Ecological footprint, climate change and cities

Ecological footprint, climate change and cities Innovation of ecological footprint calculation and presentation of opportunities to mitigate adverse impacts of climate change in cities

Bratislava

Authors: Ing. Zuzana Hudeková Ing. Arch. Lorant Krajcsovics Ing. Arch. Patrik Martin RNDr. Eva Pauditšová, PhD. Ing. Tamara Reháčková, PhD. Editor: Vladimír Hudek, PhD. REC Slovakia is grateful to RNDr. Peter Mederly

Graphic design: Areco, s.r.o., Bratislava

Bratislava May 2007 ISBN 978-80-969436-7-8

The brochure has been compiled in the framework of the LIFE III project „URBECO – Sustainable Urban Development and Mitigating Adverse Impacts of Climate Change on Quality of Life and the Environment in Cities“ which was implemented by the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC Slovakia) in 2005 – 2007 with financial support provided by the European Commission LIFE Programme and Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic.

Content: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1. 1.1 1.2 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4. 4.1 4.2 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6. 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.

Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Basic reasons and interlinkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Potential consequences of greenhouse effect – climate change . . . . . . . . . . 8 Climate change and cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Problems in current cities – introduction into the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Relationship of a city and surrounding landscape in spatial plan concepts . . . 11 Sustainable urban development, EU policy and quality of life in cities . . . 12 Characteristics of changed environment in cities when compared to surrounding landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Climate change consequences in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Possibilities to mitigate impact – preparing for climate change in cities . . . 17 Architecture and climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Building materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Ecological footprint and biocapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Basic terms – introduction into the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Use of biocapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Calculation of ecological footprint of a city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Currently known procedures in calculation of ecological footprint of cities . . . . 32 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level - (SGA EF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level - (SGA EF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Questionnaire survey methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Innovative calculation of ecological footprint using a new partial indicator – ecological stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Review of current procedures in calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Innovation of ecological footprint calculation for cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Calculation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in relation to reducing negative impacts of climate change in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Summary in German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary in French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Used Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Map of Karlova Ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46 49 52 53 54

Ecological Footprint, Climate Chnges and Cities

Innovation of Ecological Footprint Calculation and presentation of opportunities to mitigate adverse impacts of climate change in cities

Introduction In accordance with the latest estimates by scientists, the warming and related climate changes proceed more rapidly than generally expected before. Weather extremes can cause unsustainable summer heat along with lack of water or risk of transferable new diseases. In this area important role is played by vegetation. Unfortunately, vegetation management is in spatial planning often neglected. Use of appropriate building materials is also an important issue. Our publication tries to outline theoretical assumptions of climate change consequences in cities, describe potential of mitigating adverse impacts of climate change and provide information for general and professional public on theoretical assumptions in calculating ecological footprint. Our intention was to present innovation of ecological footprint calculation, taking into consideration ecological stability of a city (with a specific focus on micro-climate functions of green areas). Finally, we have decided to present possibilities to reduce ecological footprint and simultaneously to contribute to mitigating the climate change threats.



1. Climate change 1.1 Basic reasons and interlinkages There is a lot of discussion on climate change today. Although the public receives from time to time ambiguous information, the Fourth Report on climate change prepared by more than 600 scientists from the whole world (1) is unambiguous in its conclusions. Major part of global increase of average temperatures in the second half of the 20th century is very likely (2) caused by monitored increase of anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. The following facts confirm alarming trend: • In the 20th century the temperatures grew approximately by 0.7 °C and the records since 1850 show ten warmest years after 1994. • Global rainfall over the land increased roughly by 1 %. The year 2002 was the year of unprecedented floods in Central Europe. • Ice cap in Greenland is melting still faster. During the recent century the sea level increased by 15 to 20 centimetres. Increase by 5 centimetres is attributed to glacier melting and increase by further 2 to 7 centimetres is due to expansion of water in oceans due to increased temperature of water. Basic causes of global warming and climate change are described in Boxes 1 and 2 Box 1: Climate change

It is generally known that there would be no life without solar energy. Solar energy warms the Earth surface when reaching it. The Earth is not only reflecting this energy but is changing it to infrared radiation (heat) as well. Due to presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which cover the Earth the part of this energy is caught and never leaves the Earth. As distinct from other planets without atmosphere, the Earth is still warm. Huge volumes of gases (nitrogen and sulphur oxides, freon, methane, and other gases) and water vapour began to be released into the atmosphere after the industrial revolution accompanied by expansion of human activities. Increased concentration of greenhouse gases leads to increasing amount of caught solar energy and so to increasing temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. This phenomenon is called greenhouse effect.

IPPC report, February 2006 (IPCC involves 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries and has operated at the UN since 1988). 2 The term of „very likely“ means more than 90 % probability. 1


Box 2: Greenhouse gases

Basic greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide and methane (both are present in the atmosphere naturally, without them the temperature would be cooler by 30 to 40oC than today). Other greenhouse gases are freon 11 and freon 12 (CFC-12) as well as other freons. Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas. In the course of millions years plant have taken trillions tonnes of carbon and have conserved it in sediments which have finally become resources of coal, oil and mineral gas. During recent two centuries people started to withdraw and combust these resources much more rapidly. At present, approximately 5.5 billion tonnes of carbon is released annually into the atmosphere through combustion of fossil fuels. Further 1.5 billion tonnes are released annually due to changes in land use, such as deforestation. As compared to pre-industrial times, concentration of atmospheric carbon has increased by 30 %. Use of fossil fuels for energy production and in transport is the main source of global emissions. Forests (vegetation) and oceans constitute carbon-sinking areas which absorb carbon from the atmosphere. In this way they create a balance in relation to greenhouse gas emissions3.

1.2 Potential consequences of greenhouse effect – climate change Increasing amount of greenhouse gases is likely to speed up climate changes. The scientists expect that the average global temperature of the Earth surface could increase by 1.8 – 4.5 °C by 2100 (however with considerable regional differences in temperature growth), which corresponds to expected growth by 1.1 to 6.4 °C, as referred to in the 2004 report4. Climate warming will however lead to increasing evaporation and subsequently to growth of average global rainfall. The IPPC Fourth Report also expects the growth of world sea levels by 18 to 59 centimetres by 2100. Increase by additional 10 to 20 centimetres cannot be excluded in case of continuing melting of polar glaciers, as recorded recently, which would result in catastrophic effects in coastal zones (the 2001 report expected growth of sea level by 89 centimetres). Along with melting of glaciers, long periods of drought, frequent floods and lack of drinking water, the scientists point out also at other negative

3 4 5

Green Pack, REC 2004. The IPPC Fourth Report (February 2006). Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change, 2006.


effects, such as millions of climate refugees (200 million people will have to re-settle by the middle of this century)5, strong winds, hurricanes and typhoons. Increasing global temperatures can have other negative impacts on human health and lives (decreased yields of crops in particular in Africa will cause huge famine, vast areas of the world will face to modest or strong droughts). Increased temperatures can cause expansion of mosquitos transferring diseases in new geographical areas with subsequent spread of infectious diseases, such as encephalitis, malaria and dengue fever. Moreover, higher temperatures in summers will cause increased death incidence due to heat, especially in urban agglomerations, where temperatures are higher by 3°C when compared to surrounding landscape. Alteration of temperatures and rainfall will probably lead to changes in ecosystems and forest composition. Some forest ecosystems are likely to disappear with subsequent extinction of some species. Many plant and animal species, which will not be able to adapt to changed conditions, will be threatened and or will extinct. Box 3: Climate change and Slovakia

In the course of recent 100 years, climate change in Slovakia were demonstrated by increase of average annual air temperature by 1.1°C. This was accompanied by decrease of annual sum of atmospheric precipitation by 5.6 % as average. Regional differences were recorded between the northern and southern parts of the territory. In the south this decrease was 10 % while in the north and north-east of Slovakia a growth by 3 % was occasionally recorded during the whole century. Other climate change phenomena include considerable decrease of relative air humidity (up to 5 %). Snow cap has been also decreased on the whole territory of Slovakia. There is gradual drying, in particular due to growing potential evapotranspiration and decreasing soil humidity. The 1996 – 2000 period was a period with the vastest floods. These floods affected relatively small territories. This increased aquosity was accompanied by low aquosity in areas which were not affected by extreme total rainfall. There is a decreasing tendency in long-term flow rates of Slovak rivers since 1990, except for the Danube river. Bio-climatic conditions, altered due to climate change, adversely affect forest ecosystems. This leads to appearance of appropriate conditions for deciduous wooden plants (beech, maple, ash) at costs of spruce. Modifications in time cycles of plants are expected due to climate changes. Changes in vegetation periods can also be expected, such as sums of daily temperatures, sums of photosynthetically active radiation, growth of evapotranspiration, etc.

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2. Climate changes and cities 2.1. Problems in current cities - introduction into the issue At present, 75 % of Europeans live in cities6 (in Slovakia this figure is 56.5 %, see Box 4). Cities are perceived as engines of regional development as they offer a broad spectrum of functions and services (jobs, education, other services). Concentration of inhabitants in cities brings a number of problems7. Permanent and excessive growth of cities in landscape removes previously clear borders between the city and its surrounding landscape, nature background of the city disappears under pressure of economic activities. In many cities the core centre is surrounded by physically separated new districts (new cities), these are however functionally connected to the city core. This leads to permanently increasing demand for transport, in particular road transport, loss of biodiversity and fragmentation of natural environment. On one hand, the city consumes a lot of resources in the form of mineral resources, water and food, on the other hand it produces wastes, polluted air and water. Apart from resources, the city could not develop without its hinterland, since its development would be hampered for example by lack of labour forces. But cities would not have so many services if demand for them were generated solely by city inhabitants. Negative trends, along with excessive growth of cities, can be monitored within the structure of cities. Preferring economic and other interests causes the decrease of natural components – green areas. Social polarisation and exclusion leads to increased level of cultural and political conflicts, violence and criminality. When compared to neighbouring countries, Slovakia has a unique settlement structure with prevalence of small municipalities (see Box 4). Despite this, the above-mentioned negative phenomena are equally manifested in large cities and centres of Slovak regions. Box 4: Development of settlement structure in Slovakia during the recent period

Current situation in settlement structure is considerably affected by administrative division of Slovakia (1996). Urban inhabitants prevail in Slovakia (56.5 %). The 1980s were characteristic by a moderate growth of urban population. In the 1990s this trend has slowed down considerably and the size of urban population remains relatively stable. Small and medium towns constitute the largest part of settlement. Medium-large and large cities (more than 50 thousand inhabitants) are the most important from the point of view of the number of inhabitants, as they are inhabited by approximately 25 % of population. Large cities are represented by Bratislava (428,672 inhabitants), Košice (236,093 inhabitants) and Prešov (92,786 inhabitants).


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2.2 Relationship of a city and surrounding landscape in spatial plan concepts The urban development has to be understood in a broader context, not only in relation to nature hinterland of a city but also from the point of view of surrounding landscape of which the city is an integral part. Opposite to Middle Age towns, which were separated from surrounding landscape by fortress, there is barrier-free connection between the city and its surroundings (so called urban-rural continuum). According to a number of authors and works in the area of spatial planning (e.g. O. Bounsted, 1953)8 the city can be divided to individual parts on the basis of a concentric circles model with a clear gradient from the city core to its peripheral parts. In accordance with this model the city can be divided to: • core of city, • urbanised parts of city, • peripheral parts of city. This division of city can be monitored on the basis of a number of indicators, such as population density, number of inhabitants commuting to work to the centre, share of non-agricultural economic activities in the framework of overall economic structure of population. Based on evaluation of these indicators it is possible to more clearly define the border between urban and rural environment. A number of works and studies deal with relations between the city and rural areas. Together with other two areas they create basic thesis of the European Spatial Development Perspective (see Box 5). Box 5: Basic objectives and policy in the area of the European spatial planning9

The European Spatial Development Perspective deals with three main objectives: • economic and social cohesion, • maintaining natural resources and cultural heritage, • and balanced competitiveness in the European space. These objectives are to be achieved through three basic policy guidelines in spatial planning: • ensuring fair access to infrastructure and knowledge, • developing polycentric urban system and new urban-rural relationships, • sustainable development, sound management and protection of natural resources and cultural heritage.

Towards Thematic Strategy on Urban Environment (COM 2004) 60 final. Compiled according to “The city as living Environment and driving force for development – discussion Paper for conference”, the 10th Conference on urban and regional research, UNECE, Bratislava 2006. 8 Published in “Selected Method and Models for Analysing Processes in Urban Regions”, Vienna 2002. 9 ESDP - European Spatial Development Perspective, Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union, European Communities, May 1999, pages 10 a 11. 6 7

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The issue of new urban-rural relationships has been included also in the ESPON Programme10. Functional urban areas, interesting also from our point of view, have been investigated in the framework of the ESPON Programme. Functional urban areas constitute a “nodal” region where cities offer goods, services and infrastructure (social, educational and financial infrastructure) and in particular job opportunities for their rural hinterland. Commuting to work is therefor the most often criterion to define a nodal region as it relates to accessibility from the time point of view and depends not only on distance but on transport connection among settlements as well (see Box 6). Box 6: Assessment of functional urban areas in Slovakia

When assessing 119 urban centres in Slovakia which should have become urban centres in so called functional urban areas (Hrdina, 2006)11 mainly economic functions and services were taken into account. Territory of functional urban areas has been defined as territory where 20 % of economically active population work or commute to work in an urban centre of this functional urban centre. Within Slovakia 92 functional urban areas have been created since a number of originally assessed urban centres have been merged into one functional urban area (e.g. Prievidza-Bojnice-Handlová).

2.3 Sustainable urban development, EU policy and quality of life in cities Environmental, social and economic aspects in cities are strongly interlinked. The environment together with economic and social areas constitute basic pillars of sustainable development. One of the basic definitions of sustainable development in city and its surrounding landscape has been formulated at the conference “Sustainable Cities” in Rio (2000) – see Box 7. Box 7

„Application of sustainability concept in a city means ability of an urban area and surrounding region to continue in functioning at level of quality of life required by local community without compromising the current and future generations and without adverse impacts within and out of the city “.

10

11

ESPON Programme (European Spatial Planning Observation Network) has been established based on the needs of the EU member states and the European Commission to broaden knowledge and extent of research in the area of spatial planning from the European perspective. Polycentric Concept of settlement development and urban development in the Slovak Republic, 2006, p. 10.


13

Sustainability of urban development is addressed by a number of documents and initiatives12. Also the new cohesion policy of the European Union for the 2007 – 2013 period13 deals with cities and stresses the urban renewal, in particular in former industrial areas. It states that quality urban environment contributes to the priorities of Lisbon strategy which is aimed at making Europe more attractive for labour, housing and investment. Moreover, it contributes also to alleviation of pressures on peripheral urban areas which are otherwise growing without control as urban inhabitants look for better quality of life. Quality of life of urban inhabitants (and not only urban) closely relates to quality of the environment. Threat of adverse effects of climate change will be manifested strongly in the urban environment. Innovative calculation of ecological footprint of city constitutes a certain link between the area of sustainable urban development and reduction of adverse impacts of climate change. This innovative calculation includes also importance of ecological stability of territory (with specific focus on micro-climatic function of green areas).

2.4 Characteristics of changed environment in cities when compared to surrounding landscape Already today the urban environment differs from surrounding landscape in a number of characteristics (temperature, humidity, air quality, etc.). It can be logically expected that climate change will deepen these negative trends (see Chapter 1.2).

Temperature characteristics in cities, precipitation, air quality, etc. Air temperature is the most important characteristic of climate. In urban settlements there is high concentration of surfaces with large thermal capacity which are strongly warmed up. This causes considerable heat accumulation in cities. Temperature growth is also affected by the heat released from industrial processes, combusting engines in transport and the heating of residential houses. Common influence of these factors leads to creation of so called „heat islands“. Literature describes a lot of data on temperature deviations in cities from surrounding landscape reaching up to 2.5 to 3°C (e.g. differences in temperature between Bratislava centre and surrounding landscape in Záhorská Bystrica or at the airport). According to data from literature, temperature difference between city and its surroundings is approximately 0.5 to 1.5oC. This, at the first glance negligible, difference in temperatures means relative change of altitude by 100 to 300 metres and

Hudeková, Mederly: Sustainable urban development in Slovakia, REC Slovakia 2005, pages 7- 8, ISBN 80-969436-1-8. 13 Cohesion policy for growth and employment, Community strategic guidelines for 2007-2013, ISBN 92-79-03489-8, page 29. 12

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a shift by one vegetation level. Therefor species from Mediterranean and continental areas are more appropriate in dry urban biotopes. Increased friction on rangy terrain worsens movement of air up to the altitude of 1,000 metres over the city. Over the city the air layers warm up and together with presence of condensation nuclei (dust and aerosol) help to increase cloudiness over cities as compared to surrounding landscape. Annually this difference is 5 to 10 %. Increased cloudiness leads to increased rainfall, but impermeable surfaces in cities and sewerage systems rapidly take the water away from the territory. Table 1: Basic climatic characteristics of the urban environment and comparison with surrounding landscape 14, 15 climate characteristic air temperature

difference between city and surroundings +

volume of difference 0,5 to 3 °C14 , 2-6 °C15

cloudiness

+

5 to 10 %

rainfall total

+

5 to 20 %

fog incidence

+

30 to 100 %

average air humidity

-

20-60%

duration of snow cap

-

2 to 18 dní

solar radiation

-

10 to 30 %

Polluted air over city reduces amount of solar radiation and an average city receives less solar radiation by 15 % when compared to open country. In winter months this decrease is even 30 %. Table 1 shows the most important climate characteristics of the urban environment and difference from surrounding landscape. Air quality in cities is diverse, depending on density of activities, used fuels and industrial technologies. Various technological processes, transport and housing emit various gaseous chemical compounds, such as carbon oxides, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, fluorides, ammonia compounds, hydrocarbons, etc. When compared the urban air to open country, the urban air contains 10 times more dust particles, SO2 concentration is 5 times higher, CO2 concentration is 10 times higher and CO concentration is 25 times higher. In 70-80 % of monitored cities the permitted value of pollutants according to the WHO was exceeded at least once, e.g. there were different developments in Eastern and Western Europe in case of SO2, positive trends relate to strict emission standards and industrial restructuring.

14 15

Supuka J. et al.: Ecological principles of green area management. VEDA, Bratislava 1991. EEA: Europe´s Environment: Dobríš Assesment (modified), 1995.


15

Soil Soils localised in urbanised areas and to some extent affected by urbanisation are usually addressed as urban soils. Level of impacts on soils in the urban environment is a sign of anthropogenic activity which can finally lead to creation of artificial soils created by the man. Degradation factors of urban soils include: • mixing soil layers and adding various soil types during construction of buildings and infrastructure, • soil compaction caused by building machinery and automobile transport, • high content of big stones decreasing the space for water and nutrients, • soil degradation by pollutants – in particular sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, heavy metals, halogens, arsenic, ash, whole-area worsening of soil properties caused by pollutants imported by atmospheric precipitation, • soils in vicinity of transport corridors and pavements are degraded by salts in form of chlorides, • exhaust gases are also sources of worsening of soil conditions, • gas discharges from pipelines (methane, ethane, propane) also deteriorate soil in the urban environment as they replace the air in soil up to distance of 15 metres with subsequent reduction processes, decrease of bioactivity and increase of soil acidity. Discharge of oil substances constitutes a serious hazard and critical value of total pollution of soil by oil is 0.5 kg.m-2.

Water Surface water is an important visual phenomenon determining the nature of many European cities. Importance of water is evident when assessing functions provided to city by water. Many cities have been established near a water bodies or rivers or at sea coast. In these cities water represents an important economic source in relation to its role in water transport and recreation. Threatening water resources in cities is visible, drinking water supply and supply of water for recreation are often threatened. Cities affect and are affected by changes in hydrological regime caused by urbanisation. Water bodies are important also as habitats for wild plant and animal species (wildlife) and also from the point of view of their impact on climate as they help to cool air and stimulate air circulation. Water bodies in cities are today under strong pressure due to expansion of builtup areas, uncontrolled land and water use and pollutant discharge. Rivers are polluted in particular by waste water and agricultural activities. In such a way river receive organic compounds, nitrates, phosphorus, NH4, etc. Groundwater is also threatened by excessive use and contamination.

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2.5 Climate change consequences in cities • In accordance with Chapter 1.2 all negative phenomena will be apparent in cities in a multiplied form (e.g. in 2020, London expects temperatures similar to summer temperatures in southern France). The most apparent problems related to climate change in cities will include: • Increased temperature (in case of heat waves the heat in cities will be multiplied by heat island effect. According to the study worked out by the British and American universities the temperature in cities can grow by 6 – 7 degrees when compared to surrounding landscape)16; • Considerable decrease of relative air humidity; • Rainfall decrease – aridisation (gradual drying, in particular due to increased potential evaporation and decreased soil humidity); • Rainfall of storm nature – potential local floods; • These negative trends will have a direct impact of vegetation in cities which already today, depending on quality and quantity, plays an important role in balancing temperature and other differences in climate and micro-climate of cities.

16

Source: http://www.sme.sk/c/2873845/Viac-sa-otepli-vo-velkomestach.html


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3. Possibilities to mitigate impact – preparing for climate change in cities The time gap between reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and reduction of their real concentration is large. It is likely that, if we do not manage to reduce emissions to acceptable level, we will not avoid a certain degree of climate change which will occur due to greenhouse gases incorporated already in the atmosphere. Therefore we need to identify and implement measures to adapt to the climate change consequences. The studies bring a number of areas where measures are necessary a) in planning cities and new construction activities, • considering climate conditions in cities and supporting construction of new parks, green areas (including green roofs) • using building materials allowing to reduce temperatures in cities, • proposing constructions ensuring proper thermal conditions both in winters and summers, • increasing retention capacity of city territory, ensuring water supply and protection against floods b) in existing urban structure • - to re-construct buildings, energy and transport systems and infrastructure, to renew and extend green areas in cities so that they are well adapted to extreme weather phenomena17; Picture 1 Supporting ventilation through proper city structure

17

Source: 6EAP (Environmental Action Plan for Europe)

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3.1. Architecture and climate change The most important factors affecting urban climate: • size and structure of the city, • thermal and hydrological properties of surfaces, • manner and nature of construction, • ratio of fixed and green areas, • extent of human activities (share of transport, industry in city, etc.). Planning a new built-up area should take into consideration the increase of temperatures in cities. Basic principles of ecologically oriented urbanism include respecting climate factors of territory by correctly designed construction with computer simulation for verification. Buildings and green areas should be designed so as to allow better air circulation and ventilation at nights. Based on comparison of heat inertia of various areas of a city it is apparent that more intensively built-up areas are cooled much more slowly than surrounding landscape. This is affected mainly by large heat inertia of building materials, less green areas and slow movement of air due to dense and high buildings. The situation in peripheral areas with more green areas and less dense construction is better.

Table 2 Differences in temperatures between various surfaces during days and nights in city in Koln. Surface

T(20.00)/K

T(3.00)/K

DT(20.00-3.00)/K

Main road (in centre)

22

17

5

Main road (in landscape)

20

13

7

Building (in centre)

21

17

4

Building, periphery

21

13

8

Rail

21

12

9

Cemetery

19

12

7

Rhine

18

18

0

Forest

17

11

6

Field

14

9

5

Water constitutes a potential for improvement of micro-climate. Fountains and water bodies have always been a part of historic squares and parks. Through drops of aerosol and natural evaporation they increase air humidity and decrease its temperature. Due to high accumulation capacity the water temperature increases more slowly than surrounding surfaces and gradually evaporates.


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Catching rainfall water plays an important role in ecological stability of landscape. This water cools the environment, penetrates into soil and maintains natural groundwater level. If we drain this water we increase the flood risk and dry housing environment. There is a number of possibilities how to catch rainfall water in residential areas. Green roofs partly retain water and slow down run-off. Water from roofs and terraces can be collected in collection reservoirs. Pavements and fixed surfaces can be built so as to allow water to flow to green areas. Using asphalt and other impermeable surfaces should be maximally avoided in favour of permeable materials (e.g. paving directly in terrain). Water courses help in air movement over water level and support ventilation and cooling in surrounding areas. Some buildings use this cooler air and take it into their air-condition systems (Danube House in Prague near Vltava). The architecture will have to gradually adapt to increased temperatures in cities. Air condition used so far is not a good solution for warmed-up buildings! Traditional air-conditioning leads to electricity consumption and greenhouse gas emissions which finally means global warming.

Room cooling is still more and more demanded, however this is very energy intensive what we do not always realise. We can often listen about collapse of the American energy network in summers which is during summer heats overloaded by air-conditioning. There is a large disadvantage that electric energy due to losses in transmission systems requires much more primary energy produced in power plants which has adverse impacts on the environment. Therefor it is much more appropriate to protect buildings against heats by passive technologies and avoid the usage of future potential electric appliance.

Sufficient heat insulation constitutes a great contribution to ensure optimal climate. It protects buildings both in winters and summers. Buildings with massive inner constructions with accumulation capacities, which are therefore resistant to strong temperature fluctuation, hold an advantage. Measures oriented to shading transparent parts of buildings are also important. Shading parts of buildings (marquises, lamellas, jalousie, roller-blinds, curtains) are a simple but very important and effective components to maintain optimal temperature of a building.

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From the point of view cooling a building the internal shading is less efficient than external shading as the solar radiation is blocked inside the room where a part of thermal radiation has already been absorbed. When external shading facility is not available, the internal shading is necessary.

Reflecting films and coatings, which are applied on glass and are often used on administrative buildings, are capable to reflect as much as 85 % of radiation reaching the surface. Such a coating however block radiation during the whole year and is therefor unsuitable for low-energy or energy-passive houses, especially in case of windows oriented to south. It can be efficient in case of unshaded windows on administrative buildings oriented to east and west18. One of financially most proper method how to cool a building is to use night cooler air for intensive ventilation. This requires design and construction of windows. The most efficient way for cooling is to use relatively stable temperature of soil under terrain surface: • Groundwater Groundwater has a big potential in this respect. Groundwater has relatively stable temperature during the whole year (in winter it is warmer and in summer cooler). Water used in winters for heat pumps can be used in summers in systems in ceilings or walls of buildings to efficiently and cost-effectively cool the building. • Active ventilation with recuperation Using a system for active cooling of a building with ventilation system is another opportunity. Incoming external warm air is being cooled in summer in an underground register and can be then used to air the rooms. This solution is used mainly in energy-passive houses. These houses have a unit with recovery of heat. In winters we are able to use as much as 80 % of heat from outgoing air which would be otherwise discharged through windows. • Underground localisation of a building Localisation of a part of a building under ground is able for some typological kinds of constructions. Ground offers more balanced internal temperature which

These films are recommended for windows with partial shading as they absorb solar radiation and warm the glass unevenly. Uneven warming of glass can cause its breaking or damage of insulation between glass tables. Source: http://www.inforse.dk/europe/fae/OEZ/slnko/slnko.html#TOP 18


21

helps in heating and in particular in cooling. However, such a situation is very difficult from the point of view of costs and we can see it mainly in the sub-tropic zones with low rainfall. Results of studies showed that houses with sufficient accumulation mass and passive solar and ventilation systems can better face the climate change, while current buildings with large windows start suffering from heat.

3.2. Building materials Increasing temperatures in cities are affected by construction materials, paving and facing, which are being warmed by solar radiation, depending on colour, structure and orientation. They have very low content of water (concrete only 4 %) which results in weak reflection of heat and its accumulation in built surfaces (roads, parking areas, roofs, walls, etc.). Large fixed surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation can heat up to 50°C and radiate this heat for many hours, contributing so to the heating of air during nights. It is therefor very important to create green areas and water bodies in cities (e.g. through planting trees on parking areas) so as to alleviate the heating of spaces and make the micro-climate more comfortable (see also Chapter 3.3). Graph 1

22


Problem of summer overheating of vertical surfaces has not been taken into consideration so far19. Building materials in our geographical zone are designed so as to prevent thermal losses in winters and so to save energy resources needed to heat the buildings. Paints, ability of a material to accumulate heat and absorb water also affect the heating. Water, when changing from liquid to gaseous state, absorbs a lot of heat and cools the surface. Simultaneously, it increases the air humidity and makes the surrounding environment more comfortable. Graph 2

19

Glass-concrete is an exemption as it has to be separated from other parts of construction due to changes of external temperature. Glass material changes its dimensions, so proper conditions have to be respected, otherwise the glass material could be damaged (broken).


23

Bright colours and glittering surfaces should be used on facades as they reflect radiation generally better than dark colours. In case of dark colours there is larger absorption and radiation in infrared spectrum which is perceived as heat. Heat is strongly absorbed mainly by dark asphalt surfaces under which there is often concrete and after warming it has a capacity to radiate for a long time. Speed of heat transfer depends on temperature difference between the heat source and the area where the heat is being released. Some studies have shown that cities could save electric energy for air-conditioning in summers if the facades of buildings were painted with bright colours. Roof coverings are designed primarily to protect against water and solar radiation. Using green roofs constitutes a great potential. These roofs retain rain water and release it in form of water vapour. Retained water does not constitute a burden for sewerage and reduces the flood risk. Climbing plants can also play a positive role. Walls of a house are exposed during the whole year to solar radiation and face to large changes in temperature. Unshaded façade can be heated during a warm day up to 40oC, while temperature of the wall under the green cover is lower even by 15oC with positive effect on temperature inside the building. Climbing plants alleviate extremes between interior and exterior. Leaves of climbing plants catch solar radiation and produce water steam due to transpiration which makes the space cooler. Layer of leaves also alleviates impacts of winds and catches rainfall water. The air layer between the wall and plants creates a thermal bumper between interior and exterior. Some studies have shown that this bumper can reduce losses of energy in winter by 3 – 5 %. Climbing plants are divided according to manner how they climb the wall: winding, with tendrils and with sticking roots. Plants with tendrils grow on trellages and are rooted in soil. They do not constitute any risk for a building. These plants include Virginia creeper, clematis, wine tree. Planting species with sticking roots is not recommended as these plants could damage the façade (hydrangea, English ivy). Properly designed and applied greening of the wall prolongs life of the façade.

24


Graph 3

3.3 Vegetation Green areas are starting to play an important role especially in urban settlements in relation to global warming and climate change, in particular as regards: • increasing temperature (first of all summer heats), • decreasing relative air humidity. It is generally known that green areas fulfil a number of functions, some of which are directly connected to quality of the environment (brief survey in Box 8):


25

Box 8

Micro-climate function is understood as ability of green areas to affect by their transpiration activities the air humidity, to provide shade, to decrease changes in temperatures, etc. For example a large birch can evaporate as much as 7,000 litres of water during vegetation period, city parks reduce temperature by 1°C when compared to temperature on streets (on average). Green areas increase air humidity (by 5 to 7 % on average). Insulation function is understood as ability of green areas to reduce noise, catch dust, absorb xenobiotic substances, etc. E.g. 50-year old maple (Acer platanoides) absorbs 0.0295 kg of sulphur, 0.0860 kg of chlorine and 0.0039 kg of fluorine during vegetation period. Woods and bushes have positive impacts on air quality, serve as filter for dust (studies present data on 20 g of dust particles per square metre of leaf surface). Reducing noise in urban areas and reducing wind speed are also important functions of vegetation Other functions of green areas relating to quality of the environment in cities are also important (brief survey in Box 9): Box 9

Recreational function of urban green areas is important mainly in urbanised environment where it provides an opportunity of a short-term recreation for inhabitants. Recreational function is affected also by non-living components, such as availability of benches, playing grounds for children, etc. Psychological / esthetical function of green areas means its ability to increase attractiveness of the urban environment. Esthetical function of green areas is irreplaceable, though its importance is often underestimated. Beauty of wooden plants is very diverse depending on year season and it esthetically positively affects the psychic of human beings. Esthetical function is largely affected by composition of planting and its maintenance. Refugial function of green areas – creation of refugees for plants and animals which are pushed away from intensively used landscape. Topical function of green areas – ability to provide animals with refugee, nesting, etc. Coniferous woods as nesting place, resting and sleeping place for birds. Trophical function of green areas – plants as sources of food for various animals.

26

• • • •


Due to these reasons it is necessary to monitor in cities: share of green areas on territory of settlement structures, availability of green areas for inhabitants, amount (size) of green areas per one inhabitant, continuity of green areas in the structure of a municipality in connection to surrounding landscape.

Availability of green areas and public spaces for inhabitants reaches in some European cities the value of 100 % (Brussels, Copenhagen, Paris, Milan, Madrid), while in Bratislava the availability of green areas for inhabitants was 63 % according to 1995 data20, and some of these areas have already been built-up during recent years. In summer 2005, measurements in the modelled territory of Bratislava (city part Karlova Ves) and Piešťany were carried out in order to get first knowledge on relationship between air temperature, humidity in dependence on a type of environment. Climate data were gained with the use of thermometers and hygrometer GFTH200 HYGRO-Thermometer Greisinger electronic, which measures humidity in the range of 0 to 100 % and temperature from –20°C up to +70°C with accuracy of 0.1 % or 0.1°C respectively. Temperature and humidity were measured at various sites and data were registered in prepared forms. Based on these measurements, the temperature measured in selected anthropogenic and natural biotopes and in other components of landscape structure in the modelled territory of Bratislava - Karlova Ves differed by 14°C on the average (the lowest temperature was measured in an oak – horn-beam forest). Survey presented in table ???. Table 3: Differences in measured temperature from the temperature in the oak – horn-beam forest in the modelled territory of Bratislava – Karlova Ves Category

Item No.

Measured temperature

Difference

1

Parks

29,1

0,9

2

Gardens at family houses

31,2

3,05

3

Cultural vegetation in residential structures

31,9

3,75

30,8

2,65

(high share of fixed surfaces) 4

Cultural vegetation in residential structures (low share of fixed surfaces)

5

Cemeteries

28,2

0,05

6

Carpathian oak – horn-beam forests

28,15

0

7

Built-up areas, industrial and trade

42,8

10,35

premises almost without vegetation

20

EEA: Europe’s Environment: Dobríš Assessment (modified), 1995


27

Measurements in terrain in 200621 confirmed that vegetation cover with various structure had strong micro-climate effect. Differences in measured values of temperature and relative humidity of air confirmed that the use of various vegetation formations to improve micro-climate in the urban environment was justified. Considerable differences have been recorded between selected indicators, e.g. maximal difference in temperature was as much as 14.6oC between temperature of air on grass and under a solitaire tree (measuring on the level of terrain). Cooling effect was apparent on all surfaces with wooden plants. Surprisingly, high air temperatures were recorded on grass which were sometimes comparable to temperatures on asphalt surfaces (road, parking area). The highest relative air humidity was under a solitaire tree which corresponds to assumption that older and larger trees create more stable climate. Even larger difference in temperature was detected depending on ratio of impermeable built-up surfaces to green areas with high representation of wooden plants, where maximal temperature difference was 17°C (temperature 48°C measured in technical and transport premises compared to 27°C measured in parks with prevailing trees and bushes) and even 22°C – difference between watercourse and parking area without vegetation. When planting the wooden plants it is necessary to take into consideration not only the current state of the environment in a city (see Chapter 2.4 - Characteristics of changed environment in cities when compared to surrounding landscape) but future warming in urban areas as well. When planting new vegetation the following aspects should be taken into account: • introduction of new species (taxons) which have not been so far suitable for our current conditions (e.g. due to increased requirements for temperature)22, • introduction of wooden species resistant to high summer droughts (e.g. with narrow leaves), • preparation to the shift of altitudinal vegetation zones and related selection of skeleton wooden plants for planting in urban areas in accordance with expected increase of temperature23, • avoiding to plant some invasive wooden species (Ailanthus altissima, Negudno aceroides), spread of which is supported by increased temperature.

Reháčková, Pauditsová: Practical experience with evaluation of micro-climate function of vegetation in the urban environment, 2006 22 Jaroslav Machovec: Dusledky globálních klimatických zmen na sadovnicku tvorbu ve mestech in Sídlo, park krajina (Consequences of global climate change to gardens management in Sídlo, park, landscape), abstracts, 2002 ISBN 80-8069-170-3 23 Jaroslav Machovec: Garden dendrology, SPN Prague, p. 107 21

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3.4. Conclusions • In general to design composition of buildings and green areas in a city so as to enable better air circulation supporting ventilation during nights, replacing warm air with cooler air from surrounding landscape; • To increase share of vegetation, especially in built-up city centres (planting trees in rows, on parking places, between road lanes, alternative use of vegetation – e.g. on roofs where vegetation slow down water run-off, climbing plants, etc.); • Ratio of wooden plants (trees) to grass should be more than 60 %; • Taking into consideration the species composition in relation to the shift of vegetation zones under the climate change conditions; • Using a water component – fountains, watercourses, retaining rainfall water water from roofs and terraces can be collected in collection reservoirs. Pavements and fixed surfaces can be built so as to allow water to flow to green areas; • To increase a retention capacity of the territory – using permeable materials and constructions and avoiding the use of impermeable materials (asphalt, concrete); • Looking after sufficient thermal insulation of buildings; • Shading of transparent parts of buildings. Parts of buildings providing shade are a simple but very important element to maintain optimal internal temperature in a building; • Bright colours and glittering surfaces should be used on facades which reflect radiation better than dark colours.


29

4. Ecological footprint and biocapacity 4.1 Basic terms – introduction into the issue Today we all realise that our planet’s resources are limited. In the recent decade the ratio between available resources and their global consumption began to be expressed in a so called ecological footprint (hereinafter referred to as „FP”). Ecological footprint determines how much natural resources is consumed by an individual, city, region, state or all inhabitants of our planet in order to ensure their requirements and needs. It includes all activities, from food consumption, housing, transport to waste produced and allows us to compare particular activities and their impacts on the environment and natural resources. Ecological footprint is important for making sustainable development issue more popular, using simplifications which provide the public with basic information on situation on our planet. Ecological footprint is measured in so called global hectares (gha). Global hectare is 1 hectare of biologically productive space with average world productivity. In 2001, the biosphere had 11.2 billion hectares of biologically active areas which corresponded approximately to one fourth of the planet’s surface. This area of 11.2 billion hectares covers 2.3 billion hectares of waters (ocean shelves and inland waters) and 9 billion hectares of dry land. The dry land consists of 1.5 billion hectares of crop land, 3.5 billion hectares of pastures, 3.9 billion hectares of forests and 0.2 billion hectares of built-up areas24. Bio-productivity (biological productivity) is identical with biological productivity per hectare and per year. Biological productivity is normally measured as accumulation of biomass per year. Biocapacity is usable capacity of biological production during given year on a biologically productive area, expressed also in global hectares. Based on known and available data, ecological footprint and biocapacity can be calculated for an individual, municipality, state, etc. The WWF publishes annually a report on ecological footprint of world states. On the basis of this report, total ecological footprint of our planet is 2.2 gha, while biocapacity is only 1.8 gha25. Recalculation of various land and sea types ha/gha uses so called equivalence factors which express relative (world, i.e. global) bioproductivity. Yields factors are used to make a more precise specification at country level, determining bioproductivity of particular countries. Equivalence factors (see table 4) constitutes the amount of global hectares contained in an average hectare of crop land, built-up territory, forests, pastures 24 25

Mathis Wackernagel et all.,2005 WWF Report, National Footprint 2005

30


or fisheries area. Equivalence factors are derived from sustainability index and expressed according to so called global agri-ecological zones (GAEZ, 2000)26. Equivalence factors describe potential yield which can be achieved under expected use of irrigation, fertilisers, etc. It should be noted that this expression of potential production is different from the perception of ecosystem productivity known as a net primary productivity (Wackernagel, 2005). Table 4: Equivalence factor (amount of global hectares contained in average hectare) Land type

Equivalence factor

Main crop lands

2.19

Marginal crop lands

1.80

Forests

1.38

Pastures - meadows

0.48

Water areas

0.36

Built-up area

2.19

Yield factor determines to what extent a biologically productive area in a given country is more or less productive in comparison to a global average of the same area of a bioproductive space. It reflects technology level and fertility in a given country.

Graph 4: shows FT of continents (from the WWF report: National Footprint 2005)

26

http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/GAEZ/index.htm


31

4.2 Use of biocapacity In accordance with the above-mentioned each inhabitant of our planet should use not more than 1.8 global hectares in order to assure environmental sustainability. In practice it means a substantial reduction of resource consumption on one hand (developed countries of the North) and increasing use of the Earth’s biocapacity on other hand (developing countries). A number of highly developed countries with a high level of welfare measured as human development index27 (hereinafter referred to as HDI) have relatively low ecological footprint. Human development index includes average life expectancy, education level and gross domestic product per capita. If we would like to evaluate countries oriented really towards sustainable development, such countries would be located on an intersection point of two axes: axe of the planet’s biocapacity available and axe of HDI index equal to 0.8 or higher. Ecological footprint and biocapacity are used to clearly and understandably demonstrate: • extent of requirements of human population to ensure its existence under current needs and technology, • whether average consumption per capita is sustainable and fair in comparison to the global, worldwide consumption and biocapacity available. Today we know calculations of global (worldwide), national and local ecological footprints. As this publication deals with issues of cities we will not present a methodological basis for calculation of national or global ecological footprint, but we will concentrate on calculation of city’s ecological footprint.

27

http://hdr.undp.org/hg

32


5. Calculation of ecological footprint of city 5.1 Currently known procedures in calculation of ecological footprint of cities A number of calculations are available today. The Redefining Progress organisation belongs to the pioneers in this area28. This organisation has created a methodology for calculation of a city’s ecological footprint on the basis of determining the amount of renewable and non-renewable ecologically productive area which is required to ensure all resources for urban inhabitants and to absorb wastes. The following data are used in calculation (table 5 29): Table 5

• number of inhabitants • total city’s area • consumption of energy by origin • consumption of natural gas • consumption of petrol • number of vehicles • number of miles driven • sort, age and number of housing units • recycling • biocapacity (area of various landscape types) • food consumption* • purchase of goods* • services used * If local data is not available these calculations are usually estimated by national average.

Redefining Progress offers calculation of EF by a number of manners (for payment according to difficulty level)30: 1. A basic footprint calculation based on available data (usually from national statistics) about energy use, housing, consumption of goods and services, transportation and waste recycling together with available database which would allow potential reduction of city’s EF under application of some environmental friendly activities (increasing share of waste separation, reducing car transportation, etc.) or its increase.

2. Calculation of EF based on more precise local data which can be gained through local surveys, from local tax offices and local waste disposal enterprises, etc.

28 29

30

http://www.redefiningprogress.org/ Redefining Progress: Sustainable Indicators Program, Reducing a City’s Ecological Footprint: The Case of Santa Monica , Jason Venetoulis, May 2004 The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001


33

3. A footprint adapted to particular planning needs and further development of a city, such as improving a city’s storm water management planning process. This EF calculation would allow demonstrating both the ecological and economic benefits of adopting measures to increase retention capacity of a surrounding landscape and to simulate volume of EF for a number of variants of solution. Under this framework, Redefining Progress would measure both the ecological footprint and the environmental deficit – a measure of the externalized economic costs generated by natural resource degradation or depletion such as the costs associated with increases in the frequency and severity of urban flood events. Following tables show values of ecological footprint for the city of Santa Monica in 1990 and 2000 (expressed in acres). The data in tables show reduction of ecological footprint in Santa Monica (e.g. also due to increasing recycling rate). Ecological footprint is presented in acres. However, as already mentioned in Chapter 4, ecological footprint is usually presented in global hectares with the use of equivalence factors: Table 6 Built-up areas

Pastures

Fisheries areas

Energy

0

0

0

0

0

412,937

412,937

Households

3,929

0

0

46,133

0

19,104

69,166

Food

0

38,335

55,127

0

293,846

148,404

535,712

Goods and

3,439

4,902

0

138,226

34,563

414,684

595,815

Transport

3,070

0

0

0

0

264,749

267,819

Recycling

0

0

0

0

0

-16,403

-16,403

10,438

43,237

55,127

184,359

238,409

1,243,475

1,865,045

Built-up areas

Pastures

Fisheries areas

Agricultural areas

Energy areas

Energy

0

0

0

0

0

400,851

400,851

Households

3,929

0

0

48,394

0

19,958

72,281

Food

0

37,091

53,337

0

284,308

143,587

518,323

Goods and

3,598

4,743

0

122,037

33,441

366,116

529,935

Transport

3,070

0

0

0

0

266,705

269,775

Recycling

0

0

0

0

0

-32,806

-32,806

10,597

41,834

53,337

170,431

317,749

1,164,411

1,758,359

1990

Forests

Agricultural areas

Energy areas

Total ecological footprint

services

Tab.č.7 2000

Forests

Total ecological footprint

services

34


5.2 Calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level (SGA EF) A tool for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level (SGA – subnational geographical area) was worked out in 2001 – 2003 within the framework of the European Common Indicators Project (ECIP). Data based on international trade analyses and on methodology of known EF calculation at global level were taken into account in calculation. A number of stakeholders were participating in creating this tool which adopted the following criteria31: • A responsibility principle was taken into account in creating SGA EF (there is a fundamental difference between calculating EF for a given territory and calculating consumption of inhabitants living in this territory. This difference is quite apparent in case of smaller city with an important airport on its territory. When airport impact is taken as a part of EF, we speak of a geographical principle. When only impact attributable to inhabitants is taken into account, we speak of responsibility principle). • Equivalence factor for built-up territory was set as 1. • Data known at national level are modified to local level in case of SGA EF (e.g. although the inhabitants of Scotland constitute only 8.6 % of UK’s population, they consume 12 % of energy, that means that EF of energy equal to 12 % will be taken into calculation) • It was recommended to compare EF and biocapacity only at global and national levels. Comparison at local level is not recommended as it is absolutely clear that cities cannot exist only within limits of biocapacity of their own territory. The following table provides a demonstration of SGA EF (according to Craig Simmons) for the Czech Republic. Data for regional/local level have not been modified yet (in this example „regional“ level means „national“ level – see line 2). This is modified in accordance with a concrete situation in a particular region or city. Table 8 Energy

Cereals

Pastures

Czech Republic (2004)

2,95

0,92

0,14

0,69

0,15

0,14

4,99

Regional EF

2,95

0,92

0,14

0,69

0,15

0,14

4,99

Food

0,17

0,68

0,14

0,14

1,13

Housing

0,27

Mobility

0,42

Goods and services

2,09

Construction

0,14

31

Forests

0,02

Built-up territory

Fisheries

0,05

0,33

0,01 0,11

0,00

0,28 0,39

0,09

Total

0,43 0,00

2,57 0,53

The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001


35

5.3 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level - (SGA EF) 32 Global Footprint Network33 started dealing with standards for calculation of ecological footprint since it can be seen that various approaches are applied in calculations. This inconsistency reduces the value of calculation and possibility to compare particular calculations and can led even to a false interpretation. Based on the standards, consumption shall be expressed for particular kinds of land use. Results of standards should be available after approving and commenting in a short time.

5.4 Questionnaire survey methodology Along with the above-mentioned examples it is possible to use a methodology of survey questionnaire which is derived from the original methodology of the Redefining Progress organisation34, modified according to RNDr. Viktor Třebický from the Czech Ecopolicy Institute35. Inhabitants fill in questionnaires with a series of questions which are based on consumption, transport, housing (see below). When carrying out a questionnaire survey it is necessary to maintain representativeness laid down in accordance with a concrete demographic situation in a concrete city. Following aspects are taken into account in calculation of EF for a city (source Best food forwards): - Foods– foods based on plant and animal sources and related energy; - Shelter – consumption of energy in households, lands for housing, use of building and heating wood by households and energy for building purposes; - Mobility – energy used for transport purposes by transport modes and built-up areas needed for these transport modes; - Goods and services – impact of energy related to industrial production, export/ import, providing services and using plant and animal products from wood and paper. Table 9 presents a brief evaluation of ecological footprint of selected Slovak cities and related comparison (research and calculation of ecological footprint were carried out in 2005)

32

http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=standards

33 34 35

http://www.redefiningprogress.org/programs/sustainabilityindicators/ef/ more information at www.hraozemi.cz

36


Table 9 and graph 5 – Average ecological footprint of model cities (gha per capita) Dubnica

Levice

Piešťany

Prievidza

Trnava

Zvolen

Shelter

0,87

0,99

0,83

0,92

0,90

1,35

Transport

0,19

0,17

0,19

0,18

0,21

0,18

Food

0,96

0,94

0,87

0,93

0,96

0,94

Goods and services

1,56

1,78

1,43

1,77

1,79

2,53

Total EF

3,58

3,88

3,32

3,80

3,86

5,00


37

6. Innovation of ecological footprint calculation using a new partial indicator – ecological stability 6.1 Review of current procedures in calculation Currently, there are several drawbacks in calculation of ecological footprint, though the calculation methodology is still improving. Ecological footprint calculation includes, for example, current consumption and availability of resources, however without negative impact on the environment (e.g. destruction of ecosystems, deforestation, acid rain effects) which will be manifested in the future in the form of biocapacity reduction. Similarly, other sustainability areas are ignored too, such as social and environmental areas. Built-up areas are perceived with a certain hesitation in calculations. Areas needed for housing infrastructure, transport, industrial production and hydropower plants cover a substantial part of the world bioproductivity. Based on the WWF report, assessing the global ecological footprint, this area is the least documented as the satellite pictures with low resolution are not able to reproduce dispersed infrastructure and roads36. The best estimates say that from global point of view the built-up areas cover 0.2 billion hectares. Since from historical point of view cities were localised in fertile agricultural areas with suitable climate and access to fresh water, calculations are determined by an assumption that the built-up areas cover medium cultivated areas. It is assumed that the built-up areas have replaced the crop lands since human settlements are usually situated in the most fertile landscape areas. In 2001, the footprint of built-up areas was 0.44 billion global hectares, but preciseness of this calculation is limited by the above mentioned uncertainties in background data. Moreover, a number of elements can be distinguished within the built-up territory of a city: really built-up areas (areas covered by impermeable surface, such as roads, buildings, parking areas, trade and industrial premises), but also various types of anthropogenic and natural biotopes. Green areas play important role not only from the point of view of city climate with considerable climate change consequences but for assessing the stability of urban environment as well.

35

(using data from CORINE (EEA 1999), GAEZ (FAO/IIASA 2000) and GLC (JRC/GVM 2000)

38


Ecological stability indirectly affects also other components of ecological footprint. Suburbanisation with growth of transport needs (moving to suburbs due to inappropriate environment in city centres leads to excessive urban growth and increasing transport demands), growth of energy consumption, etc. Defining the term of ecological stability and its evaluation is relatively complicated methodological process. With a certain simplification we can say that ecological stability of urban territory is increasing with growing green areas in a city. When calculating ecological footprint this partial indicator is not taken into account. This situation is caused also by the fact that it is impossible to distinguish various types of surfaces by satellite pictures (see paragraph above, e.g. in urban areas gardens are not distinguished from paved surfaces, cultural vegetation from large parking area at shopping centre, etc.).

6.2 Innovation of ecological footprint calculation for cities If we perceive ecological footprint as numeral expression of human impacts on landscape, we can assume that there is direct relationship between the value of ecological footprint, level of ecological stability of landscape and level of impact caused by human activities. Intensive use of territory is accompanied by changes in landscape structure characteristic in particular by loss of natural and seminatural components (forests, meadows, gardens) and also by simultaneous growth of negative impacts, such as water and air pollution, etc. Globally we speak of climate change, at the level of urban agglomerations we speak of urban heat island. Green areas play irreplaceable role in alleviating heat island effects and climate change. Research results in the area of impact of green areas on the urban microclimate are clear (various authors). Based on these results, we can assume that the most efficient components are forests and large trees and the least efficient components in mitigating climate change are grass areas. This led to an idea to take into account the level of ecological stability of territory when calculating ecological footprint. The stability is growing with increasing share of natural components. It also reflects the size and number of surfaces which are active in mitigating climate extremes. This active impact on micro-climate will be expressed by so called micro-climate function coefficient and will serve to express ecological footprint in taking account of the share of microclimate functions of vegetation in territory.


39

Innovativation of ecological footprint calculation when microclimate function of green areas is taken into account In the light with the above mentioned, currently known methodologies of footprint calculation at local/urban level do not include quality of the urban environment, which can be expressed also with the help of sufficient size of green areas, as one of basic indicators of ecological stability of territory. Therefor, we are proposing that the known calculation procedures, based on resource consumption in the areas of: • Shelter • Transport • Food • Goods and services • take into account micro-climate function of ecological stability of city’s territory. Micro-climate function coefficient (KMF) will be denominator in the innovative ecological footprint calculation. That means that the higher micro-climate function coefficient (e.g. high share of forests in territory), the lower ecological footprint value: EF = (EF food+EFshelter+EFtransport+EFgoods)/ KMF) The coefficient will be in the range of values of 0.8 – 1.2 which are set so that micro-climate function is not overestimated. Micro-climate function coefficient for a given territory will be calculated based on formula:

where

Kmf – micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units p - area of a given / model territory pi - area of territorial units determined based on cover rate by wood vegetation kmfi – micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units of a given territory n - number of territorial units in a given territory.

Table 10 presents draft classifications of a territory to smaller territorial units, the column of „occurrence in Karlova Ves“ provides concrete sites from the territory as examples.

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Table 10: Examples of territorial units and their micro-climate function coefficient (Kmf) Territorial unit

Occurrence in Karlova Ves

• built-up areas with

Dlhé Diely, new deve-

prevailing beaded surfaces

lopment in Karlova Ves,

• residential areas with low

social infrastructure,

share of wood vegetation and

industrial and trade faci-

high share of built-up and

lities almost without

impermeable surfaces

vegetation

• built-up areas with a share

Premises of the Slovak

of wood vegetation

Academy of Sciences, pri-

% of cover by micro-climatically active surfaces (based on cover by wood vegetation)

kmf

0-20

0,8

21-40

0,9

41-60

1,0

61-80

1,1

81-100

1,2

mary schools in Karlova • residential areas with high

Ves, colleges, etc.

share of wood vegetation and low share of built-up and

Other residential areas in

impermeable surfaces

Karlova Ves

• family houses with

Líščie údolie, Dlhé Diely,

gardens

Riviéra, etc.

• garden colonies and

Líščie údolie slopes, slo-

cottages, abandoned surfaces

pes over Devínska cesta road, etc.

• forests

Sihoť, Sitina, cemetery in

• botanic garden

Karlova Ves, etc.

• zoo garden

Tables 11 and 12 present examples of innovative calculation of ecological footprint for two types of territory: with high and with low share of microclimatically active surfaces. Table 11: Example of calculation for the territory with low share of micro-climatically active surfaces Territorial unit built-up areas with prevailing fixed

Micro-climate function coefficient of territorial unit = Kmf

Area in ha

Micro-climate function coefficient territorial units of a given territory = kmfi

1,20

50

0,09

0,80

300

0,37

Family houses with gardens …

0,90

100

0,14

Garden colonies and cottages,

1,00

100

0,15

1,10

100

0,17

650

0,92

surfaces … built-up areas with a share of wood vegetation …

abandoned surfaces … Forests, botanic garden, zoo garden … Total


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Average ecological footprint in Slovakia is 3.6 gha. Under application of micro-climate function coefficient its value is 3,91 gha (3,60/0,92) which reflects intensive use of territory and low share of natural components. Tab. č. 12: Example of calculation for the territory with high share of microclimatically active surfaces Micro-climate function coefficient of territorial unit = Kmf

Area in ha

Micro-climate function coefficient territorial units of a given territory = kmfi

1,20

400

0,74

0,80

50

0,06

Family houses with gardens …

0,90

50

0,07

Garden colonies and cottages,

1,00

50

0,08

100

0,17

650

1,12

Territorial unit built-up areas with prevailing fixed surfaces … built-up areas with a share of wood vegetation …

abandoned surfaces … Forests, botanic garden, zoo garden … Total

1,10

After application of micro-climate function coefficient in the territory with high share of natural components and low land use rate we can see that the average value of ecological footprint was reduced from 3.6 to 3.23 gha (3,60/1,12).

6.3 Calculation procedure Under innovative calculation of ecological footprint it is necessary to consider the city boundaries as this will have a substantial impact on calculation itself. We propose to calculate the micro-climate function of a city based on the zoning of territory. That means that calculation of Kmf would alternatively take into account: • Administrative boundaries / cadastre • Logical natural territory, e.g. 5 km around the built-up area. Step 1: Getting input data – Elaborating a map according to territorial units of the current landscape structure In order to get needed input data for calculation it is possible to use a map of current landscape structure with resolution of landscape components or with vectorisation of purchased orthophotomap. Particular components of landscape structure are identified. A simplified procedure allows us to gain data from culture records at the Cadastre Office and a detailed structure of built-up territory from records of the City Council, from spatial planning documentation, etc.

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Step 2: Mapping territorial units, creation of geodatabase Proposal of territorial units on the basis of percentage of cover by microclimatically active surfaces (cover by wood vegetation) in the urbanised landscape (model territory of Bratislava – Karlova Ves) is presented in table 10 Based on terrain investigation, the individual territorial units are mapped and data are recorded in a created geodatabase according to following criteria: • Type of territorial unit • Localisation of territorial unit • Share of roads, built-up areas, artificial impermeable surfaces in % (additional) • Ratio of grass areas to wood vegetation areas in % (additional): • Total cover by micro-climatically active surfaces in %: Step 3: Calculation of Kmf It is possible to start calculation of the coefficient of micro-climate function of ecological stability according to the methodology based on assigning particular territorial unit coefficients of interest territory and subsequently to calculate the coefficient of territory micro-climate function. Step 4: New calculation of ecological footprint with inclusion of the new indicator In accordance with Chapter 6.2 it is relatively simple to calculate the new indicator of ecological footprint with inclusion of the ecological stability in the total calculation footprint: EF = (EF food+EFshelter+EFtransport+EFgoods)/ KMF)


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7. Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in relation to reducing negative impacts of climate change in cities Transport Energy intensity of the transport sector is very high, which means that it is also a big producer of greenhouse gas emissions. Transport is responsible for one third of total energy consumption and CO2 emissions from this sector represents almost 25 % of the world emissions. Transport has also considerable impacts on the environment and health. Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the area of transport: General: • To work out Sustainable Transport Plans in cities; • To effectively transport goods (transport on railway and water transport produce less CO2 than road transport) • To apply principles of sustainable urbanism and polycentric development in cities, e.g. to support mixed functions of territory (creating new, primarily residential, areas brings large demands for transport); • To support public transportation means and their upgrade; • To support alternative (cycling, pedestrian) transport, • Technical improvements in construction of cars, shift to renewable sources (electric vehicles, fuel cells, hydrogen driven cars), using cars with lower fuel consumption, higher taxes in transport, reducing maximal allowed speed, controlling technical state of cars.

• • • •

Individuals: To use trains for longer distances (railway transport produces 30 times less CO2 emissions per person than road transport by car); To use cars more effectively (more passengers), to drive by reasonable speed, to limit the use of air-condition in car, controlling technical state of cars; To use cycling or pedestrian transport for shorter distances; Teleconferences and homework (if possible) can also contribute to reduction of transport volume;

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• When buying products it is necessary to prefer products of local production which supports local producers and reduces transport of goods (especially foods). Energy, housing, goods and services, nutrition Energy is the most important sector influencing greenhouse gas emissions. This is why it is necessary to concentrate not only on renewable energy resources but on energy saving as well. As regards housing, this concerns in particular heating, water heating and air-conditioning. Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the above mentioned areas: • To replace the current ineffective system of natural resource use based on fossil fuel combustion with cleaner renewable resources (biomass, solar, wind or water energy); • Economy based on energy efficient technologies can also considerably reduce consumption of fossil fuels (Combined production of electricity and heat is an alternative to traditional electricity production and production of heat for longdistance heating systems. Energy transformation efficiency is here as much as 90 %). • To support energy passive and low energy houses and buildings. Individuals: • Energy efficiency of most of currently used electric appliances is very low – new technologies and appliances, such as energy efficient bulbs (80 % efficiency) can dramatically reduce energy consumption; • To save energy and water (water treatment plants also consume energy) in households – switching off the light, tap insulation, preferring shower against bathing, switching off appliances and control lights; • To prefer purchase of energy efficient appliances; • To use solar panels (e.g. for water heating) and other renewable energy resources; • To use heat insulation of houses and not to overheat rooms; • To buy local products and take into account the packaging (recyclable package of product); • To prefer healthy food cultivated in the organic agriculture (without use of harmful substances); • To separate and recycle waste (reducing methane production at landfills).


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Increasing share of vegetation, planting trees and using water components in cities, afforestation and increasing retention capacity of a territory Forest absorbs 500 to 1000 tonnes of carbon on one square km per year37. Deforestation itself releases a lot of carbon into the atmosphere where it reacts with oxygen producing carbon dioxide and other two important greenhouse gases – methane and nitrous oxide . Vegetation in cities plays an important role which indirectly affects also growth of CO2 emissions, e.g. cooling the space (reducing necessity to use air conditioning), substantial impact on the quality of environment (moving to suburbs due to inappropriate conditions in city centres with city growth and excessive demands for transportation), etc. Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the above mentioned areas (see also Chapter 3.3 and 3.4): • Planting trees and adequate tree management in cities; • Increasing share of vegetation (planting trees in rows, on parking places, between road lanes, alternative use of vegetation – e.g. on roofs where vegetation slow down water run-off, climbing plants, etc.) • Afforestation, protection of nature and nature components in urban areas; • Increasing retention capacity of a territory (retaining rainfall water, collection systems, reservoirs, wetland protection and integrated water treatment).

37

Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies, IPCC, 1990

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Summary in German Der letzten Schätzung von Wissenschaftlern zu Folge schreiten die Erwärmung und die damit zusammenhängenden Klimaveränderungen schneller voran, als es allgemein erwartet wurde. Witterungsextreme können außer Wassermangel, dem Risiko einer Übertragung von neuen Krankheiten u.ä. in den Städten auch unerträglich hohe Sommertemperaturen mit sich bringen. In diesem Bereich hat die Vegetation eine unersetzbare Funktion, deren Schutz und Schaffung paradoxerweise bei der Gebietsplanung an den Rand des Interesses rückt, wovon wir in der letzten Zeit leider oftmals Zeugen werden. Auch die Nutzung von geeigneten Baumaterialien hat ihre Berechtigung. In unserer Publikation haben wir uns bemüht, theoretische Auswege der Folgen der Klimaveränderungen in Städten aufzuzeigen, die Möglichkeit einer Abmilderung der negativen Folgen der Veränderungen, zum Beispiel durch eine geeignete Architektur, geeignete Baumaterialien und Vegetation näher zu bringen. Diese können wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: Grünanlagen: • Erhöhung des Vegetationsanteils, vor allem in den bebauten Stadtzentren (Pflanzen von Bäumen in Straßenalleen, auf Parkplätzen, grüne Mittelstreifen, Nutzung auch von sog. alternativen Arten von Grünanlagen: grüne Dächer, die auch den Wasserabfluss auffangen und verzögern, weiterhin rankende, vertikale Grünanlagen u.a.) • In der Vegetationsstruktur sollte der Anteil der Gehölzer/Bäume an den Rasenflächen mehr als 60% betragen • Es sind die Artenstrukturen bei den Bepflanzungen in Beziehung zur Verschiebung der Vegetationsstufen bei der Klimaveränderung zu berücksichtigen Wasser: • Erhöhung der Retentionsfähigkeit des Gebietes – z.B. sind in max. möglichem Maß durchlässige Materialien und Konstruktionen zu nutzen und die undurchlässigen Materialien zu ersetzen (Asfalt, Beton) • Es sind Wasserelemente zu nutzen – Springbrunnen, Wasserflüsse, Auffangen von Regenwasser – Dach- und Terrasseneinlässe können in Sammelgräben und –rinnen eingemündet und das so aufgefangene Wasser in Sammelteiche abgeleitet werden. Ebenfalls können Fußwege und befestigte Flächen mit solch einem Gefälle versehen werden, damit das Wasser in die Grünanlagen abläuft.


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Bauwerke und Städteplanung: • Allgemein ist die Komposition der Bauwerke und der Grünanlagen in der Stadt so zu konzipieren, damit eine bessere Luftzirkulation in der Stadt ermöglicht wird, und damit in den Nachtstunden die Strömung und der Austausch mit der kälteren Luft aus der Umgebung unterstützt wird • Es ist auf eine ausreichende Wärmedämmung von Bauwerken zu achten, es sind helle Farben und Glanzoberflächen an den Fassaden zu nutzen, die die Strahlung allgemein besser als dunkle Farbtöne reflektieren • die transparenten Ausfachungen der Öffnungen sind zu beschatten. Die Objekte, die Fensterkonstruktionen sind von außen bzw. von innen mit einfachen, jedoch sehr wichtigen und wirksamen Elementen zum Erhalt der Gebäudeinnentemperatur zu versehen Im weiteren Teil der Publikation haben wir die Fachwelt und auch die breite Öffentlichkeit über die theoretischen Auswegmöglichkeiten bei der Berechnung der ökologischen Spur (nachfolgend kurz ESt) informiert. Unsere Absicht war es auch, die innovierte Berechnung der ökologischen Spur mit Berücksichtigung der ökologischen Stabilität der Stadt (mit besonderer Orientierung auf die Mikroklimafunktion von Grünanlagen) bei der Berechnung vorzustellen. Bei der innovierten Berechnung der ökologischen Spur wird das Niveau der ökologischen Stabilität des Umfeldes berücksichtigt, die um so höher ist, desto höher der Anteil an natürlichen Elementen im Gebiet ist, und die gleichzeitig die Größe und die Menge der Oberflächen wiederspiegelt, die bei der Abmilderung von klimatischen Klimaextremen aktiv sind. Der aktive Einfluss der Vegetation auf das Mikroklima wird durch den sog. Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizienten (KMF) ausgedrückt und dient zur Änderung des ESt.-Wertes mit Berücksichtigung des Anteiles der Mikroklimafunktionen der Vegetation im Gebiet. Der Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient (KMF) tritt in die innovierte Berechnung der ökologischen Spur als Nenner ein. Daraus schließt, dass je höher der Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient ist (z.B. ein hoher Waldanteil im Gebiet), desto niedriger der Wert der ökologischen Spur sein. Gleichzeitig wird die derzeit bekannte Berechnungsweise der ökologischen Spur der Stadt in Betracht gezogen, die die Summe der teilweisen ökologischen Spuren von Lebensmitteln, Wohnen, Verkehr und Waren und Dienstleistungen ist: ESt der Stadt = (EStLebensmittel+EStWohnen+EStVerkehr+EStWaren)/ KMF). Der Koeffizient wird Werte von 0,8 bis 1,2 erreichen, die zweckmäßig so festgelegt sind, damit es bei der Berechnung nicht zu einer unangemessenen Überbewertung der Mikroklimafunktion kommt

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Der Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient wird auf Grund dieser Formel berechnet:

KMF - Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient des Zielgebietes p - Fläche des Ziel-/Modellgebietes pi - Fläche der Gebietseinheiten, die auf Grund der Abdeckung mit Holzvegetation ausgegliedert sind kmfi - Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient der Gebietseinheiten des Zielgebietes n - Anzahl der Gebietseinheiten im Zielgebiet. Zum Schluss haben wir Möglichkeiten vorgestellt, wie die ökologische Spur verringert werden kann, ab auch wie man seinerseits zu einer Milderung drohender Klimaveränderungen beitragen kann. Es ist nämlich außerordentlich dringend, nicht nur die negativen Trends bei der Planung und dem Bau von Städten zu verändern, sondern auch die täglichen Formeln für den Verbrauch und das Verhalten der Stadtbewohner. Im Schlusskapitel bringen wir konkrete Vorschläge für die Verringerung der ökologischen Spur und gleichzeitig auch für den Beitrag zur Senkung der Treibhausgase, die die Klimaveränderungen direkt beeinflussen.


Summary in French

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50



51

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References: Climate Change, United Nations Environment Programme, World Meteorological Organization Environment programme, World Meteorological Organization, http://www. grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/ ESDP - European Spatial Development Perspective, Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union, European Communities, May 1999, pages 10 and 11 European Common Indicators Project EUROCITIES/Ambiente Italia 27th August 2001 Godalming, United Kingdom, 41 pp. Green Pack, REC Slovakia (materials used in Chapter 1) Hrdina, V.: Polycentric Concept of settlement development and urban development in the Slovak republic, 2006, pp.10 IPCC, 2001: Climate change 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, United Nations IPCC, 2003: The Regional Impacts of Climate Change, Chapter 5: Europe, Intergovernmental Panel on IPPC Report (IPCC – associates 2500 scientists from more than 130 countries. The group working at the UN since 1998 will publish this year next three reports describing in details the threats and opportunities to combat climate change), February 2006 Keppl, J.: Ecologically determined creation, STU Publishing House in Bratislava, 2001 Krusche, M., Krusche, P., Althaus, D., Gabriel, I.: Oekologisches Bauen, Bauverlag, Gmbh, Wiesbaden und Berlin, 1990 Kuttler, W.: Stadtklima, online: [cited 16.9.2006], Loh, J., Wackernagel, M., 2004: The Living Planet Index, World Wide Fund For Nature, Panda House, Mathis Wackernagel et all.: National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts 2004: The underlying calculation method, October 17, 2004 Mgr. Rudolf Pado: Hot Planet – Global Climate Change, TATRY Civic Association, Liptovský Mikuláš, January 2003 Sabo, P. et all: Study and draft methodology of calculation of a new indicator for ecological footprint of cities in the context of climate change, OZ Živá planéta, Piešťany 2005 Santa Monica Sustainable City Program, Redefining Progress, March 2004 Santa Monica’s Ecological Footprint 1990- 2000 Environmental Programs Division,


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Tamara Reháčková, Eva Pauditšová: Assessment of biotopes in urbanised territory Tamara Reháčková, Eva Pauditšová: Practical experience with assessment of the micro-climate function of vegetation in the urban environment, 2006 The 6th EU Environmental Action Programme The city as living Environment and driving force for development – discussion Paper for conference, 10th Conference on urban and regional research, UNECE Bratislava 2006 The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001 The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001 WWF: National Footprint 2005

Information from following web pages: http://www.uni-duisburg-essen.de/imperia/md/content/geographie/ klimatologie/kuttler2004b.pdf#search=%22Stadtklima%20%2B%20Kuttler%22 http://hdr.undp.org/hg www.RedefiningProgress.org www.footprintnetwork.org www.bestfoodforward.com http://hdr.undp.org/hg http://www.espon.eu/mmp/online/website/content/projects/259/649/file_ 1182/fr-1.1.2_revised-full_31-03-05.pdf http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/GAEZ/index.htm Abbreviations: WWF – World Wild fund IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change EF – ecological footprint ES – ecological stability Kmf – micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units p - area of a given / model territory pi - area of territorial units determined based on cover rate by wood vegetation kmfi - micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units of a given territory n - number of territorial units in a given territory.

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Anexes

Explanations: 1– micro-climate function coefficient 0,8; 2 – micro-climate function coefficient 0,9; 3 – micro-climate function coefficient 1,0; 4 – micro-climate function coefficient 1,1; 5 – micro-climate function coefficient 1,2


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Brief information on REC Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC) is an international non-profit organisation which focuses on supporting activities oriented towards improvement of the environment in countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The mission of REC is to assist the Central and Eastern European countries to solve environmental problems in particular through promotion of cooperation among non-governmental organisations, governments and governmental institutions, academic institutions, self-governments, businesses and other environmental groups, primarily through strengthening exchange and provision of information and supporting public participation in decision-making processes related to the environment and sustainable development. REC Slovakia as a non-governmental organisation with an international component, registered according to the Act 116/1985, is a part of the network of REC offices in 16 Central and Eastern European countries and Turkey. Since 1992, when it was founded, REC Slovakia has been cooperating successfully with major groups of society, first of all with environmental non-governmental organisations, Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, self-governments and academic institutions. REC Slovakia has built gradually its own expertise and cooperates with many experts in implementation of projects in the area of sustainable development at national, regional and local levels as well as in the area of nature and biodiversity conservation in landscape and settlements, sustainable tourism, environmental education with focus on public participation in assessing and decision-making processes. The most important activities of REC • • •

Sustainable development Nature protection Landscape and environmental management in settlements

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