Nov 7, 2001 - home-garden. Kelepa coconut animals. Rumah tangga petani. Farm house- hold. Pasar market food & fruit uang cash daging & kulit ...... Pengolahan tanah. Siapa yang mengerjakan ... Hasil limbah sapi kerbau. Siapa yang ...
Economic and social benefits of new forage technologies in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Roel H. Bosma, Ralph L. Roothaert and Ibrahim Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in collaboration with Dinas Peternakan November 2001 CIAT Working Document No.190
CONTENTS Acknowledgements
1
Summary
2
PART I 1
Introduction
7
2
Methods
9
2.1
Participatory diagnosis
10
2.2
Training
10
2.3
Economic assessment
10
PART II 3
Results (3.1-3.2.2)
15
3.1
Area description
15
3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3
Livestock activities and livelihood. Makroman Samboja Sepaku (3.2.3-3.9)
16 16 22 28
3.3
Gender, living standards, and equity
33
3.4
Other changes caused by new forages
35
3.5
Manure application
36
3.6
Cost of fodder
36
3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3
Livestock feeding and production Feed balance Cattle reproduction and mortality Goat reproduction and mortality
37 37 39 41
3.8
Prospects for fattening
42
3.9
Breeding strategy for beef provision and profitability
42
4
Training
45
4.1
Girth measurements
45
4.2
Assessment of financial results from fattening
45
5
PART III 5
Discussions and recommendations
47
5.1
Manure
47
5.2
Planting materials
47
5.3
Livestock dispersal schemes
47
5.4
Cattle breeds
48
5.5
Entry points for poorest farmers
48
5.6
Dissemination to new areas
48
5.7
Feeding experiments
48
6
Conclusions
49
7
References
51
PART IV 8
Annexes
A. B. C. D. E.
Calendar of activities R. Bosma Data for the calculations of fodder balance Example of guideline and questionnaire Forms for weight monitoring of goat and cattle Sheet for economic assessment of fattening in Indonesian language
52
6
Acknowledgements This impact study was based on all previous efforts of the Forages for Smallholders Project in East Kalimantan, (FSP) from 1995 to 2001. FSP has been funded by AusAID from 1995 to 1999 and by Asian Development Bank from 2000 to 2002. The project has been coordinated in Southeast Asia by the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), and implemented in Indonesia by the Directorate General of Livestock Services (DGLS), Jakarta, and Dinas Peternakan in Samarinda. Special thanks go to all farmers who participated in the study, and the field staff of Dinas Peternakan.
Correct citation: Bosma, R.H., Roothaert, R.L. and Ibrahim 2001. Economic and social benefits of new forage technologies in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. CIAT Working Document No. 190. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Los Banos, Philippines, 61 pages.
1
Summary The Forages for Smallholders Project (FSP) in East Kalimantan Province of Indonesia aims to improve the livelihood of farmers through participatory development of forage technologies, increasing livestock production, conserving soil and enhancing nutrient management. Goals of this study were to assess the economic and social benefits of new forage introduction in the ruminant livestock system, including gender related labour division and benefits, livestock distribution schemes and breeding practices. Feeding practices were compared with feed requirements, and cost calculated. Farmers and field workers were trained in weight assessment, and financial evaluation of fattening and breeding. Provincial Livestock Services (Dinas Peternakan) and CIAT/FSP had selected three sub-districts for the study. A consultant (R. Bosma) was hired to coordinate a one month study. In all sub-districts, the study started with a participatory diagnosis in a meeting with farmers collaborating with FSP, using resource diagrams, calendars and open questions. The second step were individual interviews on time allocation, economic aspects and herd productivity, using historical recall. In-depth interviews with selected farmers followed. Third step in each village was a training, also used to validate and complete data. Production systems in the sub-districts were different. In Samboja, Bali cattle are raised on pasture under coconuts, and farm households only have a small home garden for crops. Offfarm labour is frequent and sometimes lucrative. In Makroman, most farmers raise goat under zero-grazing, and some acquired cattle recently. Compared to Samboja, variety of crops is much larger but areas of home-garden and upland field are limited. Rice fields have turned into natural pasture due to acidification. In Sepaku, most farmers stopped goat rearing and some acquired buffaloes to profit more from very lucrative off-farm earnings in wood logging. Upland cropping is limited due to wild pigs. The impact of forages on financial benefits was assessed by comparing the livestock system before and after adoption of improved forages. Value of land and of livestock was accounted as cost. Indirect benefits accounted for were manure applied on own fields, animal labour on own fields, and investment and insurance value of livestock. A market for land existed in Samboja and Sepaku. There was a market for manure in Sepaku and Makroman. Livestock was considered a saving for various expenditures, including cost of human health, thus replacing insurance. In Samboja and Sepaku, level of production allowed productive investments, such as fences for pastures. In Makroman livestock gains were used to reimburse credit, and level of investments was still low. An alternative method for assessing financial benefits of improved forage systems was suggested by comparing early and late adopters, with the latter not fully benefiting from increased livestock production. Before introduction of new forages in East Kalimantan, farmers already used King grass for cut and carry. New forages reduced time needed to collect fodder as well as for forage crop maintenance. The spared time was put to good use, either for feeding more animals or by doing more off-farm work. Mean time saved was close to 20%. Introduction of new forage species also increased off-take of animals due to shorter inter-parturition periods, in all species and breeds. Twinning rate in goat increased in some herds. Improvement was also perceived through better body condition of animals resulting in better carcass quality and higher prices paid by butchers. Since new forage introduction in Makroman, farmers have doubled their herd size of goats. Increases in cattle numbers were less pronounced. In Makroman en Sepaku, new forages associated to food and cash crops enhance soil fertility and prevent erosion.
2
The participatory work on forages with farmers resulted in four technology changes: 1) reduction or disappearance of grazing on communal rangeland and increased pasture fencing (Samboja); 2) prolonged pasture time at home-plot (Sepaku); 3) pasture fencing in upland and old rice fields (Sepaku) and 4) planting of forage in contour lines and as cover crop associated with food and cash crops (Makroman and Sepaku). In Makroman, mean household income from an average herd of 7.9 goats was 16,200 Rp/day. Total income generated per goat was almost 1,900 Rp/day. Mean rural expenditures could be covered by total income from 11 goat. Estimated labour income per worker was equivalent to 75 % of the wage of a seasonal agricultural labourer. Estimated cash income per goat was only 7,500 Rp/month/hd. In Samboja, household income from a herd of 7.9 cattle was 23,600 Rp/day per worker. Income generated per unit of Bali cattle was 3,000 Rp/day. Total income from 7 cattle covered mean rural expenditures. Estimated total labour income was 18.600 Rp/day/worker, about the same as mean daily off-farm income. Estimated cash income for Bali cattle was 43,500 Rp/month/hd. In Sepaku, buffaloes owned by a few interviewed households were not yet productive, but this hardly effected income figures. Total income for a households from Ongole cattle and buffaloes was 21,400 Rp/day. Estimated labour income was 14,500 Rp/day/worker, which was lower then wage of seasonal agriculture labour. Income generated per unit of Ongole cattle was 4,200 Rp/day/hd. Mean rural expenditures could be covered by total income from 6 cattle, but mean cattle herd size was 4.1. Estimated daily cash income from Ongole cattle was 11,100 Rp/month/hd. New forages species contributed to a reduction of income gap between rural and urban areas. Income from livestock before new forage introduction was derived from actual costs and output, correcyted for change in herd size and inter-parturition period. Farm household income from livestock almost doubled since introduction of new forage. If saved time was accounted for, the difference was highly significant for all production systems. New forages induced a higher integration in market economy as farmers invested more in fences to reduce labour input for herding and to protect their investment in improved pasture. The effects of new forage technologies on labour division were generally gender neutral. In one sub-district, youth were less often involved and in another, woman were slightly more frequently involved. Sometimes women were more frequently involved in fodder collection as she replaced the husband doing off-farm activities. All genders appreciated new forage introduction positively as the impact on household income was high. To make immigration settlement possible, Indonesia developed infrastructures in swampy mostly uninhabited areas, and the original population also participated in FSP. Unequal income distribution in rural areas couldn’t be attributed to FSP. FSP strategy improved fodder balance and increased the possibilities to extend livestock ownership, a major generator of rural income. Manure applied on food and cash crops contributed approximately 40% to farm household income from livestock in Makroman and Sepaku. This indicates the dependency of households on manure for soil fertility maintenance. In these two sub-districts market value of manure was approximately ten times its estimated mineral value. Apart from application on crops, farmers sold manure for cash income and estimated they applied less then 15% of manure on forage crops. As a result, productivity and quality of new forages was low. The use of manure on food and cash crops does not conflict, however, with the overall objectives of FSP, namely to improve livelihoods. Most farmers in Samboja having adopted new forage, offered enough fodder of good quality to their cattle, as grazing time on improved pastures is long enough. In Sepaku farmers started
3
also improving pastures and investing in fences, but still couldn’t offer enough fodder to meet requirements of their herd, resulting in low production of Ongole cattle for breeding. Fattening Ongole cattle was twice as productive compared to breeding. In Makroman, new forage at most farm households was hardly sufficient for goats, while cattle acquired for fattening only grazed too short a time and did not receive enough high quality feed. Reproduction rate of Bali cattle was close to 85% and mortality was low, resulting in a off-take rate of 21 %. These figures increased since new forage technology introduction and off-take reached 23.5% over the last 2 years in Samboja. Reproduction parameters of Ongole cattle were low, but were improving. Profits of breeding Ongole were only one third of the profits of breeding Bali cattle. Goat productivity in Makroman was low, due to nutritional and husbandry factors. These resulted in high infant mortality, low reproduction, and an off-take rate of only 38%. Training sessions were adjusted according to locality. Open-ended questioning concentrated on feeding practices and breeding strategies. Girth and liveweight conversion tables were prepared for goats as well as Bali cattle. In Makroman training was focused on feeding and husbandry practices, and the effects on kid mortality and low twinning rate. A selected group of farmers were trained in financial assessment of fattening. In Samboja, training focused on breeding and girth monitoring. In Sepaku an exercise in economic evaluation of fattening was conducted with practical examples. It is recommended that livestock distribution schemes start with either one pregnant cow, one bull for fattening, or 2 does and a buck. Sudden change in workload was too high for households, when they received more livestock units. Natural expansion of hers is preferable. Distribution schemes should be directed to non-owners, who have demonstrated their capacity to generate time and motivation to raise livestock by contributing financially to the acquisition.
4
1 Introduction Livestock is an important component of smallholder farming systems throughout Southeast Asia. Direct benefits are income through offspring, meat, milk or egg production, transport, and sources of dietary protein for the family. Livestock can also play a more hidden role as readily available draught power, when fields need to be ploughed quickly between the first rains that wet the soil, and the second rains that feed the new crops. Even more invisible are the benefits from manure when it is applied to crops to boost production. However, animal feed resources are often scarce and unless farmers grow their own forages, animals will suffer from lack of feed or malnutrition, resulting in poor services to the farmer. Forage crops are important assets to improve animal productivity. Much has been written about tropical forages, but little of such is based on successful adoption of forage systems by smallholder farmers. The Forages for Smallholders Project, which started in 1995, stands out through its widespread effect on adoption of forages. Initially more than 500 improved forage species and accessions were screened for adaptability to climates, soils and diseases. Soon after farmers were involved to develop these forages into a wide range of systems on their farms, representing different environments, management practices, traditions, and uses. Farmers were involved in every step of research, which resulted in widespread spontaneous adoption of the new forage systems. While the project was originally funded by AusAID, the Asian Development Bank has provided funds for the second phase, from 2000 to 2002. The goal of the project is to improve the livelihood of resource-poor farmers through the development of sustainable forage technologies, increasing livestock production, conserving soil and enhancing nutrient management, in upland farming systems in Asia. The project is coordinated by the Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), and operates in 6 countries: PR China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Research on forage technologies for the tropics has often limited itself to finding intermediate solutions to the problem. For instance, a great academic merit has been obtained on forage yields in a multitude of experimental designs, and animal responses in feeding trials with forages. The aspects that have not received a lot of attention are the animal production levels experienced by smallholder farmers after feeding improved forages that they have cultivated on their own farms, and even less is known about the impact of these improved forages on people’s livelihood. This study intends to assess the economic and social benefits of forage technologies developed through participatory research with the FSP in East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. The project has been operating here since 1995. At the end of 1999, 120 farmers had been testing and evaluating forages, and at the end of 2001, there were more than 500 farmers (Horne et al., 2000; Roothaert et al., 2001). It was important to select a site where farmers had been feeding improved forages for several years, which could possibly have resulted in improved livestock production, and other benefits. East Kalimantan is a transmigration zone where farmers have settled with government aid and were instructed to use King grass (Pennisetum hybrid) for fodder production. King grass, however, could not compete well with Imperata cylindrica and other naturally occuring species, needed regular replacement, and consequently had low yields. After a participatory diagnosis and planning process with FSP, farmers tested many alternative improved forage species. They identified the ones that could compete with Imperata cylindrica, had a higher production compared to King grass, and were successful in localities where erosion threatened sustainability of the cropping system.
7
There are three distinct livestock systems in the project area in the province, each in another sub-district. In the sub-district Samarinda Ilir (Makroman village), the main livestock system is goats that are stall fed. In the sub-district Sepaku, farmers raise Ongole cattle on natural grasslands and have access to improved forages for supplementary feeding. In the sub-district Samboja, Bali cattle are kept in coconut plantations that have been enriched with improved pasture species. Dinas Peternakan has extended new forages to villages in various other districts as well. Extension still continues with the aim to cover all districts in the Province. Many farmers, who are usually organised in groups, have expressed their wish to test new forages, and have received training and planting materials and seeds to plant small plots. Dinas Peternakan has a credit program for cattle and goat, but is still in doubt about additional number of animals to be distributed, and herd size to be advised to farmers. Reliable data are needed to determine how profitability of livestock production is affected by number of animals per household. East Kalimantan meets only about 25 % of its beef consumption with domestic cattle production; the other 75 % need to be imported from other islands. Fattening of cattle and goat are activities that are intended to contribute the aim of increasing self-sufficiency of meat production in 10 years time. Artificial insemination with imported semen and locally collected semen from imported bulls are also programmes that are aimed towards achieving this goal. Livestock systems vary considerably in East Kalimantan. The objectives of this study were: •
To assess financial benefits of improved forage systems.
•
To assess labour division in the ruminant livestock system, gender related benefits, wealth status of FSP farmers in relation to other farmers in the community, market and saving objectives, and the effects of access to land.
•
To calculate costs of actual feeding practices, and comparison of feeding practices with feed requirements.
•
To evaluate the contribution of livestock dispersal and insemination schemes towards self sufficiency of beef and goat production in the Province.
•
To relate profitability of livestock production to herd size, and compare profitability of cattle fattening and breeding.
•
To train farmers and field workers in participatory methods to assess profitability of small-scale cattle and goat fattening.
8
2 Methods Three different livestock systems were chosen for the study, and these were situated in different locations (Table 1). In this document sometimes these locations will often be referred to as ‘villages’, with their village name (Makroman) or their sub-district name (Samboja and Sepaku). Table 1. Study area in East Kalimantan, livestock systems, and study period. District Sub-district Village (Desa) Livestock system Farmer contact time (Kabupaten) (Kecamatan) Kutai Samboja Tanjung Harapan, Bali cattle grazing 14 – 20 Oct. 2001 Samboja Kualo under coconuts Pasir
Sepaku
Sepaku 2
Ongole cattle grazing 22 – 29 Oct. 2001 natural grasslands
Samarinda
Samarinda Ilir
Makroman
Goats fed by cut and 31 Oct. – 7 Nov. 2001 carry
For assessment of financial benefits of forages as well as for the purpose of training, participatory tools were used for several stages of the work. The study started with a farmers group meeting in each village. Individual interviews and a participatory herd survey were conducted after the initial meeting. Table 2 shows the participatory tools used. Fieldworkers or farmers used large sheets of paper to draw diagrams and calendars, and attached them on the wall. Table 2. Overview of goals and participatory methods used. Research goal Tool
Participants
Livestock husbandry benefits and related Resource flow diagram tasks Activities related to cattle and goat production Seasonal calendar
Farmer groups
Fluctuation of market prices and marketing strategies. Inventory of household livelihood resources
Seasonal calendar
Equity issues
Open interviews
Economic productivity of forage introduction
Questionnaires
Herd productivity
Historical recall survey
Validation of interview data and herd survey
Visually supported presentation and discussion. Group discussion based on Farmer open questions. groups Resource flow diagram
Training on economic value of mortality and breeding Assessment of fattening
Resource diagram
Individual interviews
9
2.1 Participatory diagnosis After introductions and explanation of the mission goals and program, farmers were asked to analyse the livestock system outputs and inputs. The livelihood analyses of the farm household was the last subject of the meeting, to avoid starting with sensitive questions about income and assets. Pressed by time, we did not consider the whole livestock system, but limited it to ruminants: cattle, buffaloes and goat. Resource flow diagrams and calendars were used. Farmers made calendars of the activities related to livestock production. Interview checklists were adjusted according to the data that were collected. Additional questions were asked on market prices and marketing strategies, and on the use of veterinarian services and drugs. Selection of the households for economic interviews was done by fieldworkers in Samboja and Makroman and by a farmers group in Sepaku. The purpose of the interviews was to obtain complementary and more individual farm household data for the economic evaluation, and for the assessment of the social implications of the introduction of new forages. In Makroman and Sepaku, only farmers having adopted new forages before 2000 were included in the interviews. There were questions on the time spent on cattle husbandry activities, before and after the introduction of the new forages. To estimate the effect on animal productivity, an in-herd historical survey was conducted. Livelihood resources of the farm households were assessed through a resource flow diagram and open-ended questions. The starting point was the diagram of cattle husbandry. No participatory ranking was done, due to large variability among farmers. Questions were asked on daily income from off-farm labour, and prices of land. 2.2 Training The last activity in each village was the training of farmers in girth measurements and the conversion to live weight data. Conversion tables were composed for Bali cattle, Ongole cattle and goats. A system was developed for farmers to enable them to monitor growth of their livestock. Training was organised in group discussions, and with practical use of girth measurement tape, conversion tables and weight monitoring forms. 2.3 Economic assessment Collected data of the structured household survey were introduced in an Excel spreadsheet, calculating the individual budget for each farm household. Statistical comparison of the two groups was done by two-sided T-test, for samples with different variance. The budget shows the benefits from the livestock system. Total income from livestock was calculated by summing: •
present household income from livestock
•
positive difference in labour input between system with new forages and system before introduction of new forages (effective time spared), with applied wage rate of alternative off-farm activities.
Negative values of households with a higher labour input in the new system, due to an increased number of livestock, were not included in the value, but were in the number for the calculation of the mean. Total production from livestock production system included direct income from livestock, homeconsumption of products, benefits from manure and labour on own fields, transport for own household, and benefits from insurance and financing of the animals. 10
Data from farm households were collected by individual recall interviews with farm managers on animal numbers, production factors, and expenditures and receipts over the last year. Labour and gender issues were specified for different livestock husbandry activities. For those activities having changed since the adoption of new forage, time needed and gender issues before adoption were identified. Data enabled calculation of mean costs and product values over one year, and annual gross margin and labour investment. From these data, total household income from labour, estimated labour income per worker, and total income and cash income per head of livestock were derived. For economic assessment the whole livelihood system was evaluated. Not only livestock sold was considered but also home-consumption and intermediate products sold: meat, manure and off-farm labour of animals. If not marketed and used on other crops than forages, manure was accounted for as fertiliser replacement. In the case of Sepaku, the value of labour from animals on the own farm was calculated by converting labour requirements for the rice fields cultivated. Value of the herd was based on the number of animals present at the date of the visit, and the mean price of animals bought and sold in one year for the whole village. The evolution of herd value through births and deaths, was not accounted for. For this, it would have been necessary to weigh all animals, but it would hardly change outcome of results, as outflow of young animals was high. In Samboja and in Sepaku, land was traded. For these districts, the production factor soil was valued for the real interest rate. In Makroman there was no market for land . The value of land was estimated by comparing the return of fodder cropping to the economic productivity of marketed crops: maize and cassava. Particular benefits accounted for are benefits of livestock for financing and insurance. If cattle or goats had a financing or saving function, i.e. if they were sold to be reinvested or used to solve urgent problems, replacing modern societies health insurance, it was valued according to the locally applicable rates (Bosman et al., 1997). Benefits of livestock for financing were based on livestock marketed, considering interest of cattle for one year and of goats for half a year, as marketing cannot be delayed too long without detrimental effects. Benefits of insurance were based on the value of livestock in the herd. Urban people have a health insurance or contract credits with banks; premium and interest is paid from their wage, reducing their net income. Farmers use cattle and goat to replace health insurance and credits, and as such it is part of their net income. According to farmers, buffaloes have solely a productive function; they are not sold in case of urgent needs. According to methods proposed for production systems with restricted markets for land, capital and labour, costs of these three production factors are presented as returns from land, capital and labour, after calculation of the net value of output (Bosman et al., 1997). Total production minus total cost gives net value of output from livestock production, which was the amount that households considered as their income from livestock production. Net value of output were listed as return from land, capital, and labour. Return from labour from the household was calculated as net value of output minus return from land used for forage and fishpond, and minus return from capital based on the value of livestock. Return from land represented cost of land, which in conventional financial methods is considered part of total cost. Similarly, return from capital represented capital cost. These variables are summarised in the following formulas: Net value of output =
total value output - total cost
Return from land =
area * market value * real interest rate
Return from livestock capital =
market value of livestock * interest rate on savings.
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Return from labour =
total value output – total cost – return from land – return from capital.
Total household income from livestock production system was calculated, dividing return from labour by the total estimated number of workdays for livestock husbandry. Labour investments in durable production factors, such as animal houses or a permanent forage crop, were spread over the number of years they lasted. The system with new forage and the system before introduction of new forage were compared; the difference in labour (effective time spared) was considered a profit in the new system, and valued though wage of alternative off-farm activities. This reflects actual farm household practices: when the farm activity calendar allows it, children or wives replace the husband, who then uses his time for off-farm labour. For households with a higher labour input in the new system, e.g. due to an increased number of livestock, this value was not included. Labour income per day was calculated by dividing total household income by the number of workers contributing to the livestock system. This number was the average number of persons involved in the nine most time demanding task, without correcting for absolute time needed for each activity. Mean daily cash income per unit of livestock, was calculated without value of manure applied on own fields, without cost of land and capital, and without insurance and investment value of animals. The mean number of animals represented the number present on day of interview, plus the number of animals sold or purchased during the previous six months. To assess financial impact of new forage introduction, total household income before introduction has been estimated, considering two correction factors. The ratio of number of animals before and after introduction was used to adjust: costs of fencing, sheds, small inputs, manure sold and applied on crops; and herd capital, -insurance and -investment value. Cost of land was not adjusted, but fencing was corrected, as investments in fencing increased since new forage introduction. The ratio of inter-parturition period after and before introduction of new forage was used to calculate the value from off-take of meat and livestock in the situation before forages. For the new system, the number of days worked consisted of general husbandry tasks plus specific activities only applicable to the new situation. For the old system, the number of days worked consisted of general husbandry tasks plus time needed for collection of fodder in the natural grassland before adoption of new forages. As numbers of animals generally increased, the first set of tasks would have needed less time in the past, but for fodder collection more time would be spend for actual numbers. The comparison was only made for those households raising also livestock before new forage introduction. Some farms raised cattle as well as goats or buffaloes and could not distinguish the quantity of feed collected per species, nor time spend for feeding and other general husbandry practices. To evaluate separately the goat, cattle or cattle plus buffalo system production the feed and time was attributed to species according to the ratio 1/8/10, respectively. The historical herd survey provided figures for the estimation of animal production before adoption. Off-take rate was calculated with the formula: animals sold in a period divided by the mean herd size during the period. Reproduction index was defined as: number of animals born during the period divided by the total years of reproductive females during the period. Assumptions, values and rates In sub-districts where a market for manure was not functional, manure was valued for its mineral content. The price of nitrogen (N) was calculated from the artificial urea fertiliser which contains
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26% N. The price of urea was 125 Rp/kg, resulting in 650 Rp/kg N1. Nitrogen content of manure was estimated through excretion of non-digested N and endogenic N, both having approximately equal amounts in the manure. Using digestion coefficients for dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of 60% and 65%, respectively, and a CP contents of 125 g/kg DMI (N=20 g/kg), non-digested N in the manure is estimated at 17,5 g/kg DM. Total N-content of faeces would therefor be 35 g/kg DM. Value of manure solely based on N is 23 Rp/kg; accounting for P and K content as well, the value would be 50 Rp/kg DM. For cattle, dung excretion was evaluated accounting for a digestibility of 60% of DMI, an ingestion of 3 kg/100 kg live weight. Mean live weight was 225 kg per animal in the herd, and thus estimated manure production was 985 kg/yr/head of cattle. For buffalo, mostly fed on low quality fodder, a value of 1200 kg manure was used. For goats, dung excretion was estimated using a digestibility of 60% of DM, an ingestion of 3,5 kg/100kg live weight and a mean body weight of 25 kg per animal in herd, resulting in 130 kg DM manure/yr/goat. DM content of marketed manure for cattle and goats was estimated at 30% and 40%, respectively. For the insurance value of livestock a rate of 4% was used, premium applied by the mutual Muslim health insurance in Samarinda. The combined health and live insurance premium of a private company varied between 5 and 20%, depending on type and duration. The actual interest rates of banks in the city of Samarinda and Balikpapan are for credit 21%, and for deposit 11%. Mean inflation over the previous year was 7%, according to information from the head of planning division of Dinas Peternakan, and published on the web site of the Bank of Indonesia . An interest rate of 4 % was calculated by subtracting inflation rate from deposit interest rate. To be able to compare financial results with a study published in 1984 (Ramm et al.), last values were adjusted with an inflation rate over 18 years. Money rate over this period was 19.2% and it was 2 units lower over the last 18 year 17.3% (IMF, 2001). Inflation over the last 11 year, including the crises, was 8.8% (BI). Inflation over the last 18 years was estimated 2 units lower at 7%. For cost of fodder actual market value was used. For production cost of fodder, cost of land, and labour input at earnings of the most easily available off-farm job, were included. A dry matter content of 20% for all forages was used. A mean production level was derived from literature. According to Nitis et al. (1980, cited by Falvey and Chantalakhana, 1999) yields of grass were between 0.48 and 1.89 t DM/ha. Recently, Dao Lan Nhi (2000) has measured a production of Brachiaria mutica between 4,5 to 5.25 tDM/ha on farmers’ plots. ‘t Mannetje and Jones (1992) suggest much higher productions for the new forages (annex C). The following production levels of improved forages were used: 10 t DM/ha for pastures and poorly fertilised fodder banks for ‘cut and carry’; and 30 t DM/ha for well fertilised fodder banks for ‘cut and carry’. Contour lines with grasses or legumes, and areas with cover crops were estimated to yield on average 6 t/ha; the contour lines were considered to cover 20 % of a cultivated area, and cover crops were considered to cover 50 % of a cultivated area. Area of contour lines and cover crops were recorded, but not specifically on grasses and legumes. 2.4
Participation and sample size
At the first meeting in Samboja a limited number of farmers were present due to funeral ceremonies. About 20 farmers attended the first meeting, and about 30 farmers the second . Data of 25 farm households have been collected in Samboja, one of which was headed by a woman.
1
10,000 Indonesian rupiah = 1 US $ , November 2001.
13
In Makroman about thirty people were present at the two meetings. At the first session 2 women participated and at the second 5 women were present. None of the households were female headed. A total of 25 households were included in interviews. At the first meeting at Sepaku, 18 men and one woman were present. The meeting was organised in the village ‘Sepaku 2’; some representatives of the villages located further away also attended. The second meeting gathered about 30 farmers. In Sepaku, additional interviews on specific issues were held with a farmer’s wife, a cattle breeder, a buffalo owner and a cattle fattener. Meetings were more lively compared to Makroman and Samboja, which can be attributed to the fact that various leaders were present. Data from 23 farm households were used for economic assessment of breeding and 2 for fattening. A woman managed one of the 23 farm households.
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3 Results 3.1
Area description
In all three villages, farmers already cultivated grass for fodder before introduction of new forage species. They were used to prepare soil, plant and maintain forages. The most commonly used forage was King grass (Pennisetum hybrid). Gliricidia was locally available and a few farmers already used cuttings to establish boundaries. Introduction of new forages resulted in the development of new technologies which were different in each sub-district. Makroman specialised in goat keeping through zero-grazing, Samboja established pastures under coconut plantations, and Sepaku developed a more mixed system based on goat, cattle and buffaloes (Table 3). In Samboja, the variety of livelihood options was less diverse than in Sepaku and Makroman (Table 4). Table 3. Characteristics of interviewed farm households in 3 sub-districts of East Kalimantan (sd) and number of farmers without particular livestock [n]. Makroman Samboja Sepaku Sample size (n) 24 25 22 Average household size (people) 4.0 (1.3) 3.8 (1.2) 5.0 Farm area (ha) 2.3 (1.6) 2.5 (1.2) 3.4 New fodder bank in mono-culture (ha) 0.2 (0.22) 0.23 (0.33) 0.3 Contribution of inter-cropped new forages ++ ++ Improved pasture * (ha) 0 0.46 (0.67) + Average number of cattle over period 1.9 (2.1) [12] 9.9 (6.8) 5.5 (2.0) Average number of buffalo over period 0 0 0.27 (0.86) [20] Average number of goat over period 9.9 (4.3) 0 0.45 (1.7) [20] Average number of chicken present 24.5 (18.1) [2] 12.0 (8.0) [1] 28.7 (18.0) [2] * Including pasture under coconut + present but no estimation of area available
Table 4. Crops cultivated in the three sub-districts. Crops cultivated Makroman 1 Coconut x Food crops (rice, maize, cassava) x Bananas x Coffee, rambutan, durian, ubirambat x Pepper x Chilli, peanut x Avocado x Papaya x Mango Vegetables, baby corn, jackfruit x Fodder grass, legumes and trees x 1
Samboja x
x
Sepaku x x x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x
Coconuts are the main crop in Samboja
15
There are also differences in forage species used (Table 5). Brachiaria humidicola pastures are common in Samboja and Sepaku. Contour lines, hedgerows, living fences and cover crops are more common in Makroman and Sepaku. In all three villages Brachiaria brizantha from fodder banks is used for cut and carry. Farmers maintain a variety of species to be able to offer good quality fodder to animals during different periods of the year. Table 5. Main use of forage species and frequency of use in three locations. Way of forage management Number of farmers per village Crops cultivated Pas Cut Cont. Cover MakroSamboja Sepaku ture and lines crop man carry x 9 3 6 Andropogon gayanus x 3 1 2 Arachis pintoi Brachiaria brizantha “marandu” x 6 7 12 Brachiaria decumbens “basilisk” x x 0 7 14 x x x 6 16 18 Brachiaria humidicola x 6 4 2 Centrosema spp. x 7 8 10 Gliricidia sepium x 6 7 3 Leucaena leucocephala x 16 13 11 Paspalum atratum Pennisetum hybrid (King grass) x 4 6 4 x 9 3 2 Sesbania grandiflora x x 13 14 3 Setaria sphacelata Stylosanthes guianensis CIAT 184 x 14 11 12
3.2
Livestock activities and livelihood.
Results of the participatory diagnosis and the economic analysis is presented for each village (Table 6). Economic analysis is based on the mean budget of the livestock activities of interviewed farmers. Numbers of chickens were recorded but excluded from financial analysis. 3.2.1
Makroman
In Makroman, participatory planning, followed by distribution of seeds and planting material of new forage species, started in 1996. More than 50 farmers cultivate new forage species in 3 different systems: fodder banks of grasses for cut and carry, contour lines with legume trees and grasses, and cover crops with legumes. At the home garden, forage is mostly cropped in hedgerows, with coconuts, jackfruit, rambutan, durian and various other fruits. The average area of fodder bank is 0.2 ha, excluding hedgerows and covercrops. Contribution of fodder from contour lines and cover crops is also important for most farmers, but variation is large. Farmers harvest forage from fodder banks 4,5,6 or 7 days a week. Almost every day, complementary fodder is cut on natural grasslands, especially in late dry season (August to October). According to farmers, new forage improved reproduction performance of goats, as a result of increased twinning rate, reduced postpartus anoestrus, and shorter kidding interval.
16
Mean cost and benefits, and returns to the production factors of livestock systems, in three locations (x 1000 Rp ± sd ). Location (number of respondents) Makroman Samboja (n=23) Sepaku (n=23) (n=24) Main livestock system Goats Cattle Cattle and buffaloes Table 6.
Cost of housing 144 ± 32 550 ± 821 Cost of fencing 1,952 ± 1,955 Inputs cattle + buffalo 53 ± 104 14 ± 14 recurrent cost 197 ± 120 2,516 ± 2,288 Animals purchased 81 ± 217 120 ± 408 total cost 278 ± 251 2,648 ± 2,240 Livestock and meat sold 1,166 ± 959 7,167 ± 5,176 Income from animals work off-farm Benefit from animals labour in own rice fields * Benefit from manure on own crops 1,116 ± 81 124 ± 99 Income from manure sold 22 ± 48 Benefit from insurance value (i = 4%) 111 ± 48 523 ± 419 Benefit from financing value (i = 21%) 122 ± 101 1,811 ± 1,470 total value output 9,625 ± 6,722 2,539 ± 1,402 Return from land mono-culture forage (i = 301 ± 178 4%) Return from animal capital (i = 11%) 266 ± 115 1,544 ± 1,236 Return from labour 2,250 ± 1248 5,133 ± 5,536 * Estimate based on the area of rice fields and market price for ploughing.
356 88 154 597 491 1,088 2,189 11 280
± 262 ± 225 ± 153 ± 370 ± 879 ± 1,463 ± 2,535 ± 52 ± 334
3,325 6 324 460 6,595 123
± 1,580 ± 17 ± 114 ± 532 ± 3,451 ± 75
1,188 ± 419 4,195 ± 2,851
Livestock resource flow Farmers in Makroman used to grow lowland rice, but these rice fields (sawahs) have now become too acidic. High organic matter content and wrong drainage practices might be the cause of this. As a result, these most fields have been turned into natural grasslands. This has resulted in less by-products available for animal feed, but more grass from natural vegetation. Unfortunately, these fields are less suitable for grazing. Farmers complained about animal health problems after their cattle grazed the old sawahs. Many parts of these fields are still marshy and make an ideal environment for liver flukes that cause problems in ruminants. Cattle in Makroman are tethered on natural pastures all year round, for about 3 hours in the afternoon. Crop by-products are frequently used, but commercial concentrates only for fattening animals. Some farmers use local by-products of food processing, such as rice bran or residue from tahu or tempeh (fermented soybean products). Goats are kept by zero-grazing and almost all feeding is based on cultivated grass and legumes, and fodder gathered on the communal lands. Most cattle for fattening have been recently obtained on full government credit scheme; goats had been obtained earlier in similar schemes. Therefore only few farmers have experience with cattle husbandry.
17
Figure 1: Livestock resource flow diagramme, Makroman rice, school, houses, wedding, bayar kredit, motorcycle, travel, bicycle, household equipments, unforseen.
Rumah tangga household
perkejaan labour
uang cash
beli
young livestock
peternak
adult livestock
labour
daging,
meat & skin
Rumput cut &
Sapi & Kambing
makanan fodder
cattle & goats
Pasar
market
obat,
drugs, ao
Rumput HMT new forage
pupuk
manure
Sumpang
N-fixation
pupuk
manure
perkejaan
pupuk macahanterna
manure
by-products
Tananam
Kebun/pekarangan home-garden
upland field
obatan
insecticides
Farmers value new legumes such as Centrosema spp. and Arachis pintoi as cover crops in maize and cassava for fertiliser replacement. Hedgerows of Gliricidia are also frequently used as such, and Leucaena is starting to be used like that. In this system without using fertiliser, the same crop yields are obtained as in mono cropping, according to farmers. New grass species are also used to stabilise terraces. Market prices for goats vary during the year due to Muslim ceremonies. During normal times, the buyers pay on average 450.000 Rp for an adult goat and 250.000 Rp for a young one. In the periods before the Muslim ceremonies, prices for adult goats rise to 750.000 Rp. Farmers try to keep the male goats for sale during this period, but buyers come frequently to the village before that. Farmers do not travel to sell animals, and livestock for replacement is purchased in the same village. Goats are also slaughtered at home for feasts and ceremonies. Hides of slaughtered goat are used for drums, prayer mats, and other household needs. Cattle are never slaughtered for home-consumption. In Makroman, most manure is used in the home garden (Fig. 1). The quantity applied to the cropped grass and the quantity sold are equally small (Table 21). Goat dung is higher appreciated for its’ capacity to stay firm until application in the field, while cattle dung decomposes before it can be used. However, this does not lead to a different application strategy. Farmers receive for one bag of 27 kg cattle manure 2,500 Rp. Assuming a DM content of manure of 30 %, and valuing time needed for filling a bag and selling it 1.000 Rp, the value per kg DM is about 185 Rp/kg. Farmers receive 7,500 Rp for 30 kg of goat manure, supposing DM-content of this manure equals 40% and accounting time as for cattle dung, its’ value is about 540 Rp/kg.
18
Livestock is frequently sold to finance weddings, costs for school of children and medical costs. Income from cattle is also used to purchase (motor-) cycles and to reimburse loans (Fig. 1). It is not used for investments in productive activities, and rarely for savings deposited at a bank. Some households use motorcycles to transport passengers against payment, in which case buying a motorcycle is an investment. . Farmers use herbal solutions to treat sick animals. If these traditional methods do not prevent a disease they call upon Dinas Peternakan. Regular veterinarian treatment of livestock is still free of charge. Some farmers purchase minerals or vitamins for 20.000 Rp per animal . Calendar of labour inputs for livestock husbandry in Makroman Table 7. Task Months of the year (January to December) Water giving Cutting cultivated grass Cutting natural grass Feeding grass Feeding by-products Lighting of night fire Cattle tethering Cattle washing Cleaning cattle shed Cleaning goat house Traditional animal health House maintenance, every 2 yrs Marketing Soil preparing for forage Forage planting Weeding, maintenance of forage Manure application on forage every day occasionally intensive during period when needed
Time 0.6 hr/day 2.6 hr/day 1.9 hr/day 0.3 hr/day 0.7 hr/day 0.4 hr/day 1.4 hr/day 1.3 hr/day 0.6 hr/day 0.1 hr/day 0.3 hr/day 3 day/yr 5 day/yr 2 day/yr 13 day/yr 1 day/yr weekly
Labour inputs to livestock There are several special treatments that cattle receive. Cattle are washed regularly and each day their shed is cleaned (Table 7). Since introduction of new forages, the time needed for forage maintenance is reduced, because it needs to be replaced less often and it is more vigorous, allowing less weeds to grow. Grass cutting from communal lands for feeding continued, especially as animal numbers increased. Time needed for fodder cutting only slightly reduced since new forage introduction, from 4.2 to 3.5 hr/day, but number of animals increased, for goat due to herd reproduction but for cattle mainly due to dispersal programs (Fig. 8). For both cattle and goats, time needed for feeding decreased about 50%.
19
According to participatory tools used, the distribution of labour among gender has not changed since introduction of new forage. This is probably also due to the fact that most farmers already had fodder banks of King grass. This finding was confirmed by data collected during interviews (Table 7). Frequency of the involvement of women and young members of the farm households slightly diminished for cut and carry from natural grasslands, but this was compensated a higher involvement in cut and carry from new forages. The farmers group considers introduction of the new forage crops gender neutral. Every household member contributes to the livelihood and decisions about expenses are taken after consultation between husband and wife. Farmers work 6,5 days a week for about 7.5 hours each day. But in evening time, livestock feeding and lighting of night fire2 continue. Mean daily working time can be considered 8 hr. Table 8.
Frequency distribution of gender involvement in activities for animal husbandry in Makroman, before and after new forage introduction.
activity Cut and carry from natural grassland, before project Cut and carry from natural grassland, after project Cutting and feeding of improved forage Other tasks for forage production General animal husbandry tasks
husband
wife
child
56 63 55 63 61
25 22 28 15 24
19 16 18 23 15
Livelihood resources and strategies Striking is the large variety of crops and other resources for the livelihood of the project farm households in Makroman. In home garden and on upland field, some farmers plant up to 12 different crops for home consumption and marketing (Table 4). Farmers here are closer to subsistence level than those in Samboja. Only two of farmers still planted rice in the sawah, and only 6 have cattle. Land is not marketed and farmers could not attribute a value to the land. The marketing of planting materiel of new grass varieties is mentioned as resource of income (Fig. 2). According to farmers, maize and cassava yield at least 300,000 Rp/ borong/ yr3, through 3 and 2 harvests respectively, with each 4 and 5 days work input, respectively. Net margin, accounting labour for 20.000 Rp/day and accounting all manure applied on these crops, is 3.2 million Rp/ha/yr. Off-farm labour activities are not frequent. They mostly yield 20,000 Rp/day plus a lunch (Table 9). Work in the fishponds is popular (empang), but is more frequent in the construction (buruh). Craftsmanship (100,000 Rp/day) and small trading (jual burung, 50,000 Rp/day) are more lucrative but need investment loans or capital.
2
Each evening, small fires are lighted in cattle sheds and under goat houses to produce smoke, to keep flies away. 3 Borong = 15 m x 15 m.
20
Figure2: Livelihood resources diagram, Makroman.
Off-farm income
manure
farmers'
· hodmen in
construction · labourer at fishpond · shop keeping · small trade · moto-taxi
Cattle goat and chicken
meat & hide
cash
low land
cash
household
Fodder & plants from new forages
animals
market grass, roofing leafs birds
communal land upland field
rice
home-garden
Table 9. Earnings of most accessible alternative income resources in the 3 sub-districts, derived from resource diagrammes. Activity Unit Samboja Makroman Sepaku Net margin maize and cassava, mea Rp/ ha/ yr 3,580,000 Herdsman Rp/ day 20,000* 20,000* Agricultural labourer Rp/ day 20,000** 20,000** 15.000*** * plus one meal, ** plus two meals, *** plus three meals
Economic productivity of goats in Makroman. The use of land was not valued, as there is no market for land. Manure applied to home garden, sawah and upland field, was valued at 540 Rp/kg . The contribution of nitrogen fixation by legume forages to the crops was not valued. Farmers sold livestock to reimburse credit and to pay for medical cost. Value of livestock as replacement of bank and medical insurance needed to be accounted for. For comparison of productivity of systems with old and new forage, an improvement of kidding interval from 9 to 7 month was applied. Labour income of the new forage system is significantly higher than the estimated income of old system (Table 10). Effect is stronger when time saved is valued. Total household income from goat production is 18,800 Rp/day/hh4, or close to 2,000 Rp/day/goat. Accounting the area used for fodder-bank as lost revenue from maize or cassava5, household income from goats is just below 16.000 Rp/day. Labour income from goat production is about 75 % of the wage for a seasonal agricultural labourer and most accessible off-farm jobs. However livestock husbandry activities are better integrated in the total labour calendar of the farm household.
4 5
hh = household 3.200.000 Rp x 0.21 ha / 365 days
21
Household labour income from the goat production system in Makroman, after new forage introduction and comparison with estimated household income for old forage (n=23). unit mean s.d. p* Return from labour new forage system 1000 Rp 2,250 Table 10.
Estimated days work in new system Household labour income new system Household income new system + value of time spared Labour income / livestock worker new system Total income per goat new system Estimated days work old system Estimated Return from labour old system Estimated household labour income old system
day/year 1000 Rp/day 1000 Rp/day 1000 Rp/day/p 1000 Rp/day/hd day/year 1000 Rp 1000 Rp/day
158 16.2 18.8
71 9.2 9.0
14.2 1.8 198 1,434 8.4
8.6 1.2 80 878 5.4
0.004 0.001
* Two sided T-test for the comparison of the labour income for old and new systems + value of time spared to the labour income of the old system.
Compared to the labour productivity of most common crops, such as cassava and maize, remuneration of time invested in goat is low. Land could better be allocated to crops, but the system makes crops dependent on manure from livestock. The labour income in Rp/day/worker, not accounting benefits from insurance and financing, is high compared to the one found by Ramm et al. (1984). In 1984 a herd of 4.8 goats yielded 138Rp/hr, having a present value6 of 466 Rp/hour, or 780 Rp/day/goat. This value is closer to the productivity of goats in the old system in Makroman. Herd size in Makroman was 9.6, thus estimated labour income per goat not accounting benefits from insurance and financing: 850 Rp/day/goat. The difference with Ramm’s value can be attributed to the higher price for manure in our study, 540 Rp/kg DM versus 68 Rp/kg fresh by Ramm. 3.2.2
Samboja
Farmers in Samboja use new forage species since 1996. They only raise Bali cattle, mostly under coconuts. About 60 farmers grow various new forage species to improve pasture, for cut and carry from fodder banks, and some also in hedgerows. Interviewed farmers have a mean area of 0.46 ha of pasture and a mean area of fodder bank for night feeding of 0.23 ha. According to farmers, animals grow faster, have the first calve earlier, and calving interval dropped from 14 month to 12 months, as a result of the adoption of new forages.
6
actual value calculated for a mean annual inflation of 7%: 138 x (1+0,07)18
22
Livestock resource flow Missing in the resource flow diagram (Fig. 3) of Samboja are fields of rice and maize, and thus also their by-products. These food crops need to be purchased, mostly from income of coconuts. Cattle are not milked.
Figure 3: Cattle resource diagram, Samboja.
Rumah tangga
houses, study of children, wedding, vehicle, travel, saving (bank), investments (fence, land, fish-ponds), food, human health costs.
uang
household perkejaan
Pasar
duging skin
labour
market
meat
Rumput HMT pasture
cash
kulit sapi dewasa
uang
adult cattle
pupuk makanan
Sapi Cattle
coconut
obat, pagar, kandang e.g. drugs, fences
sapi amuda young cattle
grass
Kelepa
cash
pupuk
makanan
manure
by-products
Desa village
Kebun home-garden
The reason that upland fields and sawahs are not cropped with maize, cassava or rice, is that many cattle and buffalo are left to scavenge and would destroy crops before harvest. Fencing of these fields is considered too expensive. Home-consumption of cattle is rare, but hides of slaughtered cattle are used. Almost all feeding is based on grass and other forage, as concentrates and by-products are seldom used. Regular veterinarian treatment of livestock is free of charge. Prices offered for cattle by traders fluctuate according to the main Muslim ceremonies. Both Mahal and Haji, dates of which change slightly every year, cause a rise in prices. Prices farmers receive almost double, from 2.5 to 4 million Rp per animal. Market prices in Samarinda and Balikpapan can reach much higher, 6 million Rp or higher. There is scope for co-operative marketing, seasonal fattening, or strengthening the bargaining power of farmers. Income from cattle sales has various destinations (Fig. 3). Many of these are productive investments, such as digging fishponds or fencing pastures. Assessment of the economic impact of new forage technologies needs to account for banking or saving goals, and for insurance and investments value.
23
Labour inputs to cattle husbandry In Samboja, preparing of soil for forage cultivation is done seasonally (Table 11). On a regular basis, pasture and forage fields need labour input for weeding, manure collection and distribution. Specifically for this sub-district is the need to maintain the water drainage canals on most farmland. According to farmers no changes occur in tasks for fodder production, but crop maintenance has become less time consuming, due to less frequent replacement and less weed problems. Pastures were already fenced before new forage introduction. Occasionally tasks are maintenance of sheds and fences, disease care, and marketing . Buyers of cattle come to the village and farmers purchase replacement stock in the neighbourhood. Periodically, manure is piled, mixed with old vegetative material, and burned before application on the land. It is a way to get rid of the odours and to make minerals quickly available, but N is lost. Dung dropped on the pasture by grazing cows is not collected but spread by chickens searching for food; successive frequent raining prevents those pasture spots from getting spoiled. Table 11.
Calendar of labour inputs to cattle husbandry in Samboja
Task months of the year (January to December) Water giving Moving cattle Cattle feeding Cleaning animal and pen, and lighting night fire Disease prevention Fence maintenance Stall maintenance
Time (hrs) 0.7 hr/day 1.1 hr/day 1.5 hr/day 0.7 hr/day
Soil preparing for forage Forage planting Weeding, maintenance of forage
40 day/yr 8 day/yr 14 day/yr
Fertilising (artificial) of forage Drain canal maintenance
1 day/yr 9 day/yr
every day
intensive during period
when needed
p.m. 6 day/yr 3 day/yr
occasionally
Tethered cattle are moved from place to place and grazing animals need to be moved from home to the pasture and back. Estimated time needed for feeding, including herding, has reduced by half, from almost 5 hours to 2.5 hours, while number of cattle slightly increased, from 6.2 to 7.9. On average, herding takes slightly more than one hour. Time needed for lighting night fire has not been recorded. According to farmers, common husbandry tasks gender distribution of tasks hardly changed since new forage introduction. Data collected from interviews show women are more often involved in cutting forage after the introduction of the new forage technology (Table 12). However, men still do the hardest jobs. Forage harvesting by women frees up labour of men, which is then used for lucrative off-farm activities to supplement household income. In the only female headed household, the woman did most tasks herself and only contracted someone for building the shed. Sometimes her child gave water to the cattle or herded them. Farmers consider mean daily working time 8 hours.
24
Frequency of distribution of gender involved in activities for animal husbandry in Samboja, before and after introduction of new forage. activity Husband Wife Children Cut and carry and herding, before 74 2 24 Cut and carry and herding, after 59 15 25 Other tasks forage production 79 7 13 General animal husbandry tasks 51 38 11
Table 12.
New forage species produce more, and can therefor be cut and grazed more frequently. Some farmers still cut supplementary fodder from natural grasslands, especially in the late dry season, from August to October. Adoption of new forage species reduced time spent for harvesting and transport of fodder from communal land. Also time needed for forage maintenance was reduced. According to farmers, herding on communal lands diminished after the adoption of new forage species, but this is hardly significant in mean estimated herding time. Time spared is accounted for through off-farm labour, or more time needed for forage collection in association with increased animal numbers. Livelihood resources The livelihood system of Samboja is simpler than in Makroman or Sepaku, and specialised in coconuts and cattle. Various off-farm income resources are available to farm households and most yield the same as in Makroman (Table 9). Some are very well paid, e.g. fishing of prawn (nelayan). A temporary job in construction (buruh) is easily found. With some cash, men or women can start roadside merchandising (jualan). To start a small shop (toko/warung) needs higher investments, but is also profitable. The investment in a motorcycle generates income by doing taxi service (ojek). However, farmers highly appreciate the occasional income from livestock and reinvest in fences, as was shown in Fig. 3. In Samboja, some crops for home consumption are planted in the home garden, such as cassava and bananas. Surpluses, especially fruits are sold and provide regular income to some households (Fig. 4). Coconut fields yield 1,300,000 Rp/ha/yr after deduction of hired labour cost. If cost of land is accounted for real interest rate of mean price level and investment for 30 years, farmers gross margin is only 800.000 Rp/ha/yr. For the average 2 ha plantation, gross margin is 130,000 Rp/month, equivalent to rural expenditures for 1 person. The average yield of home gardens is 200.000 Rp/month, equivalent to a high income. However, without cattle, the system cannot guarantee livelihood for a farm household.
25
Figure 4: Livelihood resource diagram, Samboja.
Sapi
daging & kulit meat & hide
Off-farm income: · prawn
fishing · hodmen in construction · moto-taxi · shop keeping . trading
uang cash
Rumah tangga petani Farm household
Cattle animals
uang cash
Pasar
Kelepa
market
coconut
food & fruit
food & fruit
Kebun home-garden
Economics of cattle husbandry Off-take rate of cattle during 2000 was high, 35 %, compared to the mean historical off-take rate, 20 %. Also mean off-take rate over the last two years was relatively high, 24%. However, the level of investments of some farmers in fences was also high (Table 13). On the other hand, the sample group for the study also included nine recent adopter who had not yet experienced full potential benefits of forages. The overall economic outcomes are therefore considered representative. The values for time needed for lighting night fire were adopted from Sepaku and Makroman. Comparison of some cost factors, outputs, and farm household income (average ± s.d.) from cattle production under coconuts, for 16 early and 9 recent adopters of new forages in Samboja. unit early adopters recent adopters Cost of sheds 1000 Rp 667 ± 997 341 ± 195 Cost of fencing 1000 Rp 2,488 ± 1981 1,000 ± 1491 Insurance and financing value 1000 Rp 1,482 ± 819 1,654 ± 1740 animals (11 %) Livestock and meat marketed 1000 Rp 9,095 ± 5360 3,739 ± 2234 Total product value 1000 Rp 12,048 ± 7001 5,318 ± 3061 Return from labour 1000 Rp 6,895 ± 5980 2,000 ± 2492 Estimated days/yr work day/year 222 ± 50 262 ± 87 Household income 1000 Rp/day 32.2 ± 29.6 8.4 ± 9.7 Income per head of cattle 1000 Rp/day 3.5 ± 3.2 2.0 ± 2.5 Table 13.
26
Table 14.
Household labour input and income from the cattle production system in Samboja, and comparison with estimated household income before forage technology adoption (n=24).
Return from labour new forage system Estimated days/yr work new system Household income new system Household income + value time spared in new system Estimated labour income per livestock worker in new system Total income per cow or bull
unit 1000 Rp day/year 1000 Rp/day 1000 Rp/day
mean 5,133 237 23.6 30.3
st.dev. 5,536 68 26.9 27.2
1000 Rp/day/p
18.6
21.7
1000 Rp/day/hd
2.9
3.1
377 4,530 12.8
100 4,700 13.1
Estimated days work old system day/year Estimated Return from labour old system 1000 Rp Estimated household income livestock old system 1000 Rp/day
p*
0.002 0.000
*Two sided T-test for the comparison of the labour income of new and old system, plus value of time spared to the labour income of the old system.
In Samboja, household income from cattle was 23,600 Rp/day (Table 14). Estimated household income before new forage introduction was significantly smaller, especially when the saved time was valued. This corresponds to farmers mentioning the advantages of the new forages. Mean total labour income, including investment and insurance value, was 18.600 Rp/day/worker, slightly below average agricultural daily wage. The labour income per head of cattle of 2,900 Rp/day/hd of cattle (Table 14) was identical to present value of labour income of raising Bali cattle in 1984, 3,000 Rp/day (Ramm et al, 1984). In the present study only 36 % of manure was applied on crops, and a price of 20 Rp/kg dry manure was valued as a benefit of the livestock system. In Ramm’s study, 68 Rp/kg fresh, present value, was used for 100 % of the manure, which is clearly an overestimation of benefits. If Ramm’s value was applied for 100 % of the manure in the present study, the benefits in Samboja’s case would be 410 Rp per day higher. The mean household income of 9 late adopters where new forage could not yet have effected productivity, was 8,400 Rp/day/hh (Table 14), which was lower than the estimated value of 15,100 Rp/day/hh for the old system. Mean family size, farm size, total number of workers and estimated number of persons active for livestock were only slightly smaller for the recent adopters. The sample for the comparison of early and late adopters is small, but clearly shows the positive effect of new forages, and validates the estimated values for farm household income before new forage introduction. Early adopters invest a lot in sheds and fences even when they have less animals compared to the late adopters. The lower number of animals is also reflected in the lower insurance and financing value of animals. Fences not only reduce labour input for herding but also serve to protect the investment in improved pasture, preventing other livestock from grazing it. New forages nearly triple the off-take of animals, cause a higher integration in market economy, and contribute to a significant increase in farm household income.
27
3.2.3 Sepaku The common cattle breed in Sepaku is Ongole, a large white animal. Farmers’ experimentation with improved forages started in 1996. More than 200 farmers in all 9 village of Sepaku sub-district use new forage species. Forages are used in 4 ways: fodder banks of grasses for cut and carry, legume trees and grasses on contour lines, legumes as cover crops, and improvement of pastures with grasses and legumes . Mean area of pasture is still low, mostly between 0.02 and 0.09 ha , but improved species quickly replace natural grasses in the close farm surroundings . Some farmers have already nearly 1 ha of improved pasture. Interviewed farmers had on average 0.3 ha of fodder bank. Forage grown on contour lines provides almost half the amount of cut fodder from new forage. Most farmers still cut fodder on natural grasslands, especially in late dry season. Two systems of cattle grazing management can be distinguished. In the first system, cattle are always tethered. Up to 10 am, the animals are tethered on improved pasture near the shed . After 10 am, they are tethered in the shade in the natural grassland. In the second system, the cattle graze in a fenced area around the shed on improved pasture. These cattle are taken to the natural grasslands after 10 am and are left there unattended. At 5 pm someone goes to fetch them. Only in the village Sepaku 3, someone stays with the cattle while they graze on natural grassland. According to farmers, traders pay higher prices for cattle fattened on improved forage due to better carcass quality; higher carcass ratio and less intra-muscular fat. Calving interval of Ongole cattle improved from about 24 previously, to 18 month after new forage adoption. Livestock resource flow Most farmers started rearing cattle relatively recently through government credits, which were to be reimbursed by young heifers. Some farmers started rearing buffaloes, but these are not fed with new forages; new forages are reserved for cattle and sometimes goats.
Figure 5: Cattle and carabao resource flow diagramme, Sepaku. cash for: school, houses, wedding, motorcycle, travel, electric lighting, medical costs, agricultural inputs, investments (bac air, land)
Rumah tangga farm household
daging &
perkejaan rumah
meat & skin
labour
ternadja meluka &
Natural forage cut & carry
ploughing & wood pulling
Sapi & kerbau
peternak
adult livestock
beli
young livestock
Pasar
market
makanan fodder
pupuk
Cattle and buffaloes
drugs, konsentrat, mineral, vitamin
pupuk
manure
manure
Meluku
ploughing
Hasil
by-products
new forage Sumpang
N-fixation
Tananam & sawah
crop fields
Sepaku differs from the other sub-districts, as income can be obtained from work by cattle and buffaloes. Buffaloes are seasonally used for pulling logs. This activity is paid at 50.000 Rp/m3 and farmers can earn 75,000 to 100,000 Rp per day. Cattle and buffalo are also used for ploughing
28
which is paid at 35,000 Rp/day, covering typically 0.09 ha (2 borong). Most manure is applied to own land, but manure can be sold at 500 Rp/kg. The quantity is measured with a weighing scale. Buffaloes are very precious animals for the farmers, but not everyone can afford to acquire one; in this study only 2 farmers in Sepaku had buffaloes. Slaughter of cattle for home consumption is rare and happens only during Hadji or other big festivies. Hides are used for drums, making wajang puppets, or roasting for consumption (krupuk daging). Buffalo meat is not consumed locally. Neither cattle nor buffalo are milked. The prices of buffalo are stable at 6 million Rp when they are 4 to 5 years old, and are ready for heavy work . After eight years of work, they are sold at only 2 million Rp. Cattle in good condition are normally sold at 3 million Rp, or 12,000 Rp/kg body weight. Negotiations about the price can last several days. Before Hadji, prices are about 66 % higher, depending on the market rates at Balikpapan, the nearby industrial and harbour city. Most farmers do not plan selling their cattle at the time prices are high. Except for farmers specialised in fattening, cattle are considered a means of savings and sold when ever money is needed (Fig.5). Veterinary treatments are free. Farmers buy drugs, vitamins, minerals, and rice bran for fattening cattle. Livestock earnings are used for non-food expenditures such as cost for schooling, weddings and investment in housing, such as construction and electrification. Most frequent productive investments are the purchase of land, agricultural inputs, and hand carts for water transportation (bac air). Acquisition of young buffaloes, and cattle for fattening, are considered productive investment, as well as purchase of new motorcycle for providing transport (ojek). Only in this sub-district the contribution of leguminous forages to the soil fertility maintenance were indicated. Cover crop legumes replace artificial fertiliser for many farmers. Cultivation of forage on contour lines forage cropping is rapidly increasing. Especially pepper is often cultivated on steep slopes, and suffers badly from erosion, even if terraces are made. Forages planted on terrace edges reduce the erosion. The practice of improved pastures is increasing, but most improved forage is used by ‘cut and carry’ for night feeding. Labour inputs to livestock Before the availability of new fodder species, men, women as well as older children were involved in cutting and transporting grass. With new forage technologies in place, less children cut forage (Table 15). Total time needed for forage cutting decreases and when animal numbers do not change work load of women for livestock diminishes. Women appreciate the changes induced by the new forage technology positively. Frequency of involvement of gender in activities for animal husbandry in Sepaku, before and after new forage introduction. Activity Husband Wife Children Cut and carry and feeding from natural rangeland, before 33 35 33 Cut and carry and feeding from natural rangeland, after 44 36 19 Cutting of new cultivated forages 33 35 33 Other tasks for new fodder production 67 17 16 General animal husbandry tasks 61 20 20 Table 15.
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The only seasonal labour input is the planting or sowing between September and December (Table 16). Land can be prepared for forage planting all year round. A large variation among farmers exists in time spent for washing cattle and buffaloes, and for herding. Some farmers spend a lot of time on these activities. Rice straw is used well for feed, but its transport after harvest is time consuming. Herding takes more time in Sepaku than in Samboja or Makroman. However, time needed reduced by about 30 minutes per day. Farmers all agree that fodder collecting takes less time after the adoption of new forage species, on average it reduced from 2.1 to 1.6 hr /day, while mean cattle herd size increased from 3 to 5. Cutting and transport of fodder from the communal land did not stop, as this source is used as a supplement. The time spared is valued through other remunerative activities, while some farmers keep more animals. On average, farmers save at least one hour a day. Table 16.
Calendar of labour inputs for livestock husbandry in Sepaku.
Task months of the year (January to December) Water giving Cutting cropped forage Cutting natural grass Feeding grass Feeding by-products (2 seasons/yr) Lighting of night fire Herding and bringing cattle to pasture Cattle washing Cleaning cattle shed Traditional disease prevention Shed maintenance Marketing Soil preparing Forage planting Weeding, maintenance Fencing Manure application every day
occasionally
intensive during period
when needed
Time 0.4 hr/day 0.5 hr/day 1.4 hr/day 0.2 hr/day 4 day/yr 0.5 hr/day 1.9 hr/day 2 hr/week 0.5 hr/day 0.2 hr/day 8 day/yr 1 day/yr 25 day/yr 4 day/yr 18 day/yr 4 day/yr 2 day/yr weekly
The difference between estimated number of working days in the old and new system is relatively small in Sepaku, compared to Samboja (Table 11 and 16). In Sepaku, herding time and cattle washing take up a lot of time, and is not reduced much because more animals are kept in the new system. Many households feel they did not save time after introduction of new forages, but there might be a better labour division. Livelihood resources As in Makroman, a large variety of crops are cultivated in the home garden and sometimes upland fields, for self-consumption and marketing (Table 2). Most upland fields are subject to destruction by wild pigs. Pigs are not hunted as there is no demand for their meat. In the sawahs rice is
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planted. Off-farm activities vary more than in other districts due to forest logging options (Fig. 6). Some off-farm jobs in the wood logging are extremely well paid, e.g. operate the chainsaw (250.000 Rp/day). Most other logging jobs yield 50.000 Rp/day. Farmers can do logging themselves (takut liaju) and sell at 500.000 Rp/m3, or they can cut wood and make charcoal (biking arang). The ones who have buffaloes earn through pulling wood (tarik kayu). In the forest, deer can be hunted and sold at the market for prices higher than cattle. Farmers can also work in construction (tuhang), just as in the other sub-districts. In Sepaku it is paid 30.000 Rp/day plus one meal. Farmers consider daily work time to be 8 hours. Labour can be hired for land preparation during planting time. Labourers are paid 15.000 Rp plus 3 meals per day. Land prices vary according to location. The land far from the main road is sold at 5 million Rp/ha while land close to the main road costs twice as much. Sawah land is sold at 50 million Rp/ha.
Figure 6: Livelihood resources diagram, Sepaku. daging & kulit
Off-farm income:
· worker of chain saw . wood logging · hodmen · shop keeping · small trading · moto-taxi Forest
meat & hide
uang cash
Rumah tangga petani farmers' household
deer, wood
wood pulling uang cash
Pasar market
sapi & kerbau livestock manure & animals Forage plants
meluku ploughing
Tatanam & sawah crop fields
Economics of the large ruminant production system The number of goats raised in Sepaku is low. Several farmers have replaced them with cattle. Two farmers in the sample recently bought buffaloes, which did not result in an income yet. This slightly influences the performance results negatively. Buffaloes are an investment which allow good use of surplus farm household labour. Household income from the predominantly cattle livestock system is 16,300 Rp/day/hh, or 3,100 Rp/day per head of large ruminant (Table 17). Manure contributes for about 50 % to total product value. Income from animals alone would only be about 4,000 Rp/day/hh, or 750 Rp/day per livestock head. Household income of the new system is significantly higher compared to the estimated income from the old system (9,600 Rp/day), especially when the time spared is valued. This finding corresponds to farmers explanations of the advantages of the technology change. Present adjusted value of labour income of raising Brahman cattle in the study of Ramm et al. (1984) was 1,400 Rp/day/hd. However, these authors accounted manure only for a present value of 68 Rp/kg fresh, while in Sepaku this was 500 Rp/kg DM. Interviewed farmers in our study only raised Ongole cattle. When the same value is applied for manure, estimated income was 1,600
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Rp/day/hd. Without considering insurance and investment value, income of Ongole in Sepaku is therefor comparable to values obtained from the study of Ramm et al. Farm household labour input and income from cattle and buffaloes in Sepaku sub-district and comparison with estimated income before new forage adoption. unit n mean s.d. p* Return from labour new forage system 1000 Rp 22 5,133 5,536 Estimated days work in new system day/year 22 324 114 Household income livestock new forage system1000 Rp/day 22 16.3 13.0 0.066 Table 17.
22 22.6 17.3 0.006 Household income new system + value time 1000 Rp/day spared Total income per cattle (or buffalo) 1000 Rp/day/hd 22 3.1 2.0 Estimated days work, old system day/year 16 376 127 Estimated Return from labour, old system 1000 Rp/day 16 3,168 3,103 household income livestock, old system 1000 Rp/day 16 9.6 8.5 * two sided T-test for the comparison of the labour income, comparing old and new situation.
Among the 22 farmers interviewed, there were only two farmers who did not raise their own breeding stock but purchased cattle for fattening. In order to verify farmers’ claims that fattening is more profitable than breeding, a separate partial analysis was carried out for those two fatteners (Table 18). Financial data from the two farmers show that fattening is indeed more profitable; income per day from fattening was Rp 25,800, while for all other breeders this was Rp 16,300 per day. Values for insurance and investment were not included, as they are less appropriate for short term practices such as fattening. The results were much better for the farmers fattening 5 cattle, which confirms farmers’ opinion that the labour income from fattening several bulls at a time is higher due to economy of scale, as time needed for some tasks does not increase at the same rate as the number of animals, e.g. for night fire lightning. However, cost of concentrate and drugs were higher for the larger lot. A large part of feed availability has to be assured by high quality pasture. If not, time needed for feeding large cattle goes beyond most farmer’s capacity. Mean partial budget of a cattle fattening campaign from two farmers in Sepaku, having 1 and 5 animals. Expenditures and costs (1000 Rp) Value of products (1000 Rp) Table 18.
Cattle purchase Cost of fodder (125 Rp/kg fresh) Cost of sheds Variable cost (concentrates and drugs) Cattle capital value Total of capital cost and expenses Gross margin
3,013 1,350 127 378 83 4,951 973
labour invested (days)
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Marketed value cattle Manure on farm Manure sold
5,025 849 50
+ + + Total production income per day
5,924 25.8
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3.3
Gender, living standards, and equity
In general, according to tradition in East Kalimantan and Java, men and women discuss task distribution and expenses before they happen. Some tasks are more common for women: e.g. water giving; others for men, e.g. fodder cutting and transport; and others for children, e.g. bringing cattle or buffalo to the pastures and the fetching. Gender involvement changed slightly but not to the disadvantage of children (Table 14). In one village women were slightly more often involved in new forage cutting, but generally involvement of women in forage cropping was low (Table 12). Time has become available for men, women and youth, being put to good use for other activities. A positive trade-effect to the livelihood is recognised by all genders in farm households. Since 1974, farmers from Java have been settling in Eastern Kalimantan. Indonesian government invested in infrastructures to open swampy non-populated areas. Makroman was established in an uninhabited area, and the population still only consists of migrants. Original population were and are still present in Samboja (Bubish and Banjar tribes) and Sepaku (Pasir tribe). In Samboja, several households of the original residents, Bubish and Banjar have adopted new forages and are member of the farmer groups. In only two of the nine villages of Sepaku sub-district, indigenous Pasir were present. In those two villages, Pasir also adopted new forages, they were members of the farmers group, and had access to credit for cattle with the same conditions as the migrants. In the past, wood has been the major export product of Kalimantan, but presently petrol, coal and fisheries also contribute to a general high living standard. In 2000, mean per capita rural expenditure in East Kalimantan was 143.219 Rp/month (PSS, 2001), 45,939 Rp of which can be allocated to non-food and 97,280 Rp to food expenditures. Present values for 2001 would be 49,000 and 104,000 Rp/month, respectively. The calculated monthly income per person present in the household is slightly lower than the mean rural expenditures in Makroman and Sepaku; for Samboja it is about 70 % higher (Table 19). International poverty line is 1 US$/day or 300,000 Rp /month. Income presented in Table 19 is only the part from livestock and does not represent total income for livelihood. Most farmers in Sepaku are self-sufficient in food while income from livestock is used for non-food expenditures. Farmers in Makroman and Samboja need to buy rice; for them livestock generates income to cover both non-food and food expenditures. Therefore farmers in Makroman can be considered the poorest in this study. In any case, the adoption of new forages is an important step in the contribution to poverty reduction (Table 19). Income from livestock in Rp/day for 3 villages and systems. unit Makroman Samboja Sepaku goat and manu cattle cattle and manur Mean number of animals period n 9.9 9.9 5.5 Labour income per household * Rp/day 17,700 27,700 16,300 Present income /person/month Rp/month/p 147,600 240,000 121,000 Estimated income before adoption Rp/month/p 81,200 120,000 68,000 Total income per animal * Rp/month 55,000 89,800 92,500 Cash income per animal ** Rp/month 7,600 43,300 11,000 * includes value of manure applied on own crop fields, ** includes only manure sold. Table 19.
Cash income per head of cattle, excluding the value of manure applied to own crops, is four times higher in Samboja than in Sepaku (Table 19). This difference is caused by two factors: higher reproduction and off-take rate and lower labour input.
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Using average East Kalimantan household size, non-food expenditure is 197,000 Rp/month for households in Makroman, which can be covered by total income from 4 goats (Table 19). Total expenditures are 416,000 Rp/month, which can be covered by total income from 11 goats. In Samboja, total expenditures are 589,000 Rp/month, equivalent to the total income from 7 cattle. This could be slightly underestimated, however, due to the high off-take rate in 2001. In Sepaku, total expenditures are 766,000 Rp/month, equivalent to the total income from 8 large ruminants. However, farmers here are self sufficient in food, and only 3 cattle could cover non-food expenditures. Contribution of manure to income from livestock in Makroman and Sepaku is high: approximately 40 % of total product value. A Photo 1. Farmers in Makroman and Sepaku large part of the income form livestock is sell manure. indirect through its contribution to the production of food and cash crops. Actual mean herd size allows at least to cover household food expenditures in Makroman and Sepaku, and food and non-food expenditures in Samboja. The figures confirm impressions gained during interviews and meetings. Most farmers in Sepaku and Samboja have higher non-food expenditures compared to the average for East Kalimantan. Most farmers visited had furniture or electric equipment worth several millions of rupees. For farmers in Makroman without productive sawah , living standard can not reach this level. However, adoption of new forages allow them to feed more goat, the manure of which and improve crop yields. Some farmers in Sepaku are in the same unfortunate position, but possibilities for off-farm activities are better. Farmers having cattle or buffalo have a visible higher standard of living than farmers without, but this difference cannot be attributed to FSP. For a farmer to be eligible to receive an animal on loan from the government, he or she needs to be member of a farmer group. Some farmers cannot meet the conditions to become a member, or don’t want to associate with a particular group, which prevents them from receiving animals through these credit schemes. Farmers in Makroman said that those who had goats before FSP, had acquired capital through off-farm employment, and invested it in animals. These animals improved soil fertility through their manure and enhanced a sustainable farming system. These experiences show that acquisition of livestock can be an important stepping stone to increased wealth. There are several ways that the project could assist farmers to start a livelihood with livestock. Dinas Peternakan already provides animals on loan to those who don’t have animals. The requirement is that farmers plant improved forage before they receive animals, to ensure a good feed supply. Farmers without livestock could also cultivate forage with the aim to sell planting materials and seeds. FSP regularly purchases planting materials from farmers, for distribution in new sub-districts, as part of the scaling-up process. Another way forages can help non-livestock farmers is by nitrogen fixation. Hedges of leguminous trees, and herbaceous cover crops already make a positive contribution to soil fertility on many farms. Leguminous cover crops can feed chickens and increase their productivity. Chickens can be the first step of integrating livestock in the farming system.
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3.4 Other changes caused by new forages Adoption of new forage species reduced time needed for fodder collection, and rendered the task less heavy. Some farmers used the spared time to feed more livestock. The number of goat kept in Makroman increased with 60 %, and the number of cattle almost ten fold (Fig. 7). Increases in cattle numbers in the other locations were less than 25 %. Other farmers put the spared time to good use in off-farm activities, thus increasing overall household income. Mean time saved was close to 20 %. Farmers also mentioned reduced erosion, increased soil fertility, and less competition of grass with crops.
number of animals
Figure 7: Development of mean herd size after New forage crops demand less adoption of new forage. time for maintenance and some species also need less frequent 7.9 7.6 replacement compared to the 8 before old species used. Adoption of 6.3 after new forage induced four 6 4.9 4.2 technology and management 4 3.1 changes: prolonged pasture time at home plot, reduction or 1.8 2 0.80.5 disappearance of grazing on 0.2 0.10.2 communal rangeland 0 (Samboja); pasture fencing in goat cattle cattle cattle buffalo goat uplands and sawahs (Sepaku), Makroman Makroman Samboja Sepaku Sepaku Sepaku association of forage plants to various crops in contour lines or as cover crop (Makroman and Sepaku). According to interviewed farmers, the following forage species need replacement each three years: Pennisetum hybrid, Andropogon gayanus, Setaria spp., Paspalum spp. Farmers maintain this range of species for variation in animal diet. Sometimes production of Centrosema also decreases and replacement is advised. Only Arachis pintoi, Brachiaria spp. and Stylosanthes spp, can persist longer. Farmers are planning to plant more forage species that persist longer, over the next couple of years. This has been considered in our calculations about general workload and labour productivity, by dividing the actual time spend for forage planting and soil preparion by three years. Pasture time is prolonged as animals graze at the home pasture with improved forage in the morning. Before adoption of new forage species, animals were without food until 10 a.m. Improved species better resist intensive grazing whereas natural vegetation tends to become degraded. This particular technology change has resulted in overall higher intake and intake of feed with better quality. The proportion of forage production in contour lines, hedgerows and cover crop differs among villages and farmers. In Samboja, no contour lines are planted and few farmers mentioned using cover crops. In Sepaku and Makroman, most farmers had started with new forages in contour lines, some with cover crops, and fodder banks for cut and carry. Most farmers in Sepaku estimated to alternate cutting forage from mono-cultures, one month, and from associations, the other month. Natural grass is always needed to supplement quantity. In Table 20 the different time allocations to livestock activities among the three locations are apparent. In Samboja, the fencing of pastures reduced time needed for herding. A lot more time was used for washing cattle in Makroman and Sepaku. Investments in pastures and fences were increasing in Sepaku. Time needed for cutting is high in Makroman.
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Table 20.
Overview of some labour inputs for livestock husbandry in 3 sub-districts.
Task Water giving Cutting cropped forage Cutting natural grass Feeding livestock Herding and bringing to pasture Lighting night fire and disease prevention Shed maintenance Fencing Soil preparing Grass planting Weeding, maintenance Canal maintenance
unit hr/day hr/day hr/day hr/day hr/day hr/day day/year day/year day/year day/year day/year day/year
Makroman 0.6 2.6 1.9 0.3 1.4 0.7 3 0 5 2 13 0
Samboja 0.7 1.5* * * 1.1 -** 3 6 40 8 14 9
Sepaku 0.4 0.5 1.4 0.2 1.9 0.7 8 4 25 4 18 0
* Feeding time was included in time needed for cutting. ** not estimated
3.5 Manure application Most farmers do not apply artificial fertiliser to forage crops. In the predominantly pasture system the degree of return of manure to land is acceptable, almost 50 % (Table 21). In the other subdistricts where market value of manure is high, farmers estimate that less then 15% of collected manure is returned to forage crops. Manure is only applied to forage crops when leaves turn yellow, two or three times a year. A substantial amount of manure is used as fertiliser replacement on other crops. In Makroman it also helps to reduce the bad effects of acidification of cropland. The use of manure on the other crops is thus in line with the objectives of FSP, to improve livelihood of farmers. Quantity of manure could be increased by mixing it with litter and letting it partially decompose. Table 21.
Makroman Samboja Sepaku
Distribution of collected manure on cropping areas and for marketing in the three subdistricts (%). home-garden sawa (upland) field market fodder crops 11 53 8 27 10 48 36 0 27 0 13 12 16 32 27
Notwithstanding the positive impact on general soil fertility and system sustainability, a negative effect of the low rate of manure application on the forages in mono-cropping are low productivity and low protein content of grasses. 3.6 Cost of fodder Cost of forage production was calculated per kg DM, accounting for value of land, for time spend in forage cropping and maintenance, for fertiliser used, and for cutting time when applicable. Manure applied was not valued, considering it a need for soil conservation. In Samboja, mean price of land was used, and in Sepaku the price of land was used for areas away from the main road, where
36
most farmers reside. Cost of land in Makroman was accounted for by the mean net margin of cultivating 1 ha of cassava or maize. In Sepaku, market value of fodder collected from natural grassland is: 5,000 Rp / 20kg, equivalent to 250 Rp/ kg, or approximately 1,250 Rp/kg DM. This can be considered as the cost of cutting alone, on a distant plot. The price of new forage sold was 375 Rp/kg fresh in Makroman, or close to 1,900 Rp/kg DM. FSP-East Kalimantan purchases planting material for 10 Rp/cutting or 5,000 Rp/sac of fresh material. Such material should not to be damaged, the content of the sac is probably close to 15 kg, and the price is therefor estimated at 1,600 Rp/kg DM. This is low compared to market price in Makroman. The price that FSP pays for planting material has become a standard in the villages. We think the price ought to increase to 20 Rp per cutting or 10,000 Rp per sac, to reflect a more realistic value of planting materials. It is also important that farmers are encouraged to sell planting materials, to enhance spreading of the new forage technologies to new farmers. Production cost of grazed forage in Samboja, is estimated at 160 Rp/kg DM (s.d. = 80), including cost for fencing, as this is needed to protect the investment. Cost of fodder in Makroman and Sepaku is estimated at 360 Rp/kg DM, more then double the cost of grazed forage (Table 22). A major part of cost of forage production in Samboja is due to time needed for canal maintenance. Market price of new forage in Makroman, seems high compared to its production cost. Cost of fodder and factors considered in the three sub-districts. unit Makroman Samboja Mean area of cropped grass ha 0.21 0.23 Mean area of improved pasture ha 0 0.46 Price of land considered* million Rp/ha 3.2 10.9 Cost of fodder after cutting Rp/kg DM 330 420 (sd = 310) (sd = 1,200) Table 22.
Sepaku 0.31 + 5.0 340 (sd = 250)
3.7 Livestock feeding and production According to farmers the number of livestock has increased since the introduction of new forage, as a consequence of higher quality and better availability of grass. However not all farmers offer enough feed to their livestock and sometimes quality of feed is insufficient. 3.7.1 Feed balance Farmers of Sepaku think new forage is heavier compared to grass from natural range land, probably indicating a higher water content, caused by the succulent stage of the fodder harvested. However, farmers in Makroman and Samboja claim the opposite, new forage being lighter. Most farmers use empty sacs used for 50 kg of rice, to measure the quantity of feed offered. The content of one sac is highly overestimated in Samboja and Makroman: most reckoned one sac contained 40 kg of fresh fodder. Only some farmers had a more moderate estimate, 30 kg. However, when we weighed some sacs, they only contained between 15 and 25 kg of fresh fodder. The average, 20 kg, is only half of farmers’ assumption. The error is probably due to the different volume the farmers lift : a closed bag of rice or salt is handy to lift, but an open sac over filled with grass, having a larger diameter and being longer, is rather awkward to lift. It has to be lifted solely by arms and shoulders, whilst sacs of rice are lifted with the help of legs and back.
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In order to calculate the fodder balance, data were collected mean available forage area, mean grazing time and mean herd composition of the past year (Table 23 and annex B). Results show that without cut and carry from natural grassland, requirements of protein and energy cannot be met in Sepaku and Makroman. About 25 % of animals requirements need to supplemented by natural vegetation , but in reality less is supplied. This explains the moderate performance of livestock in some villages. Farmers need to either extend the area with new forage, preferably improved pasture, or limit the number of animals. The situation in Samboja is favourable as even old pastures still contain King grass, with a higher quality then Imperata cylindrica, which is cut in Sepaku and Makroman. Estimated fodder balance for livestock in 3 sub-districts (see annex C for details). Samboja Sepaku Makroman Type of forage crop ha kg DM ha kg DM ha kg DM Improved pasture 0.5 5,000 0.15 1,500 0 0 Cut and carry fodder bank, high fertility 0.25 7,500 0 0 0 0 Cut and carry fodder bank, low fertility 0 0 0.15 1,500 0.2 2,000 Contour lines grass and legume (20% cove0 0 0.2 800 0.15 600 Cover crop legumes (50% cover) 0 0 0.1 600 0.05 300 Total kg DM available * 9167 3,400 2,900 Table 23.
ME (MJ) kg DCP ME (MJ) kg DCP ME (MJ) Nutrition value of new forage 83,996 975 31,155 363 26,573 Nutrition value of grazed natural grass** 70,238 210 27,871 142 8,361 Total nutrients available 154,234 1,185 59,026 505 34,935 Requirements herd /year *** 150,453 1,079 77,672 530 46,265 Balance +3,781 +106 -18,646 -25 -11,330 Legend: * Availability of forage on improved pasture for grazing was estimated at 33%; ** In Samboja half of this was assumed King Grass; *** 10 cattle in Samboja; 5 cattle in Sepaku; 9 goats and 2 cattle in Makroman.
kg DCP 224 43 266 333 -67
Cattle feeding Quantity of fodder offered to the cattle by night in Samboja and Sepaku varied considerably: from 2 sacs filled with 20-25 kg for 3 cattle, to only 3 sacs for 13 head of cattle. Converted to dry matter offered per head of cattle, the amounts range from 2.5 to 1 kg, respectively. Cattle receiving more cut forage can afford to relax and not graze during the hottest time of the day, contributing to a better temperature balance. A scale of 1 to 5 was used to score the body condition of cattle, on visual basis. A score of 1 indicates sever emaciation, and the other extreme score, 5, indicates a very fat animal. In Samboja, body scores of Bali cattle fed on new forage crops was generally high, with scores between 3 and 4 at the end of the dry season. Some Bali cattle grazing on communal lands only scored 2, which was better than Ongole cattle in Sepaku, which scored between 1 and 2. It seems that farmers in Samboja who have adopted new forages feed their cattle sufficiently. Several farmers said they know that an animal has received enough when it does not moo at night. Only one interviewed farmer stated that he fed his animals until leftovers appeared in the feeding trough. We can conclude from these data and from the calculation in Table 23, that cattle in Samboja are fed well, both in terms of quantity and quality. Some farmers even asked why cows in
38
fat body condition do not get pregnant (Photo 2). The remedy is to have non-pregnant heifers graze on nonimproved pasture, with lower quality forage, and only provide high quality fodder at night. In Sepaku, the area of fodder banks with new forage for cut and carry is limited, and not all farmers have improved pastures. Cropping of fodder trees and grasses on boundaries, contour lines, and legumes as cover crop, increase fodder availability. However, calculated mean fodder balance demonstrates a large deficit of energy and protein availability (Table 23). Low reproduction performance of Ongole can at least partly be attributed to the insufficient offer of feed. However, experienced farmers with larger areas of new forage, make high profits with Ongole fattening on forages and some rice bran. Thus feeding level can be considered good enough for those farmers having enough improved fodder, and time to collect additional fodder. Some farmers adjust herd size to the Photo 2. Bali cows fed with new forage species are in excellent body latter. However, most farmers need to increase the condition area under new forage to make their livestock produce satisfactory. We recommend advise to farmers to increase pasture improvement on home-plots, as this contributes to decrease in workload. Goat feeding During a meeting, one farmer said he offered 1,5 sac of fresh grass to 8 goats, and considered the total forage to amount to 60 kg. The other farmers confirmed this practice. If the estimate of the amount was right, the goats would effectively receive 12 kg of DM, corresponding to 1,5 kg DM per goat. However, weighing showed that one sac contained between 15 and 25 kg only. Using an average value of 20 kg fresh material per sac, the actual amounts fed per goat are 0.75 DM only. This ration would be sufficient for a goat weighing 20 kg, but most goats were much heavier than that. The adult females, and especially the lactating does are offered less than their needs. During the training it was concluded, together with farmers, that these animals should receive supplementary feed. Calculations of fodder balance confirm the findings (Table 23). In Makroman, actual mean herd size is 2 cattle and 7 goats7, needing almost 18 kg DM/day, or 6,500 kg DM on year basis. The forage cropped in pure stand only covers 0,25 ha. Considering the low level of manure application, the average farm household has less then 3,000 kg DM of new forage available to feed their animals. Even if this quantity is supplemented with high quality foliage from natural trees, at most half of yearly requirements can be met. Half of feed still has to come from natural grasslands. Their cattle only graze for 3 hours. Calculations demonstrate quantity and quality of fodder available is to low to guarantee a good production level for farmers with the present herd size. 3.7.2 Cattle reproduction and mortality According to farmers in Samboja, calving interval reduced from 14 months or more to 12 months since the introduction of new forages. This farmers’ estimate corresponds with the results of the 7
mean number over 2001, considered in Table 20 was even higher: 9.5
39
historical recall survey amongst mostly early adopters; in herds of Bali cattle calving interval was 12,2 months (s.d. = 1,8). The Bali cattle of Samboja have a good calving percentage of 85% (s.d. = 10.7). According to farmers, age at first calving was 3 years, and decreased to 2,5 year after introduction of new forage. Abortion rate is 4.7%, but these are caused by fights between cattle and are not related to new forage. Mortality rate amongst cattle in Samboja according to the historical survey is only 1.5 %. Sample was to small to calculate standard deviation, but mean age of death was 3.5 months. Mortality affected especially newly born animals, as distribution of ages was skewed (harmonic mean age 1.4 months). Good reproduction index and low death rate in Samboja resulted in an estimated historical off-take rate of 21%. Present off-take rates are above 23%. The mean age at sale is 16.6 months (sd = 8.6), but the distribution of ages at off-take is skewed (mode = 9.0 month]. This low age at sale is explained by farmers’ monetary needs, and is justified by their limited capacity for fodder production, forcing them to reduce numbers. Farmers selling their animals at a low age, can not take full profit of the price potential of their animals. However, they state that the price traders pay for the young animals are relatively high, as they Figure 8. Distribution of calvings in Bali cattle in are sold for breeding Samboja, East Kalimantan programmes.8 From a macro-economic point of 10 view it is favourable if 8 animals are raised for 6 breeding or finished for % 4 fattening elsewhere. 2 However, if females are slaughtered at low age, 0 this reduces the potential 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 herd growth, and early months of the year slaughtering of male reduces absolute meat production capacity. According to farmers and historical survey in Samboja, distribution of births in cattle is irregular (Fig. 8). This distribution pattern is explained by a seasonal fluctuation of feed quality. Feed quality is low and quantity limited at the end of the dry season, which occurs in August and September. In Samboja farmers were able to recall month of birth from most of the descendants of their cows, as well as the month those left the herd. In Sepaku, calving interval of Ongole cattle has also improved since the introduction of new forage. According to farmers, before the use of new forage it could be anything between 18 months and 3 years, but mostly 24 months. Survey data reveal that the average for Ongole cattle after new forage introduction was 17 months. Before adoption of new forages, age at first calving for Ongole was 3.5 years, but the average for early adopters was 3 years. A limited sample gave an estimated calving percentage of 65%. In Sepaku, farmers claimed that most cows calve in March and April. However, this was not confirmed through a limited historical sample, which showed the same pattern as in Samboja. The different perceptions of farmers in Sepaku might reflect limited memory or their recent involvement in cattle rearing.
8
Kalimantan stills imports live cattle from overseas provinces for distribution schemes.
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The advantage of Bali cattle over Ongole for breeding can not be proven through hard data on reproduction. Farmers in Sepaku who keep Bali cattle claim that their calving interval is close to 12 months, similar to Samboja, confirming the better adaptation of this breed. Financial analysis support support these findings; without accounting manure, cash income from the dominantly Ongole cattle system in Sepaku was estimated at 370 Rp/day/ per large ruminant. In Samboja this figure was 1,450 Rp/day/hd of Bali cattle, four times that of Ongole cattle in Sepaku. This difference is caused by higher reproduction, lower mortality, and a system with lower labour input. We can conclude that Bali cattle are more adapted than Ongole cattle to the climate and animal husbandry conditions in East Kalimantan. 3.7.3 Goat reproduction and mortality The reproduction index of goat in Figure 9: Distribution of births in goat at Makroman is low: Makroman, in numbers. 120 (sd = 48). Mean 20 kidding interval in the historical survey is 15 8.6 months (sd = 3.4). But for those 10 goats with a higher mean , the average 5 time since last kidding is 17 months. 0 According to farmers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 in Makroman and month of the year Sepaku, kidding interval was about a year before introduction of new forage, and decreased to 7 month interval. The twinning rate was only 15%. The estimated rate of abortions was 3%. The sex ratio at birth was 1.4 female to 1 male. There is a fertility problem with goats; farmers say their does get in oestrus and are mated, but do not get pregnant. Mortality rate was high, 22 %, which mostly affected kids; about 1/3 was younger then one month and 2/3 less then three months. Several twins died shortly after birth. This mean age at death was 2.5 months. Farmers recognise the problem, but very few farmers used local concentrate to supplement the does to increase milk production for the kids. In stead, they mixed washing and residual boiling water of rice with molasses and salt. Some also give leaves of trees and other plants to stimulate milk production. It would be advisable to supplement adult does strategically, just before mating and during lactation. There had been mortality due to pneumonia among young goats. No preventive measures were proposed yet. It can be recommended that straw bedding be used to protect young kids from cold, especially during night time and in early morning. The mean off-take rate, calculate from economic data and historical recall survey, was 38 %. About 1/3 of the animals left the herd as a gift, which is a high proportion considering that the goat credit was reimbursed in live animals . The mean age at off-take was 9 months (sd = 4). As for the cattle in Samboja, this is low and thus farmers could not fully benefit of the rapid and efficient growth of 41
goats which generally occurs between 6 and 18 months. However, the farmers consider the prices paid for young goat exceptionally good. 3.8
Prospects for fattening.
Farmers in Makroman experienced a big increase in demand of forage when they received cattle from the credit schemes. Their strategy to feed both their goats and new cattle was to cut and carry more grass from natural grasslands. Quality of this grass, largely Imperata cylindrica, is only acceptable at an early vegetative stage, but quickly deteriorates as the grass matures. It is therefore generally inappropriate to fatten cattle. Farmers thus experience shortage of quantity and quality of feed. Moreover the availability of rice bran is limited, as paddy cropping is disappearing. Perhaps the purchase of rice bran could be included in the credit program but profitability should be confirmed before general application. Raising cattle on pasture, with strategic supplements for fattening towards the end, seems to be a profitable strategy in East Kalimantan. Observations at slaughter houses confirmed the excellent quality of carcasses from local cattle fed mostly with new forages. There seems to be scope for using cassava and maize for fattening to increase the gains of farmers. East Kalimantan has no surplus of maize or cassava and availability of by-products of agroindustrial origin is limited. A large scale program based on feed-lot fattening of cattle is only feasible if these are largely available. Restricted quantities of grain and by-products are more efficiently used in poultry, a high demand product in East Kalimantan. 3.9 Breeding strategy for beef provision and profitability There is no need to upgrade local breeds to obtain good quality carcasses. Feeding new forages to cattle, increased meat quality remarkably and resulted in higher prices paid by butchers. The provision of meat for the market and the profitability of farmers enterprise do not depend on the size of animals. Small animals, like poultry and fish provide more meat to world market then cattle. The provision of meat depends is a result of total carcass weight, which depends on both numbers and individual carcass weight. The benefits of farmers are function of inputs and total quantity of body weight sold. In low input systems, Bali cattle reproduce and grow well with low veterinarian cost. Farmers in East Kalimantan do not master breeding of Ongole cattle whose reproductive rate is much lower than Bali cattle. The individual weight of Ongole is probably higher but total quantity of beef provided from Ongole stays low as the numbers provided are limited. Moreover, all fatteners of Ongole cattle have high veterinary costs, while breeders of Bali cattle do not. Some farmers have good experience with fattening of Ongole. They buy cattle in a bad condition at a low price and fatten them with high feed inputs and high veterinary costs. Such animals experience compensatory growth, a physiological process that is very efficient, as the maintenance requirements of the animals are still low, and most nutrients consumed are used for building new tissue. These animals increase in size quickly, improve their body condition, resulting in good prices when sold. Only farmers who can afford buying many feed inputs and veterinary drugs benefit from this system. One can thus conclude that in this socio-economic environment, breeding of Ongole cattle is not profitable, but fattening is. Reproduction rate of Bali cattle is very good compared to Ongole, and is unlikely to improve through upgrading or selection. Bali cattle with new forage for cut and carry or improved pastures
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are in good condition with hardly any veterinary care. The only week point of Bali cattle is their late maturity, which decreased, however, from 3 to 2.5 years after new forage introduction. Farmers could select on early maturity and fast growth rate. However, selection of local breeds on early maturity and on fast growth rate tends to go at the expense of robustness. Farmers have selection criteria for cattle. The exterior criteria used are: large hindquarters, long body with deep chest and filled belly, long tail, big head with upright ears, good colouring and good body condition. Females are checked for regular udder and male for good scrotum. Colouring for the Bali female has to be brown-red with dark trait on the back and a light coloured mirror. The Bali male has to be dark coloured brownblack and have a light coloured mirror (Photo 3). The colour can be related to skin characteristics preventing tick attachment, it are also correct colours for protection against sunlight. Hair coat of Ongole colour has to be white, a breed characteristic, which is not favourable for protection against sunlight except when skin underneath is black. Farmers also select female on fertility and relate the large head and long tail to this good fertility. Photo 3. Preferred colouring for Bali bull. The first three farmers’ criteria do contribute to positive beef production characteristics. Only growth rate is missing among the criteria. Too much emphasis on colour and shape characteristics, however, could interfere with effective selection for age at first calving and growth rates.
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4 Training 4.1 Girth measurements No suitable conversion tables were available to calculate live weights from girth measurements for Bali cattle and local goats in easy Kalimantan. In stead, new formulas were calculated on the basis of some data of Bali cattle from a report of the national Dinas Peternakan (Siregar et al, 1985), a total of twelve measurements. Stimulated by an earlier visit by one of the authors, farmers and extension workers had started to weigh and measure girth of Bali cattle and record the data. There were old electronic weighing bars, which were put in use again. If they continue to record, and complete sets of data are available, new and more accurate equations can be calculated for Bali cattle. A total of 25 goats were measured and weighed, data of which were used to calculate conversion formulas for this study. Relation between girth and live weigth was calculated by the statistical tool of MS Excel computer software, through correlation. The resulting formulas were: Bali cattle Goats
ln(kg) = 2.39 + 0.019 * (cm) ln(kg)= 0.0533 *(cm) – 0,234
R2 = 0.95 R2 = 0.98
During the training sessions, farmers practised girth measurement. For the monitoring of live weight development, a sheet was designed allowing farmers to record the girth of each individual animal regularly (annex D). 4.2 Assessment of financial results from fattening For farmers’ assessment of cost and benefits of fattening, a partial budgeting form was designed (Fig. 10), both in English and Indonesian (annex E). Fieldworkers used this form as a guide during the farmers training for economic analysis of fattening. Farmers practised this in groups, using large sheets of Manila paper on the floor (cover photo). Farmers of East Kalimantan were all literate, which greatly facilitated the exercise. Cost of grass is based on results of this study. Quantities of manure mentioned are farmers’ estimates. Fattening cattle and goats proved to be profitable for all farmers that started themselves without credit. Farmers who received credit to purchase fattening inputs experienced problems. It is concluded that credit schemes for fattening are not needed. In stead, credit schemes are best used to provide breeding animals to farmers.
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Products & value
Costs and labour
rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . .
Fattening of livestock
animals to fatten housing for period concentrates
grass for cattle : 5000 rpi/day & for goat : 500 rpi/day
minerals and vet. drugs grass
manure cattle manure 3 sac / month goat manure 1 sac / month
rpi . . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . . .
+ rpi . . . . . . . .
+
substract
rpi . . . . . . .
Figure 10.
finished livestock sold
labour from farmer: hour/day & length of period in days
gross margin cash income . . . . . . . divided by total days . . . = rpi / day . . . ...
Sheet for assisting farmers with financial evaluation of livestock fattening.
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5 Discussions and recommendations 5.1 Manure Price used for manure in Samboja (50 rpi/kg DM), based on mineral content and urea fertiliser price, is low compared to the market value. This reduced labour income in Samboja. In Sepaku and Makroman real market values were taken into account, 500 and 540 rpi/kg DM respectively. Cattle manure had a lower value in Makroman, 280 rpi/kg DM. These values probably reflect better overall value of manure for soil maintenance through its’ organic matter, particularly important for soils’ buffering capacity and thus preventing soil acidification. Soil acidification is accelerated by the sole use of urea, most available artificial fertiliser. Farmers did not use much NPK fertiliser, because it was more expensive. Crop production in Makroman and Sepaku largely depends on manure from livestock. Consequently forages in mono-crop for cutting, receive minimum quantities of manure. In Samboja, farmers burn manure mixed with old vegetative material, thus accelerating availability of some minerals but favouring loss of nitrogen. Farmers could increase manure quantity by the use of litter in cattle sheds, followed by fermentation in compost pits or in biogas tanks. It should be advised not to burn manure. 5.2 Planting materials FSP had successfully initiated the trade in planting materials by offering 10 rpi per cutting to the producers, and then distributing the materials to new farmers in the project. This corresponds to roughly 5,000 rpi per bag of 15 kg. Farmers are now also selling directly to other farmers without interference or subsidy form FSP. The price seems affordable for new farmers; by selling one local chicken, 12.000 rpi, a farmer can start new forages and even buy some manure or fertiliser to boost its establishment. There had been discussions about increasing the price for planting materials, but this would seem counter effective for dissemination. It would be preferable to let the price develop through a free market system. There are already indications that farmers adjust the price slightly to cover inflation. 5.3 Livestock dispersal schemes Farmers being used to feed 10 goats were unable to offer enough feed to meet requirements of the 3 cattle they received for fattening through dispersal schemes. Their time availability and forage area were appropriate only for 10 goats, and they could not suddenly collect four times as much high quality feed. The number of livestock distributed through credit or dispersal schemes should be small; herds grow naturally and farmer can adjust herd size to the capacity of his household to feed the animal. It is advised to start goat distribution scheme with two does and a buck and cattle distribution scheme with only one cow for reproduction or one bull for fattening. A problem of starting with livestock rearing is that it initially requires time investment, which only pays of later. Framers, who cannot invest time or money in livestock, are unlikely to be successful after receiving animals through dispersal or credit. Examples of studies carried out by ILRI showed that in distribution schemes of trypano-tolerant cattle in Benin, West Africa, animals from farmers having financially contributed to the acquisition of cattle were significantly in better health, grew better and reproduced better. It is therefore recommended that farmers contribute up to 30 % of the market price of the animals they receive on credit, and to let them pay veterinarian services and drugs, to make them aware of their responsibility for animals’ health.
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5.4 Cattle breeds Bali cattle raised on improved pasture are in very good body condition, sometimes even too fat, resulting reduced fertility of cows and heifers. It is advised that farmers restrict the diet for cows that don’t show oestrus and non-pregnant heifers, by grazing them on non-improved pasture, and only offer them high quality fodder at night. Bali cattle have good reproductive performance and off-take rate with low veterinarian cost. Breeders make good profits from Bali cattle, while breeding Brahman and Ongole cattle is not half as profitable, reflecting the low adaptation of these breeds to climate and husbandry conditions of East Kalimantan. The best strategy for increasing beef production in East Kalimantan is through the selection of Bali cattle on growth rate and low age of first calving, for production systems with new forage. 5.5 Entry points for poorest farmers FSP cannot be blamed for the disparity in income between cattle and non-cattle owners. Farmers without cattle or goats could benefit from the project by starting to integrate multi-purpose legumes in their farming system. These can be fed to chickens to improve income, and nitrogen fixation reduces fertiliser needs and expenditures. Additionally, FSP can support these farmers by preferably buying planting materials from them. In addition, Dinas Peternakan can provide credit for goats to farmers succeeding to increase income from chicken and agriculture, thus able to contribute financially and to reimburse. Those farm households realising high reproduction and high off-take rates with goat can be given access to cattle through credit or “heifer in trust” schemes. 5.6 Dissemination to new areas New forages enhance production of beef and goat in East Kalimantan. There is a strong need to extend FSP activities further in the Indonesian archipelago, through participatory diagnoses in new provinces, districts and villages. FSP could also boost dissemination by providing vehicles to provincial livestock services with a proven record on participatory extension of new forage, to facilitate farmers’ visits and transport of planting material. 5.7 Feeding experiments A good feeding strategy for goat fattening is not available yet. It is advised to experiment with supplementary feeding for goat fattening. Enclosure of small fodder banks along the goat housing, with an enforced living fence of fodder trees is likely to be the most accessible and profitable for farmers. Participatory experiments can be designed with interested farmers. Credit schemes for fattening goats are not needed in this case. Farmers should fatten their own male goat before marketing. The use of own animals increases motivation.
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6 Conclusions The study was able to show effects of improved forage systems that FSP has worked on for about 6 years. The beneficial effects of the improved forage systems were not only due to the introduction of improved species and accessions; without the participatory approaches that were developed during the project these new species would not have been integrated in such a variety of places, used in so many different ways, and adopted by so many farmers. Farm households that adopted new forage technologies doubled their income, mostly from better livestock production, but also from productive use of saved time. Time needed for cut and carry decreased, as the quantity of complementary fodder that farmers had to collect on far away natural grasslands diminished. Although farmers had already been cultivating King grass, new forages reduced time needed for forage crop maintenance. The spared time was put to good use either for the feeding of more animals or by doing more off-farm work. Total income from livestock covered food expenditures in Makroman and Sepaku, and both food and non-food expenditures in Samboja. It is concluded that the changes contributed to reduction of income gap between rural and urban areas. Quality of land seemed to have a bigger influence on livelihoods than quantity of land. Especially fertile lowland rice fields seemed a valuable asset. This could have influenced profitability of livestock systems, as wealthier households were able to secure more feed for their animals. The positive effect of new forages on household income is also a result from improved animal production through shorter inter-parturition period in all species and breeds. Twinning rate in goat increased. Improvement was also felt through better body condition of animals resulting in better carcass quality and higher prices paid by buyers and butchers. New forages induce a higher integration in market economy as farmers invest more in fences to reduce labour input for herding and to protect their investment in improved pasture. Livestock farmers are very market oriented; only goats are occasionally slaughtered for home consumption. Livestock also have a strong role as means of savings and insurance. There is a healthy entrepreneurial spirit for producing livestock for sale in all sub-district studied. There would be scope for farmers to receive better prices by planning sale of animals during seasons of high demand, or by organising themselves and sell at markets in Samarinda and Balikpapan. The method for assessing the financial benefits of forages in this study was based on comparison of the situation before and after adoption, for farmers who had either small or large ruminants, or both. It was observed during the study that farmers without such livestock had lower living standards. Disparity of wealth in the community thus depends on ownership of livestock, and among the owners on adoption of improved forages. The disparity of livestock owners and nonowners could not be attributed to FSP; many farmers had acquired animals before the project started. In some cases adoption of forages could have been a factor in receiving animals through credit schemes, but success rate of these farmers were very variable. Other factors such as amount of improved feed available, and time allocated to livestock activities, were more significant. Labour input needed for new forage species is mostly gender neutral. In one sub-district, young were less often involved and in another woman were slightly more frequently involved. These are not absolute time expenditures and total time spend by women for fodder collection might have remained the same. Sometimes women were more frequently involved in fodder collection as she replaced the husband doing off-farm activities. All genders appreciate new forage introduction positively as the impact on household income is high.
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Most farmers in Samboja having adopted new forage, offer enough fodder of good quality to their cattle, as grazing time on pastures improved with new forages is long enough. In Sepaku farmers started also improving pastures and invest in fences, but still couldn’t offer enough fodder to meet requirements of the herd. Low production of Ongole cattle is at least partly caused by insufficient feeding. In Makroman, new forage available for most farm households is hardly sufficient for goats, while cattle acquired for fattening are only allowed to graze three hours and do not receive enough high quality fodder or concentrates. When availability is sufficient, new forages allow livestock fattening on pasture and cut and carry of fodder alone. Considering the difficulties of goat farmers to meet fodder requirements of three bulls for fattening, it is concluded that self-sufficiency of East Kalimantan for meat cannot be obtained through credit schemes for fattening animals. To enhance availability of beef, numbers of Bali cattle, reproducing with low veterinarian cost, should increase, together with the number of farmers cropping new forages. FSP has identified the most appropriate ways to contribute to this. The general perception in East Kalimantan that fattening of cattle was more profitable than breeding was only confirmed in Sepaku, where the cattle breed used was Ongole. This is due to the poor fertility of the breed under general farm conditions, where feed shortages are common. When the Bali breed is used, breeding and fattening might be equally profitable. There were indications that larger herd sizes increase profitability, but no there was no minimum number below which rearing became unprofitable. Manure applied on food and cash crops contributes approximately 40% to income from livestock in Makroman and Sepaku, a fact that stresses the importance of manure for soil fertility maintenance. In these two sub-districts market value of manure is high; farmers sell manure for cash income and apply less then 15% of manure to forage crops. Consequently production and quality of forage crops is low. However, as it enhances soil fertility and sustainability of the production system, the use of manure on food and cash crops is in line with the objectives of FSP.
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7 References Bosman, H.G., Moll, H.A.J. and Udo, H.M.J., 1997. Measuring and interpreting the benefits of goat keeping in tropical farm systems. Agricultural Systems, 53 (1997) 349-372. Castillo, A.C., Acasio, R.N., Deocareza, A.G., Victorio, E.E., Moog, F.A., Galido, E., and Llarena, A.A., 1998. New Leucaena species and hybrids for livestock production. In: A. C. de la Vina. and F. A. Moog (eds) Integrated Crop-Livestock Production Systems and Fodder Trees. Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Albey Province, Philippines. pp. 99-114. Falvey, L. and Chatalakhama, C. (eds), 1999. Smallholder Dairying in the Tropics. ILRI, Nairobi Kenya, 462 pp. Galal, S., Boyazoglu, J. and Hammond, K., 2000. Workshop on developing breeding strategies for lower input animal production environments. Bella, Italy, 22-25 September 1999. ICAR, Technical Series No 3, Rome, Italy. Horne, P.M., Stur, W.W., Hacker, J. and Kerridge, P.C., 2000. Working with farmers: the key to adoption of forage technologies Working with farmers: the key to adoption of forage technologies. ACIAR Proceedings No. 95. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra. pp. 325. IMF, 2001. International financial statistics yearbook. International Monetary Fund, Washington DC, 1114 pp. Le Hoa Binh, 1998. Forage grass production of Para grass in Vietnam. in: de la Vina and Moog, 1998. ‘t Mannetje L. and Jones, 1992. Plant Resources of Southeast Asia, No. 4 – Forages. Prosea, Wageningen, 300 pp. Nhi, D.L. 2000. Use of Para and Elephant grass for fattening young buffaloes. Seafrad News, issue 10. CIAT PSS, 2001. Statistical yearbook East Kalimantan 2000, Dinas Peternakan, Samarinda, Indonesia. Ramm, G. et al, 1984. Animal Husbandry in East Kalimantan. GTZ, Schriftenreihe der Fachbereichs Internationale Agrarentwicklung. No 84. Roothaert, R., Asis, P., Binh, L.H., Bosma, R., Gabonada, E., Gabunada, F., Ibrahim, Kerridge, P., Kexian, Y., Khanh, T.T., Magboo, E., Moneva, L., Nakamanee, G., Phaikaew, C., Phimphachanhvongsod, J., Saguinhon, J., Samson, J., Yen, V.H., 2001. RETA 5866: Fourth Agriculture and Natural Resource Research at CGIAR Centres: Developing Sustainable Forage Technologies for Resource Poor Upland Farmers in Asia - Six monthly report, 1 July - 31 December 2001. CIAT, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, pp. 37. Siregar, A.R. et al, 1985. Performance sapi Bali di musa tenggara Timur dan sapi Madura di pulan Maduro. Direksi Bina Produksi Peternakan Departemen Pertanian, Jakarta, Indonesia. Vina, A. C. de la and Moog, F.A. (eds) 1998. Integrated Crop-Livestock Production Systems and Fodder Trees. Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Albey Province, Philippines. pp. 99-114.
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8 Annexes A. B. C. D. E.
Calendar of activities R. Bosma. Data for the calculations of fodder balance. Example of guideline and questionnaire. Forms for weight monitoring of goat and cattle. Sheet for economic assessment of fattening in Indonesian language.
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Annex A.
Calendar of activities R. Bosma (consultant)
Sunday 14-10:
Reception by Ir. Ibrahim upon arrival in Balikpapan, no suitcase. Visit of Samboja, the fieldworkers of Dinas Peternakas (DP) and the president of the farmers, for the programming of the study. Visit of a commercial integrated farm at Samboja.
Monday 15-10
Muslim feast-day; consultant prepared the Excel spreadsheet for the data analysis. Last modifications were made on the guide line and tables for the interviewers.
Tuesday 16-10
Meeting at the head office of Dinas Peternakan in Samarinda with Dinas Director Ir Munief M. and his staff. The consultant presented himself and the objective of his mission. The consultant and M. Ibrahim answered a question about the choice of Eastern Kalimantan for the study. This was followed by a discussion on the feasibility of dairy development in East Kalimantan, problems with beef cattle distributed on credit in Makroman and prospects of upgrading. Second meeting with ir. Jacob P. of the Forage division of Dinas Peternakan, Ibrahim and some of the field workers: Tugiman (Makroman), Djogo Widodo and Rachman (both from Samboja). The consultant and Ibrahim presented the guidelines and the translation of the interview tables in Indonesian language. The consultant presented two PRA-tools: the resource flow diagram and the historical recall survey of the herd productivity. Next mission would start with translation of the guidelines for the PRA-tools and interviews. Interviews would start after adjusting of the guidelines in local language to local situations. Travel to Samboja and installation in local hotel and ir. Ibrahim met farmers to make logistic arrangements for the meeting.
Wednesday 17-10
In the morning, meeting with farmers in Samboja Kualo. Number present was limited, below 20, due to burial of two farmers. In the afternoon, interview and survey of first farmer in presence of field workers; in the evening training of fieldworkers.
Thursday 18-10
In the morning, monitoring of the interviewing done by field workers. In the afternoon data introduction and preliminary report writing.
Friday 19-10
Data introduction and preliminary report writing. Inventory of missing data to be specified or completed by the fieldworker. Available data for conversion of girth tape measurements were analysed and discussed with ir Ibrahim. Monitoring of fieldworkers interviewing farmers with ir Ibrahim. Lists with data to be completed were transmitted and an appointment made for the training and validation of the data. Back in Samarinda, data introduction and report writing was continued.
Saturday 20-10
Monday 22-10
First meeting with farmers in Makroman. PRA assessment of the livestock resource flow and livelihood resources.
Tuesday 23-10
Weighing of goats in Makroman and monitoring of data collection.
Wednesday 24-10
Introduction of first data followed by feed-back to Ibrahim and fieldworkers. Preparation of the validation meeting and training in Samboja.
Thursday 25-10
Training of farmers on weight appreciation in Samboja and validation of data. During discussions and training particular attention was given to i
the relation of feeding and reproductive health and to the advantages and prospects of breeding Bali cattle. Friday 26-10
Data introduction, report writing and attendance in Samboja for the visit of a commission of national parliament. Planning of PRA activities and training with farmers and field-staff in Sepaku. Return to Samarinda
Saturday 27-10
Analysis of data and prepared the training and the validation meeting in Makroman. Preparation of guidelines for PRA interviews in Sepaku.
Monday 29-10
Preliminary results were discussed in Makroman and farmers trained on girth rate measurement. During discussion and training, attention was given to the relation of feeding and reproductive health.
Tuesday 30-10
Meeting with the dean of agricultural faculty of the University of Samarinda. Data on labour and area productivity of crops were not available. At the provincial statistical service, data were collected on the mean per capita expenditures in rural areas. Data on the labour productivity of crops were not available. Collection of data on inflation rates and productivity of animal husbandry and fodder quality.
Wednesday 31-10
Discussion with individual farmers and PRA assessment in Sepaku; instruction of field workers. Travel to Balikpapan
Thursday 1-11
Visit to the deer farm of Dinas Peternakan in Api-Api and a small private hatching of local poultry. Monitoring at Sepaku. Travel to Samarinda under very difficult road condition with a two-wheel drive car. Overall a mental nonworking day.
Friday 2-11
Report of the PRA assessment from Sepaku. Elaboration of Excel sheets for calculations of feeding costs and gender labour division.
Saturday 3-11
Report writing and preparation of the Excel data sheet for Sepaku.
Sunday 4-11
Visit of the marriage of the daughter of a farmer in Makroman with families of Ibrahim and Tugiman and data analysis of Makroman.
Monday 5-11
Consultation of an insurance company for the premium rates, report writing and preparation of the meeting in Sepaku
Tuesday 6-11
Official meeting with the national director of strategic development (Budidaya) of Dinas Peternakan, ir Soepodo Boediman at the provincial direction, in presence of the provincial director and his staff. Attendance at the official opening of a workshop on Deer Farming in East Kalimantan and keynote presentations of mentioned directors. Travel to Sepaku and introduction of interview data.
Wednesday 7-11
Discussions with individual farmers, training of farmers and field-workers and in input-output assessment of cattle fattening in Sepaku.
Thursday 8 – Sunday 10-11
Data analysis and report writing. Preparation of briefing.
Monday 12-11
Training in farmers’ assessment of input-output of fattening in Makroman. Preparation of briefing together with ir Ibrahim.
Tuesday 13-11
Briefing of the staff of Dinas Peternakan on the findings of the mission. Travel to Balikpapan.
Wednesday 14-11
Travel to Los Banos, Regional Office of FSP - CIAT.
Thursday 15-11
Discussion with Dr R Roothaert on the preliminary results. Analysis of feed budgets for three production systems.
Friday 16-11
Report modification.
Saturday 17-11
Report writing.
Sunday 18-11
Travel back to the Netherlands.
ii
Annex B.
Data for calculations of fodder balance.
Spreadsheet with forage production and feed requirement, for mean sized farms in 3 sub-districts. Samboja Sepaku Makroman pasture - coconut cut & carry + cut & carry kgDM CP + cut & carry home pasture /ha g/kg ha kgDM ha kgDM ha kgDM type of forage production area of pasture 10000 120 0.5 5000 0.15 1500 0 0 cut & carry FB high fertiliser 30000 120 0.25 7500 0 0 0 0 10000 100 0 0 0.15 1500 0.2 2000 cut & carry FB low fertiliser 0 0 0.2 800 0.15 600 contour gras&leg. (20% cover) 4000 150 6000 180 0 0 0.1 600 0.05 300 area cover crop (50% cover) 9167 3400 2900 total kg DM available Digestible DM digestibility(DM) ME (MJ/kgDM) new forage Imperata cylindrica (0.5) King grass* (0.55) pasture time natural range DMI/hr/head of cattle
DM 0.6 9.2 7.6 8.4
5500 2040 1740 DCP 0.65 ME(MJ) kg DCP ME(MJ) kg DCP ME(MJ) kgDCP 83996 975 31155 363 26573 224 65 0.6 80 0.6 4.8 4 3 0.5 0.5 0.5 70238 381 27871 142 8361 43
iii
Annex C.
Example of quideline and questionnaire
CIAT/FSP/rhB/sep 1. jenis kelamin 4 Tanah
ha
ASEB_Kal3 interview Rumah tangga Petani-FS: . . 2. jumlah keluarga
3. Jumlah tenaga kerja keluarga
Pa-di sin- jaKe- Ubikong gung lepa rambat
tanamas (X) kacang Lom- La-a tanah bok
Pisang
Durian
Ram- Lain butan lain
Kebun / pekarangan Tanaman di lahan kering sawah Rumput HMT
Jenis rumput yang ditanam:
5. Pendapatan diluar usaha tani (off farm) (penjualan kebun /..), Jenis pekerjaan *1000 rpi/hr Type peternian Suami Isteri /anak pedapatan kiriman anak 6. a. jumlah ekor b. Sejak kapan beternak?
kerbau
Sapi
*1000 rpi rpi/hr rpi/bl
kambing
ayam
c. Kapan mulai menggunakan rumput unggul
d. jumlah ekor ternak sebelum menggunakan rumput unggul ?
Sapi
Kerbau
7 T i n g k a t (time consumption and responsability of tasks) sapi sekarang
sebelum pakan yang baru
kambing
kerbau sekarang
sebelum pakan yang baru
Rumput alam sjapa yang mencari /mengarit jam/hari Penggunaan HMT sjapa yang mencari rumput jam/hari
iv
sapi sekarang
kerbau
sebelum pakan yang baru
sekarang
sebelum pakan yang baru
sjapa yang menggembala atau melepas ternak jam/hari Gembala s/k jam/hari Memberi makanan
sapi
kerbau
Siapa yang mengerjakan Waktu memberi makan (jam/hr) mankanan (yam/hari) rumput baru kelapan Sapi
kelapan rumput alam
rumput baru
rumput alam petari
kerbau
Pengolahan tanah Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hari Bulan 8b. Jika menggunakan tenaga kerja berapa yang harus dibayar ? (Rp/ hari) If hired worker how much paid (rpi/hr)
Penanaman Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hari Bulan Perawatan Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/sekali Pemupukan Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hari hari/tahun
v
Pembuatan pagar
sapi
kerbau
sapi
kerbau
Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hari Jumlah hari/tahun Pembuatan kandang Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hari Jumlah hari/tahun sapi
Membershikan kandang
kerbau
Siapa yang mengerjakan Jam/. . . . . Hasil limbah
sapi
kerbau
sapi
kerbau
Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hr pemberian air minum siapa yang mimberi minum Waktu memberi makan (jam/hr) Memandikan
sapi
kerbau
siapa yang mengerjakan Waktu memberi makan (jam/hr) hari/bulan Pengapian
Pengobatan
Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/hr Penjualanan
sapi
kerbau
rumput
pupuk
Siapa yang mengerjakan jam/tahun Biaya yang di keluarkan tahun lalu
Sapi berapa biaya (irp*1000)
sjapa yang
Kerbau berapa biaya sjapa yang (irp*1000)
vi
Konsentrat Hasil limbah Minerals, Vitamins pengobatan Buaya I.B. kandang Pagar pupuk buatan Pembelian bibit ternak tahun lalu dua Pembelian bakalan tahun lalu dua Jumlah Kg/ekor
Pedanpatan dari produksi ternak a. berapa kg daging yang di makan dari hasil ternak nya
harga *1000 rpi/ kg/ekor
Satu tahun *1000 rpi
b. kulit c. Berapa harga dari hasil penjualan daging Berapa sapi IB ekor sapi JT ternak di jual tahun sapi AJ lalu dua sapi AB Kerbau induk/jantan Anak kerbau/dara f. penjualan rumput g. penjualan bibit rumput h. penjualan pupuk kandang i. meluna sapi/kerbau j. kerbau tarik
k. pupuk kandang untuk tanaman
rumput
dijual
Tanaman lahan kering
sawah
Kebun/ pekarangan
(%)
vii
Annex D. Forms for weight monitoring of goat and cattle
Perkiraan bobot badan (kg) berdasarkan lingkar dada (cm) kambing Kalimantan Timur pada keadaan norma (sedang) kg cm 43 75 41 74 39 73 37 72 35 71 33 70 31,5 69 30 68 28 67 26,5 66 25 65 24 64 23 63 22 62 21 61 20 60 19 59 18 58 17 57 16 56 15 55 14 54 13 52 12 51 11 49 10 47 9 45 8 43 7 40 6 38 5 35 4 30 tanggal
viii
Perkiraan bobot badan (kg) berdasarkan lingkar dada (cm) sapi Bali pada keadaan normal di Kalimantan Timur cm kg cm kg cm kg 40 24 100 73 159 224 45 26 102 76 160 228 50 28 104 79 161 232 55 31 106 81 162 236 60 34 107 83 163 241 65 37 108 85 164 246 70 41 110 88 165 251 75 45 112 92 166 256 80 50 114 95 167 261 85 55 116 99 168 266 90 60 118 103 169 271 95 66 120 107 170 276 100 73 122 111 171 281 105 80 124 115 172 286 110 88 126 120 173 291 115 97 128 124 174 297 120 107 130 129 175 303 125 117 132 134 176 309 130 129 134 139 177 315 135 141 136 144 178 321 140 156 138 150 179 327 145 171 140 156 180 334 150 189 142 162 181 340 155 207 144 168 182 346 160 228 146 175 183 353 165 251 148 182 184 360 170 276 150 189 185 367 175 304 152 196 186 374 180 334 154 204 187 381 185 367 156 112 188 388 190 403 158 220 189 395
kg cm 270 169 260 167 250 165 240 163 230 160 220 158 210 155 200 153 190 150 180 147 170 144, 165 143 160 141 155 139 150 138 145 136 140 134 135 132 130 130 125 128 120 126 115 124 110 122 195 120 100 117 95 114 90 111 85 108 80 105 75 101 70 98 65 94 60 90 55 85 50 80 45 75 40 70 35 65 30 60 25 55 tanggal ix
Annex E.
Sheet for economic assesment of fattening in Indonesian language.
berapa kegiatan pengulaaren rpi . . . . . . .
membeli bokotan
Hasil lemak Penggemukan sapi atau kambing fattening
rpi . . . . . . . kandang rpi . . . . . . . rpi . . . . . . .
makanan konsentrat
rpi . . . . . . .
rumput
rpi . . . . . . .
mineral obat
+ rpi . . . . . . .
rumput sapi : 5000 rpi/hari & kambing : 500 rpi/hari
peternak kedang
rpi . . . . . . . .
pupuk
rpi . . . . . . . .
pupuk sapi 3 karung /bulah kambing 1 karung/bulah
+ rpi . . . . . . . .
mengurangi pekerjaan petani: jam/hari & hari
hasil : hari rpi/hari
... . . . ... 10
