carried out. River sediments in Guiyu were contaminated with Cd (n.d.–10.3 mg/kg), Cu (17.0–4540 mg/kg), Ni (12.4– 543 mg/kg), Pb (28.6–590 mg/kg), and Zn (51.3–324 mg/kg). A long history of extensive and primitive processing activities of e-waste has caused a serious case of metal contamination of the aquatic environment in Guiyu, China (Coby S C et al, 2007 URL: ewasteguide.info/biblio/export/bib). In Bangalore, burning of e-wastes particularly electrical wires that are not useful for any kind of reuse, is the most commonly adopted method for disposal. During focus group discussions, informal recyclers revealed that the electrical wires were burnt in the open fields, graveyards or outside their houses in small quantities and that whenever large quantities were pooled for burning, (up to 500 kg), agricultural fields (near Mandya) on the outskirts were rented from farmers paying them ` 500/day for using their land for 2 days. The recyclers generally hire a vehicle for transporting waste to agricultural fields, and burn wire for obtaining copper. It is estimated that the burning of 50kgs of wire yields about 30kg of copper fetching them a high price of about ` 200-220 /kg. Plate 9: Burning E-waste on Open Sites, Hosur Road, Bangalore

Photo: Latha N


87

Table 29: E-waste Recycling Areas and Dumping Methods Followed by Informal Recyclers in Bangalore Sl. Areas No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Nayandalli Kenchenahalli Tannery road Hebbal Bommanalli Singasandra Nagavara and Thanisandra Saraypalya Arabic college Govindapura and Hegde nagar Rajajinagar New Guddahalli Old Guddahalli Satellite town (Bapuji nagar) Rajarajeshwari nagar Sunday market Jolly moholla Wannarpet Neelasandra Ashoka nagar Tilak nagar Gowripalya and Padarayanapura Seepings and Thimmaiah road Balajinagar New Gurappanpalya Bismillanagar J.C road

Ward New Municipal Sewage Open Open No. Ward No. Dustbins Stream Burning Drain 39 17 90 96 135 191 12

131 160 21 175 191 23 and 6

12 12 12

+ + + + + + + + + +

99 42 42 42

99

+ +

134

+

160 30 30 71 69

160 139 139 115 116

+ + + + + +

58 44

135

+

+

79 64 64 64 46

+

+

+ +

+

171 +

+

Source: Based on discussions with respondents during field visits

Table 29 shows the methods of e-waste disposal in Bangalore highlighting the need for immediate action in the respective areas as one can imagine the state of soil and sediments in these areas. In China, for instance, an analysis of soil and sediment samples collected in the vicinity

88


of an open electronic waste disposal and recycling facility located in Guiyu, Guangdong, China, for the levels of common polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), showed the presence of PBDEs in the soil and sediment samples at levels of 0.26–824 ng/g (dry weight) (Dongli Wang, 2005). 9.2. Grave Health Impacts of Improper E-waste Recycling and Disposal Electrical and electronic equipments are made of a multitude of components, which can have an adverse impact on human health, if not handled properly. Environmentalists claim that e-waste of different forms contains more than 1,000 types of toxic substances, harmful to human beings and the environment. Such problems arise due to improper recycling and disposal methods followed by recyclers. Problems can occur when devices break intentionally or accidentally, contaminating the immediate environment. In the long run, toxic chemicals present in landfills can seep into the ground (possibly affecting water supply) or escape into the atmosphere, leading to serious consequences for the people residing in the proximity of e-waste recycling and burning areas. In China, an analysis of freshwater samples collected from Lianjiang and Nanyang River of Guiyu showed higher concentration of dissolved metals as compared to the other reservoirs outside of Guiyu. The common dissolved metals found were As, Cr, Li, Mo, Sb, Se, Ag, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Discharges of metals were attributed to a strong acid leaching operation of e-waste. In summary, it was evident that the riverine environment of Guiyu was heavily impacted by e-waste related activities (Coby S C et al, 2007). E-waste recycling has direct and indirect effects on human health conditions. The direct impact may be caused by the presence of dust in indoor air generated during manual and mechanical dismantling processes (e.g. when processing plastics or CRT, the filter dust generated during the mechanical dismantling process; noise emissions during the manual and mechanical dismantling processes have impact on human health). To overcome these direct impacts, there are several standards in place which the recycling industry should follow. However, it varies across countries. For example, in India, CPCB- Hazardous waste Management Rules 2003 and in Switzerland SUVA (Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund) have defined different MAC (Maximum Allowable Concentration) values. The compliance with these values will minimise the risk of adverse health effects. Indirect impacts on human health may be caused by air pollution due to (HT) incineration (however the situation has improved since waste gas


89

purification systems are becoming a common standard), emissions due to transportation of materials, contamination of water systems and soils near landfills. The indirect impacts on human health are difficult to quantify, because of synergistic effects and the time lag involved between exposure and reaction. Table 30 (also refer annex Table A6) explains some of the diseases and impacts on environment due to improper handling of e-waste and its recycling process. Beryllium, chromium, lead, and cadmium found in computers and electronic gadgets are poisonous carcinogens which can enter the food chain. For instance, in Guiyu, China, a major electronic waste managing centre, PCB levels in fish (caught from local rivers), atmosphere and human milk samples were examined to determine the exposure levels of PCBs for local residents and e-waste workers. The source appointment and correlation analyses showed homologue composition of PCBs in 7 species of fish consistent and similar to commercial PCBs Aroclor 1248. PCB levels in the atmosphere surrounding the open burning site were significantly higher than those in the residential areas. Inhalation exposure contributed 27% and 93% to the total body loadings (the sum of dietary and inhalation exposure) of the local residents, and e-waste workers engaged in open burning respectively, while total PCB concentrations in human milk ranged from N.D. to 57.6 ng/g lipid, with an average of 9.50 ng/g lipid. Results indicated that commercial PCBs derived from e-waste recycling were the major sources of PCBs accumulating in different environmental media, leading to the accumulation of high chlorinated biphenyls in human beings (Guan Hua Xing et al, 2008). The monthly concentrations of the sum of 22 BDE congeners contained in TSP and PM2 5 at Guiyu were 21.5 and 16.6 ng m– 3, with 74.5 and 84.3%, contributed by nine congeners (BDE-28, -47, -66, -100, -99, 154, -153, -183 and -191 respectively). This pattern was similar to Tsuen Wan site of Hong Kong. Two urban sites of Guangzhou had the same congener pattern, but were different from Yuen Long and Hok Tsui sites of Hong Kong. The results also showed that the amount of mono to penta brominated congeners, which are more toxic, accounted for 79.4 - 95.6% of Σ22PBDEs from all sites. All congeners tested in Guiyu were up to 58– 691 times higher than the other urban sites and more than 100 times higher than other studies reported elsewhere. The higher concentration in the air was due to heating or open burning of electronic waste since PBDEs are formed when plastics containing brominated flame retardants are heated (W J Deng et al, 2007). Dr Thuppil Venkatesh, director of the National

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Centre for Lead Poisoning, Bangalore, says the electronic waste menace is leading to cancer and DNA aberrations, and in children, a steep reduction in intelligence quotient. Bangalore’s hospitals have started witnessing patients with ten times the expected level of lead in their blood streams. Table 30: Environmental and Health Hazards from E-waste Computer/ e-waste component

Process

Potential Occupational hazard

Potential Environmental hazard

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

Breaking removal of copper yoke and dumping

SilicosisCuts from CRT glassInhalation or contact with phosphor containing cadmium or other metals Tin and lead inhalationPossible brominated dioxins, beryllium, cadmium & mercury inhalation Toxicity affecting workers and nearby residents through tin, lead, brominated dioxins, beryllium, cadmium and mercury inhalation

Lead, barium, and other heavy metals leaching in to ground water and release of toxic phosphor Air emission of the same substances

Printed circuit Disordering boards (PCB) and removing computer chips Dismantled PCB processing

Chips and other gold-plated compounds

Open burning of waste boards

Tin lead contamination of immediate environment including surface and ground water, brominated dioxins, beryllium, cadmium, and mercury inhalation Chemical Acid contact with eye, Hydrocarbons, heavy stripping using skin may result in metals, brominates nitric and permanent injury. d substances etc hydrochloric Inhalation if mists and Acidifies river acid along fumes of acids, chlorine systems, destroying river banks and sulphur dioxide fish and flora gases can cause respiratory irritation to severe effects, including pulmonary edema, circulatory failure and even death. contd...


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Plastics from the computer and peripherals

Shredding and Probable hydrocarbons, Emission of low-temperature brominated dioxins and brominated dioxins, melting PAH exposure to heavy metals and workers living in the hydrocarbons burning work area Secondary Furnace Exposure of workers Emission of dioxins steel or copper recovering steel to dioxins and heavy and heavy metals and precious or copper from metalsBrominated and Hydrocarbon and metal smelting waste. chlorinated dioxin and ashes, including PAHs wires Open burning to PAH living in the discharged in to recover copper burning work area atmosphere, water and soil Source: Indian journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicines Note: PAH- Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Box 8: E-Toxics in Computers – Health risks Lead - Lead can cause damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, blood system and kidneys in humans. Effects on the endocrine system have also been observed and its serious negative effects on children’s brain development have been well documented. Lead accumulates in the environment, causing high acute and chronic toxic effects on plants, animals and microorganisms. Consumer electronic products constitute 40% of lead found in landfills. The main concern with regard to the presence of lead in landfills is that it has the potential to leach into drinking water supplies. The main applications of lead in computers are: (1) soldering of printed circuit boards and other electronic components; (2) glass panels in computer monitors (cathode ray tubes). Cadmium - Cadmium compounds are classified as a toxic with a possible risk of irreversible effects on human health. Cadmium and cadmium compounds accumulate in the human body, particularly in kidneys. Cadmium is absorbed through respiration but is also taken up through food. Due to its relatively long lifespan (30 years), cadmium can easily accumulate in amounts that can cause symptoms of poisoning. Cadmium exhibits hazards of cumulative effects on the environment due to its acute and chronic toxicity. In electrical and electronic equipments, cadmium occurs in certain components such as SMD chip resistors, infrared detectors and semiconductors. Also older types of cathode ray tubes contain cadmium. Furthermore, cadmium is used as a plastic stabiliser. Mercury- When inorganic mercury spreads out in water, it gets transformed into methylated mercury in the bottom sediments. Methylated mercury easily accumulates in living organisms and enters the food chain particularly via fish. Methylated mercury can cause chronic damage to the brain. It is estimated that 22 % of the yearly world consumption of mercury is used in electrical and electronic equipment. It is basically used in thermostats, (position) sensors, relays and contd...

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switches (e.g. on printed circuit boards and in measuring equipment) and discharge lamps. Furthermore, it is used in medical equipment, data transmission, telecommunications, and mobile phones. Mercury is also used in batteries, switches/housing, and printed wiring boards. Hexavalent Chromium (Chromium VI) - Some manufacturers still apply this substance as corrosion protection to untreated and galvanised steel plates and as a decorative and hardener for steel housing. Chromium VI can easily pass through membranes of cells and is easily absorbed producing various toxic effects within cells. It causes strong allergic reactions even in small concentrations. Asthmatic bronchitis is another allergic reaction linked to chromium VI. Chromium VI may also cause DNA damage. In addition, hexavalent chromium compounds can prove toxic for the environment. Contaminated wastes can leach from landfills. Incineration results in the generation of fly ash from which chromium is leachable, and there is a widespread agreement among scientists that wastes containing chromium should not be incinerated. Plastics - PVC - PVC cabling is used for its fire retardant properties, but there are concerns that once alight, fumes from PVC cabling can be a major contributor to fatalities, and hence, there are pressures to switch over to alternatives for safety reasons. Such alternatives are low-density polyethylene and thermoplastic olefins. Production and burning of PVC products generate dioxins and furans. This plastic commonly used in packaging and household products is a major cause for dioxin formation in open burning and garbage incinerators. Hospitals are now beginning to phase out the use of PVC products such as disposal gloves and IV bags because of the dangers involved in incinerating these products. Brominated Flame Retardants - Brominated flame-retardants are a class of brominated chemicals commonly used in electronic products as a means for reducing flammability. In computers, they are used mainly in terms of four applications: printed circuit boards, components such as connectors, plastic covers and cables. They are also used in plastic covers for TV sets and domestic kitchen appliances. Various scientific observations have indicated its serious implications on health. Polybrominated Diphenylethers (PBDE) might act as endocrine disrupters. Research has revealed that levels of PBDEs in human breast milk are doubling every five years causing concern because of the effects of these chemicals on young animals. Researchers have claimed that exposure to chemicals early in life could induce neurotoxic effects similar to those caused by other toxic substances such as PCBs and some pesticides. Other studies have shown that PBDE, like many halogenated organics, reduces hormone thyroxin levels in exposed animals and also that it can get through the blood brain barrier in the growing fetus. Thyroid is an essential hormone needed to regulate the normal growth of all animal species, apart from humans. contd...


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Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) may cause an increased risk of cancer of the digestive and lymph systems. The presence of PBBs in Arctic seal samples indicates a wide geographical distribution. The principal known routes of PBBs from point sources into the aquatic environment are PBBs plant areas and waste dumps. PBBs are almost insoluble in water and are primarily found in sediments of polluted lakes and rivers. PBBs have been found to be 200 times more soluble in a landfill leachate than in distilled water, which might result in a wider distribution in the environment. Once they are released into the environment, they can reach the food chain, where they get concentrated. PBBs have been detected in fish from several regions. These chemicals render computer recycling particularly hazardous for workers. The presence of polybrominated flame-retardants in plastic makes recycling dangerous and difficult. It has been claimed that Polybrominated Diphenylethers (PBDEs) form the toxic polybrominated dibenzo furans (PBDF) and polybrominated dibenzo dioxins (PBDD) during the extruding process, which is part of the plastic recycling process. In addition, high concentrations of PBDEs have been found in the blood streams of workers in recycling plants. A recent Swedish study has found that when computers, fax machines or other electronic equipments are recycled, dust containing toxic flame-retardants spreads in the air. Workers at dismantling facilities have been found with 70 times the level of one form of flame retardant found in hospital cleaners. Because of their common presence in air, clerks working full-time at computer screens have been found with levels of flame-retardants in their blood streams – slightly higher than for cleaners. Humans may directly absorb PBDEs when they are exposed to electronic circuit boards and plastic computer and TV cabinets. Source: Coby S C et al, 2007, Dongli Wang, 2005, ENDS report 283 1998, Guan Hua Xing et al, 2008, Hilty L M, 2005, Hoque, A et al, 1998

Computer equipment is a complicated assembly of more than 1,000 components, many of which are hazardous and toxic in nature. When destroyed in illegal recycling junkyards, computers breathe black fumes of mercury, arsenic, lead, and other poisonous toxins, creating in its wake monsters of our techno-industrial growth. Lead affects the nervous system and intelligence (Vinutha, 2005). Dr Thuppil Venkatesh, director of the National Centre for Lead Poisoning and the country’s leading expert, says the dumping and unsupervised recycling of e-waste is literally leading to a brain drain. “There should not be any lead in our blood because lead has no biological function. Even at a level of 5 micrograms per deciliter, lead can bring about DNA aberrations, and in children, anything around 10 micrograms per decilitre can bring down the Intelligent Quotient (Business News, 2005). An unofficial, unmonitored recycling industry in cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai cannibalizes the electronic junk to salvage re-saleable metal. In the process, workers who handle the waste without protective

94


clothing and the neighbourhood have their lungs, kidneys, nervous system, heart, land and drinking water fatally ruined (The Economic Times, 25 April 2004). Barium found in e-waste could damage the heart and liver, while other chemicals such as beryllium found in computer motherboards and cadmium in chip resistors and semiconductors are poisonous and could lead to cancer. Chromium in floppy disks, lead in batteries and computer monitors and mercury in alkaline batteries and fluorescent lamps also pose severe health risks. Other substances such as copper, silver and tin could also be damaging as per the report. (Jay Shankar in Bangalore, Sunday, 31 October, 2004, Sify.com). In Bangalore, discussions with the informal recyclers indicate that they have been experiencing health problems like skin irritation, eye burning and irritation, acidity, respiratory problems, etc. They do recognize that dismantling, segregation and shredding cause lesser discomfort as compared to burning of e-waste. However, they are found unable to link it with ewaste mishandling nor are they aware of hazardous effects and hence no adopt no safety measures. They were very keen to understand and willing to participate in awareness training programmes besides, requesting for protective gears and land for processing e-waste. Interestingly, they are found willing to contribute and work in cooperation with the PCB, after getting formalised.

10. CONCLUSION AND POLICY OPTIONS The study identified some key issues like the unorganised nature of e-waste management and the fact the sector is in the initial stages of moving towards proper management in Bangalore, like other cities in India. There are no accurate estimates on the quantity of e-waste generated and recycled, given the magnitude of the problem and poor accountability. The study was initiated with ambitious objectives but subsequently faced several bottlenecks in terms of accessing required information and data. However, the study has been able to document various important aspects of e-waste management in Bangalore, which will to add to the knowledge and database, besides leading to measures relevant to effective e-waste processing. The findings have also thrown up new research issues, which are of critical importance. For instance, there have been no studies conducted to explore the health impacts on informal workers engaged in e-waste processing. Similarly, there have been hardly any empirical evidences to explain the impact of e-waste on urban environment. Adoption of crude recycling methods, with no concern for environmental impacts, reflects on the situation on the ground. There exists very little awareness amongst manufacturers and consumers about the potential hazards, resulting in unsafe e-waste disposal. The roles and responsibilities at various stages are still unclear and poorly defined. The Hazardous Waste Management and Handling Rules (Amended Rules 2003), list e-waste under Schedule 2 (list A and B) which puts restrictions on import and export of e-waste. The Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste, developed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 2008, are of high relevance in terms of addressing several issues concerning e-waste management. However, it also mentions that there is a need for working out specific ways for managing streams of e-waste. For instance, the problem of CFL disposal is a major threat in cities. Further, it also provides guidelines for integrated e-waste recycling and treatment facility, indicating that it would be more relevant to prescribe specific and stringent rules by the State Pollution Control Boards depending on the local conditions. Given this scenario, there is an urgent need to ensure that appropriate regulations are in place to address the various aspects of ewaste management.

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E-waste Management in Urban Cities Box 9: Sustainable Product Design

1. Rethink the product design - Efforts to reduce material use are evident in some new computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other companies propose a centralised network similar to the telephone system where the consumers would have only a simple screen and keyboard at home or at office and pay a monthly fee based on the software packages accessed. But such a network has limitations in terms of information control and lack of privacy. Others think this might make access to the internet cheaper and less material intensive. 2. Use renewable materials and energy - Bio-based plastics are plastics made of plant-based chemicals or plant-produced polymers unlike petro-chemicals. Biobased plastics exist but are not commonly used because of the lack of market demand and the low pricing of petroleum-based plastics. Bio-based toners, glues and inks also exist and are used more frequently. Although solar computers are also in use, they are currently very expensive. 3. Use non-renewable materials that are safer - Designers could ensure that the product is built for re-use, repair and/or upgradability. Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their products, thereby ensuring that they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again. Research and Results - Toshiba is working on a modular upgradeable and customisable computer to cut down on the degree of product obsolescence. - Toshiba is developing a cartridge, which can be rewritten without exchanging parts or modules allowing the customer to upgrade at a low cost. - Researchers at Delft University in Holland are researching on the design of a wind-up laptop similar to the wind-up radio that plays for one hour for every 20 seconds of hand winding. - Matsushita is accelerating efforts to eliminate toxic substances by developing more environmentally-benign products such as lead-free solder, nonhalogenated lead wires and non-halogenated plastics. - Matsushita also has developed the first ever lead-free solder for flow soldering applications and has recently launched its first totally-recyclable model television set in Japan. - Hewlett-Packard Company has developed a safe cleaning method for chips using carbon dioxide as a substitute for hazardous solvents. Source: WITSA, 2002

10.1. Options for Improved Management There are many options and solutions, discussed in various reports dealing with the issue of e-waste management. However, it is important that these options are actually implemented on the ground. There is a definite

Conclusion and Policy Options

97

scope for working on these options for sustainable management of e-waste in order to avoid imminent threats to ecology and human health in Bangalore. 



Reuse: Though reuse is already in practice, increasing a product’s lifespan with adequate precautions could further strengthen it. There are many companies and non-profit organisations which have been promoting the reuse of discarded computers at schools and work places. Manufacturers like Sony, Panasonic and Sharp pay certain recyclers for processing their products that consumer can exchange at statewide collection events. In short, a formal system should be evolved for promoting the reuse of electronic waste with awareness made a part of the working system. Recycle: Recycling of hazardous products has lots of negative implications for health and environment including the neighborhood communities. As already mentioned, several studies carried out in China have proved the disastrous effects of recycling. In this context, it would be more relevant to redesign the products besides encouraging sustainable product designs using non-hazardous materials.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) – As discussed earlier, EPR is being promoted largely in Europe leading to the reduction of E-waste from electronic products by making producers responsible for taking back their products. The aim of EPR is to encourage producers in terms of preventing pollution and reducing resource and energy use in each stage of the product life span through effecting changes in product design and processing technology. This includes upstream impacts arising from the choice of materials and the manufacturing process as well as the downstream impacts, i.e. from the use and disposal of products. This would facilitate research and development activities of companies towards sustainable technologies and materials and probably raise prices of electronic equipments in the intermediate, as companies might add additional costs to consumer product prices, lowering the demand in the process. However, product take-back needs go hand-in-hand with mandatory legislation for phasing out e-toxics. Some countries in Europe and Asia have enacted “extended producer responsibility” laws. Several dozen cities in the two states, including San Francisco, have also passed resolutions supporting “producer take-back” rules. Seattle’s King County publishes a list of 32 recyclers, retailers and charities that accept e-waste. 

Incineration: Although incineration is practised widely, it is not considered a safe method for disposal of e-waste as incineration releases

98






heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury into air and ash. Mercury released into the atmosphere can bioaccumulate in the food chain, particularly fish - a major route of exposure for the general public. During incineration, products containing PVC plastic, highly toxic dioxins and furans are also released. Incineration is the largest point source of dioxins into the US and Canadian environments and among the largest point source of heavy metal contamination of the atmosphere. Some producers move their electro scrap to cement kilns for use as an alternative source of fuel. Smelting can pose dangers similar to incineration. California and Massachusetts have banned the dumping of computer monitors into the states’ landfills and incinerators. Landfill: Landfill, considered as the safest and effective option, too has its negative implications. In Bangalore, we have the first landfill established and safety measures taken up. It is definitely a better option than disposing of e-waste indiscriminately all over the city. It is argued by many that even the best landfills are not completely secure always and that a certain amount of chemical and metal leaching might occur. The situation is far worse for older or less stringent dump sites. According to the US EPA, more than 4.6 million tonnes of e-waste ended up in US landfills in 2000. Toxic chemicals present in electronics products can leach into the land over time or are released into the atmosphere, adversely impacting nearby communities and the environment. In many European countries, regulations have been introduced to prevent electronic waste from being dumped into landfills due to its hazardous contents. However, the practice still continues in many countries. In Hong Kong, for example, it is estimated that 10-20 per cent of discarded e-waste ends up in landfills. Governance: Managing of e-waste should be the joint responsibility of all the stakeholders concerned. Several institutions have come forward to work towards integrated management of e-waste. However, government institutions should play a major role in systematising management. It is important that a regulatory authority is set up exclusively to manage hazardous waste. It is important to formulate an e-waste policy and legislation. Any company, institution or organisation established in India should be subjected to certain terms and conditions concerning e-waste disposal, which should be made mandatory. Fostering partnerships with manufacturers and retailers by creating an enabling environment is essential for disposing of e-waste scientifically at reasonable costs. Establishment of necessary infrastructure for collection of domestic e-waste and fees from manufacturers/consumers

Conclusion and Policy Options



99

for the disposal of toxic materials should be subsidised by recycling and disposal industries along with incentive schemes for garbage collectors and general public for collecting and handing over e-waste. Attero recyclers, as discussed in the study, has set up a good example in this respect. More such initiatives should be promoted. At present, formulating and regulating occupational health safety norms related to e-waste recycling are mainly confined to the informal sector. The programmes should also be made available for students in the form of a certificate course like any other skill training. Research and development in developing and standardising of hazardous waste management, environmental monitoring and the regulation of hazardous waste-disposal needs to be promoted. Regulations - Governments should be responsible for developing an adequate system of laws, controls and administrative procedures for hazardous waste management. A comprehensive law encompassing e-waste regulations and management and proper disposal of hazardous wastes is required. Such a law should empower the agency to control, supervise and regulate the relevant activities of government departments. Under this law, the agency concerned should o Collect basic information on the materials from manufacturers, processors and importers and maintain an inventory of these materials. The information should include toxicity and potential harmful effects. o Identify potentially harmful substances and make it mandatory for the industry to test them for adverse health and environmental effects. o Standardise methodologies for different processes involved in recycling; CPCB should specify methodologies which are relevant and applicable to Indian conditions (regardless of any state). It should also stipulate permissible limits for dissolved heavy metals in the atmosphere since metals involved in e-waste recycling happen to be mostly heavy. o Control risks from manufacture, processing, distribution, use and disposal of electronic wastes. o Encourage beneficial reuse of e-waste and business activities that use waste; set up programmes so as to promote recycling among citizens and businesses. o Sensitise e-waste generators on reuse/recycling options.

100 

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Awareness Creation - Participatory governance models need to be promoted through generating awareness of health impacts and environmental consequences of current practices. Awareness programmes on e-waste impact for school children and general public need to be effectively implemented. Further, there is a need to enforce labeling of all computer monitors, television sets and other household/ industrial electronic devices stating hazardous contents with a view to identify environmental hazards and ensuring proper management and E-waste disposal. So far, awareness levels have been very low, almost absent among the informal processors of e-waste and the civilians. The efforts in this regard have to be made more intensive to protect the health of both the environment and people. Formalising the Informal Sector - Since e-waste processing is a source of livelihood for many of the poor families, they should be formally trained in e-waste processing and provided with authorisation. Procedures and duration involved in obtaining authorisation should be as simple as possible. Getting them together to build an action plan under the guidance of the government and companies is essential. Further, there is a need to identify alternative sources of livelihood, thereby reducing the “social necessity” of informal e-waste recycling. In this context, it is also relevant to carry out a situation analysis of constrains faced by the customs department across different harbors of India as this is one of the main sources of informal recycling.

ANNEXURES Table A1: Recoverable Elements in a TV Elements

Recoverable %

Aluminum Copper Lead Zinc Nickel Iron Plastic Glass Silver Gold

1.2 3.4 0.2 0.3 0.038 12 26 53

PPM

20 10

Recoverable Weight of Elements (kg) 0.4344 1.2308 0.0724 0.1086 0.0137 4.344 9.412 19.186 0.0007 0.0003

Source: Compiled from data as presented in Mechanical Recycling of Consumer Electronic Scrap. Licentiate Thesis 2005>36, Lulea University of Technology, Lulea, Sweden, Cuij 2005

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Table A2: Recoverable Elements in a PC (Typical) Elements

Content (% of total Weight)

Content (Kg)

Recycling Efficiency (%)

Plastics Lead Aluminum Germanium Gallium Iron Tin Copper Barium Nickel Zinc Tanialum Indium Vanadium Terbium Beryllium Gold Europium Tritium Ruthenium Cobalt Palladium Manganese Silver Antinomy Bismuth Chromium Cadmium Selenium Niobium Yttrium Rhodium Mercury Arsenic Silica

23 6 14 0.016 0.0013 20 1 7 0.0315 0.8503 2 0.0157 0.0016 0.0002 0 0.0157 0.0016 0.0002 0.0157 0.0016 0.0157 0.0003 0.0315 0.0189 0.0094 0.0063 0.0063 0.0094 0.0016 0.0002 0.0002 0 0.0022 0.0013 24.8803

6.25 1.71 3.85 0.00 0.00 5.57 0.27 1.88 0.01 0.23 060 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.77

20% 5% 80% 0 0 80 70 90 0 0 60 0 60 0 0 0 99 0 0 80 85 95 0 98 0 0 0 0 70 0 0 50 0 0 0

Source: CPCB final e-waste report

Recoverable Weight of Element (kg) 1.2506 0.085 3.0838 0 0 4.4545 0.19188512 1.6961 0 0 0.3597 0 0.00026 0 0 0 0.0004 0 0 0.0003 0.0036 0.00007 0 0.0050 0 0 0 0 0.0003 0 0 0 0 0 0

Annexures

103

Table A3: Materials Recovered from Refrigerators (Typical) Material type

Recoverable Elements%

CFCs Oil Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals Plastics Compressors Cables/plugs Spent PurFoam Glass Mixed waste

0.20 0.32 46.61 4.97 13.84 23.80 0.55 7.60 0.81 1.30

Total

100.00

Source: CPCB Table A4: Average Weight and Composition of a Few Selected E-Appliances Appliances

Average Fe % Non-Fe Glass Plastic Electronic Others weight of Metal of % of % of Components % of (kg) weight % weight weight weight % of weight weight

Refrigerators and freezers Personal Computer TV sets

48

64.4

6

1.4

13

-

15.1

29.6

53.3

8.4

15

23.3

17.3

0.7

36.2

5.3

5.4

62

22.9

0.9

3.5

Source: CPCB

Table A5: Materials obtained during recycling Materials Glass Plastics Mild Steel Stainless Steel Other Materials Copper Aluminium Hazardous Materials Source: E-Parisara website

Percentage 27 27 23 8 8 3 3 1

Arsenic

Lead

Mercury

CRT

Used in some Manual integrated circuits dismantling and semiconductors

They are used for Open burning insulation, cables and housing for all electronic devices Computer monitors Combustors, and TV the lead winds up on the ash residue Can be found to a Manual degree in batteries dismantling and circuit boards switches, medical equipment, lamps and mobile phones Used primarily in Manual soldering ofcircuit dismantling boards and other device components

PVC

Treatment method

Use in e-products

Source

Residues

Methyl mercury

Hydrogen chloride Carbon monoxide

Gases released

At very high levels, Seizures, coma and even death

Asthma, wheezing, chest pain, eye irritation. 1Emphysema, cancer

Diseases caused

contd...

On children- slowed growth, hearing problem and behavior and learning problem. In adults- reproductive problems, high blood pressure, memory and concentration problems Arsenic is a notoriously potent Cardiovascular disease, cancer poison; causes severe damage and diabetes to the digestive tract

Anemia, damage to brain, nervous system, reproductive system,

Impaired neurological kidney effects, respiratory damage development, cognitive abilities, genitourinary system, central and bioaccumulation in living peripheral nervous system organisms and concentrates through food chain.

Learning disabilities, behavioral problems

Corrosion of lung tissues and several respiratory diseases Poisons the blood

Impact on human beings

Table A6: Impact of E-waste Recycling and Disposal on Human Health


Copper

Cadmium

Used in soldering, Dismantling semiconductors and chip resistors Rechargeable Ni-Cdbatteries, fluorescent layer (CRT screens), printer inks and toners, photo copying-machines (printer drums) Circuit boards, and Dismantling, cable wires open burning

Antimony Used in production of diodesand batteries. Pure form usedin s emiconductor production Chromium Data tapes, Dismantling (VI) floppy-disks and open burning

Residues

Residues

Residues

Irritation in the throat ,lungs and affect liver, kidneys contd...

Ulceration, respiratory irritation, Damage DNA and has been linked perforated ear drum, epigastria to asthmatic bronchitis. (upper abdomen) pain, pulmonary congestion and edema,Erosion and discoloration of teeth Cadmium that enters the system Renal damage through the gastrointestinal tract resides in human kidneys.

Toxic to humans in ways similar to arsenic; fatal in large doses

Annexures 105

Note:

Disrupt thyroid hormone balance Endocrine disruption, low and contribute to neurological intelligence, learning disability. and developmental deficit Increase cancer risk of the digestive and lymph system

Residues

Residues

Hypothyroidism

Affects skin, lungs and bladder Skin and lung cancer

Residues

Short-term exposure lead to brain swelling, muscle weakness, damage to heart, liver and spleen

Long-term exposure can be carcinogenic, especially for lungs. Extreme exposure can lead to a potentially fatal condition known as Acute Beryllium Disease

Chronic exposure may lead to diseases like cancer and emphysema PVC-Poly vinyl chloride, CRT-Cathode ray tube, PAH-Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, BFR- Brominated flame retardants, PBDE- Polybrominated Diphenly Ether, PBB- Polybrominated Biphenyl

Beryllium Power supply boxes which contain silicon controlled rectifiers and x-ray lenses electrical connectors and battery contacts Barium Sparkplugs, fluorescent lamps and “getters” in vacuum tubes PAH Released during Open burning precious metal smelting wires like open burning to recover copper BFRsAdded to e-waste Dismantling 1. PBDE products to reduce risk of injury or damage from fire 2. PBB Dismantling


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(Please see overleaf)