Early maladaptive schemas

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2014, 42(8), 1377-1394 © Society for Personality Research http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2014.42.8.1377

EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS AS PREDICTORS OF INTERPERSONAL ORIENTATION AND PEER CONNECTEDNESS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS GYESOOK YOO Kyung Hee University JU HEE PARK AND HEY JUNG JUN Yonsei University In this study we examined whether or not early maladaptive schemas regarding disconnection and rejection influenced peer connectedness of university students in emerging adulthood. We also investigated the mediating role of interpersonal orientation on these relationships. The participants were 304 students at universities in Korea, aged between 18 and 25 years. Results of structural equation modeling demonstrated that the defectiveness/shame schema had an indirect, negative effect on peer connectedness via interpersonal orientation, and the abandonment/instability schema had an indirect, positive influence on peer connectedness. The social isolation/alienation schema negatively and directly affected peer connectedness. Our findings suggest that when a sense of disconnection and rejection develops during childhood and adolescence, individuals show a relatively stable tendency to either avoid or overvalue interpersonal relationships. This may lead to difficulties in establishing peer relationships in emerging adulthood. Keywords: early maladaptive schema, disconnection, rejection, interpersonal orientation, peer connectedness, peer relationships, emerging adulthood.

The transition to adulthood has become more demanding over the past several decades, and emerging adults (those aged 18 to 25 years) are struggling to attain the markers of adulthood, such as completing higher education, settling into a career, and developing social networks and close relationships (Arnett, 2000;

Gyesook Yoo, Department of Child and Family Studies, Kyung Hee University; Ju Hee Park and Hey Jung Jun, Department of Child and Family Studies, Yonsei University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Ju Hee Park, Department of Child and Family Studies, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea. Email: [email protected]

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Gralinski-Bakker et al., 2005). In addition, positive self-evaluation of their behaviors and emotions has become much more important for today’s young adults than the traditional demographic markers (Côté, 2000; Shanahan, Porfeli, Mortimer, & Erickson, 2005). In line with these new markers of adulthood, forming mature interpersonal relationships is one of the primary developmental tasks of emerging adults as family ties become less salient, creating the need for young people to approach and value reliable relationships with others. In other words, as earlier scholars on the topic (Erikson, 1968; Neugarten, Moore, & Lowe, 1965) suggested, adult identity exploration is inseparably related to the individual’s social world. Thus, a distinct feature of emerging adulthood today is that most young people focus on identity exploration in the context of interpersonal relationships (Arnett, 2000; Doumen et al., 2012; Kerpelman & Pittman, 2001; Montgomery, 2005; Radmacher & Azmitia, 2006). Given that interpersonal context has such an important role in identity exploration, emerging adults need to value interactions with others and approach them. Interpersonal orientation, as one of these social tendencies (others include openness, receptiveness, and reactiveness), refers to a worldview that sees interpersonal contact as important in shaping an individual’s social reality and influencing his or her attitudes, behaviors, and values (Yon, 2012). As a relatively long-term preference for social interactions in a variety of situations (Kiesler, 1996), interpersonal orientation leads to the formation of more mature and stable interpersonal relationships (Buhrmester, Furman, Wittenberg, & Reis, 1988). Thus, highly interpersonally oriented people are likely to be interested in, and responsive to, relationships with others and to benefit from social interaction (Smith & Ruiz, 2007). Researchers have suggested that peer relationships are as critical as romantic relationships during the transition from adolescence to adulthood, in terms of personal development that allows the individual to make the transition. As Fuhrman, Flannagan, and Matamoros (2009) reported, the behavior expectations that an individual holds for friends, such as emotional closeness and loyalty, are similar to those for a romantic partner. Furthermore, not only are intimate relationships with others closely associated with identity exploration, but these relationships also facilitate a sense of personal identity (Montgomery, 2005). In fact, in several studies on college-aged young adults researchers have shown that identity exploration was likely to be accelerated by close peers’ behavior (Kerpelman & Pittman, 2001). Given that establishing intimate relationships with peers takes a critical role in the transition during emerging adulthood, it is necessary to pay more attention to young adults’ intimacy with peers. Relationships with peers have a lifelong effect on the individual’s development. Although the roles and functions of peer relationships may vary across developmental phases, peers serve as essential social networks throughout the

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lifetime. Despite the trend in the decreasing frequency of contact with friends in the stage from high school to single adulthood, it is during emerging adulthood that the functional importance of friends in social networks becomes maximized (Carbery & Buhrmester, 1998). By conducting a four-wave series of interviews at the ages of 13, 15, 18, and 22 years, Gallego, Delgado, and Sánchez-Queija (2011) found that adolescents’ peer attachment increased over time between the ages of 13 and 22. Emerging adults, most of whom are not yet married, tend to rate their friendships as their significant relationships, and to regard peers as their main source of social support. Close friendships provide a secure base for emerging adults, who are exploring their identity, and this leads to the expectation that college students will have intimate peer relationships in this period (Doumen et al., 2012; Radmacher & Azmitia, 2006). This trend is particularly evident in college-aged emerging adults in South Korea because a recent economic slowdown and consequent youth unemployment have consistently resulted in extended years of college life and delaying of marriage in emerging adulthood (Statistics Korea, 2014). This sociocultural background in Korea makes college students in this country perceive their peer relationships as more essential than the past (Statistics Korea, 2014). Young adults who lack connections with others, particularly with peers, may have difficulties dealing with developmental transitions in his/her own life, thereby experiencing maladaptive behavioral and emotional problems such as isolation, depression, and antisocial behavior (Yoo & Park, 2014). However, there are unresolved questions about what hinders some emerging adults from approaching other people and relying on peers for support and companionship in the process of identity exploration. Researchers have identified factors that contribute to the individual’s ability to seek out peers and establish relationships with them during childhood and adolescence (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006), but this same process has not been well addressed in relation to emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Bagwell et al., 2005; Hartup & Stevens, 1997). In addition, identifying the self in light of one’s connections to others and groups is an important part of the cognitive and social development process during this period (Kegan, 1994). It is, therefore, critical to understand what affects interpersonal orientation and peer relationships during emerging adulthood. Emerging adults’ exploration of their identity in relation to their interpersonal relationships and worldview can be influenced by, or can conflict with, past cognitions and beliefs. According to Beck (1979), the cognitive structures that develop in early life and remain stable may influence one’s behavior toward, and perception of, interpersonal relationships as well as of oneself. Adolescents who remembered high levels of parental affect in their early years showed higher levels of peer attachment than did adolescents with low levels of parental affect (Gallego et al., 2011). The beliefs that adolescents and emerging adults

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have about themselves and others may also be associated with their relationship experiences (Radmacher & Azmitia, 2006). Radmacher and Azmitia further suggest that social interactions and affective experiences in relationships may be internalized as cognitive relational schemas and that these schemas can affect how individuals orient themselves and react to others. Along similar lines, Baldwin (1992) proposed relational schemas as regular patterns of interpersonal relatedness. Based on the notions we have described, it can be assumed that the internal beliefs and representation about the self, others, and relationships derived through experiences in childhood and adolescence affect the individual’s interpersonal orientation and relationships with peers in emerging adulthood. However, knowledge and empirical research are very limited with regard to how early perceptions of the self and relationships with others influence interpersonal views and peer relationships during emerging adulthood. As an exception, Young’s (1999) work on early maladaptive schemas for schema-focused therapy offers a construct that could be useful for bridging these research gaps. Early maladaptive schemas (EMS) are defined as: “extremely stable and enduring themes that develop during childhood, are elaborated throughout an individual’s lifetime, and are dysfunctional to a significant degree” (Young, 1999, p. 9). Like the internal working models of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1973), with the concept of EMS Young specifies a range of dysfunctional schemas regarding the self and the individual’s relationships with others and the world. These function within the individual by three schema-driven behavioral processes of schema maintenance, schema avoidance, and schema compensation. Schema surrender is when people simply choose a behavior pattern that confirms the schema, with no effort to avoid it. The schema avoidance process refers to the tendency of escaping real-life situations that may trigger painful EMS, whereas the schema overcompensation process leads individuals to challenge and overcompensate for EMS. These schemas could ultimately result in relational difficulties and psychological problems. Young, Klosko, and Weishaar (2003) pointed out that EMS begin in early childhood or adolescence and are caused by stable patterns of toxic interactions with significant others, and they emphasized the key roles of EMS in forming the ways in which people think, behave, and relate to others. Empirical researchers have supported the stability of EMS in adulthood with both nonclinical (Cecero, Nelson, & Gillie, 2004) and clinical samples (Thimm, 2010). Young et al. (2003) identified five core domains of EMS: (a) disconnection and rejection, (b) impaired autonomy and performance, (c) impaired limits, (d) other-directedness, and (e) overvigilance and inhibition. They also distinguished among these five domains as being either unconditional or conditional EMS; unconditional EMS are developed through early childhood experiences and

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are the most salient beliefs about the self and others, whereas conditional EMS develop later than unconditional schemas and are more amenable to change (Cecero et al., 2004; Young et al., 2003). Among these five domains of EMS, the disconnection and rejection domain is thought to be the most relevant to social orientation and peer relationships during emerging adulthood. Young and colleagues (Young, 1999; Young et al., 2003) stated that the disconnection and rejection domain consists of schemas related to one’s beliefs about relational needs, including acceptance, sharing of feelings, and stability, and that those who had schemas in this domain failed to form safe and satisfying connections to others. Moreover, as self-disclosure and shared activities lead to intimate feelings in peer relationships during emerging adulthood (Radmacher & Azmitia, 2006), the disconnection and rejection domain, which leads to withdrawal or isolation from others, would be a most relevant EMS domain that influences peer connectedness in emerging adults. The five schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain are emotional deprivation, abandonment/instability, mistrust/abuse, social isolation/alienation, and defectiveness/shame. They represent the individual’s most salient beliefs, that is, the belief that his or her need for safety, belonging, affection, and acceptance will not be met. When the individual believes that this is so, it leads him or her to avoid close relationships or to engage in self-destructive relationships. Specifically, people with the abandonment/instability schema believe that their connections to significant others will not be sustainable because others will leave for some reason. The mistrust/abuse schema is the belief that other people will abuse and manipulate the person to meet their own goals. Individuals with an emotional deprivation schema believe that their emotional needs for affection, being understood, and protection cannot be met by others. The schema of defectiveness/shame is the sense of being valueless, defective, inferior, and blamed. People who have a social isolation/alienation schema feel that they are alone and unable to be a part of any group in society. As postulated in Young’s (1999) schema therapy model and expanded on by Young et al. (2003), these distorted beliefs about the self and others influence the individual’s perception and behavior patterns, resulting in serious psychological problems (Muris, 2006). Indeed, researchers have shown that when individuals have schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain this significantly accounts for various types of dysfunctional outcomes in both clinical and nonclinical populations, including depression (Harris & Curtin, 2002); anxiety, disruptive behavior, and eating problems (Muris, 2006); social phobia (Pinto-Gouveia, Castilho, Galhardo, & Cunha, 2006); personality disorders (Jovev & Jackson, 2004); bipolar disorder (Hawke & Provencher, 2012); and divorce (Yoosefi, Etemadi, Bahrami, Fatehizade, & Ahmadi, 2010). However, few researchers have

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investigated the association between EMS and social relationships in emerging adulthood; thus, the basic assumption that one’s EMS govern one’s thoughts and behaviors regarding interpersonal relationships when one is reaching adulthood remains virtually unexamined. Without empirical evidence to demonstrate a connection between EMS and interpersonal relationships in emerging adulthood, it is difficult to explain how EMS influence later experiences in line with the past and lead to psychological problems, as Young (1999) proposed. Yoosefi et al. showed that EMS had an impact on the marital relationship, as a core interpersonal relationship during adulthood. To our knowledge, no researcher has investigated how EMS guide peer relationships during early adulthood, when friends serve as the primary source of social support (Carbery & Buhrmester, 1998). Moreover, little evidence has been provided concerning the mechanism through which EMS influence later interpersonal relationships. Research focused on early mental representations, such as EMS, and later peer relationships could be made more productive by examining the possible mediator variables to explain these linkages. For example, one’s social propensity or attitude could be an important mediator through which parent-child attachment influences peer relationships in emerging adulthood (Benson, McWey, & Ross, 2006). When in conflict situations, insecurely attached individuals tended to exhibit more unforgiving responses to offenses (Burnette, Davis, Green, Worthington, & Bradfield, 2009) and to be hostile about peer rejection (Orobio de Castro, Veerman, Koops, Bosch, & Monshouwer, 2002). In contrast, securely attached persons were more likely than insecurely attached persons to seek support from others in stressful situations (Mikulincer, Shaver, & Pereg, 2003). These findings imply that those who are interpersonally oriented may be more likely to have intimate relationships with peers. Thus, a better understanding of how EMS contribute to the shaping of attitudes toward others and the seeking of relationships with peers will give researchers and practitioners better insight into possible ways to buffer the negative psychological symptoms caused by EMS. Such research could also provide us with suggestions for appropriate cognitive-behavioral interventions to facilitate successful transition during emerging adulthood. Our purpose in this study was to investigate whether or not emotional deprivation, abandonment/instability, mistrust/abuse, social isolation/alienation, and defectiveness/shame (the five EMS in the disconnection and rejection domain) negatively influenced the peer connectedness of university students in emerging adulthood, either directly or indirectly, via interpersonal orientation. We expected that people who had schemas regarding disconnection and rejection related to a failed sense of connection and acceptance would be less likely to be oriented towards social interaction and, thus, would be more likely to fail to develop peer connectedness. Our proposed model is shown in Figure 1.

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MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD Disconnection/ rejection domain

Emotional deprivation

Abandonment/ instability

Mistrust/abuse

(–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–)

(–)

(–)

Interpersonal orientation (+)

(–)

Peer connectedness

Social isolation/alienation (–) Defectiveness/shame

Figure 1. Proposed research model.

Method Participants

The participants were 304 undergraduate students aged between 18 and 25 years who were enrolled at five private universities located in Seoul, South Korea. Our rationale for selecting this age group was based on Arnett’s (2000) concept of the developmental period of emerging adulthood. Of the 304 participants, 164 were women and 140 were men, and their mean age was 21.53 years (SD = 1.93). In terms of school grade, 18.8% were freshmen, 25.3% were sophomores, 29.9% were juniors, and 26.0% were seniors. The majority were majoring in the humanities and social sciences (62.2%), with the rest majoring in natural sciences and engineering (23.7%) or arts and physical education (14.1%). The participants came primarily from middle-class backgrounds, with the mean monthly family income being reported as 4,625,300 won (approximately US$4,500). Procedure

Participants were recruited during the period from April to June, 2012. They completed a pencil-and-paper survey before or after a normal class at a convenient time during the week. They were briefed about the purpose and requirements of the current study by the researchers, and all were provided with written explanations about the survey form. They were informed that their

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participation was anonymous and voluntary, would be without monetary reward or any incentive, and that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. Once students agreed to participate and provided their consent forms, they were asked to complete a survey and return it to the researchers. Completion of the survey took approximately 15 to 20 minutes. We distributed 350 survey forms and 322 students completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 92%. Among these 322 students, 304 met the inclusion criteria for the present study (never married and aged between 18 and 25 years) and were used in the analysis. Instruments Early maladaptive schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain.

To assess the participants’ early maladaptive schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain, we used 25 items designed to explore this domain in the latest edition of the Young Schema Questionnaire–Short Form (YSQ–SF; Young & Brown, 2003). There are five subscales in this domain, each containing five items to assess: emotional deprivation, abandonment/instability, mistrust/abuse, social isolation/alienation, and defectiveness/shame. Responses to each item are rated on a 6-point scale ranging from 1 = completely untrue of me to 6 = describes me perfectly. Higher mean scores represent higher levels of early maladaptive schemas of disconnection and rejection as perceived by the respondent. In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of the five subscales was .91 for the emotional deprivation schema, .84 for the abandonment/instability schema, .85 for the mistrust/abuse schema, .93 for the social isolation/alienation schema, and .90 for the defectiveness/shame schema. Interpersonal orientation. We used the Social Orientedness Scale (Ito, 1993) to assess students’ interpersonal orientation. This scale is composed of nine items that are used to assess a respondent’s level of agreement with statements that describe their orientation to others and their interpersonal adjustment. Responses to each item are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Sample items are: “I set a high price on harmony with people around me” and “I’d like to be a person who is needed by people around me.” A higher mean score represents a higher level of interpersonal orientation. In the present study, the internal consistency was .86. Peer connectedness. We measured participants’ peer connectedness with five items taken from the Peer Connectedness Scale developed for the Korea Youth Panel Survey VI (National Youth Policy Institute, 2008). Respondents are asked to rate their responses on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, statements that describe the individual’s attachment to, and interactions with, peers. Sample items are: “I mix well with my schoolmates” and “Being with my friends makes me happy.” A higher mean score indicates a higher level of peer connectedness. In this study, the internal consistency for the five items was .80.

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Data Analysis

We performed structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the theoretical pathways, using Mplus version 6.12 (Muthén & Muthén, 2010). In the measurement model, each latent component of the theoretical model was assessed separately to determine the viability of each individual construct. If each latent component can stand alone as a construct, the full model can be tested. In the full model we examined the pathways of the five schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain in relation to interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness. All models were tested using the maximum likelihood estimation method, and the covariance matrix was analyzed. Results Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Descriptive statistics of the research variables are listed in Table 1 along with preliminary Pearson’s correlations. Overall, the participants reported low levels of EMS and high levels of interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness. Correlation analyses indicated that the five individual maladaptive schemas and the disconnection and rejection domain were positively correlated with each other (r = .48–.89, p < .001). As shown in Table 1, all six of these measures were negatively related to both interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness. Students with higher levels of the disconnection and rejection schemas were likely to be less interpersonally oriented than those with lower levels of disconnection and rejection schemas in their relationships and felt less connected to their peers. The Effects of the Disconnection and Rejection Schemas on Interpersonal Orientation and Peer Connectedness Model 1: Measurement model. The initial test for the second-order

measurement model of the disconnection and rejection domain of EMS for goodness of fit yielded a comparative fit index (CFI) of .94, a Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) of .93, and a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) of .07. The measurement test of the five factors of the disconnection and rejection domain resulted in a CFI of .94, a TLI of .93, and a RMSEA of .07. The measurement model for the interpersonal orientation construct was initially tested with nine items and yielded a CFI of .97, a TLI of .96, and a RMSEA of .06. The initial model for peer connectedness was tested as well, and the results were a CFI of .99, a TLI of .98, and a RMSEA of .05. All of the measurement models of the constructs demonstrated viability. Model 2: Pathways of the schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain. To explore the pathways of the five schemas in the disconnection and

rejection domain in relation to interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness, we treated each of the five individual EMS as an independent variable in

Note. *** p < .001; N = 304.

1. Disconnection/rejection domain 1-1. Emotional deprivation 1-2. Abandonment/instability 1-3. Mistrust/abuse 1-4. Social isolation/alienation 1-5. Defectiveness/shame 2. Interpersonal orientation 3. Peer connectedness Range Possible range M SD

– .77*** .79*** .80*** .89*** .84*** -.38*** -.44*** 1.00–4.64 1–6 2.13 0.77

1 – .48*** .49*** .64*** .54*** -.34*** -.41*** 1.00–4.80 1–6 1.85 0.90

1-1

– .57*** .59*** .55*** -.17*** -.21*** 1.00–5.20 1–6 2.47 0.96

1-2

1-3

– .63*** .56*** -.28*** -.37*** 1.00–5.60 1–6 2.37 0.96

Table 1. Bivariate Correlations and Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables

– .76*** -.36*** -.44*** 1.00–5.40 1–6 2.01 0.95

1-4

– -.39*** -.37*** 1.00–5.80 1–6 1.94 0.94

1-5

– .43*** 1.00–5.00 1–5 4.05 0.52

2

– 1.00–5.00 1–5 4.00 0.61

3

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-0.33*

-.31*

Indirect -.10*

.21*

.32***

Peer connectedness

Indirect .07*

Interpersonal orientation

Figure 2. The effects of the disconnection and rejection schemas on interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness. Note. * p < .05, *** p < .001. All coefficients are reported as standardized values.

Defectiveness/ shame

Social isolation/ alienation

Mistrust/abuse

Abandonment/ instability

Emotional deprivation

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the model. The full model was found to be acceptable, and the fit, including confidence interval (CI), was as follows: RMSEA = .06, 90%, CI [.05, .06], CFI = .92, and TLI = .91. As seen in Figure 2 the result for the effect of interpersonal orientation on peer connectedness showed that a student’s interpersonal orientation positively influenced his or her peer connectedness. The results for each of the five schemas showed that the abandonment/instability schema had a significantly positive effect on interpersonal orientation. This indicated that students with higher levels of the abandonment/instability schema were likely to be more interpersonally oriented than others were in their relationships. However, the abandonment/ instability schema had no direct effect on peer connectedness. We found that the abandonment/instability schema had an indirect effect on peer connectedness via the mediator of interpersonal orientation. The defectiveness/shame schema did not have a direct effect on peer connectedness but had a significantly negative effect on interpersonal orientation. Interpersonal orientation mediated the association between the defectiveness/shame schema and peer connectedness. The social isolation/alienation schema had a direct negative effect on peer connectedness, and interpersonal orientation did not mediate the association between the social isolation/alienation schema and peer connectedness. Students with higher levels of the social isolation/alienation schema were likely to feel less connected to peers than were students with lower levels of the social isolation/ alienation schema. Finally, we found that the emotional deprivation and mistrust/ abuse schemas did not have a significant effect on either interpersonal orientation or peer connectedness. Discussion In this study we examined whether or not EMS in the disconnection and rejection domain influenced the peer connectedness of university students in emerging adulthood, and investigated the mediating effect of interpersonal orientation. The outcomes provided strong support for the theoretical factor structure of the disconnection and rejection domain in the YSQ–SF (Young & Brown, 2003). The validation of the influence of the five schemas in our study (i.e., abandonment/instability, emotional deprivation, mistrust/abuse, social isolation/alienation, and defectiveness/shame) was consistent with the theoretical influence proposed by Young et al. (2003), who focused on clinical populations. Given that the participants in this study were from a nonclinical college student population in South Korea, our findings lend support to the theoretical assumption by Young and colleagues that EMS exist in both nonclinical and clinical populations, although they would be more conspicuous in those with clinical symptoms.

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In general, our model revealed that each of the five EMS in the disconnection and rejection domain had different effects on peer connectedness. The abandonment/ inability and defectiveness/shame schemas influenced peer connectedness indirectly; however, the effects of these two schemas on interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness were in opposite directions. The defectiveness/ shame schema had an indirect and negative effect on peer connectedness via interpersonal orientation. This indicated that people who believed they had flaws and were unattractive to others tended to think it less valuable to get along with others and made less effort to live harmoniously with other people. Those who lacked interpersonal orientation were then less likely to pursue close relationships with peers. In contrast, the abandonment/instability schema, which was positively associated with interpersonal orientation, had an indirect and positive influence on peer connectedness. The perception of insufficient support from, and unstable connections to, others may have resulted in these individuals forming clinging interpersonal relationships and, in turn, connecting to peers. At first glance, this result seems contradictory to the EMS model of Young (1999), who assumed that the presence of an abandonment/instability schema might hinder later interpersonal relationships. However, according to Cecero et al. (2004), individuals with an abandonment/instability schema place excessive value on their relationships with others and tend to make unduly strong efforts to remain connected with them. Comparable outcomes have also been reported in some research on adult attachment (Collins & Read, 1990; Pietromonaco & Barrett, 1997). Those who evidenced an anxious-ambivalent attachment style showed greater intimacy in daily interactions than did people with a dismissing style. These similar findings indicate that the positive effect of the abandonment/ instability schema on interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness may be attributable, in large part, to the possessiveness that results from a fear of being left and rejected. In addition, the disparities in the effects of the abandonment/inability and defectiveness/shame schemas on peer connectedness can be interpreted based on the three major types of schema processes of schema surrender, schema avoidance, and schema overcompensation (Young, 1999; Young et al., 2003). Based on these processes, the effects of the defectiveness/shame and abandonment/instability schemas on interpersonal orientation and peer connectedness can be explicated by schema avoidance and schema overcompensation, respectively. Specifically, individuals with a defectiveness/shame schema, who believe they are inferior and unlovable to others, are likely to avoid committing themselves to interpersonal relationships. As a result, they do not have a psychologically painful sense of shame. This behavioral avoidance may suppress the individual’s warmth toward, interest in, or responsiveness to, others and, ultimately, may weaken the current level of that individual’s connectedness to his or her peers. This finding is in

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line with those reported in previous research showing that college students at the stage of emerging adulthood who had a diffuse-avoidant identity style were likely to be insecurely attached to peers, which brought loneliness for them (Doumen et al., 2012). In contrast, people with an abandonment/instability schema tend to expect that a relationship with another person will eventually terminate. As previously suggested, those people may adopt behavioral styles that are the opposite of the premise of the abandonment/instability schema (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Using this overcompensation coping style, they may be able to maintain their relationships with others by being anxious to please and to avoid conflicts. Nevertheless, Young (1999) asserted that, although the mechanism of schema overcompensation is often functional, this is not always the case. Therefore, interpreting the findings in light of the overcompensation process should be treated with caution. We found that the social isolation/alienation schema had only a direct negative effect on peer connectedness. This result is in line with those of previous researchers (Cecero et al., 2004; Young, 1999; Young et al., 2003) who argued that EMS involving a failed sense of connection and acceptance had repercussions in social relationships during adulthood. Those with a social isolation/alienation schema may believe that they are different from others in terms of not being a part of any group (Young, 1999), which causes them to avoid their peers. Most seriously, these distorted beliefs and maladjustments related to peer relationships can predict psychopathology in that positive peer relations attenuate detrimental experiences with one’s family (Bukowski & Adams, 2005). Thus, it is crucial that clinical psychologists and counsellors working in universities provide diverse interventions to help university students become aware of, and control their response to, those EMS by reformulating or modifying their distorted beliefs. Among the five subschemas in the disconnection/rejection domain, the emotional deprivation and mistrust/abuse schemas did not have a significant effect on peer connectedness. This indicates that our research model was only partially supported. One possible explanation is that during emerging adulthood these two schemas are likely to be associated with intimate relationships such as romantic relationships, but not with peer connectedness. In fact, in previous research on the marital relationship (D’Andrea, 2004; Yoosefi et al., 2010) the findings indicated that both the emotional deprivation and mistrust/abuse schemas were related to the termination of couple relationships. Remaining connected with peers seems unlikely to require a level of emotional ties and trust as strong as that required to maintain a romantic or marital relationship. Thus, it may be that the emotional deprivation and mistrust/abuse schemas are especially damaging to stable couple relationships but not as toxic to peer connectedness. In sum, our proposed model was partially supported by our findings, indicating that attitudes toward peers during emerging adulthood can be predicted by the

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disconnection and rejection domain maladaptive schemas that develop early in life, and that this influence can be mediated by a broader social propensity, known as interpersonal orientation. As Berlin, Cassidy, and Appleyard (2008) observed, individuals who, through their early experiences with significant others, come to view others as insecure and untrustworthy, may lack the motivation to seek interpersonal relationships. Such a lack of motivation may subsequently result in inadequate opportunities to develop peer relationships. There are implications for clinical practice related to interventions for emerging adults with distorted beliefs about themselves and significant others. According to Young et al.’s (2003) schema therapy, it is necessary to help these people realize that they have their own emotions, cognitions, and coping styles related to the expectations of rejection in order to attenuate them. To do this, people need to understand the origin of their schemas and response style; clinical psychologists and counsellors can use the YSQ–SF in the process of screening and counselling. If individuals control their EMS by recognizing their own distorted schemas and adopting emotional, cognitive, and behavioral strategies to change their unrealistic beliefs, they can access and establish reliable social relationships with others. A limitation in our study was that out of the EMS domains as proposed by Young (1999), we examined only schemas in the disconnection and rejection domain. We determined that the EMS in this domain would be most relevant to interpersonal relationships because these schemas were, reportedly, associated with the individual’s inefficacy to respond to social situations as well as to the individual’s sense of belonging. However, an examination of EMS in the other domains may provide a better understanding of the predictors of failure in establishing peer relationships as a form of social support. Another limitation concerns the sample composition of this study; the participants were a nonclinical population of university students who did not have high levels of EMS. To generalize the outcomes of this study, future researchers should include young adults from diverse backgrounds in terms of culture, education, and psychopathology. Finally, although scholars consider that EMS are constructed in childhood, our results in this cross-sectional study did not corroborate the contention that EMS truly affect interpersonal relationships in early adulthood. Longitudinal research is required to elucidate the causal relationship between EMS and social interactions in emerging adulthood. Despite these limitations, in the present study we have extended the findings of previous studies on EMS in several ways. First, our results validated the factor structure of the disconnection and rejection domain of EMS in a nonclinical emerging adult sample, thus suggesting that EMS are common and stable cognitive structures regardless of whether or not psychopathological symptoms are present. This supports the suggestion made by Cecero et al. (2004), that EMS represent a universal cognitive structure that influences later interpersonal

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relationships. Second, our findings in this study suggest that EMS in the disconnection and rejection domain can harm peer connectedness directly as well as indirectly via interpersonal orientation. Our data also showed the pathway through which EMS in the disconnection and rejection domain influenced later peer relationships. EMS shaped individuals’ lack of interest in, and coldness and unresponsiveness toward, others and, thus, prevented those individuals from establishing connectedness with their peers. These results offer insight into the mechanism by which EMS can affect later peer relationships, as well as into effective interventions to help young adults form reliable interpersonal relationships, thereby establishing reliable peer relationships that are primary social supports in emerging adulthood. References Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480. http://doi.org/g5w Bagwell, C., Bender, S., Andreassi, C., Kinoshita, T., Montarello, S., & Muller, J. (2005). Friendship quality and perceived relationship changes predict psychosocial adjustment in early adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 235-254. http://doi.org/gkx Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schemas and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461-484. http://doi.org/cx7t9b Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244. http:// doi.org/gjm Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press. Benson, M. J., McWey, L. M., & Ross, J. J. (2006). Parental attachment and peer relations in adolescence: A meta-analysis. Research in Human Development, 3, 33-43. http://doi.org/dvw7ng Berlin, L. J., Cassidy, J., & Appleyard, K. (2008). The influence of early attachments on other relationships. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 333-347). New York: Guilford Press. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Separation: Anxiety and anger (Vol. 2). New York: Basic Books. Buhrmester, D., Furman, W., Wittenberg, M. T., & Reis, H. T. (1988). Five domains of interpersonal competence in peer relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 991-1008. http://doi.org/bnmhj8 Bukowski, W. M., & Adams, R. (2005). Peer relationships and psychopathology: Markers, moderators, mediators, mechanisms, and meanings. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34, 3-10. http://doi.org/d785dq Burnette, J., Davis, D., Green, J., Worthington, E., Jr., & Bradfield, E. (2009). Insecure attachment and depressive symptoms: The mediating role of rumination, empathy, and forgiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 276-280. http://doi.org/dgzt76 Carbery, J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Friendship and need fulfillment during three phases of young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 393-409. http://doi.org/cx7dbp Cecero, J. J., Nelson, J. D., & Gillie, J. M. (2004). Tools and tenets of schema therapy: Toward the construct validity of the Early Maladaptive Schema Questionnaire-Research Version (EMSQ-R). Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 11, 344-357. http://doi.org/dt4s9w

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