Ecosystem services provided by insects for achieving

Ecosystem Services 35 (2019) 109–115

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Ecosystem Services journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoser

Ecosystem services provided by insects for achieving sustainable development goals

T

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Olivier Danglesa,b, , Jérôme Casasc a Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry, Montpellier, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France b Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Quito, Ecuador c Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte (IRBI), Université de Tours, Tours 37200, France

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sustainable development goals Insects Socioeconomic relevance Poverty Translational science

Ecosystem services underpin all dimensions of human wellbeing. As a consequence it is crucial to integrate ecosystem services into strategies for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Because insects and other invertebrates have profound and well-identified influences on many ecosystems services (e.g. pollination and biological control) and SDGs (e.g. crop pest and disease vectors), insect research and development have a great potential to address current global challenges. In this commentary we argue that time is ripe to put more efforts in developing integrated research on the ecosystem services provided by insects, as they may result in solutions to achieve many SDGs. We provide evidence of insects' utility to address global challenges and propose a framework of the needed shift in the perception of insects from enemies and allies, providers of ecosystem services, to solutions to achieve SDGs. We further advocate that making a place for SDG-relevant research on insects' ecosystem services requires transforming existing academic knowledge into applications-driven science, a potential up-scaling of local solutions and socio-economic relevance. The immediate implication for scientific undertaking is a need to shift from approaches in which academia and society poorly interact to more integrated dynamics, sustained by solid cooperative extension systems.

1. Commentary On September 25th 2015, the 193 United Nation member states adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of a new international agenda to address the most fundamental challenges in global sustainability and human development (Nilson et al., 2016). To reduce inequality, limit environmental impact of human activities and secure resilient livelihoods, the scientific research behind SDGs needs to consider not only the ecological integrity of life-supporting systems, but also the underlying socioeconomic stressors that perpetuate their vulnerability in a changing world. Because ecosystem services, the benefits nature provides to people, underpin all dimensions of human wellbeing it is crucial to integrate them into strategies for achieving SDGs (Ward et al., 2018; Wood et al., 2018). Although insects have a major significance for both SDGs and ecosystem services, we argue that we need a path forward to integrate current knowledge of ecosystem services provided by insects. This is mandatory to achieve targets under the UN sustainability agenda as well as to identify opportunities for cross-

sectoral collaborations. To this end, we review evidence of insects' utility to address global challenges and propose a framework that emphasizes how insect science and development may help stakeholders to implement cooperative strategies for addressing diverse aspects of global human and environmental challenges. The global ecological and socio-economical impacts of insects and other arthropods are highly relevant for multiple sustainable development goals (Fig. 1). Over the course of human evolution, insects have first been perceived as “enemies“. Global crop losses due to insect pests are reported within a range of 25–80% and the amount of food they consume would be sufficient to feed more than 1 billion people (Birch et al., 2011). Invasive insects alone cost a minimum of US$70.0 billion per year globally and associated health costs exceed US$6.9 billion per year (Bradshaw et al., 2016). Insects have been and still are major triggers of socio-economic stressors such as hunger and health crises thereby representing obstacles to poverty alleviation. Insect-related problems are likely to be exacerbated by global warming and the increase in wars, human migration and catastrophic events (Bradshaw

⁎ Corresponding author at: Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry, Montpellier, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France. E-mail address: [email protected] (O. Dangles).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.12.002 Received 2 July 2018; Received in revised form 24 November 2018; Accepted 5 December 2018 2212-0416/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.


O. Dangles, J. Casas

Fig. 1. Diagram visualizing changes of the status of insects and other arthropods over time and how these changes renew the way insects can be viewed as keystones to address challenges corresponding to the 17 sustainable development goals. 1) All-time dual view of insects as allies and enemies 2) Insects as providers of ecosystem services; 3) Insects as solutions to achieve development goals. Academia-society interactions for the three steps are presented at the top of the figure. Three services provided by insects are presented in the third column: insect: food, biocontrol and bioinspiration. Each of the 31 cells shaded in blue is supported by one or several references given in Appendix A.

from ① to ②, Fig. 1). Any research that aims at preserving insects’ services and at controlling their disservices may have a significant contribution to the achievement of SDGs. However, we advocate that the several millions of insect species are more than that: because insects have important influences on many interlinked SDGs, they have great potential to be used to solve some current global challenges (Prather and Laws, 2018). If we want insects, and the ecosystem services they provide, to help addressing SGDs we need to change our way of doing research. In particular, the outcome of this research should aim at providing environmental, social and economical benefits and simultaneously helping build sustainable transformations of economies. This shift in focus has large implications as it means that projects conducting insect research for SDGs should aggregate a wide diversity of actors – from local people to entomologists, engineers, enterprises, marketers, banks and policy makers. As a consequence, many more SDGs could be addressed and achieved with such an “insect as solutions for SDGs” approach than with an “insects as providers of ecosystem-services” approach (transition from ② to ③, Fig. 1). We found large, compelling evidence from local, national and international case studies that ecosystem services provided by insects (and other invertebrates) can be used to address all SDGs. Such

et al., 2016). However, insects and other invertebrates are also vital components of ecological webs and provide key ecosystem services such as pollination and seed dispersal in food systems, carbon sequestration in soils, organic matter recycling and water filtration (Schowalter, 2013). For example, a study evaluated the ecological services provided by insects to be at least $57 billion annually (Losey and Vaughan, 2006), and recent methodological and conceptual frameworks have emphasized the link between ecosystem services and social and economic benefits (Hanley et al., 2015). While the shift from a negative to a positive perception of insects has already occurred in some countries and communities, it is necessary to further support the efforts already under way, in particular in tropical regions (Noriega et al., 2018). For example, many integrated pest management programs funded by international banks and agencies still try to find “silver bullets” to fight against crop pests (e.g., the recent fall armyworm crisis in Africa mostly managed with pesticides; see https://bit.ly/2zlGMgY), instead of shifting towards a long-term strategy centred on insects as allies to food security (e.g., biological control). Over the last decades, the increasing recognition of insects' fundamental role for vital ecosystem services has allowed a transition from a problem-solving approach to more system-based studies (i.e. transition 110



maker on the promising role of ecosystem services provided by insects in achieving SDGs. A worldwide handful number of translational centres, in both developed and developing countries could catalyse insect research and development actions. One facet of such centres may consist of the collaboration with community partners (e.g., farmer organizations, insect breeding industries, building material companies) for their immediate research needs. Another facet should include translation of research results (e.g., biological control agents, insectinspired materials) back to society (farmers, architects), thereby implying a sizeable educational program. Ideally, the translational process begins and ends with academics and stakeholders co-leading the inquiry process (Appendix A presents several study cases that illustrate such type of cooperation). Those translational centres could be located within larger institutions (e.g. universities, African Centres of Excellence) and supported by funders interested in specific initiatives limited in space and time (e.g. fall armyworm crisis in Africa) but with an integrative and long-term vision. For those reasons, the design of such centres would put priority to projects that engage communities, businesses and policymakers, as envisioned for the newly established “Conservation Research Centre” of Cambridge University, for the nascent “California Climate Science and Solutions Institute” or the Centre for Biodiversity Outcomes and its relationship with Conservation International (Gerber & Raik, 2018). In a nutshell, these centres, in their diversity, all foster a new type of “translational ecology”. While these institutions do differ in several respects, they are by design broad and inclusive and foster long-term interactions between stakeholders (Mielke et al., 2017), with an uncompromised quality of the core science.

evidence is summarized in Fig. 1 (31 cells shaded in blue). It is supported by a list of 100 references (Appendix A) that illustrate operational links between ecosystem services and SDGs. We present here three examples: insect as food, biological control, and bioinspiration. Biological control global market is expanding rapidly, with solutions combining classic entomological knowledge and innovations to control pests. In Brazil, a company made its business by developing technologies for in-mass production of parasitic wasp eggs that it then spray over fields using drones (Gallas, 2016). Because this solution allows sustainable and large-scale pest control, investors and practitioners selected insect-based rather than conventional techniques. Insect research and development allow achieving many development targets such as improving food security, reducing the use of pesticides, pursuing job creation, innovation and supporting a responsible production (see references in Appendix A). Another well-documented example of SDG implications of ecosystem services provided by “good” and “bad” insects is the value chains of insect farming as feed and food, which includes local people to find insects, research and development institutions to develop and improve rearing programs, industries to scale-up farming processes, law and policy makers, banks and governmental institutions to improve food security and enhance local markets and economies (van Huis et al., 2013). The booming of edible insect market can even empower women denied access to land or agricultural resources, thereby reducing gender inequality (Broomfield, 2016). Finally, insects and other invertebrates can be a source for bioinspired technological solutions (Gorb, 2011). From the advent of largescale fabrication of spider-silk inspired fibres for water collection (Bai et al., 2011) to biofuel synthesis by beetles (Sun and Scharf, 2010) to the anti-fouling effect of blue mussel extract (Bers et al., 2006), invertebrate inventions may convert into solutions helping achieve SDGs (see Appendix A). The 2017 Biomimicry Global Design Challenge (http://challenge.biomimicry.org) offers other unexpected applications. An example is the modular aeroponic home-growing systems inspired by bees’ honeycombs can help farmer communities to produce locally, cutting down CO2 emissions associated with food transportation. These systems may have potential applications in refugee camps to grow food (Wong, 2015). Bringing more insect-inspired designs to markets is a viable way of creating a more regenerative and sustainable world. Making a place for insects in a research and innovation agenda requires transforming existing academic knowledge, on both insect ecosystem services and disservices, into applications-driven science and socioeconomic relevance. For example, insect research and development initiatives may provide incentives for landholders to manage crops and forest stands in a sustainable way, thereby taking part in the peace-building process in Colombia (see Baptiste et al., 2016). Putting insects in the nature-based use of cropland and forests may create additional jobs (pest control, bio-prospection, edible insects) and increases total socioeconomic benefits of ecosystem services (Sittenfeld et al., 1999). Local communities may also build an ecotourism industry around some of the most charismatic insects (Bhuiyan et al., 2016). The immediate implication for scientific undertaking is a need to shift from approaches in which academia and society poorly interact to more integrated dynamics, sustained by a solid cooperative extension system (transition from ② to ③, Fig. 1). This will ask for a rethinking of the way academia is organized, both in terms of research and teaching, and to strengthen developed-developing world partnerships (Everard et al., 2017). At a time when a massive insect decline is repeatedly reported (Vogel, 2017) and the entomological expertise is progressively lost, moaning about the lack of attention to this highly valuable group of organisms is not sufficient nor effective (Casas and Simpson, 2010), nor is the one-way perspective between academia and stakeholders any longer valid for moving the field of conservation and sustainability forward (Bertuol-Garcia et al., 2018). Here we provide a framework to inform academy and decision-

Acknowledgements We are grateful to Leon Braat, Xavier Le Roux, Rebecca Nelson, Michael Hoffmann and one anonymous reviewer for constructive comments in a previous version of the manuscript. We also thank Eeva Furman and Shantanu Mukherjee for motivating discussions on the importance of insects for sustainable development goals. The financial support by the ECOBIO Department of IRD during Olivier Dangles’ stay at Cornell University, United States, (2017-2018) is greatly appreciated. A. Appendix A Insect research and sustainable development goals Here we provide a list of references documenting how research on insects (and other invertebrates) can be integrated into strategies to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) identified by the United Nations. Note that classification boundaries are not fixed and that 1) a given reference could be classified under different SDGs and 2) many of the SGDs are interconnected among each other within nexus (e.g., clean energy with climate, poverty with hunger, etc.). References in red describe study cases that are particularly relevant to show how an operational link between ecosystem services and SDGs (transition ②→③ in Fig. 1) can be achieved. SDG1 – End poverty in all its forms everywhere 1. IRIN (2004) Uganda: Getting out of rural poverty by exporting rare insects. Forestry Chronicle 80, 333–334. 2. Ramos‐Elorduy, B. J. (1997). The importance of edible insects in the nutrition and economy of people of the rural areas of Mexico. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36(5), 347–366. 3. Solomon, M., & Prisca, N. (2012). Nutritive value of Lepidoptara litoralia (edible caterpillar) found in Jos Nigeria: implication for food security and poverty alleviation. African Journal of Food Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 12 (6), 6738–6747. 4. Twine, W., Moshe, D., Netshiluvhi, T., & Siphugu, V. (2003). 111



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SDG 9 – Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation

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SDG 10 – Reduce inequality within and among countries

SDG 8 – Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all

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