CAB Reviews 2015 10, No. 034
Economic and ecological aspects of aromatic-plant-based cropping systems E. V. S. Prakasa Rao Address: CSIR-Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation, Bengaluru 560 065, India. Correspondence: E. V. S. Prakasa Rao. Email:
[email protected] 27 May 2015 3 September 2015
Received: Accepted:
doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR201510034 The electronic version of this article is the definitive one. It is located here: http://www.cabi.org/cabreviews g
CAB International 2015 (Online ISSN 1749-8848)
Abstract Diversification of agriculture to support livelihoods and protect the environment has attracted the attention of scientists and policy makers. Aromatic plants have been considered as diversification crops in agricultural systems in many parts of the world. Aromatic plants synthesize secondary metabolites in the form of essential oils as a response to environmental and biotic stresses. These essential oils can be used in a variety of economic applications such as perfumes, flavours and fragrances as well as in pharmaceuticals, and provide additional economic returns to farmers. There is growing scientific evidence from different parts of the world suggesting that integration of aromatic crops in agricultural systems improves land use efficiencies as well as economic returns. The roles that aromatic plants play in ecological applications – such as soil erosion control, improvement of soil properties, carbon sequestration, phyto-remediation, utilization of low-quality irrigation waters and pest and disease management – have gained significance in agriculture. The present review discusses the role of aromatic plants in economic agriculture and in ecological services. Keywords: Aromatic plants, Essential oils, Diversification crops, Land use efficiency, Economic returns, Ecological services, Pest and disease management Review Methodology: The literature cited was collected from CAB Abstracts and Reviews, Medicinal Aromatic Plant Abstracts, Google Scholar and journals dealing with aromatic plants and essential oils.
Introduction The increasing demand for food and fibre crops coupled with growing concerns of economics and the environment in agriculture have posed challenges to scientists, policymakers and farmers. The need for diversification of agriculture has been critical for both, the sustainability of agriculture and for adaptation to climate change. Diversification of land for purposes other than food production – such as cultivation of industrial crops, biofuel crops, and agroforestry species for housing, industries and infrastructure – competes with land required for food production. Lateral diversification of agriculture through diversified crops or cropping systems and vertical diversification through processing and value addition have attracted the attention of researchers around the world. There is no simple answer to the complex question of diversification in relation to economics and environment.
Aromatic plants have been suggested as potential diversification crops in some situations [1, 2]. This review focuses on the different ways in which aromatic plants can be used in agriculture to gain economic and ecological advantages. Though the literature available on the subject has not been extensively covered, a few examples have been cited to deliver the intended message. Aromatic plants are plants which yield essential oils on steam distillation. Essential oils are volatile mixtures of complex chemical compounds, mainly terpenes. These essential oils are economically important and are used in a variety of applications such as flavours and fragrances, perfumery, pharmaceuticals and in alternate systems of medicine such as aromatherapy. Aromatic plants can be found in different roles in agricultural systems: (i) as sole diversification crops, (ii) as component crops in the existing cropping systems, (iii) growing in marginal/degraded lands, (iv) used for
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environmental benefits and (v) used for livelihood benefits [2]. In some situations where conventional crops do not yield economic returns, aromatic crops have been shown to be more profitable [1, 3]. Besides economics, also other factors such as environmental impacts, social acceptability and marketing of essential oils need further consideration. Therefore, the specific circumstances and needs of each situation should be considered when incorporating aromatic plants into existing cropping systems. Several scientific studies have been carried out in the world to demonstrate the possibilities of incorporating aromatic plants in the existing cropping/land use systems. Agronomic research on aromatic crops has made many advances in areas of cropping systems, nutrient and water management, crop husbandry and relations between environment and secondary metabolite production in aromatic plants [4]. Essential oils produced from aromatic plants hold significant economic value in the world. The estimated world production of essential oils is 129 838 tonnes [5]. The various sectors where essential oils can be used are: fragrances (13 538 tonnes), processing (93 500 tonnes), flavours (11 800 tonnes), natural cosmetics/personal care (5200 tonnes), natural medicines/aromatherapy (2900 tonnes) and pharmaceuticals (2900 tonnes). Some important essential oils, their principal chemical constituents and their industrial uses are presented in Table 1.
Economic Effect of Aromatic Plants Agro-ecosystems should produce diversified crops that improve the livelihoods of farmers, increase farm profitability, develop rural skills and employment and support environmental sustainability. In recent years, there has been growing evidence about incorporating aromatic crops into existing cropping systems to improve some economic and environmental aspects [2]. Research from various parts of the world has shown the benefits of incorporating aromatic plants into cropping systems, plantations, agro-forestry and marginal lands.
Economic benefits of aromatic crops as sole crops Aromatic plants have been identified as possible diversification crops [1] and various cropping systems involving aromatic plants in India have been reviewed [4]. In some cases, aromatic crops have been found to give good economic returns when grown as sole crops. However, to derive profits from aromatic crop cultivation, improved agro-technologies have to be adopted. Improved agronomy of aromatic crops includes: (i) nutrient management, (ii) water management, (iii) weed, pest and disease management and (iv) post-harvest processing and distillation of essential oils. Research on improved
agro-technologies of aromatic crops has been extensively reviewed [4, 6]. In the red soils region of India, the economic gains from the cultivation of aromatic crops could be highly rewarding; for example, proper application of nitrogen (N) could give returns worth of 175–1300 Indian rupees for every rupee invested [1]. Similar examples of high returns from the cultivation of aromatic crops as sole crops have also been reported [3, 7].
Economic benefits of aromatic crops as intercrops or companion crops It has been suggested that cropping systems where aromatic plants are cultivated as intercrops or companion crops along with traditional crops have resulted in improved land-use efficiencies and economic returns while minimizing risks to the farmers. Some examples of successful aromatic-plant-based cropping systems are given in Table 2. Aromatic crops have been found to be suitable for intercropping in a variety of systems such as plantation crops [10], horticultural crops [11, 12] and agro-forestry systems [4, 13, 14]. In the Indo-Gangetic plains of India, the incorporation of the short duration mint variety ‘Kosi’ in rice–wheat/Brassica/legume–mint and rice–potato–mint rotations have significantly increased profits for farmers [15]. In ecologically sensitive regions such as the Western Ghats of south India, incorporating vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) into the local cropping systems consisting of crops such as rice, areca nut and cashew, has helped to improve the rural livelihoods [16] and at the same time increased carbon sequestration [17]. In Brazil, crops such as carrot and lettuce could be intercropped in basil (Ocimum basilicum) and mint without affecting the phytomass and essential oil production of the aromatic crops [18]. In Mexico, intercropping aromatic plants such as spearmint, basil and oregano (Origanum vulgare) with coffee provided benefits such as weed control, recycling of nutrients, low external inputs and extra income. Toxic accumulation of allelochemicals in coffee fields was reduced by sage, thyme (Thymus baeticus) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and the aromatic crops have helped to increase coffee production besides the essential oil production from the aromatic crops [19]. In the water-limiting environments of Eastern Caribbean, aromatic plants such as basil, thyme, sweet marjoram, sage and lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) can be grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of the medicinal tree moringa in the early stages of the tree growth [20]. The highest economic returns from investment were obtained when lemongrass was intercropped in areca nut in south India [10]. Vetiver cultivation and distillation using improved agronomic and distillation practices have helped in diversifying agriculture in the ecologically sensitive region of the Western Ghats in south India. Vetiver has also helped to create rural employment, thus improving livelihoods [16].
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Table 1 Some important aromatic plants suitable for commercial cultivation, their principal constituents and uses
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Plant
Botanical name
Principal chemical constituents
Uses
Japanese mint Bergamot mint Peppermint Spearmint Java citronella Coriander Davana
Mentha arvensis Mentha citrata Mentha piperita Mentha spicata Cymbopogon winterianus Coriandrum sativum Artemisia pallens
Menthol, menthone, menthyl acetate Linalool, linalyl acetate Menthol, menthone Carvone Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol Linalool, linalyl acetate Davanone, davanofurans
Eucalyptus Scented Geranium Jasmine
Eucalyptus citriodora Pelargonium graveolens Jasminum grandiflorum
East Indian lemongrass Linaloe Palmarosa Patchouli
Cymbopogon flexuosus Bursera delpechiana Cymbopogon martinii Pogostemon cablin
Rosemary Sandalwood Aniseed
Rosmarinus officinalis Santalum album Pimpinella anisum
Citronellal, iso-pulegol, citronellol Citronellol, geraniol, linalool Linalool, benzyl acetate, indole, eugenol, benzyl benzoate Citral Linalool, linalyl acetate Geraniol, geranyl acetate, linalool Patchouli alcohol, sesquiterpene hydrocarbon 1, 8-cineole, linalool, myrcene, camphene a-santalol, b-santalol and b-santalene Anethol
Perfumery, cosmetics, food flavours, pharmaceutical formulations Perfumery, cosmetics, food flavours, pharmaceutical formulations Perfumery, cosmetics, food flavours, pharmaceutical formulations Perfumery, cosmetics, food flavours, pharmaceutical formulations Perfumery, raw material for various aroma chemicals Flavouring food and pharmaceuticals, perfumery Flavouring cakes, pastries, tobacco, beverages, high-grade perfumes Perfumery Perfumery and flavouring Perfumery
Caraway
Carum carvi
Carvone , limonene
Celery Cumin
Apium graveolens Cuminum cyminum
Limonene , a-selinene Cumin aldehyde, cuminyl ester, limonene
Dill Fennel
Anethum graveolens Foeniculum vulgare
b-phellandrene, limonene, carvone Anethol, fenchone
Basil Vetiver
Ocimum basilicum Vetiveria zizanioides
Rose
Rosa damascena
Lavender
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. syn. L. officinalis Chaix Citrus reticulata
Perfumery Perfumery For flavouring meats, sausages, canned foods, cheese, pickles and some alcoholic beverages. To flavour meats, sausages, canned foods, cheese, pickles and some alcoholic beverages Flavours Used in Unani and Ayurvedic medicines and is also used for flavouring processed meat and cheese Used in gripe waters as a stomachic and carminative Used for flavouring liquors, confectionery, meat products and also in perfumery and cosmetics to a limited extent Used as fixative in perfumery, as odour stabilizer in flavours and fragrances Perfumery, in cosmetics and fruit flavours Perfumery, fragrances, aromatherapy Used as desert and in the production of orange juice
E. V. S. Prakasa Rao
Orange
Kusimol, b-eudesmol, a-vetivone, b-vetivone, vetiverol Citronellol, geraniol, nerol, nonadecane, heneicosane, linalool, b-damascenone, b-damascone, b-ionone, and rose oxide linalyl acetate, linalool, lavandulyl acetate, a-terpineol Limonene, linalool
Flavours, cosmetics, perfumes, manufacture of vitamin A Cosmetics, soaps Perfumery Perfumery
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Table 2 Aromatic plants based cropping systems in different parts of India Cropping system
Region
Features
References
Semi-arid tropics, India
Land equivalent ratio (LER) 1.46 1.45 1.43 1.40 1.15 1.13 1.29 1.33 Geranium equivalent (kg/ha) 30.35
Rao et al. [6]
Citronella + (cowpea–fingermillet) Citronella + (greengram–fingermillet) Citronella + (greengram–groundnut) Citronella + (greengram–sorghum) Palmarosa + blackgram Palmarosa + cowpea Geranium + cowpea Geranium + blackgram Deccan Plateau, India Sorghum + Redgram + 2 : 1 Clusterbean/ greengram–Geranium + greengram Pearlmillet + clusterbean/greengram– Geranium + greengram Sunflower + redgram + 2 : 1 clusterbean/ greengram–geranium + greengram Geranium + clusterbean/greengram
Rao et al. [7]
28.36 30.55 Tarai foot hills of Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India
Java citronella + pea Java citronella + lentil Java citronella + chickpea Sugarcane + bergamot mint Sugarcane + peppermint Sugarcane + spearmint
42.07 % increase in net returns 6.2 34.8 13.9 52.7 19.25 13.5
Ecological Effect of Aromatic Plants Aromatic plants produce secondary metabolites in the form of essential oils, primarily in response to environmental stresses such as moisture stress, pest/herbivore attacks and other un-favourable conditions. For example, water shortage induces drought stress related to a metabolic response where CO2 uptake is reduced by stomatal closure; this triggers the synthesis of reduced compounds such as isoprenoids, phenols and alkaloids [21]. Studies conducted on spearmint and rosemary for their C acquisition and allocation to monoterpenes have shown that water stress reduced photosynthesis due to low CO2 availability but not the photochemical and biochemical processes. This results in higher concentrations of monoterpenes under water stressed conditions [22]. Cropping systems incorporating aromatic crops will have the ecological advantages of aromatic plants. The various ecological advantages are briefly discussed.
Soil improvement Many aromatic plants which are perennial and have high root growth help reduce soil erosion losses and also to improve soil properties. In hill slopes (8.9%) in Spain, rosemary and lavender (Lavandula latifolia) reduced runoff, and the aromatic plants significantly increased soil moisture contents [23]. Aromatic plants such as Artemisia afra increased soil aggregate stability (2.0–5.6) through an increase in unsaturated hydrocarbons, carboxyls and benzene in soil, thus leading to a reduction in soil erodibility [24].
Ram et al. [8] Kothari et al. [9]
In semi-arid tropical conditions in India, long-term cultivation of the aromatic crop Eucalyptus citriodora (10 years), has helped to improve such soil properties as pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil organic carbon and bulk density, while depleting some nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), suggesting proper replenishments of nutrients [25] (Table 3). Aromatic plants such as anise, black-cumin, caraway, coriander and cumin helped to improve newly reclaimed soils in Egypt when fertilizers were also added [26]. In traditional almond-growing areas in the semi-arid conditions of Spain, hillside slopes (35%) result in high erosion losses in the exposed soils; cultivation of rosemary and thyme in strips reduced such losses by up to 78%. When combined with no-tillage, the losses could be reduced to up to 91%. The aromatic plant strips greatly reduced NPK losses by surface erosion [27, 28]. Vetiver plantations have been shown to prevent soil erosion and water run-off [29] retaining soil fertility [30]. Aromatic plants such as palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii), lemongrass, vetiver and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla [Chamomilla recutita]) showed promising results in saltaffected soils and moisture-stress conditions. These plant species tolerated soil salinity and alkalinity to a greater degree when compared with common agricultural crops and gave higher economic returns without affecting the quality of the produce [31]. Also, aromatic plants such as vetiver, lemongrass and palmarosa have been shown to sequester carbon in biomass and soil. Vetiver sequesters the highest C; more than 15 C/ha/year [17]. The suitability and role of aromatic plants in marginal soils have been reviewed recently [32]. Aromatic plants are adoptable to marginal/degraded soils and also arrest some soil
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E. V. S. Prakasa Rao
Table 3 Soil analysis in a Eucalyptus citriodora plantation (at the end of 10 years) Soil characteristic
Fallow soil
E. citriodora plantation
5.64 5.70
5.79 5.81
+0.15 +0.11
0.35 0.35
0.46 0.45
+0.11 +0.10
310 310
318 278
+8.0 722.0
6.6 10.3
3.4 7.7
73.2 72.6
524 408
488 423
736 +15
2.0
2.6
+0.6
pH 0–15 cm 15–30 cm Organic carbon 0–15 cm 15–30 cm Available N (kg/ha) 0–15 cm 15–30 cm Available P (kg/ha) 0–15 cm 15–30 cm Exchange K (kg/ha) 0–15 cm 15–30 cm CEC (meq/100 g) 0–15 cm
Net effect
Source: Prakasa Rao et al. [25].
degradation processes. Studies conducted in the vicinities of the Non-Ferrous Metals Combine (Zn–Cu smelter) near Plovdiv, Bulgaria showed that cultivation of aromatic plants such as coriander, sage, dill, basil, hyssop, lemon balm and chamomile is a feasible alternative. Aromatic crops can provide economic returns and a metal-free final product, the essential oil [33]. Soil water regulation Cultivation of perennial palmarosa, lemongrass and basil is suggested for the efficient utilization of natural resources and higher economic returns from rain-fed areas of subtropical north India. All the aromatic crops registered higher economic returns over the agricultural crops; palmarosa and lemongrass could utilize 65.5% of rain water as against only 36–50% utilized by agricultural crops [34]. Palmarosacan tolerate high residual sodium carbonate in irrigation water (up to 16 meq/l) with only 32% reduction in yield [35]. Aromatic plants like oregano and rosemary are suitable as industrial crops for essential oil and antioxidant production under irrigation with secondary-treated municipal effluents high in Na+1, Cl71, HCO371, P, K, NH4+1, NO371, Ca+Mg, B, Mn, Fe, electrical conductivity (EC), pH and sodium absorption ratio, and their yield quantity and quality were not affected [36]. In arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat states of India, where ground water is highly brackish (up to 8 dS/m EC), agriculture is uneconomical and aromatic plants such as palmarosa, lemongrass, vetiver and chamomile have been found to be promising for cultivation with the additional benefit of an increased available soil N status. Interestingly, the yield and quality of essential oils and the content of principal constituents in aromatic plants are not affected by salinity or alkalinity [37].
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Pest and disease control Essential oils from aromatic plants have been used for pest and disease management in crops [38]. These essential oils have chemical compounds which have been shown to control insects, plant pathogens and weeds. Such chemical compounds include thymol, carvacrol, terpinen-4-ol [39], cinnamaldehyde, a-pinene, anethol [40–44] and eugenol [45]. The essential oils of cumin, anise, oregano and eucalyptus [46], basil [47] and constituents of essential oils [48, 49], have been shown to control plant pests. Essential oils have a broad-spectrum effect on pests [50, 51]. Adorjan and Buchbauer [52] have reviewed research on the use of a variety of essential oils against cockroaches, mosquitoes, stored product beetles and other insects. Even before the insecticidal activities of essential oils were known, antifungal activities, especially against organisms which spoil food, were established [53]. Subsequently, the use of essential oils against fungal diseases of humans and plants were demonstrated [54–56]. Constituents such as thymol, carvacrol and eugenol were shown to be associated with the anti-fungal activity. Essential oils also possess nematicidal [57] and herbicidal [58] activities. Low mammalian toxicity and availability of toxicity data of essential oils of standardized chemical profiles make these products attractive for pest and disease control. Intercropping of aromatic plants such as ageratum (Agerarum houstonianum), French marigold (Tagetes patula) and basil in apple orchards has significantly reduced the incidence of Aphis citricola in China [59]. Habitat management is important for the regulation of arthropod community structures to reduce pest populations in orchard ecosystems. Aromatic plants such as Mentha canadensis, ageratum, French marigold and basil have shifted from a herbivore-dominated to a predatordominated trophic structure in an apple orchard in China [60].
Conclusion The increasing needs of livelihood support and ecological services have necessitated research on finding suitable diversification crops in agriculture. Aromatic plants, which have evolved in nature, to survive adverse environmental conditions and pest and disease attacks, have been found to be suitable diversification candidates for agriculture in many parts of the world. The essential oils produced by aromatic plants provide raw materials for a variety of uses such as perfumery, flavours and fragrances, phytopharmaceuticals and natural pesticides. Aromatic plants provide much-needed extra economic returns to farmers when they are incorporated into existing cropping systems through increased land use efficiency. Also, aromatic plants provide ecological services such as soil erosion control, enhancement of soil properties, removal of toxic
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substances from soils, carbon sequestration and environmentally friendly pest and disease control. The economic and ecological advantages associated with aromatic plants make them favourite diversification crops in agriculture in a variety of agro-ecological conditions in the world.
Acknowledgements I thank Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India for facilities.
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