Ecological and economic assessment of two marine ... - J-Stage

Galaxea, Journal of Coral Reef Studies (Special Issue): 309-322（2013） nd

Proc 2 APCRS

Ecological and economic assessment of two marine protected areas in the island garden city of Samal, Davao Gulf, Philippines Cleto L. Jr. NAÑOLA1, *, Celsa Margarette PLASABAS1, Arturo Sagut BALLESTEROS III1, Raquel Boque AGUSTIN1, Maria Sabrina Artacho SUAYBAGUIO1 and Maian COZO2 University of the Philippines Mindanao, Mintal, Tugbok District, Davao City, Philippines Brokenshire College of Davao, Madapo Hills, Davao City, Philippines

1 2

* Corresponding author: Cleto L. Nañola, Jr. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract The performance of two marine protected areas (MPAs) in Samal Island, Coral Garden and Aundanao MPAs were evaluated after more than 10 years of exis tence. The evaluation tools used were fishery dependent (i.e. focus group discussion) and independent (i.e. fish census, benthic assessment and crown-of-thorns density) samplings. All sampling was conducted at least twice for one year. In all sites, COTs densities were just above the alarming stage (~1 individual.250 m−2). Aundanao MPA showed a positive feedback system by supporting the spillover effect. There is high density of sexually mature fish (＜30 cm Total length and significantly higher fish biomass estimates of target species (16 mt km−2) inside than outside the MPA. The relatively small catch (20 mt year−1) from fishing adjacent to the MPA is attributed to the limited capacity of the core zone (only 3 ha) to support the fishery. It also serves as a refuge site for small pelagic fishes (i.e. ox-eye scad, Selar boops) that aggregate along the slope. In contrast, the Coral Garden MPA had very low fish biomass (4.0 mt km−2) and only a couple of sexually mature individuals both inside and outside the sites. Intermittent guarding which have resulted to occasional poaching in the no-take area was one of the reasons. Further, a newly introduced fishing gear bintol (modified lift net), for subsistence targeting damselfishes has started to operate near the area. This is an evidence of a lesser

density of targeted food fish to catch. Coral Garden MPA has shown that the rate of extraction exceeded the pre sumed turnover rate of the associated reef fish standing stock suggesting an overfishing of the area. Keywords MPA, reef fishery, fish abundance, fish bio mass estimates, overfishing, crown-of-thorns

Introduction Marine protected areas (MPAs) or fish sanctuaries have been used with the expectation of enhancing fisheries in tandem with biodiversity conservation (Russ and Alcala 2003, 2004; Abesamis et al. 2006). In the Philippines, out of 1,000 MPAs that have been established, only around 15-30% are actually being managed effectively (Aliño et al. 2000; Arceo et al. 2008). Those that were managed effectively, showed considerable accumulation of fish biomasses in the span of three to five years (Nañola et al. 2004). Furthermore, the success of MPAs were found to be depend on the initially associated reef fish standing stocks and their subsequent enhancement which require the consideration of the range of sizes of these species, relevant to their overall reproductive potential and recov

310

Nañola et al.: Ecological and economic assessment of marine protected areas

ery (Nañola et al. 2007). At present, very little published biological and fishery information are available as regards the contribution of MPAs in Davao Gulf particularly in Samal Island. Most information available was based on biological assessment (Nañola and Ingles 2003) and the fishery harvest was conducted separately that focused mainly on the small pelagic species (Armada 2003). Hence, this study investigated the ecological (i.e. the fish biomass) and expected economic benefits through spillover effect of the two MPAs in the Island Garden City of Samal (IGaCoS), namely: Coral Garden and Aundanao MPAs. Biological information was obtained using the fish visual census technique and benthic survey. Socioeconomic information was obtained through focus group discussion from the fishers fishing adjacent the MPAs. The study aims to: a) characterize the benthic fauna particularly the corals inside and outside the MPAs, b) describe the diversity, density, size frequency distribution and biomass estimates of commercially important or target fish species, c) estimate the fisheries harvest ob tained adjacent to the MPAs, and d) determine other na tural perturbations that may hamper the ecological inte grity of the MPA such as crown-of-thorns locally known as “dapag” infestation.

Fig. 1　Map of Island Garden City of Samal showing the location of the Aundanao MPA and Coral Garden MPA. Inset map: Davao Gulf

Table 1　The number of transects done per sampling area and sampling period.

Material and methods Study area The study was conducted in the two marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Island Garden City of Samal, Aundanao MPA and Coral Garden MPA (Figure 1). Aundanao MPA is located in Barangay Aundanao. It is one of the 15 MPAs declared by the Island Garden City of Samal with a total area of 266 ha and a core area of only 3 ha (OWSCP 2009). It was established in 1994. The Coral Garden MPA is situated at the border of Barangays Linosutan and Dadatan in Talikud Island. It has a total area of 492 ha and a core area of 24.38 ha. This MPA is popularly known to tourist and scuba divers as the Coral Garden. It was established in 1998 (OWSCP 2009, IGACOS 2010). The assessment of the associated reef fishes, bottom cover of the life-form benthos and the estimates of the

crown-of-thorns (COTs) abundance were conducted 2 to 3 times from December 2008 to December 2009 (Table 1). Benthic life-form characterization Benthic characterization was assessed using the belt transects with photo quadrat sampling method modified from English et al. (1997). In each transect, a series of photographs were taken to cover the entire length of the


50 m transect using high resolution (＞6 megapixels) dig ital cameras with underwater housing. The classification of the benthic life forms was done with Coral Point Count with Excel extension (CPCe) (Kohler 2006). A nine-point stratified sampling was used to characterize the benthic lifeforms. Crown-of-thorns (COTs) population survey The density survey of COTs locally known as “dap-ag” utilized the same transect that was used for the benthic survey. All young and adult COTs within a distance of 2.5 m on both sides of transect were counted.

311

species, and lastly for COTs density. The fishery catch composition obtained adjacent to the MPA were evaluated in relation to the available standing stocks inside and outside the MPA obtained from fish visual census method.

Results A total of 9 sites were established in the two MPAs for the monitoring of benthos, reef fish and COTs density. Six monitoring sites were established in Aundanao MPA and 3 to 4 monitoring sites were established in the Coral Garden MPA (Table 2).

Fish visual census Fish visual census was conducted in the same transect used for benthic and COTs survey. All reef fishes that fall within 5 m on both sides of the transect line were identified down to the species level, counted and their individual sizes were estimated to the nearest centimeter (English et al. 1997). From the estimated lengths of each species, fish bio masses were computed from the fish length-weight re lationship, W＝aLb Where: W＝weight in grams, a and b are growth coeffi cient values (Kulbicki et al. 1993). Growth coefficient values were obtained from available literature and from the web (www.fishbase.org.) Total fish biomass were es timated from each transect area by multiplying the counts and density per unit area. Reef fishery assessment Adjacent to both MPAs, fishery harvests were assessed using the method described by (Campos and Castillo 2007). Catch composition was also assessed based on sub-sampling from the catches of fishermen at the landing sites (Campos et al. 1994; Maunder et al. 2006). Data analyses For each MPA, all inside and outside sites were pooled and their mean and standard errors were computed. These type of summarization were done for the data on benthos, fish density and the estimated fish biomasses which were further categorized as commercial and none-commercial

Benthic classification and COTs density There is no significant difference observed for the different benthic characteristics observed between inside and outside sites for both MPAs. But for Aundanao MPA, soft coral cover (30% to 40%) was significantly higher compared to the rest of the other benthic life-forms (Fig. 2). In contrast, in Coral Garden MPA, hard coral cover (50%) was significantly higher compared to the other benthic life-forms (Figs. 3). A total of 138 individuals of COT were observed dur ing the entire duration of the study from December 2008 to December 2009. Average COTs density in Aundanao MPA was 1.5 individuals 250 m−2 with a highest density observed during the December 2008 sampling (2±2.53 individuals 250 m−2). In Coral Garden MPA, the average density was a bit higher at 1.74 individuals 250 m−2 with a peak density observed during the August sampling (2.45 ±7.16 individuals 250 m−2).

Table 2　Average density (individual 250 m−2) of COTs in all sampling months for the two MPAs.

312


Fig. 2　Mean percentage benthic cover between inside and outside sites in Aundanao MPA from pooled data sets of December 2008 and 2009 sampling.

Fig. 3　Mean percentage benthic cover between inside and outside sites in Coral Garden MPA from pooled data sets of April, August and November 2009 sampling.

Fish density, size frequency distribution and biomass estimates A total of 196 species belonging to 36 families were observed in both MPAs. Of the 196 species, 78 species (39.8%) were found belonging to 17 families of commer cially important or target species. The families and the representative fishes were Acanthuridae (surgeonfishes), Aulostomidae (trumpetfishes), Balistidae (triggerfishes), Caesionidae (fusiliers), Carangidae (jacks), Clupeidae (her

rings), Fistulariidae (cornetfishes), Haemulidae (sweet lips), Holocentridae (squirrelfishes), Labridae (wrasses), Mullidae (goatfishes), Nemipteridae (threadfin breams), Plotosidae (sea catfish), Scaridae (parrotishes), Serranidae (groupers), Siganidae (rabbitfishes) and Synodontidae (lizardfishes). The average fish density of target species in Aundanao MPA did not differ significantly between inside and outside sites (Figure 4). Based from the size frequency


313

Reef fishery A total of four barangays were assessed. One in Aundanao MPA (Brgy Aundanao, the center barangay) and three in Coral Garden MPA (Brgys. Dadatan, Lino sutan and Sta Cruz). In all of the barangays surveyed, a total of eight fishing gears were identified operating or fishing adjacent to the two MPAs. These were the sta tionary gill net, “kawil” (simple with one hook), “kawil” (multiple hooks), spear fishing, “pamo” (drift gill net), “sarangat” (squid jig), “undak” (long line) and “bintol” (modified lift net) (Table 3). The total number of fishers accounted for during the survey was 811 in 685 households (Table 3). Overall, ma jority of the fishers were mostly use kawil-simple (31.8%) Fig. 4　Average fish density of target species inside and outside sites of Aundanao MPA.

distribution, sexually adult species (Total length 30 cm and over) represented by the parrotfishes and surgeonfishes were found inside the sites (no take) and were none in the adjacent buffer sites outside the no-take area. Moreover, the common and abundant species in the area were the surgeonfishes, parrotfishes and wrasses (Figures 5a to 5d). In the Coral Garden MPA, average density of target species was significantly higher inside than outside the MPA (Figure 6). In terms of the size frequency distribution, no sexually matured individuals (TL 30 cm and over) found inside the MPA (Figures 7a to 7f). But few mature individuals were seen in the August 2009 sampling (Fig ure 7d). The mean fish biomass estimates of target species were significantly higher inside (7.8 kg 500 m−2 or 15.65 mt km−2) than outside (2.4 kg 500 m−2 or 4.93 mt km−2) sites of Aundanao MPA (Figure 8). The fish biomass was mainly contributed by the surgeonfishes of the species Ctenochaetus striatus (4.5 kg 500 m−2 or 9 mt km−2). How ever, in Coral Garden MPA, estimated fish biomass did not differ between inside and outside the MPA (Figure 8). The mean values were only 2.1 kg 500 m−2 (4.33 mt km−2) and 1.5 kg 500 m−2 (3.11 mt km−2), respectively. Both values were significantly lower than the inside value of Aundanao MPA (Figure 8).

and stationary gill net (31.1%). This was followed by kawil-multiple hooks (24.4%). The least fishing gears used were longline “undak” (0.9%) and drift gill net pamo (0.7%). The most common fish families captured by dif ferent fishing gears in the area include reef and pelagic fish species (Table 4). In Aundanao, the major catch of all combined fishing gears was dominated by pelagic fishes (63.6%) followed by reef fishes (31.6%) and invertebrates (4.7%). By gear composition, the catch of gill net was mainly composed of pelagic species (54.54%) and some reef fishes (36.36%). The pamo and kawil-simple usually catches pelagic spe cies (100%). For spear, majority of the catch (90%) was mainly reef fishes and some invertebrates (10%) such as sea cucumbers, shells and octopus (Table 4). For the Coral Garden, the catch composition was al most the same. Majority were pelagic fish species (47.6 %). Reef fishes and other invertebrates comprised 31.4% and 21.0%, respectively. By gear species composition, the majority of the catch (40% to 100%) of gill-net, kawilsimple, kawil-multiple and undak were mostly pelagic species. Gill nets and spearfishing usually catch reef fishes and the gear bintol were very specific in catching damsel fishes such as Acanthochromis polyacanthus, Abudefduf spp. and other Chromis spp. The catch was for fisher’s consumption. It seldom appears in the local wet market (Table 4). The historical trend line of fish catch since 1975 has been declining and stabilizes sometime around 1995 (Figures 9 and 10). In Aundanao, the estimated catch per

314


Fig. 5　Size frequency distribution of target species categorized by family both inside and outside sites of Aundanao MPA during December 2008 (a, b) and 2009 (c, d) sampling periods.

Fig. 6　Average fish density of target species inside and outside sites of Coral Garden MPA.

unit effort of fishing gear pamo catches around 25 kg per trip and went down to around 10 kg per trip and started to stabilize with a slight increase. In most cases, the trip is

equivalent to one day fishing. The same trend is observed in Coral Garden. The catch per unit effort of gill net was about 20-25 kilograms in 1975 and went down to five kilograms in 1995 and started to stabilize until the present time. During the study, the fishing gear with the highest CPUE in Aundanao was contributed by pamo with a catch of about 10 kg per trip. This was followed by gill net with CPUE of 5 kg per trip. The remaining of the fishing gears has CPUE of around 2 kg per trip (Table 5). For Coral Garden, the highest CPUE was for the gill net (5 kg per trip), followed by sarangat with 4.3 kg per trip. The lowest CPUE with less than 1 kg per trip was with the use of undak (Table 5). From the total of seven barangays surveyed, the esti mated annual catch was 336.59 mt yr−1. Thirty six percent (36%), 121.3 mt km−2 of the estimated annual catch was contributed by a barangay near Aundanao MPA and the rest (64%, 215.3 mt km−2) from fishing adjacent the Coral Garden MPA (Table 6).


315

Fig. 7　Size frequency distribution of target species categorized by family both inside and outside sites of Coral Garden MPA during the April (a, b), August (c, d) and Novermber (e, f) 2009 sampling periods.

By fishing gear, highest contributor was the gill net comprising 46% (155.4 mt yr−1) of the annual catch fol lowed by kawil-simple and pamo with 13.6% and 13.5%, respectively. The least was with the use of undak with 0.2% (0.8 mt yr−1) (Table 6). The estimated annual catch of all combined fishing gears overlaid by the catch composition showed that reef

fishes comprised only 24.66% (~83 mt yr−1) of the annual catch. In Aundanao, reef fish catch only comprised 6.10% (20.5 mt yr−1) and 18.6% (62.5 mt yr−1) for Coral Garden (Table 6).

316


Discussion

Fig. 8　Fish biomass estimates of commercially or target spe cies inside and outside Aundanao and Coral Garden MPAs.

Crown-of-thorns One of the natural events that cause massive death of corals aside from El Niño event and typhoon is the in festation of the crown-of-thorns. Data showed that COT density for both sites seems to be low (Table 2). However, that low density of 1 individual 250 m−2 is already con sidered as an outbreak (Harriott et al. 2003). Years before the survey, there have been reports of COTs infestation

Table 3　Number of fishers using different kinds of gears around the three MPAs.

Nañola et al.: Ecological and economic assessment of marine protected areas Table 4　Percentage catch composition of the different fishing gears operating adjacent the two MPAs.

317

318


Fig. 9　Historical trend line of fish catch for the different fishing gears fishing around Aundanao MPA.

Fig. 10　Historical trend line of fish catch fishing around Coral Garden MPA around Aundanao MPA.

Table 5　Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) of different fishing gears operating around the three MPAs.

Table 6　Estimated annual catch from the different gears operating around the two MPAs. The last column represents the landed catch of reef fishes derived from the catch composition.


particularly in Coral Garden MPA (Estremera 2003; Gevera, 2007; Palacio, 2007). In 2003, more than 1500 individuals of COTs were collected along the 4 km stretch in Coral Garden MPA (Estremera 2003). In 2007, another clean-up drive was conducted in which an estimated num ber of 3,000 COTs were collected in the coastal waters of Samal Is. including the Coral Garden MPA (Gevera 2007; Palacio 2007). This may suggest that by 2009, COTs density has been reduced considerably.

319

Reef fish biomasses inside the MPAs and the adjacent fishery harvest One of the objectives for the establishment of the MPA is to sustain the use of the fishery resources. Inside the

integrity of the reef by reducing the algal growth (Mc Clanahan et al. 2001; Williams and Polunin 2001; Russ 2003; Mumby et al. 2006; Stockwell et al. 2009) in effect promotes growth and possibly recruitment of corals (Mumby et al. 2007). Based from the fishery catch, the Aundanao MPA can support as much as 6% (20.54 mt km−2, Table 6) of the total annual landings and about 47 fishers (27.48% of the total fishers, Table 3). These numbers are small as com pared with the harvest from the pelagic fishery. This is probably an outcome of the size of the reserve which is only about 3 ha. With this size it is very obvious that it cannot provide more through spillover. But, the fact that the biomass of target species inside was high (Figure 8),

MPA, reef fishes are protected and eventually attain sexual maturity. Thus it may serve as a refuge for the growth and biomass buildup of sexually mature individuals. In effect, more progeny is expected with protection, and in time it will contribute to the increase in biomasses (Stockwell et al. 2009) and the fishery catches through spillover effect (Russ and Alcala 1996; Abesamis and Russ 2005, Abe samis et al. 2006). This has been demonstrated in some marine reserves in the Philippines (Abesamis and Russ 2005, Abesamis et al. 2006).

Aundanao MPA is a promising site and what needs to be done is to increase the no take zone to provide more to reef fishery through the spillover effect. Moreover, during the last sampling in December 2009 just at the slope inside the MPA, a large school (~1000 individuals) of a pelagic fish, Selar boops (Carangidae) was observed. This suggests that Audanao MPA was not only protecting reef fishes and providing fishery through spillover, but it also served as a refuge for small pelagic fish species.

Aundanao MPA In the case of Aundanao MPA, spillover effect may be possible because of the greater biomass of reef fishes inside (mean 7.8 kg 500 m−2 or 15.6 mt km−2) than outside (mean 2.4 kg 500 m−2 or 4.8 mt km−2) of the MPA (Figure 8). Rakitin and Kramer (1996) suggested that a decreasing gradient in the abundance or biomass of targeted fish from high at inside to low at outside the reserve may indicate spillover. The inside sites have also the presence of sexually matured individuals as compared with the outside sites (Figure 5) most likely because of the protection offered by the MPAs. It allows them to grow and attain sexual maturity. This has been observed in other areas of no take zone (Galal et al. 2002; Halpern 2003). Aundanao MPA also showed a consistent pattern in other MPAs in the country having higher density and bio mass estimates of parrotfishes and surgeonfishes (Nañola et. 2004, Stockwell et al. 2009). These fishes are known herbivores (Choat 1991) and play a major role in the

Coral Garden MPA Coral Garden MPA was declared since 1998. However, fish biomass of target species was very low (2.1 kg 500 m−2 or 4.2 mt km−2) even inside the MPA (Figure 8) de spite having high coral cover (~50%) (Figure 3). The possible contributing factors were due to low fish density (Figure 6) and fewer numbers of larger or sexually matured individuals (Figure 7). Two possible explanations can be attributed to this. One is the management (i.e. protection was not fully enforced). Second, a case of the rate of extraction exceeded the rate of fish growth or recharges (Hilborn et al. 2006) or may be it is a “close” system (Cowen et al. 2000, Mora and Sale 2002). Close system means very minimal or no recruits coming from other sources or outside the gulf. Hence, in the absence of adult fishes in the area, it will take quite some time for recovery to set in under full protection. On the management aspect, it was learned from the interviews that protection was on and off. The causes

320


were lacking logistics and policy support. On the aspects of excessive extraction, it could not only be adjacent to the MPA but probably for the many reef areas in Davao Gulf. Davao Gulf were once productive as indicated by the historical trend of fish catch which showed high catches in 1975 and then rapid declined suddenly (Figures 9 and 10). In other monitoring studies on the progress of MPAs done in the country, a significant increase in fish biomass was observed in 3 to 5 years of full protection (Nañola et al. 2004). And in some sites of the above mentioned study, the increase in fish biomass was not only brought by the increase in fish size in 3 to 5 years but mainly due to the aggregation of the sexually matured individuals due to the protection it offered. Again, this scenario was not observed in this study. This excessive extraction in Davao Gulf has been earlier noted by Nañola and Ingles (2003). In their monitoring of 25 sites in 2001 only three sites have higher fish biomasses (＞10 mt km−2) of target species. These were the areas in Malalag (16.97 m km−2), Lupon (16.71 mt km−2) and Aundanao (12.2 mt km−2). Moreover, MPA sites in the Visayas region can easily have target biomass of greater than 10 mt km−2 (Stockwell et al. 2009). Moreover, the newly introduced fishing gear bintol, a subsistence fishery mainly targeting damselfishes (e.g. Acanthochromis polyacanthus, Pomacentrus spp. and Abudefduf spp.) that operates in Linosutan adjacent to the Coral Garden MPA is already an indication of lack of “traditional” food fish in the area. These damselfishes are not part of the regular fishery harvest. But as of this time, it starts to be part of the reef fishery. At its present state, Coral Garden MPA was not per forming as expected in providing economic benefits to fishers such as an increase in fish catch due to spill over effect. For so many years being an MPA, fish biomass inside did not rise to a level as seen in other MPAs (Nañola et al. 2004). However, Coral Garden MPA is a popular tourist destination of many divers visiting Davao City and Island Garden City of Samal. Currently, the LGU is implementing user’s fee for the tourist. But this aspect of economic benefit is not the main focus of this paper.

Acknowledgements This study was fully funded by the Commission on Higher Education through the Zonal Resource Center-XI and partly supported by the Integrated Coastal Enhance ment: Coastal Research, Evaluation and Adaptive Man agement for Climate Change Program (ICE-CREAM) funded by DOST-PCMARD. We thank all barangay offi cials covered by this study for their support in the data collection particularly during the conduct of the FGD. We also thank the Coastal Resources Management body of the City for assisting us in the FGD activity. We also extend our sincere gratitude to the Mayor of the Island Garden City of Samal, Hon. Aniano P. Antalan for allowing us to conduct this study.

References Abesamis RA and Russ GR (2005) Density-dependent spill over from a marine reserve: long-term evidence. Ecol App 15 (5): 1798-1812 Abesamis RA, Russ GR, Alcala AC (2006) Gradients of abun dance of fish across no-take marine reserve boundaries: evidence from Philippine coral reefs. Aqua Conserv: Mar. Freshw Ecosyt. DOI: 10.1002/aqc.730 Aliño PM, Arceo HO, Palomar N, Uychiaoco AJ (2000) Chal lenges and opportunities for community participation for the management of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Philippines (Abstract). Paper presented at the 9th ICRS, 23-27 October 2000, Bali, Indonesia Arceo HO, Alino PM, Gonzales RO (2008) Where are we now with Marine Protected Areas?. In Coral Reef Information Network of the Philippines (PhilReefs). Reefs Through Time 2008: Initiating the state of the Coasts Reports. Coral Reef Information Network of the Philippines (PhilReefs), MPA Support Network, Marine Environment and Re sources Foundation, Inc. and the Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon, City, pp 145-152 Armada NB (2003) Fishery Resource Assessment of Davao Gulf, Philippines. Terminal Report submitted to Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-Fisheries Resource Man agement Project (BFAR-FRMP), Department of Agricul

Nañola et al.: Ecological and economic assessment of marine protected areas ture Birkeland CE (1982) Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Mar Biol 69: 175-185 Bos AR, Gumanao GS, Salac FN (2008) A newly discovered predator of the crown-of-thorns starfish. Coral Reefs 27: 581 Campos WL, Castillo GB (2007) Basic Fisheries Profile Infor mation: Inputs for FISH-BE. Philippine Environmental

321

IGACOS (2010). MPA management plan of Tambo MPA. Island Garden City of Samal, pp 39 Kohler KE, Gill SM (2006) Coral point count with excel ex tensions (CPCe): a visual basic program for the determina tion of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Comp Geosci 32: 1259-1269 Kulbicki M, Mou Tham G, Thollot P, Wantiez L (1993) Lengthweight relationships of fish from the lagoon of New Caledonia. NAGA, ICLARM quarterly 16: 26-30

Governance 2 Project, Pasig City, Philippines pp 6, 14-15

Maltry A (2003) The biology and population fluctuations of

Choat JH (1991) The biology of herbivorous fishes on coral

Acanthaster planci on the Great Barrier Reef. Retrieved

reefs. In Sale PF (ed) (1991) The Ecology of Fishes on

from http://www.biology.iastate.edu/International Trips/

Coral Reefs. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 120-155

1Australia/Australia%20papers/AcanthasterplanciPops,

Cowen RK, Lwiza KMM, Sponaugle S, Paris CB, Olson DB (2000) Connectivity of marine populations: open or closed? Science 287: 857-859 English S, Wilkinson C, Baker V (eds) (1997) Survey manual for tropical marine resources – second edition. Australian Institute of Marine Science, ASEAN-Australia Marine Science Project, p 390 Estremera SA (2003) The battle continues. Retrieved from http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/dav/2003/05/18/feat/the. battle.continues.html, Retrieved date: 24 February 2010 Fraser N, Crawford BR, Kusen J (2000) Best practices guide for crown-of-thorns cleanups. Proyek Pesisir, Jakarta Galal N, Ormond RFG, Hassan O (2002) Effect of a network of no-take reserves in increasing catch per unit effort and stocks of exploited reef fish at Nabq, South Sinai, Egypt. Mar Freshw Res 53, 199-205

Retrieved date: 21 July 2008 Maunder M, Sibert N, Fonteneau JR, Hampton A, Kleiber J, Harley SJ (2006) Interpreting catch per unit effort data to assess the status of individual stocks and communities. ICES J Mar Sci, 63: 1373-1385 McClanahan TR, Muthiga NA, Mangi S (2001) Coral and algal changes after the 1998 coral bleaching: interaction with reef management and herbivores on Kenyan reefs. Coral Reefs 19: 380-391 Mora C, Sale PF (2002) Are populations of coral reef fish open or closed?. TREE 17: 422-428 Mumby PJ, Dahlgren CP, Harborne AR, Kappel CV and others (2006) Fishing, trophic cascades, and the process of grazing on coral reefs. Science 311: 98-101 Mumby PJ, Harborne AR, Williams J, Kappel CV, Brumbaugh DR, Micheli F, KE Holmes KE, Dahlgren CP, Paris CB,

Gevera M (2007) DENR XI alarmed on proliferation of “dap-

Blackwell PG (2007) Trophic cascade facilitates coral

ag”. Retrieved from http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&sec=

recruitment in a marine reserve. PNAS 104 (20): 8362-

reader&rp=1&fi=p070524.htm&no=2&date=05/24/2007,

8367

Retrieved date 24 February 2010

Nañola CL Jr., Arceo HO, Deocadez MR, A Uychiaoco A, White

Glynn PW (1982) Acanthaster population regulation by a shrimp

AT, Aliño PM (2007) The importance of initial biomass

and a worm. In: Gomez ED,Birkeland CE, Buddemeier

value in the accumulation of fish in Marine Protected

RW, Johannes RE, Marsh JA, Tsuda RT (eds.) Proc 4th Int

Areas. In Day JC, Senior J, Monk S, Neal W (eds) (2007)

Coral Reef Symp (2) : 607-612

First International Marine Protected Areas Congress, 23-

Halpern BS (2003) The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does reserve size matter?. Ecol Appl 13: 117137 Harriott V, Goggin L, Sweatman H (2003) Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef. CRC Reef Research Centre, Queensland

27 October 2005, conference proceedings: IMPAC1 2005, Geelong, Victoria, Australia, pp 356-357 Nañola CL Jr., Ingles JA (2003) The reef fishes and fisheries of Davao Gulf, Philippines: Quo Vadis? UPV J Nat Sci 8: 142-151 Nañola CL Jr., Arceo HO, Uychiaoco A, aliño PM (2004)

Hilborn R, Micheli F, de Leo G (2006) Integrating marine pro

Monitoring the Effects of Marine Protected Areas in

tected areas with catch regulation. NRC Research Press.

CRMP Learning Areas (1997-2003). Coastal Resource

Retrieved from: http://cjfas.nrc.ca, Retrieved date: 27 Au

Management Project of the Department of Environment

gust 2008

and Natural Resources, and the University of the Phil

322

Nañola et al.: Ecological and economic assessment of marine protected areas ippines Marine Science Institute. Cebu City, p 63

Mar Ecol Prog Ser (132): 1-9

OWSCP (2009) City Fisheries Development Plan for CY 2005-

Russ GR, Alcala AC (2003) Marine reserves: rates and patterns

2009. Section 4.1 Coastal and Fishery Law Enforcement.

of recovery and decline of predatory fish, 1983-2000. Ecol

Retrieved from http://www.samalcity.gov.ph, Retrieved

App 13 (6): 1553-1565

date: 21 January 2010 Palacio R (2007) DENR raises alarm vs. starfish. Retrived from http://www.pia.gov.ph/?m=12&fi=p070605.htm&date= 06/05/2007, Retrieved date: 24 February 2010 Rakitin A, Kramer DL (1996) Effect of a marine reserve on the distribution of coral reef fishes in Barbados. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 131: 97-113 Russ G (2003) Grazer biomass correlates more strongly with production than with biomass of algal turfs on a coral reef. Coral Reefs 22: 63-67 Russ GR, Alcala AC (1989) Effects of intense fishing pressure on an assemblage of coral reef fishes. Mar Ecol Prog Ser,

Russ GR, Alcala AC (2004) Marine reserves: long-term protec tion is required for full recovery of predatory fish popu lations. Oecologia 138: 622-627 Stiling P (2004) Ecology and applications. 4th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall: Singapore, p 403 Stockwell B, Jadloc CR, Abesamis RA, Alcala AC, Russ GR (2009) Trophic and benthic responses to no-take marine reserve protection in the Philippines. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 389: 1-15 Williams ID, Polunin NVC (2001) Large-scale associations be tween macro-algal cover and grazer biomass on mid depth reefs in the Caribbean. Coral Reefs 19: 358-366

56: 13-27 Russ GR, Alcala AC (1996) Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines.

Ⓒ Japanese Coral Reef Society