Education and Outdoor Learning: Adventure ...

Education and Outdoor Learning: Adventure, Tourism and Sustainable Development

Editor Cara Aitchison

LSA LSA Publication No. 122

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Education and Outdoor Learning: Adventure, Tourism and Sustainable Development First published in 2013 by Leisure Studies Association The Chelsea School University of Brighton Eastbourne BN20 7SP (UK)

The collection as a whole © 2013 LSA. The individual contributions © 2013 the respective authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the LSA.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978 1 905369 37 9 (print)

Cover design and page layout Myrene L. McFee Printed in the UK by Antony Rowe, Eastbourne

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Contents Editors’ Introduction Cara Aitchison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v About the Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

How Good is the Evidence that Outdoor Adventure Activities are Beneficial? Roger Scrutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Exploring the Role of Formal Education in Creating Responsible Tourists Katherine Lupton and Sally Everett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Botanics, Birds and Biomes: The role of Ecoattractions in Learning for a Sustainable Future Ria Dunkley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Rural Tourism Development: The Results of Community Surveys in Three Rural Communities in Finland Kathy Velander, Anne Matilainen and Merja Lähdesmäki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Nature-based Tourism in Desert Areas: Challenges for Tourism Education Anna Dłuzewska, Kjartan Bollason, Maciej Dłuzewski and Joanna Fidelus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Mount Roraima: The Contemporary Leisure Experience César Castilho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Art Tourism and the Emotional Experience of Place Nicolò Sattin and Sally Everett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Other LSA Publications Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Nature-based Tourism in Desert Areas: Challenges for Tourism Education

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Nature-based Tourism in Desert Areas: Challenges for Tourism Education Anna Dłuzewska,* Kjartan Bollason,** Maciej Dłuzewski*** and Joanna Fidelus**** * Institute of Geography, Kazimir the Great University of Bydgoszcz, ** Faculty of Rural Tourism, Holar University College *** Faculty of Geographies and Regional Studies, University of Warsaw **** Department of Geomorphology, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian University

Background The area of the earth’s surface occupied by deserts and semi desert (excluding glacial deserts) is about 31.4 million km2 (22% all of land). The desert is a very specific type of environment and, with the exception of desert oases, is characterised by vegetation that is poor in quality, limited in quantity or completely absent. Within desert environments the limited vegetation means that landforms are more visible than in temperate climate zones; the aesthetic perception of the landscape is thus determined by the landforms rather than vegetation. The desert, depending on its character as rock or sand, offers distinct conditions for tourism and recreation and is a unique destination for different types of tourism. Although some (single) landforms or landform complexes are often considered as UNESCO World Heritage sites and are supported by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (ICUN), most remain unprotected. The level of tourism impact or ‘dysfunctions’ upon these desert environments depends, to an important degree, on the expectations and image of the place created by tourist authorities. Due to climatic conditions the natural environment in high mountains, cold and hot desert areas is extremely sensitive. In the case of human impact on the land, caused by such recreational activities as off-road driving, the environment is very slow to recuperate and tourism traces remain visible for dozens of years (Dluzewski and Sobczak 2010). For example, tyre tracks can disfigure the appearance of the land and can also become channels for water (mainly in cold desert areas), thus advancing soil erosion and the denudation of vegetation and the visibility of off-road tyre tracks simply encourages 73

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Anna D łuzewska, Kjartan Bollason, Maciej D łuzewski and Joanna Fidelus

others to drive off-road. To minimize tourism impact in such areas, different types of tourism limitations are implemented. In protected areas, tourism dysfunctions are limited mainly by: environmental education on a local scale; legal regulations; channeling of tourism within the destination; and the surveillance of park rangers (Bascik et al., 2007; Buckley et al., 2008). Within this chapter we argue that, in the case of large desert areas, limiting negative tourism impact is possible only through education of tourists undertaken in the countries of the tourists’ origin or through campaigns undertaken by national tourism authorities in which the threats to the natural environment are explained. In contrast, education “upon arrival” does not appear to have much efficacy. As the main types of tourism activity occurring in high mountains are trekking and skiing, the main factor that can lead to environmental destruction is the high number of visitors. For the cold and hot desert a larger number of types of activities are accessible (e.g. trekking, horse and camel riding, motor sports and the use of quad bikes and, 4x4 vehicles). In the case of desert environments, even a small number of motorized tourists can have a very negative impact on the natural environment. The real negative impact of tourism on the natural environment depends also on the “position” of the natural environment between other tourist attractions within the country. If the natural environment is the main, or unique attraction as in the case of Iceland, tourists are more likely to be aware of the fragility of the place being visited (Jóhannesson et al., 2010; Sæþórsdóttir, 2010). Tourism campaigns undertaken by the combined agencies and actors, such as the tourism board and tour operators, are based on the natural landscape and the attraction of nature (Pálsdóttir, 2005). When the natural environment is not the main tourist attraction it is not of such high importance in local understanding. In addition, there is less knowledge about the role of nature and natural values in relation to the tourism product (Dluzewska, 2008). Consequently, and as this chapter goes on to illustrate in the case of Mhamid in Morocco, the adequate promotion of tourism supported by relevant information about the environment is missed as neither tourists nor tourism agencies are sufficiently conscious of the impact of tourism on the natural environment (Dluzewski, 2009). This chapter focuses on three cases studies that serve to illustrate the challenge for nature-based tourism in desert areas: the Tatra National Park in Poland, the Westfjords in Iceland and the Mhamid area in Southern Morocco. The research methods employed to support the case study approach were: literature review, analysis of tourism literature from promotional campaigns,


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interviews and participant observation, mapping of tourist footpaths and roads, and the measurement of tourism traffic. Within the research, objective measurements were based on tourist counters and statistical data (for Tatra National Park in Poland), statistical data (for the Westfjords in Iceland). In case of the Mhamid area in Southern Poland no statistical data were provided by the authorities and, because tourism traffic is widespread only general trends rather than specific data are in this case.

Cases Tatra National Park (Poland)

Management of protected areas within Poland is determined by the local conditions and the types of tourism that takes place in that local area. Tatra National Park is one of the most visited national parks in Poland and, as such, it does not seek to promote a greater volume of tourists but, rather, to enhance the visitor experience and education of those who do visit. Image of Tatra National Park are included in the promotional campaign and literature relating to the whole region and there is little need to explain park principles to Polish visitors as relevant knowledge concerning tourism and the environment is provided in primary schools during obligatory courses on geography and biology. The Tatra National Park is characterized by highmountain relief with the highest point being the Rysy summit at 2499 metres above sea level. The three levels of protection in the Tatra National Park are defined as ‘Strict’, ‘Active’ and ‘Landscape’ and, within Tatra National Park, hiking, skiing, mountain climbing, caving and bicycling are all allowed as recreational pursuits. The most popular type of tourism within Tatra National Park is hiking. There are 275 km of marked footpaths and tourist roads in the Park. In 2000 the number of tourists in Tatra National Park was 2,787,629 and, in 2011, this figure reached 3,081,142. The most important functions of the Park include tourism, sport, recreation, scientific research and protection of cultural heritage. Based on ticket sales we can see a differentiation of tourist traffic during the year in the chosen valleys within Tatra National Park with tourist traffic highest from June to September (see Figure 1). Scientific research activities in the Tatra National Park must follow Park guidelines: scientific activities can only be conducted with written authorization; authorization is issued for one year and must be renewed; authorization will be renewed after a research report for the past year is submitted and authorization for scientific activities is issued only by the Tatra National Park Research and Monitoring Team.

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120,000

Number of tourists

100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0

Jan

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Kościeliska Valley Jaworzynka Valley

Figure 1

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Jul

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Kościeliska Valley 2011 Jaworzynka Valley 2011

Number of tourists in selected valleys based on ticket sales in 2000 and 2011

tourists going up

tourists going down

Number of tourists

40 30 20 10 0

Figure 2

The hourly average number of tourists going from the Chochołowska Meadow to the Grześ Summit from 29 June to 21 July, 2009

Number of tourists


Figure 4

120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0

July August

September

The number of tourists in the Kościeliska Valley July—September 2009 Number of tourists

Figure 3

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120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0

July August September

The number of tourists on the Wołowiec summit July to September in 2009

An example of research carried out in the Tatra National Park is the measurement of tourist traffic flows by means of tourist counters which have been in use within the Park since 2007. The main advantage of tourist counters is that they continuously record data about number of tourists with hourly resolution. In addition, the use of tourist counters allows for collection of information about the number of tourists moving in different directions (Figure 2). However, the use of tourist counters is associated with some limitations because the sensor has a range of only 4 metres. Therefore, the tourist counters can only be used in areas where people move on relatively narrow marked footpaths. Using data obtained from tourist counters we can compare the number of tourists in two different parts of the study area. Based on ticket sales, the average daily number of tourists in the Kościeliska Valley between July and September 2009 was 82,166 (Figure 3). At the same time, the average daily number of tourists on the Wołowiec summit (2064 metres above sea level), measured using tourist counters, was 8,098 (Figure 4).

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There were some days with no data from tourist counters located within the Wołowiec summit due to positioning errors relating to the sensors between 10– 20 and 21–24 July and 7–8 and 26 September, emphasising that the use of tourist counters as a method requires frequent checking of the sensor settings. The Tatra National Park is a good example of a protected area where educational activities for local communities have been actively carried out. The Tatry Academy project provides an illustration of such activities and was carried out from 2010 to 2012 at a cost of 150,000 Euro, with 128,000 Euro provided by the European Union. The main goals of the Tatry Academy project were: • To increase awareness of natural resources and environmental processes in local communities and by Tatra National Park users • To increase awareness of appropriate ways to protect the environment in the Tatra National Park • To increase of public awareness of the benefits of the Tatra National Park • To improve the image of the Tatra National Park • To improve communication between the Tatra National Park and park users. The benefits of the Tatry Academy project were: • 32 training sessions provided for professionals (shelter staff, border guards, police, guides, coachmen, etc.) • 140 training sessions provided for primary school children • 14 training sessions provided for secondary school children • 8 training sessions provided for Tatra National Park staff • 24 two-day training sessions provided for volunteers • 2,500 books provided for children • 19,000 additional copies of the Tatry Quarterly, published by the Tatra National Park • Two extra issues of the Tatry Quarterly (1,500 copies) • 2,000 leaflets • Six multi-media presentations delivered. Each type of training session had an individual approach. For example, one training session for school children was a 1.5 hour lesson in the Tatra National Park valleys, provided with free transportation. Another project, running from 2013 to 2014 and funded in part by the European Union, focused on repair and renovation of damaged footpaths within the Czerwone Wierchy Massif in the Western Tatra Mountains (www.ckps.pl). The funding from the European Union for this project amounted to 630,000 Euros, with a total cost of about 735,000 Euro.


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Another very important and highly successful project is The Volunteer Action in the Tatra Mountains which was established in 2006 and is modelled after the Volunteer Action in the Rocky Mountain National Park (Krzeptowski, 2012). The main volunteer tasks in the Tatra National Park are: patrol of tourist footpaths; patrol of ski areas; helping in maintenance of ski infrastructure; educational lectures in various areas of the Park; garbage collection from footpaths and tourist roads; clearing drainage ditches along footpaths and tourist roads; forestry work and work at the Tatra National Park museum exposition (www.tpn.pl). For volunteers the Tatra National Park provides training in: natural resources: occupational safety and health and Tatra National Park rules and regulations in return for accident insurance, accommodation (backpacking standard), an ID card allowing free access to the National Park and additional equipment needed for volunteer tasks. In 2012 the Tatra National Park introduced additional improvements for volunteers, such as modernized accommodation facilities, monthly bus tickets from accommodation in Kościelisko to Kuźnice where volunteers work, t-shirts and hats made from thermoactive materials, and two mountain bikes for travel to the Smreczyński Lake where volunteers conduct educational lectures (Krzeptowski, 2012; Pater, Krzeptowski 2012). The total number of volunteers in the Tatra National Park from 2007 to 2011 was 551and there were 118 in 2011 alone. The average length of stay in 2011 was less than two weeks and although fewer than 4% of volunteers had been with the service for more than three years, this number is slowly growing with many students completing their summer internship requirements by volunteering in the Tatra National Park. Projects like The Volunteer Action and The Tatry Academy demonstrate that the Tatra National Park is a well run national park actively working on increasing public awareness of environmental issues and wildlife preservation through innovative programs. The Westfjords (Iceland)

The Westfjords of Iceland is a rural and very sparsely populated area and the region of Iceland with the fewest inhabitants. In 2011 the it had a population around 7,000 people, down from around 8,600 in 1997 (Iceland Regional Development Institute, 2012). The biggest town, Ísafjörður, has around 3,500 inhabitants from an Icelandic population of around 320.000. The number of tourist visiting Iceland has nearly doubled since 2000, from around 300,000 to 565,000 in 2011 (Iceland Tourist Board, 2012: p. 3). The Westfjords have around 4% of all the accommodation offered in Iceland (Iceland Tourist Board,

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2012: p. 9) and 13,9% of tourists that visit Iceland also visit the Westfjords, with about 11.1% visiting the biggest town in the Westfjords, Ísafjörður and 6,7% visiting the bird cliff Látrabjarg (Iceland Tourist Board, 2012: p. 13). In the past 5–10 years the tourism authorities and companies have started working closer together to try to get more tourists to visit the Westfjords and make the tourism business more viable. Simultaneously, these same tourism authorities have tried to cater to those tourists who travel independently by developing and promoting the Westfjords as a sustainable tourism destination. In 2011 the Westfjords won the “European Destination of Excellence” award and the Lonely Planet travel guide put the area on its top 10 list of regions in the world to visit in 2011 (Westfjords Marketing Office, 2012). The Westfjords are therefore getting more attention, more local people and companies see opportunities in creating jobs for themselves in the tourism business and there is a growing pressure to develop more natural areas for tourism, such as for hiking, horseback riding and 4x4 driving. The increase in the offer of activities to tourists might therefore have an adverse impact on nature. At this far north (the Westfjords touch the 66° North longitude) the growing season is short at about four months or less and any adverse impact on the fragile vegetation cover can have long lasting negative impacts. This makes the Westfjords an interesting case-study and especially so as the Westfjords Tourism Association has been working together as a destination and there now seems to be a growing awareness of the importance of planning tourism in the Westfjords in a manner that still protects and takes care of nature while also seeking to improve the economics of the area and the quality of life. Those who travel to the Westfjords are mainly independent travellers who drive to from Reykjavik and stay several nights. There are also examples of tourists who rent a car and accommodation from a tour operator, which then plans their activities during the visit. Thus most of the tourists that travel around the Westfjords need to be informed about fragile vegetation before they arrive and on an individual basis. The natural environment is fragile and sensitive to any number of tourists. The growing season is short, from about May to August, and any impact from tourists can be long lasting. About half of tourists who visit Iceland come in summer, when nature is blooming and more sensitive to tourism impact than during winter when snow covers the vegetation. An underlying and very serious problem for the Westfjords is that the native population is increasingly moving away, mostly to the city of


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Reykjavik. The reason for this depopulation is, among others, the isolation of the Westfjords, especially during winter when many roads can be closed. The economy is mostly based on fisheries although, as in most rural areas in Iceland, tourism is used to create opportunities and jobs and helps young people with a good education find employment that is both interesting and reasonably well paid. The major threat to the Westfjords is thus the depopulation of the area and consequent loss of human capital. For this reason many look to tourism to create jobs and thus the fragile nature of the environment may experience more stress and possibly heavier impact from the growing number of tourists and from the growing number of tourism activities being offered. In the Westfjords, the natural environment is the main, if not unique, attraction and tourists are aware of the fragility of the places visited (Jóhannesson et al., 2010, Sæþórsdóttir, 2010). The recent tourism campaign, based on the attractiveness of the natural environment, was thus supported by all tourism agencies and actors (Pálsdóttir, 2005). Ecosystem degradation is the biggest environmental problem in Iceland according to the Soil Conservation Service of Iceland (Landgræðsla ríksins), which has the public responsibility of analysing the situation and of fighting erosion. Iceland has an extensive problem with erosion; and where erosion is most serious it coincides with the active volcanic zone. Icelandic soils are predominantly Andosols, which are soils typical of active volcanic regions (Arnalds and Óskarsson, 2009). The Westfjords, however, are located in an area away from the active volcanic region and therefore have a different type of soil. The Westfjords soil is mostly a combination of Brown Andosol-Histic Andosol-Histosol and Gravelly Vitrisol-Cambric Vitrisol and some Leptosol. The soil of the Westfjords is thus more resistant to erosion as it is thicker and more stable than the soil in the volcanic areas. Despite this, the state of soil erosion in the Westfjords is extensive with considerable erosion (rated 3 on the scale from 1 to 5 used by the Soil Conservation Service of Iceland to rate the severity of soil erosion), causing losses of continuous vegetated ecosystems. Adding to this the short growing season this far north, the Westfjords have a fragile vegetated area where care needs to be taken in relation to the growing number of visitors and their impacts on the fragile environment. Even a small number of tourists, whether by foot or motorized transport, can quickly have negative impacts on the vegetation and it is therefore important to educate both the visitors and the people working in tourism on how to prevent negative impacts on the natural environment.

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Erg Chebbi (Morocco)

Erg Chebbi is located in the Tafilalt region of SE Morocco close to the Algeriąn border. It is one of the smallest Sahara ergs with a maximum length from north to south of about 18 km and a maximum width of 9 km. Erg Chebbi is built mostly from two types of dune forms: the star dunes and the transverse dunes. There are 13 well developed star dunes (Barczuk et al., 2008), and their dominant heights are between 120–160 m (Dłużewski, 2008). The star dunes comprise two main groups: in the eastern and western part of the erg (Barczuk et al., 2008 after: Barczuk et al., 2006). The transverse dunes are located between the star dunes and they are also present in the erg border zones, mostly in its eastern and southern parts (Barczuk et al., 2008; Dłużewski, 2008). There are two dominant wind directions in the Erg Chebbi area: SW and NE (Benmohammadi, 2001). Thanks to the seasonal changing of wind direction the creation of two types of dunes has occurred. The dominant mineral within the dunes is quartz which has fomed as a result of the long period of aeolisation that the material was subjected to (Dłużewski, 2008). The amount of these aeolian accumulation forms, and their density on the relatively small surface of the dunes (162 km2) are main natural attractions of this area. The climate of the region is that of a hot desert and, while attractive to sun lovers, it is the main factor in making the tourism season very short as from mid-May until mid-September the air temperature is often higher than 40ºC and can reach more than 45ºC in June, July and August thus making it too hot to be conducive to tourism (Benmohammadi, 2001). Precipitation is very limited at about 70 mm per year and the low temperatures of –40ºC in January make it impossible to maintain the accommodation used for Tuareg camping. Moreover, the extremes of temperatures render the region inaccessible for those suffering from circulatory system diseases or simply for aged tourists. The result of these factors is that the tourist season is limited to a period from mid-March until mid-May and again from mid-September until the first days of December which equates to around four or five months in total. The almost complete lack of vegetation in the erg and the sand dunes (Barczuk et al., 2008), means that a particular natural attraction are the oases in the south-west part of the erg, close to villages of Merzouga and Hassi Labied. In the vicinity of Merzouga there is a periodical salt water Lake named Dayet Srij which acts as an important site for migrating birds (mostly flamingos) and is a very important attraction for tourists. The lodging basis in Erg Chebbi is represented by more than 70 hotels, riads, kazbas or ksours (Bouaouinate, 2009) with most of them having a restaurant or serving meals for guests. Many hotels possess green gardens, a


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still oasis or swimming pools and most have views of the sand dunes. The camping sites are usually attached to the hotels buildings and there are also usually some basic shops. The tourism infrastructure consists of plenty of small agencies organizing camel safaris, mostly of one or two days, with bivouacs in the desert and both tourism agencies and hotels tend to provide sand board equipment and quads. Following Gaworecki’s (2003) tourism typology we can distinguish sight seeing, qualified, cultural and alternative tourism as the main types of tourism for the Erg Chebbi region. One of the motivations for sightseeing tourism is the perception that tourists have of the landscape and their desire to experience the attractive environment at first hand. For this reason tourists participate in treks across the dunes to look at the sunrise, or to admire aeolian forms from 4x4 vehicles. Camel safaris, with overnight camping on the desert, are also very popular. Examples for qualified tourism in Erg Chebbi can be sand boarding, 4x4 or quad driving. We can also identify alternative tourism (with the aim to learn about local customs and culture) and cultural tourism. A cultural tourism attraction is the Festival of Desert Music (Festival des Musiques du Desert) organized every year in Merzouga, the biggest tourist town in the Erg Chebbi vicinity. The promotional campaign of Morocco makes use of the desert images. The images suggest “having fun” and adventure by using 4x4 vehicles on the sand dunes or taking camel trips to watch romantic sunsets etc.. There is no information about the uniqueness of the natural environment or its fragility and no information about local cultures and religions is provided. The tourism promotion campaign simultaneously gives the impression that the culture is exotic with local men and women are dressed in particular ways and behaving according to particular roles while tourists are portrayed in Tourism Morocco brochures and promotional movies with images of women in bikinis horse riding over sand dunes. As the result, the impact of tourism on local society and the environment has been very negative with tourists deemed to improperly dressed by showing too much of their bodies and walking around with bottles of beer in hand (mostly western Beer), both of which are unacceptable for the local Muslim society. The second kinds of dysfunction generated by tourists on Erg Chebbi are those related to the natural environment. Garbage on the desert now forms part of the regular landscape, lowering the attractiveness of the place, and vandalism of public properties is common. The impact of traffic and the long term transformation of the landscape is exacerbated by tyre pressure on the

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surface of the sand and by the use of 4x4, quads or motorbikes by tourists who are unbalancing the natural environment homeostasis. Tyre marks can take years to disappear and the garbage, conserved in the dry conditions, can take 30 years or more to degrade. Some garbage, consisting of plastic bags, plastic and glass bottles, car parts or even electronic equipment left by tourists, take seven times longer to degrade. The dust caused by car traffic is another obstacle to development of vegetation. Very often there are no signs to indicate or limit campsites and, in consequence, campsites are often established in nesting areas. Tree felling to build the tourism infrastructure, even when undertaken in small areas, interferes with the natural environment and accelerates the desertification.

Significance In all deserts there are always some zones that are more resistant to destruction than others and where tourism has a lesser negative impact on the environment than in other areas. One way of seeking to minimize negative tourism impacts in areas of high natural value, especially when these are not the only tourism areas or the most important environments for particular countries, is the fragmentation of the area into smaller zones. Zoning makes it possible to implement environmental education on a more local scale and with legal regulations relating to tourism and land use adjusted for a particular area. This, in turn, allows for the channeling of tourism within the destination and makes it possible for park rangers to implement regulations more effectively and according to specific environmental needs. Negative impacts of tourism can be minimized further through the education of local people, tourism organizations and legal representatives. The research undertaken for this chapter demonstrates that in specific areas like the Tatra National Park in Poland, implementing these measures can reduce the negative impact of tourism even when visitor numbers continue to increase.

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