This paper presents a comprehensive beach resort model. ... One ex- ample of the importance of beach resorts in overall tourism planning is Pattaya, Thailand.
IJ.uI~/.Y~u~~~ urld I’~%arlYlurlning, Z 1 ( I99 I ) I 89-2 IO Elscvicr Science Publishers B.V.. Amsterdam
189
each rescirts: A model of development
evolution
Russell Arthur Smith’ 428 Occmic~ Drirc Soulh. If ‘rrrldlu. Qld. 45 7.5..4wItdiu (Accepted 26 March 199 I )
ABSTRACT Smith. R.A.. I99 I. Beach resorts: A model of development
evolution.
LuruAcqw 1’th~1 Hunr~., 2 1: 189-Z IO.
Beach resorts evolve from natural contexts through the expansion of accommodation and other rccrcational functions. With greater size they lose their natural characteristics and become increasingly urbanized. The transition from natural to urban resort is often rapid, with some beach resorts being transformed into cities in less than two dccadcs. The large numbers of international and domestic tourists that frequent beach resorts provide economic opportunltics for go\pernmcnts. businesses and those seeking employment. At the same time. the dynamics of rapid urbanization are frequcntll accompanied by major changes in social. environmental and political contexts. That the development of contemporan beach resorts presents both positive and negative effects is known; however. the processes of evolution and synergism of its composite elements have been less clear. This paper presents a comprehensive beach resort model. The model describes the transition from natural to urban beach in eight stages of development. For each stage a range of indicators highlights key events and processes in six categories of factors: morphological. physical. environmental, social, economic and political. The value of the model lies in its comprehensive and dynamic structure. To develop this model, a tcntativc model as a hypothesis was tested against four cases: Batu Feringgi ( Malaysia ). Pattaya (Thailand ). Hua Hin (ThaIland ) and Surfers Paradise (Australia ). The results of these evaluations were applied to produce the beach resort model.
The contexts for this research are the present and future benefits and problems presented by the rapid growth of tropical beach resorts in the Asia-Pacific region. Earlier re~01%~ at Pattaya (Thailand ), Bali ( Indonesia), Surfers Paradise (Australia) and Batu Feringgi (Malaysia) have encouraged further projects in these places and in new locations such as Phuket (Thailand ), Lombok and Riau ( Indonesia ), north Queensland (Australia ) and Johor ( Malaysia). Some aspects of these ventures have been generally successful, others considerably less so. Beach resorts are defined as geographic areas offering a variety of facili?ies, services and ac‘Present address: 25, Jalan Datoh. Apt. 05-27, I232 Sipgaporc.
tivities which are orientated towards seaside recreation for the accommodation, use and enjoyment of visitors (adapted from Metelka, 1990, p. 130). The development of beach resorts is often welcomed and encouraged by governments as a means to generate larger foreign exchange earnings through growth of their international tourism industry and a desire to improve the well-being of their citizens by providing more employment opportunities and better incomes (Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Pye and Ein, 1983; Mahathair, 1986 ). One example of the importance of beach resorts in overall tourism planning is Pattaya, Thailand. In 1988, Pattaya attracted as overnight visitors 43.4% of the 2.9 million international visitors arriving by air in Thailand for holiday purposes. These visitors contributed US$926 million of the total US$2756 million of revenue
R.A.SMITH
190
from international tourist expenditure in Thailand for 1988 (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 1988 ). A related and important aspect of the background to tourism sector development is the size of the tourism and travel industry worldwide. Up to 1987, the industry was second to the oil and petroleum industry in terms of world trade (Inskeep, 1988) It has now grown to be the largest (Cobb, 1989; Johnston, 1990). With the careful selection and monitoring of appropriate and experienced consultants and professionals, desired results for individual beach hotels may frequently be produced, provided they are correctly conceived and financed. However, individual project success does not ensure the success of the total resort environment for tourists, residents or sponsors. Assembling separate projects to achieve an acceptable, holistic and consistent resort quality is generally beyond the purview of individual project developers and managers. In addition, resort developers tend to focus on tourism and investment objectives which can be at variance with other long-term interests. Frequently, overall coordination of resort development falls to the local government where conflicting objectives and limited scope for implementation of policy and physical planning results in far too many problems that are left unresolved. The general decline of cultural heritages, destruction of natural resources, exclusion of residents from coastal strips, erosion of social values and the non-realization of national economic objectives are all too common results of beach resort development (Bosselman, 1978; Ghani, 1988; Goodwin and Smith, 1989 ). Hence the continued viability of existing resorts and the future of some of the newer projects is in doubt. Questions arise as to how governments and developers of beach resorts should approach the complex problem of beach resort development. To that end, the intent of this rescaich is to describe clearly the dynamics of the evolution of beach resorts. This will enable governments, professionals,
administrate:s and those concerned with the successful development of resorts to understand better the seemingly confusing processes of the urbanization of beaches and provide a suitable context for more informed policy development.
l
Prominent historical precedents for contemporary beach resorts are those of England and Wales. These resorts have their origins in the 18th century when they became alternative destinations to inland spas. Originally, as wth the spas, beach resorts primarily met the medical demand of the visitors, though these places also had an important social function. In time, visitors to the seaside abandoned the overtly medicinal for the sensuous and engaged in pursuits of a purely recreational nature. While the social constraints of Victorian society held sway for much of the last half of the 19th ceiltury, informality began to appear at the beginning of the 20th century and the disciplines of segregated bathing and bathing machines were cast aside. Initially, visitors were drawn exclusively from the upper classes of British society, but by the latter half of the 19th century, the industrialization of thr \ nation and its social repercussions resulted in large numbers of middle- and lower-class visitors where technological advances in transportation had a major role in allowing mass access. These beach resorts were in time to become democratic devices. Long expanses of beach and associated foreshores could accommodate large groups from diverse social backgrounds, something not possible at the spas where the focus was the pump room. The beach was also able to cater for a wide range of recreational activities. Depending on whim and fancy, visitors would, by the beginning of the 20th century, swim, play games, sail, ride donkeys, collect and study marine life, watch musical and theatrical performance and generally pass the time in a relaxing and carefree manner. Businesses oper-
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT EVOLUTION
ating along the beach-front offered additional opportunities for recreation (Walvin, 1978; Anderson and Swinglehurst, 1978; Walton, 1983; Bollerey, 1986). During the 20th century, a not dissimilar pattern of beach resort recreation has prevailed, though there has been some evolution in ?h? nature of these activities. The expansion of air travel after World War II allowed greatly enhanced international access and beach resorts are now found in increasing numbers around the world, especially in the warmer climatic zones. Given this worldwide proliferation of beach resorts and the growth of mass international tourism over the past three decades, surprisingly little serious research has been directed at the evolution of the newer beach resorts. A few researchers have investigated beach resorts and attempted to describe their development in various ways. McGoodwin ( 1986), for example, has recorded the growth of tourism at a small fishing village, Teacapan, Mexico, after an all-weather road was constructed linking this village to the mainland. This analysis focuses on the changing social structures of the village as increasing numbers of tourists arrived. It is a site-specific description which is not generalized for other situations. While such accounts are informative for individual cases, they are of limited use in understanding the evolution of other resorts. It would be better if models of beach resort development were available that might be applied to a range of similar circumstances at different sites. Few such models exist. One frequently cited model of beach resort development was devised by Barrett ( 1958 ). This model was derived from the study of beach resorts in England and Wales. Barrett’s theoretical resort radiates from the core of central businesses inland from a beach-front strip of holiday shops and accommodation with hotels occupying prime locations around core facilities. Boarding houses and bed-and-breakfast accommodation are located less centrally. The intensity of accommodation services decreases with distance from the core, creating a
191
concentric pattern of architectural and social stratification. Stanslield and Rickert ( 1970), in a refinement of this model, have undertaken an empirical study of the commercial functions of three resort towns: two New Jersey seashore towns, Central Ocean City and Central Wildwood, where the seafront is the recreational focus, and Niagara falls, Ontario, where the view is the major focus. By analysis of land-use patterns and in particular the analysis of numbers of types of business establishment, the presence of a clearly identifiable recreational business district (RBD) distinct from the better known central business district (CBD) has been shown. The RBD is dominated by recreation-oriented enterprises food and beverage outlets, gift, novelty and variety shops and commercial amusements and theaters. One seminal study that applies both the Barrett and Stansfield and Rickert models to an evaluation of the evolution of beach resort development is by Pigram ( i977), in which the twin-town developments at the north and south extremities of the City of Gold Coast beach resort in Australia are studied. In the north there is Surfers Paradise, Southport and in the south, Coolangata, Tweed Heads. Pirgram’s analyses show the development of separate RBDs and CBDs in both locations. Wowever, enough variation from the Barrett model is found for Pigram to suggest that a unique form of resort was evolving. Other researchers (e.g. Lavery, 1974; Baker, 1983) have also reported on the morphology of coastal resorts. Barrett’s work is a significant contribution to the theory of beach resow development, though a major limitation is its static structure as the dynamics of change over time have not been incorporated. Also, the model is narrowly defined in that it is primarily a vehicle for the study of morphology. Another limitation of this model is its lack of relevance to current tourism development. Barrett’s resorts developed in a different era, when steamers and railways brought large numbers of visitors from distant
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cities, prior to the advent of international mass tourism, delivered via jet aircraft and motor vehicles. Also these resorts evolved over a much longer period of time than those of the present day. The evolution of resorts is important. Observation of many beach resorts in the AsiaPacific region suggests that they undergo degeneration of quality with the passage of time. Congestion and pollution potentials seem to increase as the scale of physical development increarcs and there is often a general loss of beach-related recreational quality. The ambience of a natural environment dissipates as the social environment is imposed on the natural. While investment is in the social environment, the issue is the degeneration of both. If these observed trends are in fact common, then an understanding of how resorts grow and change over time is imperative if the benefits of beach resorts are to be realized and their negative aspects anticipated and mitigated. Working from a similar premise, Butler ( 1980) hypothesizes that the sale of tourist resorts, as represented in numbers of visitors, follows the typical product cycle concept, where sales are slow at first, followed by rapid growth, stabilization and finally, decline. The contention being that resorts become unattractive with the passage of time, as visitor numbers increase and their carrying capacities are exceeded, and are unable to compete with other, newer resorts. Butler’s model is too broad in concept for direct application to the study of beach resorts as it is non-specific for resort type: yet the idea that resorts do decline over time seems reasonable. Pearce ( 1987, p. 177 ), reviewing the stateof-the-art of the theory of coastal resort development finds little documentation of “...the morphological changes which have occurred from one period to another”. Pearce comments that “ ...more emphasis needs to be given now to changes in morphology so that the processes involved can be better understood and the evolution of future forms more readily an-
ticipated”. Morphology alone, however, will give a limited view of how beach resorts evolve over time. While morphology is important, a clear understanding of the process of change across a broad spectrum of factors, of which morphology is only one, is needed. Of equal importance is an understanding of how these various factors interact with time change. An holistic view of the growth of beach resorts, as a process of urbanization, will provide a better understanding of these types of development. Another issue is that of comparative research between a number of tourist settings and across cultural borders. In an era where international tourism, which transcends cultural borders, is operating on an unprecedented scale, and growing, this surely is important. Yet, as Dann et al. ( 1988 ) report in their review of research on tourism, little research of this type has been completed. ME The objective of this research is to describe a general model of beach resort development for resorts that have evolved predominantly since World War II, i.e. since 1945. The beach resorts under consideration are those in tropical and sub-tropical locations of the Asia-Pacific region that attract visitors for most of the year, and are near major population centers so that day trippers are a component of the total visits. Remote resorts as well as those that have developed largely in accordance with a master plan, of which there are few in this region, are not included in the typology under study. Of the latter type, none were identified as having reached an advanced stage of development. A tentative model of the evolution of the development of beach resorts over eight stages, from a pre-tourism condition at stage one to a fully urbanized resort at stage eight, was hypothesized. As a test of validity, this hypothesis was evaluated against four cases from the western Pacific rim; Batu Feringgi in Malaysia, Pattaya and Hua Hin in Thailand and Surfers Par-
HEU’H
KESOKTS: .A MODEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLCJTION
adise in Australia. These cases are of the type under investigation and were chosen to include widely different national contexts, thus incorporaiing international relevance. An additional case, that of a well established city that had subsequently acquired significant seaside tourism was initially included. However, from the data available, it was not possible to isolate touristic functions from other functions and the case was excluded. Field work was undertaken during the northern summer of 1989. The tentative model, described prior to the field work, served to define the categories for data collected in the field. Current data for the cases were generally available; however, historical data were necessary in order to analyze change over time. Sources of data ranged from published items, through unpublished documents to interviews and field surveys. Documents, both published and unpublished, contained data expressed verbally and pictorially where the latter type of source included maps, plans, diagrams and photographs. Much data for the early periods of the cases were obtained from interviews of people who had been associated with the initial development of resort cases. Sketches drawn during interviews were another source. The analyses of the data centered on selected indicators of change as predicted by the hypothesis. Evidence from the cases described the evolution of each case in terms of these indicators. Each case was considered from its pretourism condition through to the present time. Pertinent analyses were recorded for each of six categories of change: morphology, physical, environmental, social, economic and political. The intent was to discover whether the predictions of the hypothesis were borne out by the cases. Change over time was recorded typically either as charts which had a dynamic component or events which occurred at specific times. Maps for each case, showing serial change, were prepared. The evaluation was ordered according to the eight stages of the hypothesis. Two of the cases, Pattaya and Surfers Paradise, were
193
found to have reached stage eight, the other two, Batu Feringgi and Hua Hin had only reached stage five. The evaluation of the hypothesis showed the predictions of the tentative model to be valid in many instances. However, some inaccuracies and inadequacies were identified. Where clear trends were found to be at variance, amendments to the hypothesis were made to give a revised model. This revised model of the evolution of the development of beach resorts, the beach resort model (BRM) which is presented in this paper, incorporates both those aspects which were found in the earlier analyses to be substantiated and the new patterns of development not previously predicted. Thus the evaluations have served to produce a refined and strengthened model. Central to the BRM is the concept that beach resorts evolve through a sequence of phases that are stages of development. Each stage is a period of non-standardized time, the length of which is determined by factors, usually external to the resorts. Thus individual resorts evolve through the stages of the BRM at unique rates. Significal i influences on the rate of evolution of beach resorts include the cycle of national and sub-national economic activity, international visitor demand for beach holidays, actual international visitor numbers and domestic demand.
Batu Feringgi is located on the island of Penang, Malaysia, near the state capital, Georgetown (Fig. 1 ). Georgetown may be reached by road in 30-45 min and the airport is another 20-30 min further on. Penang is a short ferry ride from the mainland, opposite the small city of Butterworth. The island was recently connected to the mainland with a bridge. Prior to the advent of tourism, there were a number of fishing villages in the Batu Feringgi area. By
R.A.SMlTH
the late 1980s the situation improved and by 1989 there were 2402 hotel rooms of which nearly all were first-class in quality. Today, Batu Feringgi is a major tourism destination in IvIalaysia. Pattava, Thailand
Fig. 1. Batu Feringgi, Malaysia: location and land use, 1989.
the 1950s Batu Feringgi contained some second homes, used by wealthy residents of Pendistricts. Tourism exang and surroundi If of the 1960s with the panded in the latte arrival of explorer tourists who were usually tayed in the villages young. These visi e buildings were erected where additional si The length of stay was to cater for their nee or negative social imlong which allowed munities. Following pacts on these fish ity and other behavior public displays of that was objectiona o their hosts, the government moved to e this form of tourism through deportation of these visitors. Transformation of the fishing community commenced in 1968 with the opening of a firstclass hotel, the Palm Beach Hotel. The hotel proved popular and two more hotels were built in the ensuing 5 years. This constituted the first wave of formal tourism development at Batu Feringgi. Subseque waves of construction followed periods of growth in numbers of overnight visitors. International visitor numbers fell sharply in the first half of the 1988s which resulted in a number of partially constructed new hotels being abandoned. This was a localized decline as national figures for international tourist arrivals continued to climb. In
In the early 194Os, Pattaya was a generally inaccessible beach 148 km southeast of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand (Fig. 2 ). A few fishing families were present on the Pattaya River, in South Pattaya with the main fishing community situated to the north of Pattaya at Na Mua. By the late 1940s eight bungalows had been built as second homes in North Pattaya by wealthy and influential Thais. Building materials came from Bangkok by sailboat and were unloaded on the beach. Later, more bun-
i;A I.:
’ 0
Soum:
Fig. 2. Pattaya, Thailand:
Field surwy
by author in 1989.
o
location and land USC,1989.
500 y&a
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT EVOLUTION
galows were erected. Initially Pattaya was a weekend retreat for Thais from Bangkok. Later, expatriates living in Bangkok arrived in Pattaya also for weekends. Road access to Bangkok was improved in the mid- 1960s as a result of the establishment of United States air and naval bases to the South of Pattaya. The Sukhumvit Highway provided direct, all-weather access between the bases and Bangkok at a time when the war in Indo-China was escalating. With road access improved, a small hotel, the Nippa Lodge, with 50 rooms opened in 1964. There were many bungalows at Pattaya by this time and a road along the beach had been built. Pattaya became increasingly popular with expatriate residents of Bangkok for recreation. In the late 1960s and early 197Os, the IndoChina war resulted in the influx to Bangkok of large numbers of military personnel from Vietnam on rest and recreation leave. Many of these military personnel visited Pattaya. In 1970, the Nippa Lodge trebled its number of rooms and a new hotel, the Pattaya Palace Hotel, opened with 180 rooms. With the rapid decline of arrival of military personnel from 1972, the resort was marketed in Europe and Australia and many more hotels were built. During the early 1980s a decline in the number of international visitors to Thailand was reflected in a drop in overnight foreign visitors at Pattaya. This followed a period of expansion of hotel room supply and resulted in low occupancy rates for first-class hotels. These rates improved by the mid-l 980s and growth since then has been rapid. A significant component of recent growth has been expansion of Thai domestic tourism with the residents of Bangkok visiting Pattaya for seaside holidays. Pattaya has become Thailand’s largest beach resort ) meeting a diverse recreational demand.
195
land (Fig. 3 ). It is Thailand’s oldest beach resort. Migration of Thais to this area in 1834 resulted in the establishment of a fishing community which was the forerunner of the present resort. In 1911 a rail service commenced operation between Bangkok and Hua Hin; the railway formed part of the important link with Singapore to the south. The same year, Prince Nares built a bungalow for himself along with 19 other bungalows which he rented out to relatives and friends when he was not in residence. Thus commenced the practice of the royal family, the aristocracy and the elite of Bangkok society using Hua Hin as a retreat from the summe; heat of Bangkok. The royal presence was confirmed with the commencement of construction of KJai Kangwol Palace, the King’s Summer Palace, in 1927. A parallel may be drawn with Brighton, England, where
Hua Hin, Thailand
The seaside resort of Hua Hin is situated 185 km by road to the southwest of Bangkok, Thai-
Fig. 3. Hua Hin. Thailand: locarion and land use, 1989.
R.A.SMITH
196
Prince Regent was a catalyst in establishing the popularity of seaside resorts from the 1~~0~ (Walton, 1983). The early character of Hua Hin was that of an exclusive seaside resort where accommodation was in the form of second homes. With the intention of broadening the visitor base, the State Railway Department opened a beachfront hotel with 14 rooms, the Railway Hotel, in 1922. Foreigners began to visit the resort and Hua I-Iin gained in popularity. Hua Hin continued to grow as a resort until the revolution of 1932, following which little tourism development, apart from erection of second homes, occurred until well after World War II. After the war, the sedate atmosphere of the resort became unfashionable with the residents of Bangkok, especially when the beaches east of Bangkok became more accessible by road. Hua Hin stagnated through the 1960s and 1970s as Pattaya expanded. Interest revived in the 1980s with the opening of a new first-class beach hotel. Later the Railway Hotel was renovated and extended and more hotels were constructed. Hua Hin has again become popular with Thais and increasing numbers of international visitors now stay in the resort.
the
The origins of Surfers aradise lie with the opening of a simple hotel for fishermen in 1925, at a time when there were only a few second homes in the area (Fig. 4). The construction of the hotel coincided with the completion of a vehicular bridge over a river, linking this part of the coastline with the already established beach resort of Southport, four km distant. Southport had flourished with the opening in 1889 of a railway to Brisbane, the capital ofthe State of Queensland, and the enactment of law granting workers free time at weekends. Southport dominated the area until the 1920s when road travel from Brisbane became feasible, thus freeing visitors from the immediate confines of the railway station.
LX
Sea / Walerway
m
Busmessc~
SS
High-rise Apartmenij
&&i
SecodHoiirs
-
Rmd
4‘
m
Hotel. Motels & Guesthouses Public / Enteilammefii Serwces
Prime Access Pomt
Fig. 4. Sutfers Paradise, Australia: location and land use, 1989.
Evolving community attitudes and structural change of the coast combined to hasten the decline of Southport as a resort and the growth of Surfers Paradise. In the 19 1OS,mixed bathing became acceptable, also swimming in the ocean, preferably open surf, became popular. In short, a new beach culture emerged. By this time, Southport had lost its beach. In the 1890s the geomorphological conditions influencing Southport’s sheltered beach altered and by 19 15, Southport’s once fine sandy beaches were mud. Those wishing to indulge the new beach culture used a ferry, and later the bridge, to cross the river to Main Beach, just north of Surfers Paradise, where there were good surf beaches. With the opening of the hotel at Surfers Paradise, the focus for recreation and related development quickly centered there. Nevertheless, from its inception in the 1920s through to the 1950s Surfers Paradise was overshadowed by the well-established Southport. The intervening depression and war with associated restrictions on building effectively limited growth of the resort. The lifting of the building restrictions in 1952 precipitated a de-
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION
velopment boom which was followed by steady growth up to 1974, when a national economic recession again slowed development. A period of rapid growth followed from 1979 to 1982, which led to overbuilding and market collapse through over-supply of accommodation. From 1987, another period of rapid growth emerged. Today, Surfers Paradise is the dominant resort on the coast, south of Brisbane. It is the prime focus of recreational activity for the City of Gold Coast, a narrow urban strip 32 km long. Surfers Paradise is Australia’s premier holiday venue. MORPHOLOGY Representational land-use plans from the cases were converted to morphological diagrams for analysis purposes. Common patterns of morphology may be identified by comparison of the diagrams from within and between stages of the model (Figs. 5 (a)s(d) ). Second homes
For all cases, second homes were the first form of tourist accommodation, pre-dating hotel development. Stage two of resort development, following directly on from the pretourism datum, could be defined in part by the presence of second homes. Stsip deve/oprmwt
Originally it had been hypothesized that hotel development create4 a strip development pattern when its establishment and evolution is actually determined by the pattern of roads and allotments formed by the original second homes. Subsequent accommodation development, initially more second homes, reinforces the strip. The strip becomes denser, longer and extends further inland around the business area but generally follows the original pattern.
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New settlement
The hypothesis predicted the spontaneous establishment and growth of new settlements, as satellites, as residents were displaced by resort expansion. This is not the case as the pattern of growth of resorts is one of rolling expansion as the outer limit of the area of recreational function spreads into non-recreational areas forcing these functions to move to the outer edge of the total development which is generally rural in character. Residential areas, at the outer edge of the resort are continually displaced. Thus the resort expands in a contiguous manner, without satellite development. Prime land zone dqfinition
Land adjacent to the beach has high value as does any land with potential for development that lies between the major road running parallel to the beach and the beach itself. A road running adjacent to the beach is contained within this zone. This major road limits the prime land zone though absolute beach frontage remains important. Pw- toririm set tleruen t
It is not always the case that there is a significant settlement prior to the commencement of tourism development. With or without such a settlement, the general evolution of resorts is common, though the presence of a settlement has a spatial effect on subsequent development of tourism as recreational business gravitates, in part, to the existing shops and roadside houses. The evolution of the resort morphology is common though a pre-tourism settlement will have a locational role for some resort functions.
K.A. SMITH
198
(a)
(b) Stage 2
Stage 3
1
I-.-.-_c
__ _
1s
I +a----- . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I .,,_., _-.
_.
~-
cL
,t
*-
L--l (d)
Slage 5
::
L-1
Fig. 5. Morphology for cases: (a ) stages I and 2; (b ) stages 3 and 4; (c 1 stages 5 and 6; t d 1 stages 7 and 8.
BEACH RESORTS: .AMODEL OF DEVELOPMENT EVOLUTION
199
at Surfers Paradise, while clearly being the focus of the larger resort of the City of Gold Coast, nevertheless needs to be viewed within its total context.
Acccmmodation (Fig. 6)
There is a clear pattern of accommodation supply over the stages of the model for all cases. Some divergence between Pattaya and Surfers Paradise does occur for stages seven and eight; however, if the total supply for the City of Gold Coast is considered with the total supply for Pattaya City, then the scales of increase of supply for the last two stages are similar. This suggests that the concentration of resort functions of Rooms
Overnight visitors (Fig. 6)
The data for visitors for the cases only allow an indication of trends. One difficulty with this analysis is that it isolates annual data, resulting in distortions arising from the annually vark able accommodation consumption. However, the growth of visitor numbers over the stages shown here suggests very sharp increases in the total number of visitors staying overnight for stages six, seven and eight. Resident population (Fig. 6)
a
NUlllber of Visitors
OVERNIGHT
VISITORS
Population bioOo0~ moOO~
While the size of resorts in terms of their resident population is undeniably important in the study of resort development, no common pattern is anticipated as geographical conditions will define population size. Batu Feringgi illustrates this point well. It is possible for people working in the resort to live in the nearby urban areas of Georgetown and Butter-worth, thus the population has changed little as the resort has evolved. In 1970 the population of Batu Feringgi was 32 19 and had increased to only 3442 by 1980. Also, the seemingly low population for Pattaya suggests that a large floating population is not included in official statistics. The cases indicate disparate populations at most stages of development and there is no common pattern.
looooo-
Employ men t (Fig. 7)
RESIDENT POPULATION BallJ Perin@
Fig.
0
6. Accommodation,
population.
0
Surfers
overnight
visitors
HuaHin
and
resident
The cases demonstrate a pattern of increasing job creation as resorts develop. For three of the cases (Batu Feringgi, Pattaya and Hua I-Tin) data are derived exclusively from hotel jobs. That this gives a useful pattern for job creation in resorts is shown by cc qparison with the data for Surfers Paradise where much tour-
R.A.SMlTH
7
6
w
EMPLOY HliNT
loci%
sqmh 2soo
ADJUSTED
IUXREATlONAL 0
Fig. 7. Employment
BUSINESS
Sufen Faradist
0
Panaya
HbaHln
nnd adjusted recreational
business.
Number
of Rooms PATTAYA
-i
Is1 Class
.
. 2nd “I”: .
. 8
*
8
. 8
., 8 l 8
#I
3rd Class
8
Slage
Fig. 8. Accommodation
l
l
structure. Pattaya.
ism related e otel jobs, is captured. For stage eight for Pattaya the total adjusted number of jobs directly related to tourism is 19 000 and for stage eight for Surfers Paradise, 10 000. Thus, if the trends are similar, higher rates of employment per visitor, as is normal in developing countries, will give a higher curve for job creation for Pattaya than Surfers Paradise. C’ornrnerw
A good indicator of the growth accommodation component of merce is the level of recreational tivity. While all business activity
of the nonresort combusiness accontributes
to the operation of resorts, the focus is the prime recreational business core or RBD. Such cores grow in size as the level of business activity increases. The plan size of these cores is an index of the level of recreational business activity in beach resorts as this function is primarily at street level; however, the contexts of these cores vary considerably between cases. Two cores address long beaches and the other two, short beaches. Long beaches will encourage dispersal of recreational business function along the beach; short beaches will promote concentration. To allow for this variation, the plan areas have been weighted by multiplying the core areas by the respective length of beach to give a value (sq m’ km) for comparison. These values, as an expression of adjusted prime business, are plotted in Fig. 7. The resultant pattern is two pairs of cases, Hua HinSurfers Paradise and Batu Feringgi-Pattaya. These pairings are significant. The cases Hua Hin and Surfers Paradise are similar in that they both developed with a large base of domestic tourism demanding lower grade accommodation. Such accommodation has little inhouse non-accommodation recreational business. Guests in these establishments tend to eat and shop away from their accommodation. By contrast, Batu Feringgi and Pattaya commenced with predominantly high-grade accommodation which usually incorporates many non-accommodation recreational bus& nesses. Not only do the guests of these establishments have the opportunity to shop and eat in-house but so do other tourists staying at lower-grade accommodation. The sharp increase in rate of change for Pattaya over stages seven and eight is explained by a major expansion of the supply of lower grade accommodation (Fig. 8 ). All of the business cores are dominated by recreational businesses with the exception of Hua Hin where both commercial and recreational businesses are measured in plan. This contributes to Hua Hin having higher values than Surfers Paradise.
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION
AN
ENT
201
Improved accessibility for visitors has been a catalyst for the development of the cases. For both Surfers Paradise and Pattaya, the improvement of highways and the building of bridges over rivers significantly reduced travel times from their nearest cities. The opening of a rail service to Hua Hin permitted direct access from Bangkok. What initiated resort development at Batu Feringgi is not known.
sion will be high owing to the increasing scarcity of land with development potential near the beach. Thus, erosion of this type is more likely to cause damage to property and infrastructure in the later stages of resort development. Another form of erosion, often caused by engineering works, is possible when the natural flow of material to form and maintain beaches is interrupted. This has occurred recently at Surfers Paradise and is a result of construction of river groins some distance from the resort. It is arguable whether this type of erosion is a result of the development of the resort itself.
Erosion (Fig. 9)
Flood (Fig. 9)
Catalyst -fordeveloprnent (Fig. 9)
Erosion in many instances is related to extremes of weather. Such erosion will occur when storms of high intensity strike. The occurrence of these storms is unpredictable; yet damage to property and infrastructure is more likely as the development of resorts intensifies as pressure to build in areas susceptible to ero-
L-i;_ 1
_i-.l_-_L 2
3
I
I
not necessarily a problem; however, damage to property and infrastructure is more likely as development of resorts intensifies. The conditions for significant flood damage occur when low-lying land is used for development of the resort, after land less susceptible to flood is Polhtion of the Sea
Catalyst for Toorbm Development
SQe
As with erosion and accretion, flood itself is
SW
I
L-_-L__.
1__
I
6
--
2
Erosion BaluFmn@i paaaya HuaHm SMfem Puadw 1 sage
1
F’iod
I SIw
-
L -_-A-_-l_
3
2
L_
Traffic
Damage
._
_
i__
I
6
2
Reported
Congation
BctuFenn@ Paunya Hua Hin Slm”eniJilr&e
/
slalg
!_ _ _____I
I
__ 2
._ !.._ 3
_i 6
stasc !
I
i
I
2
3
Impa
Fig. 9. Resort impacts.
m raw..
I 6
7
R.A. SMITH
202
consumed. Wetlands are also filled, affecting the overall hydrology of the site. The increasing run-off of the resort coupled with the inadequate upgrading of drainage is another factor. Development has encroached into flood plains at Pattaya and Surfers Paradise and both have experienced flood damage in these areas. The timing of floods is dependent on the incidence of extreme precipitation and the extent of damage is increased with concurrence with high tides. Thus, floods cannot be said to occur at a particular stage of development, rather its incidence is more likely to cause damage as resorts mature. Utiter pollrrtim (Fig. 9) Three of the four cases experienced pollution of the sea by stage five. In all cases, the pollution is caused by the discharge of poorly and untreated effluent into the ocean. In the early stages of resort development there were no central sewage treatment facilities. Hotels treated their effluent to varying standards before discharge into the sea. Raw sewage from other sources in the resort also discharged into the sea. Later, central wastewater treatment is provided for the main resort facilities of the resort. At Pattaya, the capacity of these facilities was quickly exceeded and again the quality of e ocean became a effluent discharge problem. This has not been a problem for Surfers Paradise because of strict enforcement of environmental standards and possibly because greater financial resources have been at its disposal.
the residents of their nearby urban areas. The concentration of users in these two cases presented problems of congestion of beach use. The other two cases, Surfers Paradise and Hua Hin, both have extensive resources which are able to accommodate users. Hence the exclusion of residents from beach areas will largely be a function of the extent of coastal resources. Tsafjc congestion reported (Fig. 9)
Traffic flow in three of the cases becaFe congested by stage five. The presence of highways that run through Batu Feringgi, Hua Hin and Surfers Paradise created congestion of traffic earlier than might otherwise have occurred. Pattaya which does not straddle a highway was congested later, at stage six. Trafjcjlow changed (Fig. IO)
When traffic congestion was perceived to be a problem, plans were prepared to relieve it through modification of the traffic flows. Two Traffic
Flow Change
_____ 6
Rduhibtion
srage!-
Congestion of use of beach (Fig. 9)
From the cases, it becomes clear that congestion of the prime natural recreational resource, the beach, is only a problem when that resource is limited, allowing that all cases serve as a recreational venue for nearby cities. Both Batu Feringgi and Pattaya contain much of the limited beach resources that are accessible by
Implemental
of Retort Amkhcc
I I
__
2
_._-i_--
I 3
__
i_
__
4
6
6
Fig. IO. Resort cvcnts.
BEACH RESORTS:
4 MODEL
OF DEL ELOPMEN-I
EVOLUTION
of the cases have only experienced congestion recently; the other two halre had time to implement their plans. Both Pattaya and Surfers Paradise have implemented one-way traffic flow on the main roads running parallel to the beach. Surfers Paradise has also implemented a by-pass road inland from the immediate beach area. Environmental
degradation
The quality of the natural environment is a component of visitor appeal of beach destinations. Clear seawater, clean beaches, good tree cover and coral reefs and a varied wildlife contribute to visitor attraction at undeveloped beaches. Yet the intensification of the development of beach resorts results in the removal of natural land cover and the filling of wetlands. With these actions, wildlife habitats are destroyed and ecological diversity is reduced. Urbanization of beaches is an intervention which in time disrupts and destroys much of the natural environment. All four cases have experienced considerable destruction of land habitats and both Pattaya and Surfers Paradise have extensively filled wetlands to increase the amount of land with potential for development. Increased freshwater run-off alters water salinity and affects marine habitats as can poorly treated wastewater effluent. At Bat;; r’eringgi, inshore shrimp catches have declined sharply. This is attributed to increasing levels of chemical pollution originating in the resort. Rehabilitation
(Fig. 10)
The loss of tree and other natural land cover increases with intensity of physical development. Associated with this loss is change in resort character from largely natural to increasingly urban. As resorts mature, attempts are made to recapture some of the lost natural ambience through rehabilitation of critical resort areas by the application of cosmetic planting.
203
Both Pattaya and Surfers Paradise have become sufficiently urbanized to demonstrate this response to deteriorating ambience and have rehabilitated their foreshores through new plantings and other landscape works. Surfers Paradise has also closed a beach-front street to vehicular traffic to create a pedestrian mall which is well planted with trees. These actions may restore some of the former natural ambience to the resort; however, wildlife habitats eradicated with the removal of the original land cover are not likely to be restored. Structural change cf‘acconmodation
(Fi,g. IO)
At Pattaya there was a diversification of accommodation supply at the last two stages of development when the numbers of low-grade rooms expanded (Fig. 8 ). At Surfers Paradise, the structural change of accommodation was through addition of increased numbers of highgrade rooms. The key point is that structural change does occur as resorts mature when narrow accommodation bases diversify to inciude significant components of all c’lasses of accommodation.
Explorer tow-isrn
’
A distinctive form of explorer tourism is that indulged by alternative visitors. This form is not present at all resorts, though when present has a strong social impact. It also helps publicize the presence of an appropriate beach for recreational purposes. These alternative visitors, if present, will have a significant and potentially negative social effect on pre-tourism settlements at the early stages of tourism development. Resident perceptions
Butler ( 1980) suggests that tourism has to be well developed for resident antagonism to
R.A.SMITH
204
be aroused; the implications being that irritation is slow to rise. Yet at Batu Feringgi, resident attitudes changed quickly, well before a high level of tourism had been established. Doxey ( 1975) believed that antagonism is a product of resident and tourist contact. The cases show, however, that involvement in tourism fosters industry support. The evidence suggests that this occurs because those involved are better informed about tourists and the tourist industry, also that a positive attitude is likely when there are vested interests. The importance of resident attitudes to tourism development relates to the size of the pretourism population and the scale of immigration of labor to service tourism. A small settlement will be quickly overcome by immigrants and as these immigrants were drawn to and depend on tourism, they are more likely to be supportive of tourism. For large communities, existing prior to tourism development, the political implications of a large disaffected population may be significant. In either situation, large or small pre-tourism community, the attitudes to tourism of pre-tourism residents will undergo rapid change over a short period. If there is no large pre-tourism settlement, then resident attitudes are likely to have little negative impact on tourism development, at least until the mature sta ent. INVESTMENT
AND P
L
The pattern of investment in tourism development found in three of the cases - Pattaya, Hua Hin and Surfers Paradise - suggests that investment originates from within the country from the beginning and that foreign investors enter the resort only as it matures. The evidence from the cases, however, is not sufficiently strong to draw a firm conclusion.
PoIitical.fharnework
Distinction between the official leadership of the resort, that is the government bodies, and the other political players is useful as the location in society of true power bases is important to an understanding of the evolution of resorts. For Surfers Paradise, the focus of political power that drove the development of the resort moved from non-government organizations and alliances to the local government for the resort, which eventually failed, and onto the higher level of state government. Pattaya mirrors this progression. Power was initially located outside of government, moved to a local level of government, which became unable to cope with resort management and growth, and finally was usurped by a higher level of government. At first there is government uninterest followed by the need to manage an urbanized resort which has a tendency to unruly development. Eventually the importance of the resort in the total economic picture of the country or state compels increasing intervention by higher government in its affairs. Plarzs
There is considerable difference between general development regulatory devices and specific resort development plans. Development of recreational facilities in all cases has been subjected to some form of official regulation, albeit of varying nature and effectiveness. This form of regulation has been similar to that which might be found in other non-resort situations in the respective countries. Such regulation is derived from the common and ad hoc approach to regulation of non-resort urban growth which was adopted for resort locations. Only two of the cases have had specific resort development plans; Pattaya at stage six and Hua Hin at stage four. While some recommendations from these plans have been implemented, the greater part of the plans have been ignored. In addition, both plans have grossly
BEACH KESOKTS: A MODEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION
underestimated future resort growth thus providing a poor basis for policy development and physical planning.
205
Following from the above evaluations, the hypothesis was revised to give a more robust model. This model, the BRM is described below, stage by stage. A graphic summary is presented in Fig. 11.
heralds the commencement of large-scale tourism. The needs of these high-budget tourists are met mainly by the facilities of the hotel. Total revenue from this segment of visitor will continue to expand through to stage eight though average real expenditure per 4sitor may decline with the subsequent arrival of visitors on low budgets. The number of tourism jobs in the locality expands. There is no specific resort administration and development is initiated and controlled by private entrepreneurs.
Stage I: pw-toirrim
Stage 4: wsort cstahlishcd
T
EAC
datum
At this stage there is no significant tourism present. A settlement, say a village, which is not tourism orientated may or may not be present, but if so, there is an existing road connecting it to the rest of the country. Stage 2: second honws
The beginning of tourism is in the form of second homes that provide venues for occasional recreational use by the owners. These homes are rented to others when not used by the owners. This form of development creates a strip pattern of second homes, connected by a road, along the beach front. Associated with the commencement of tourism at this stage., and possibly the next, though not always present, may be explorer tourism. Alternative tourists, who have independent itineraries and seek close contact with the culture’ visited, are the visitor type. Contact between visitors and residents is high resulting in major negative social impact, though there is some economic gain by residents. Stage 3$rst
hotel
There will be a major improvement in accessibility to the site, which enables visitors significantly better access than before. The first major tourism development occurs at this time, in the form of a high-class tourist hotel. This
The success of the first hotel acts as a catalyst for the construction of more accommodation. The hotels front the sea and the strip development pattern already established at stage two is reinforced and intensified. With a concentration of visitors, entrepreneurs open businesses in houses converted for the purpose outside the hotels with resultant displacement of residents. The proliferation of hotel and other jobs results in many employment rpportunities for immigrants and (if any) residents. This stage of development shifts the focus from tourism being predominantly tied to one hotel to tourism being integrated with the location and the lives of the resident population. Indigenous culture is adapted for visitor consumption. The concept of a resort is established. Stage 5: hrrsimw district c~.~tablishcd
As more accommodation is added in the form of hotels, more houses are displaced away from the beach front. A large number of immigrants from some distance from the resort are now in residence as a result of greatly increased job opportunities and residential areas expand. A business district which is dominated by tourism interests consolidates outside of the hotels and imported culture is provisitor unimportant Previously moted. segments are likely to expand and total revenues from tourism continue to increase. For
R.A.SMlTH
206
No Touhm
Settlement
0
in some cases0
Stage 2
s
S
First tourism development 0 Low budget tourism e Second homes along beach e Roads def3nede Strip development 0
PI
Visitor access improved 0 Fksthotelopew Ad hoc development e High-budget visitors 0 Jobs in tourism e
Hotel jobs dominate 0
Fig. 11. The beach resort model, summary of stages 1 to 8.
resorts with limited natural recreational resources, the carrying capacity of beach and water is reached. Ambience of the resort commences to deteriorate as natural land cover is removed and architecture of mixed quality replaces it. Pollution becomes a potential problem and this remains so through stage eight. Road traffic becomes congested. Formal resort administration may be initiated, though pri-
vate entrepreneurs remain the driving force for development. Stage 6: irzlarzdhotels
By this stage, land adjacent to the beach is no longer available fcr development and accommodation is erected away from the immediate vicinity of this prime recreational re-
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION
207 Stage 5
More accommodation VisitCxtypebroadens Non-hotel business growth Tourism dominates Jxge immigrant wo&force cLlltllraldisluption Beach amgestion and pollution Ambietlcedeteri~ Stage 6
I
Hotels away from beach Rapid residential growth Busin- distrktconsolidates Flood and ertion damage potential Tourism culture domim~ Traditi~pattemsobliten&d Entrepeneurs drive development Government master plan AT10 urbanizedresort Rehtibilitation of natural ambience
Accommodation s&ucturalchange Visitors and expenditures change Resort government fails
L--____-_-
!
~
L.:.:.:.:.3
,
B
Businesses m
e Fully urbanized 0 Alternative circulation 0 Distinct~tional and com.me&il business districts 0 Lateralresortsp~~%d 0 SeriOWpollution 0 Politicalp0wer to higher government
Hotel & other Accommodation m
Road
Residential
Fig. 1 1. Continued.
source. The flow of traffic is attempt to ease congestion. The ence of the resort is lost through development. Aquatic and other duced as habitats are disrupted
altered in an natural ambiconcentrated wildlife is reor destroyed.
evelopment pressure on scarce resources may lead to projects that present problems with accretion or erosion of beaches. Similarly, floodinduced damage becomes a potential danger from this stage. Indigenous patterns of exis-
208
tence are obliterated and the resort is totally tourism orientated. The number of jobs steadily expands and the residential areas continue to grow in size. Development of the resort is not controlled and environmental and other problems threaten the resort’s future viability. A resort master plan may be prepared in an attempt to resolve these difficulties. The political power base still lies with the private tourism industry which remains the driving force for development.
There is a signif a .kt ex,Jansion of a previously minor segment of the accommodation supply as the visitor structure modifies resulting in change in average tourist spending. Considerable business development occurs inland from the immediate beach area and job creation intensifies. The resort is widely perceived as a recreational center. The site is now urbanized and attempts are made to restore a natural ambience in the criti::al beach-from areas. Political power shifts to the local govgrnment, the formal resort administration, which becomes increasingly unable to cope as the resort continues to grow. Stage 8: city resort
This is the mature stage of resort development when the resort has become a city. Lateral spread of the resort along the coast is likely. Zonation of the resort occurs as separate business nodes develop and secondary centers of recreational business are formed. There is a clear separation of the prime recreational and commercial business areas with considerable commercial infill and redevelopment. Road congestion renders secondary circulation for the resort important. The beach is potentially polluted and possibly congested with boating activities. The local government loses authority to higher government. Earlier physical mas-
R.A.SMITH
ter planning is seen to have failed and a new pla n may be prepared.
Those applying the BRM should bear in mind its context for application. Unlike other models, which are non-specific for resort type, this is a comprehensive model for beach resorts. The relevance of the BRM to other types of resort development is not known. The model assumes a touristic function as the dominant development force for beach resorts where no distortions are rreated by major non-recreational functions. Other distortions may arise from limited access to beach resorts as is the case for remote locations. Nearly all beach resorts are subjected to some form of development control, however, the impact of these controls is frequently minimal. Even then these development regulations are not consistent, changing much over time, and are often ignored. In essence, the planning process is ad hoc. Thus the model describes a process of evolution that is largely unplanned in that there is no comprehensive master plan for the resort which is generally followed. In instances where beach resorts have a master plan which is followed, the most likely distortion of the BRM is the displacement of many potentially negative impacts and costs to outside of the planned area. The BRM describes contemporary beach resorts; those that have evolved in the era of diffuse access by visitors via motor vehicles. Recently, mass international tourism as a worldwide phenomenon has increased the potential demand for these beach resort facilities. The model is in contrast to arrett’s model which describes the morphology of beach resorts that developed from a dependence on a fixed point of arrival of visitors at piers and railway stations. Barrett’s model is a study in the history of the form of 19th century beach resorts. The evolution of beach resorts in the present era is defined by the BRM.
BEACH RESORTS: A MODEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
EVOLUTION
The BRM describes the evolution of an urbanized resort from natural beginnings. This process does bring benefits but also gives rise to a number of potential negative situations, that left unchecked, will detract from the quality of the tourism product and benefits to be derived by society. That there is an inevitable and unavoidable process of decline is not necessarily true. The cases have shown that probllems do arise at various stages during their development. However, it has also been found, mainly in the case of Surfers Paradise, that many of these problems have been resolved. The key would seem to be suitable policy planning within the context of resort evolution. Thus it is hoped that the BRM will provide better understanding of the dynamics of beach resorts. If this is so, opportunities for anticipation and avoidance of unwanted effects have been provided. ACKNOWLE
The research for this paper was completed as part of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Design at the Harvard University Graduate School of Design when the author was fortunate to be supervised by Carl Steinitz, William Doebele and Michael Binford. The author gratefully acknowledges their contribution as well as that of Jo& Gomez-Ibaiiez who offered sound advice on the research proposal. In addition, assistance with some of the economic analyses provided by Glenn Jenkins and Roy Kelly are appreciated as are the comments of Shaul Amir and Richard Forman. Lucinda Scanlon and Milton Tan provided technical assistance. In the field, data collection relied (an the goodwill and cooperation of many people. None were obliged to assist as no mandate was carried; however, all were helpful and many exceedingly so. The Harvard University Graduate School of Design provided financial assistance in the form of a doctoral award for the duration of the research.
209
Anderson. J. and Swinglehurst. E.. 1978. The Victorian and EdwardIan Seaside. County Life Books. London. Baker. R.J.. 1983. An analysis of urban morpholog> and tourist prel:incts within selected coastal resorts of the Port Stephens-Great Lakes area, New South Wales. M.A. Thesis. University of New England. New South Wales (unpublished ). Barrett, J.A., 1958. The seaside resort towns of England and Wales. Ph. D. Thesis in Geography. Ilniversity of London ( unpublished ). Bollerey. IF.. 1986. The urbanization of the shore: From fishing village to sea-side resort. Daidalos. 20: 88-97. Bosselman. F.P.. 1978. In the wake of the tourist. The Conscmation Foundation. Washington. DC. Butler, R.W.. 1980. The concept of a tourist area qcle of e\,olution: implications for management of resources. Can. Geog., XXIV ( 1 ): 5- 12. Cobb, C.E.. 1989. Tourism and resort de\clopmcnt: A global perspective. I st International Resort Conference. Chiba. Japan. I 5- i 6 October i 989 ( unpublished ). Dann. G.. Nash. D. and Pearce. P.. 1988. Methodology in tourism research. Ann. Tourism Res.. i 5: 1-28. Doxey. G.V.. 1975. A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants; methodoiogy and research inferences. 6th Annual Travel Research Conference. San Diego, California. S- 1I September. 1975, pp. I95- 198. Ghani. S.. 1988. Penang metropolitan area: Innovative planning strategies for metropolitan development and conscrvation. Regional Planning Dialogue. 9 ( 3 ): 145-l 59. Goodwin, M. and Smith. R.X.. i989. Enhancing the future: The resort city of C airns. Australia. I st International Rcsort Conference. Chiba. Japan. 15-16 C)ctobcr 1989 ( unpublished ). Inskcep. E.. 1988. Tourism planning: .An emerging spccializatlon. J. .Am. Plann. Assoc.. Summer. 1988: 360-371. Johnston, B.R.. 1990. Introduction: Breaking out of the tourist trap. Cultural Surv. Q.. 14 ( ! ): 2-5. Lavery. P.. 1974. Resorts and recreation. In: Patrick Lavcn (Editor). Recreational Geography. Wiley. New York. pp. 167-196. Mahathair. M.. 1986. PATA ‘86 Conference. address b> the Prime Minister. Foreign Affairs Malaysia. 19 ( 2 ): 1-5. Math&on. A. and Wall. G.. 1983. Tourism: Economic. Physical and Social Impacts. Longman. London. M Cioodwin. J.R.. 1986. The tourism impact-syndrome in developing coastal communities: .A Mescian cast. Coastal Zone Manage. J.. 14 (1/Z): 131-146. Metelka. C.K.. 1990. The Dictionary of Hospitalit!. TraL,cl and Tourism. 3rd edn. Dclmar. Alban). NY. Pearce. D . 1987. Tourism Todab - .A Geographical .Ana&sis. Longman/Wiley. New York. Pigram. J.J.. 1977. Beach resort morpholog). Habitat Int.. 2 (5/6): 525-541. Pye. E.A. and Lin. T.B. (Editors ). 1983. Tourism in Asia: the Economic Impact. Singapore Ilnivcrsity Press. Singapore. Stansfidd. CA. and Rickcrt. J.E., 1970. The rccrcational business district. J. L&sure Rcs.. 3 (4 ): 2 l3-22.i.
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