Education, Language, and Economics - Sense Publishers

C O M PA R AT I V E A N D I N T E R N AT I O N A L E D U C AT I O N : A D I V E R S I T Y O F V O I C E S

C O M PA R AT I V E A N D I N T E R N AT I O N A L E D U C AT I O N : A D I V E R S I T Y O F V O I C E S

Growing National and Global Dilemmas Macleans A. Geo-JaJa Brigham Young University, Utah, U.S.A.

and

Suzanne Majhanovich (Eds.) The University of Western Ontario, Canada

This book offers a multiplicity of approaches to education and development, and posits that distributional equity and quality education in a globalized world require a strong state and commitment to social justice to counteract growing disparities evident in educational and economic indices. The authors illustrate how respatialization of the contemporary state is rapidly taking shape in concrete institutions to recast the boundaries of the social, political and economic in fundamental ways. Education, Language, and Economics: Growing National and Global Dilemmas serves as an ideal introduction to key contemporary debates on politics, culture, and the economy.

S e n s e P u b l i s h e r s CAIE 04 WCCES 02

Macleans A. Geo-JaJa and Suzanne Majhanovich (Eds.)

There are two contending opinions with regard to the seemingly amorphous phenomenon of globalization. Some believe that globalization has brought rapid prosperity to developing countries while others argue that globalization best serves the needs of countries of the developed world. Bringing globalization under the microscope of education, this book illustrates how globalization is producing unprecedented impacts on education and culture through a series of country case studies elaborating on effects of economic and educational policies in the modern globalized world. New emphasis on the interplay between state and education policy initiatives in developed and developing countries also illuminates the direct and indirect impact of globalization in equity and quality-driven education reforms, with particular focus on the contribution of marketization or privatization to the ongoing commodification of education and curricula, presenting dilemmas to both developed and developing countries to provide quality education for all, protect human rights, and ensure equity in all realms of human endeavor.

Education, Language, and Economics


Education, Language, and Economics Growing National and Global Dilemmas Macleans A. Geo-JaJa and Suzanne Majhanovich (Eds.)

SensePublishers


The World Council of Comparative Education Societies Volume: CAIE 04 AND WCCES 02 The WCCES is an international organization of comparative education societies worldwide and is an NGO in Operational Relations with UNESCO. The WCCES was created in 1970 to advance the field of comparative education. Members usually meet every three years for a World Congress in which scholars, researchers and administrators interact with counterparts from around the globe on international issues of education. The WCCES also promotes research programmes involving scholars in various countries. Currently, joint research programmes focus on: theory and methods in comparative education, gender discourses in education, teacher education, education for peace and justice, education in post-conflict countries, language of instruction issues, Education for All and other topics. Besides organizing the World Congress, the WCCES issues a Bulletin in Innovation, the publication of the International Bureau of Education in Geneva, Switzerland, and in CERCular published by the Comparative Education Research Centre (University of Hong Kong), to keep individual societies and their members abreast of activities around the world. A web site is maintained, at http://www.wcces.net. As a result of these efforts, comparativists have become better organized and identified, as well as more effective in viewing problems and applying skills from different perspectives. It is anticipated that we can advance education for international understanding in the interests of peace, intercultural cooperation, observance of human rights and mutual respect among peoples. The WCCES Series Series Editors: Suzanne Majhanovich and Allan Pitman The WCCES Series is established to provide for the broader dissemination of discourses between its members. Representing as it does Societies and their members from all continents, the organization provides a special forum for the discussion of issues of interest and concern among comparativists and those working in international education. This volume is the second of five, with their origins in the proceedings of the World Council of Comparative Education Societies XIII World Congress, which met in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3 – 7 September, 2007. The conference theme, Living Together: Education and Intercultural Dialogue, provides the frame linking the set. The books represent four major strands of the discussions at the congress, and a commemoration of the work of David Wilson, a major contributor to the field of comparative and international education and to the work of the World Council. Each chapter in this peer reviewed series has been developed from presentations at that meeting. The books are: Tatto, M. and Mincu, M. (Eds.), Reforming Teaching and Learning. Geo JaJa, M. A. and Majhanovich, S. (Eds.), Education, Language and Economics: Growing National and Global Dilemmas Pampanini, G., Adly, F. & Napier, D. (Eds.), Interculturalism, Society and Education Fox, C. & Pitman, A. (Ed.) Comparative Education and Inter-Cultural Education and Masemann, V., Majhanovich, S., Truong, N., and Janigan, K. (Eds.), A Tribute to David N. Wilson.Clamoring for a Better World.

Education, Language, and Economics Growing National and Global Dilemmas

Edited by

Macleans A. Geo-JaJa Brigham Young University, Utah, U.S.A.

Suzanne Majhanovich The University of Western Ontario, Canada

SENSE PUBLISHERS ROTTERDAM/BOSTON/TAIPEI

A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ vii Overview and Introduction...................................................................................... ix Suzanne Majhanovich and Macleans Geo-JaJa Part I: Education Perspectives from Asia and Africa 1. Globalisation and Growing Global Perspectives in Higher Education Curriculum: General Tendencies in India............................................................ 3 Solomon Arulraj David and Danny Wildemeersch 2. A Comparative Study of Total Quality Management (TQM) Approaches to Student Services at Private Universities in Japan and Thailand .................... 17 David T. Gamage, Jaratdao Suwanabroma, Takeuki Ueyama, Sekio Hada and Edsuo Sekikawa 3. A Threat to Educational Quality in Sierra Leone’s Achieving Education for All ............................................................................................... 39 Mikako Nishimuko 4. Development and Education Challenges in the Niger Delta in Nigeria............. 53 Macleans A. Geo-JaJa and Steve Azaiki Part II: Cultural and Language Issues in Education 5. Ethnolinguistic Minorities and Non-Dominant Languages in Mainland Southeast Asian Language- in- Education Policies ........................................... 73 Kimmo Kosonen 6. Relating Intercultural Education to Equal Opportunity in Education ................ 89 Christian Horst 7. Language and Culture for Development.......................................................... 109 Birgit Brock-Utne 8. Canadian Language Policies: An Example of Political Expediency?.............. 127 Suzanne Majhanovich Part III: Internationalization of Education 9. Cultural Readiness for Internationalization: A Model for Planned Change .... 141 Melanie Agnew and W. Duffie VanBalkom v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

10. The Bologna Declaration and the Risks of Internationalization .................... 155 Edzard J. Boerma 11. Between National Higher Education Systems and Internationalisation: The Case of Teacher Education in Europe .................................................... 167 Pavel Zgaga 12. Motivation and Incentives for University Entrepreneurialism in Eastern and Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis Based on the Euerek Project............................................................................................................ 181 Aljona Sandgren and Görel Strömqvist Contributors ......................................................................................................... 195

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Editors acknowledge with thanks the following reviewers of the papers in this volume: Steve Azaiki Kingsley Banya Barbara Culatta Scott Ferrin Pamela Hallam Cliff Mayes James Ogunleye Vance Randall Joseph Zajda The Editors also thank Michel Lokhorst, Editor, Sense Publications for his support in the development of this collection and Bernice Kelly for her work on this volume.

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SUZANNE MAJHANOVICH AND MACLEANS GEO-JAJA

OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION

The 13th World Congress of Comparative Education Societies took place in Sarajevo Bosnia in 2007 with the organizing theme of “Living Together: Education and Intercultural Dialogues.” The theme was especially pertinent for the Balkan region that had so recently experienced the conflict that saw the break up of the former Yugoslavia in a brutal, vicious war where former neighbors turned against each other, many aligning themselves by ethnic and religious origin. By 2007, the fighting was over, and new national boundaries had been drawn, but deep scars remained as the new political entities sought to rebuild and re-orient themselves. The large international congress provided an ideal venue to bring together scholars and researchers from around the world to engage in dialogues on how to realize better intercultural communication and understanding. If Bosnia provided tangible evidence of the vital need to commit to intercultural understanding and dialogue, it is but one example in a globalized world with ever increasing migration of peoples and constantly developing economic links connected through sophisticated communication technologies, and the problems that arise as a result of the new economic configurations. It is something of a paradox that the intensification of globalization with its tendencies to “de-territorialize” and promote interconnectedness (SEP, 2008, Steiner-Khamsi, 2009) has provoked a reaction of nationalism, particularly among smaller developing states and their citizens who view the spread of interconnectedness as a threat to their identity and culture (Olmos & Torres, 2009). Indeed, although globalization has made it possible for people all around the world to come into greater contact with diverse cultures and values, it often seems that it is the developed nations of the G20 with their more robust economies that are dictating the organization of the new globalized world, and exemplifying the new global citizens. Certainly these countries with the aid of international financial institutions and powerful trans-national companies have been quite successful in promoting their vision of the “New World Order.” In conjunction with this vision is the impetus to pressure education systems into reforming themselves to conform to intrumemental goals, thus neglecting intrinsic golas. In this “New World Order”, a different type of work force is needed with particular skills and knowledge (Arnove, 2009), hence, the recent emphasis on commodification of education by emphasizing mathematics, science, and technology. Powerful international institutions such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, rather than UNESCO, have increasingly influenced educational policy especially in developing countries (Mundy, 1999). The shift in educational priorities to a neo-liberal agenda has been felt worldwide and is evidenced through decentralization or privatization of school systems (Dale & ix

MAJHANOVICH AND GEO-JAJA

Robertson, 2002), and an attendant push for entrepreneurialism. Professional accountability has been replaced with fiscal accountability and increased attention to standards as measured by international tests such as PISA (Apple, 1999; Rizvi & Lingard, 2009; Arnove, 2009). In evaluating current research on globalization and the commodification of education, Zajda(2009) showed that constant pressure from the forces of globalization and the ubiquitous competitive market forces, with its evolving and growing in complexity social stratification of nations and education systems, has generated further polarization and socio-economic divisions in society. At the other end, Rizvi and Lingard (2009:440) note how intergovernmental organizations such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) no longer confine their activities to promoting and measuring economic development but also extend their influence to educational policy. In this vein, school systems worldwide have been affected by the new imperatives marketed in our globalized world but developing countries have faced the most negative impact of these policies, and have the least power to resist them. The article by Geo-JaJa and Mangum (2002:24) that critically examines the interplay between the state and education reforms in developing countries, which also explores the direct and indirect impact of globalization in equity and qualitydriven education reforms, with particular focus on the contribution of marketization or privatization to the ongoing commodification of education and curricula in Africa will also conclude that such reforms make it difficult for developing countries to provide quality education for all, protect human rights, and ensure equity in education language usage, as they have only created a “fourth world” From the above preamble, it might seem that globalization has exerted only a negative influence. Indeed the economic neo-liberal demands of such organizations as the World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank and the IMF have caused increasing disparities between the have and have-not countries and populations, and have also contributed to the erosion of traditional culture. This is exemplified by the privilege that English enjoys as the language of business, science and technology. However, the story is not all bleak. Even Chomsky, who is very critical of globalization in its connection to international economic integration, nevertheless, recognizes a more positive role of this phenomenon. He has said. “[n]o sane person is opposed to globalization, that is, international integration— that is, globalization in a form that attends to the rights of people, not private power systems (Chomsky, 2002, 205 cited in Wikipedia, 2009). Globalization with a humsn face has the ability to empower people and nations, as well as the potential to promote intercultural dialogue in the most positive sense. An international conference such as the 13th WCCES is an example of positive globalization at work where scholars are free to present their research carried out in many parts of the world and to discuss with others the successes and challenges of educational reforms and initiatives from all corners of the world. At the 13th World Congress in 2007, the various subgroups engaged in debates on different aspects of the effects of globalization on intercultural relations, on education and on research. The articles in this collection are drawn from the over 180 papers in the sub-groups on Policy and Economic Considerations: Language, Higher Education, and Education x


for All. The volume contains largely a series of country case studies elaborating on positives and negatives of economic and educational policies in the modern globalized world. The book has been organized into three sections. The first, Education Perspectives from Asia and Africa, features four papers that illustrate the problems that globalization has wrought on the developing world as well as the push to implement neo-liberal practices that has commodified education. The second part, Cultural and Language Issues in Education, looks at language policies and their effects, positive and negative, on minority groups and intercultural understanding. The final section, Internationalization in Education, presents four papers that reveal the extent to which the neo-liberal agenda for higher education that has already been adopted in various countries and regions has produced different results- desired as well as the undersired. In Perspectives from Asia and Africa, authors explore problems created by globalization for Higher Education Institutions in India, Japan and Thailand as well as challenges to Education for All (EFA), a Millennium Development Goal, initiatives in two African countries, Sierra Leone and Nigeria. David and Wildemeersch in Globalization and Growing Global Perspectives in Higher Education Curriculum: General Tendencies in India focus on the questions of what globalization is and how it affects higher education; that is, how global perspectives are reflected in higher education curriculum. They contextualize their discussion to the situation in India. After a review of the implications of globalization in general, taking into account neo-liberal, critical, and socio-democratic perspectives, they conclude that it is inevitable that higher education institutions in India will be implicated in the effects of globalization. They even see some advantages for India as its economy develops and it becomes a force to be reckoned with in the global market, especially in the area of technology. However, they caution that vigilance and a critical perspective is needed to address the growing disparities between rich and poor that globalization causes. They also see the need to protect local perspectives and diversity in the curriculum while implementing global agendas. These are issues that will require much attention and ongoing research. In A Comparative Study of Total Quality Management (TQM) Approaches to Student Services at Private Universities in Japan and Thailand, Gamage, Suwanabroma, Ueyama, Hada and Sekikawa reveal the extent to which the business approach to universities has already taken hold, at least in the private universities. They attribute these changes to higher education in recent years to the capitulation of universities to the corporate model where fiscal accountability, efficiency and managerialism matter more than the substance of education offered. The private universities in Japan and Thailand studied have come to resemble service industries with the students as clients. The methodology the researchers applied in the study included a questionnaire they administered to students at universities in the two countries designed to measure the degree of satisfaction with such measures as quality of academic staff, quality of academic programs, (with a focus on the relationship of course content to future employability), reputation of the universities, and non-academic factors such as financial assistance and tuition, counseling and support services, and job placement services. Other measures involved grievance xi


procedures, physical plant facilities, library and computer facilities as well as opportunities to engage in recreational activities and join student organizations. Although it is clear that university administrators need to attend to the academic factors listed above to offer a satisfying and fulfilling learning experience for their students, and further, it is recognized that higher education institutions in this age must be prepared to “market their product” to attract the best candidates, it is significant to see the extent to which higher education has come to accept as a given the over-riding importance of branding and marketing that lead to the implementtation of quality assurance measures (itself a business term). The emphasis on the instrumental purposes of education (for employability) is troubling. Surely there are other more aesthetic and philosophical values that should be the priority of higher education. Mikako Nishimuko in A Threat to Educational Quality in Sierra Leone’s Achieving Education for All reports on the serious problems Sierra Leone faces in trying to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of achieving Education For All. Like many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Sierra Leone appears to have little chance of realizing the MDG of free primary education despite having adopted policy to implement FPE. As a post-conflict nation, emerging from a decade long civil war only in 2002, the infrastructure of Sierra Leone has been badly damaged and a high percentage of the population lives in abject poverty, both factors of which have contributed to the failure to attain EFA and FPE. It appears, however, that a greater cause has been the government’s misguided acceptance of questionable austerity measures promoted by international financial institutions. Nishimuko conducted her study in five towns from all regions of Sierra Leone and visited eleven public schools and one private school where she observed classes and interviewed teachers and representatives from local NGOs. She looked at factors such as teacher-pupil ratios, teacher salaries, class time hours of class time, language of instruction and children’s home environment, as well as access to schools (distance from home to school). School fees constituted a particular burden to parents and an obstacle to children’s access to school. Despite policies of Free Primary Education, in fact, insufficient resources from the government has meant that schooling is not free. The study shows that such policies as EFA and FPE although well meaning, are not realistic for countries such as Sierra Leone, as it lacks the political will to provide the necessary required public expenditure. Only the involvement of certain NGOs in the country is making up for the lack of provision of services from the government, but it is not sufficient. Equal and sustainable access to quality schooling remains an unrealized goal in this postconflict nation. Development and Education Challenges in the Niger Delta in Nigeria by Macleans A. Geo-JaJa and Steve Azaiki presents yet another case of development initiatives that have not resulted in noticeable impact and improvement in the quality of life nor to access to education in the region under discussion. The case of the Niger Delta is a particularly tragic one since Nigeria is one of the richest oilproducing nations in the world and yet its citizens, especially those in the Niger Delta fare very poorly on life expectancy, education, per capita income, as well as xii


in Human Poverty Indices when compared with other oil producing countries. The low Human Development Indices of the Niger Delta are unfortunately not unique among oil producing countries. A recent report on a World Bank financed Oil Development program in Chad-Cameroon also reveals that despite financial success for the managers, capacity building for Chad did not take place nor was poverty in the region reduced (Worldbank.org, 2009). Geo-JaJa and Azaiki attribute the problems to a government that has preferred a neo-liberal agenda for education and development rather than the promotion of socio-cultural and political rights. As in the previous article on education in Sierra Leone, Nigeria has little chance of reaching Millennium Development Goals because of the adoption of policies that work against educational equity and quality in such areas as the Niger Delta (Geo-JaJa 2006), a serious lack of financial provision for education and neglect of the type of education that would really benefit the populace. The authors lament the fact that the education available today is reminiscent of that offered in colonial times which is in no way suitable for the realities of the people in the 21st Century. The authors call for an end to top-down imposition of educational policies which have disempowered the people and ensured their continued impoverishment. What is needed is to grant the people “own development” rights so that they can actively decide their own destiny, and gain voice for their economic and social rights. The neo-liberal approach to education in the Niger Delta has been an instrument of absolute failure and disempowerment for the people, they concluded. In the first section of the book, we have seen the changes that have taken place in higher education institutions and primary and secondary school systems as a result of adoption of a business approach, which has commodified education. In the cases of Sierra Leone and Nigeria, it is clear that neo-liberal influences on school systems and policies have not reaped the hoped for benefits at the grass-roots level. The second part of the volume is devoted to language issues in four areas of the world. Kimmo Kosonen’s chapter, Ethnolinguistic Minorities and Non-dominant Languages in Mainland Southeast Asian Language-in-Education Policies reports on progress in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam in offering mother-tongue instruction to the hundreds of linguistic minority groups (that is, those who speak a non-dominant language) in the region. Given the Millennium Development Goals and push for achieving Education for All that the five countries under discussion have agreed to, mother-tongue instruction provides both a challenge and an opportunity. Most developing countries are struggling to provide EFA in the official language of the country. However, there is a growing body of literature recommending use of mother-tongue instruction at least in the early primary years to facilitate learning and early literacy, as well as to honor linguistic human rights (Cummins, 2000; Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000, Benson & Kosonen, 2009). Many have dismissed mother-tongue education for developing countries as being too expensive. Nevertheless, the practices of Mother-Tongue Education (MTE) in the five South East Asian countries reported in Kosonen’s paper are very encouraging. He admits that most education programs in nondominant languages particularly for pre-school and adults are run by local NGOs in the non-formal sector. Still, governments in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam xiii


have sanctioned pilot mother-tongue education programs. Kosonen is optimistic that the education situation will improve for the non-dominant language groups in the region. Christian Horst’s chapter, Relating Intercultural Education to Equal Opportunity in Education is considerably less optimistic about language rights for minorities in Denmark than Kosonen was for those in the South-East Asian area. One has to wonder why the distinctive difference. Denmark had a long tradition of providing mother-tongue education to minority children and had produced policies to support MTE. Since 2001, however, right wing politicians have worked to undermine the MTE laws, ostensibly in the name of fiscal responsibility, but as Horst reveals, a more sinister process may be in play. Horst finds the current situation that permits MTE for ethnic minority children from other European Union countries, for regional national minority groups (German speaking), and for children from the European Economic Area countries such as Iceland, but not for those from the so-called “Third Countries” which includes countries from the rest of the world in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas to be very problematical. These are mainly refugees, immigrants and asylees whose rights as citizens are not protected in accordance to the UN Refugee Geneva Convention of 1951. Much of the paper details the period of negotiation where government officials were asked to justify their decision to remove MTE from some students. Horst demonstrates how unsatisfactory the government responses were. The author concludes that the current agenda is to promote a mono-cultural Denmark. Despite recommendations by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) that the government reverse some of the recent policies that are viewed as discriminatory to some minority groups, thus far the government has not reacted. In conclusion, Horst cautions that under globalization individual rights have often been undermined in favor of short-term instrumental agendas, and that such appears to be the case in Denmark. The author is concerned about growing racism and nationalism in the country and recommends multicultural education research to inform and offset the growing negative trends. In Language and Culture for Development, Birgit Brock-Utne makes a strong case for valorization of indigenous culture and language in schooling in Africa. She also draws on some examples from the Scandinavian region that has several indigenous groups whose languages and cultures are routinely ignored. Her own long experience working in Africa has solidified her concerns that far too much textural material especially at the post-secondary level is provided in one of the colonial languages, usually English. As she sees it, there are four possibilities for education materials. The first and most common one is represented by texts from abroad written in a colonial language, such as English or French with no modifications to suit the local context. She comments that a World Bank loan to one African country for educational materials stipulated that all materials had to be bought in the European country (and presumably would have been developed for that country, not for the region seeking educational texts). The second option that does not provide any acknowledgement of local contexts includes materials created abroad but simply translated into a local language with no attempts to accommodate xiv


for unfamiliar cultural content. The third option would include materials written by Africans but in one of the colonial languages such as English or French. The final option, the one she prefers as the best way to acknowledge the value of indigenous languages and cultures would be educational materials written in the local language with examples from the local context – this might be termed localization of education. Sadly, the localization of education is the least prevalent. As mentioned with regard to the Kosonen article, there is ample research that underlines the importance of mother-tongue education, especially in the early years to ensure future educational success. It is also imperative that local cultures are recognized for the benefit of development of self-worth among indigenous populations. Still in the modern globalized world, people will need to be capable of functioning in major world languages. Hence, Brock-Utne supports the model proposed by the Ghanian, Bodomo and Cameroonian socio-linguist, Maurice Tadadjeu, both of whom promote tri-lingual education for Africans. Their program would consist of education in the mother tongue at first, in the local majority African language through secondary and tertiary education along with instruction in an international foreign language provided by foreign language teachers. Brock-Utne closes with recommendations that she feels will protect indigenous languages and cultures. She advises countries with indigenous groups to record indigenous knowledge, oral histories and, in the case of Africa, to develop educational materials in African languages. She also supports the learning of international languages as taught by trained foreign language teachers. Brock-Utne’s paper is very much in the realm of intercultural communication with a strong message that the world must recognize the importance of indigenous languages and cultures, as made consistent with the UN 1986 Convention on the Right of Indigenous People to Development. Canadian Language Policies: An Example of Political Expediency? by Suzanne Majhanovich points out the policies put in place in officially bilingual English and French Canada to protect the French language and culture. The importance accorded to support for Canada’s other official language, French, is exemplified by the fact that in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a full eight clauses out of thirty-three deal with language rights. The policies for French, put in place by both the Federal Government as well as the provincial Quebec Government have succeeded in keeping French strong and viable in Canada, even in a globalized age when English is fast becoming the main international language. The same cannot be said for many indigenous languages in Canada, most of which are in danger of dying out entirely along with native cultures. Canada is a country of immigrants and as such has many citizens whose first language is neither English nor French. Policies to protect the linguistic rights of minorities are weak or non-existent. It is largely up to ethnic communities to ensure preservation of their language and culture. Majhanovich argues that much more could be done, but in times when English is so highly valued as the language of the global world, there is a risk that future policies will mirror those Horst describes from Denmark (which promote the official language Danish and ignore the needs of those who speak other languages). In Canada there is on-going pressure to privilege strong xv


English Second Language programs at the expense of other languages, following the arguments that economically it is necessary to ensure that all Canadian citizens have mastered this world language so as to compete in the global economy. The final portion of the book features four papers that reflect efforts by higher education institutions to conform to and promote agendas associated with internationalization. It will be for the reader to decide how beneficial the actions have been for students and citizens of the countries described in these cases. The first paper by Melanie Agnew and W. Duffie Van Balkom acknowledges the growth of internationalization in education. In Cultural Readiness for Internationalization: A Model for Planned Change, the authors present the cases of two American universities to measure the extent to which the institutions have modified their organizational profiles to promote global literacy among their staffs and students. To undertake their analyses, they employed Sporn’s model of Cultural Readiness for Internationalization (CRI) to measure the orientation of a university in terms of strength of culture and internal or external orientation. This model is applied to two American universities, one a large public state university and the other a smaller private Jesuit university. They studied the institutions at the macro, meso, and micro levels using document analysis, interviews and focus groups among other methods to collect data. They found that the smaller, private university had a strong externally oriented culture that enabled it to participate in international research projects and initiatives. The larger state university, on the other hand, was found to have a weak internally-oriented culture that impedes international connections. The authors recognize that further testing of the CRI model is needed. It appears that they accept the necessity for higher education institutions to engage in internationalization. However, they might wish to consider whether smaller private institutions might be automatically better placed to engage in internationalization. The larger the institution, the greater chance exists for conflicting attitudes towards the benefits of internationalization. They might also wish to consider overall benefits to students and the local society of a full program of internationalization. As the authors report, the larger institution saw its mission as supporting local needs, and so perhaps it is natural that internationalization is not (yet) a priority for such a school. The fact that the larger university is publicly supported may dictate priorities for local over international orientation. Edzard Boerma takes up the issue of internationalization in the context of the European Union in his paper The Bologna Declaration and the Risks of Internationalization. As the European Union has evolved, a number of educational policies have been developed to bring universities of the respective countries into closer alignment. The Bologna Declaration was one such policy initiative introduced in 1999 “to increase the international competitiveness of the European system of higher education” (Joint Declaration, 1999), and to create the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The goal was to enable mobility of students and researchers and recognition of credentials across the EU nations. However, Boerma argues that the document did not take into account the existing unitary models of European higher education and promoted the American or Anglo-Saxon twolevel model of undergraduate and graduate studies. Boerma details the problems xvi


universities in the Netherlands in particular have experienced in trying to bring their programs in line with the Bologna plan. He also reviews the follow-up meetings held in the European Union to try to address problems of the accord. In general, Boerma deplores the fact that the Accord was declared without sufficient comparative analysis of the structure of higher education in the European Union countries. Boerma reports that thus far the Bologna Declaration has been difficult to implement. He recommends that policy makers look to the California model of higher education with its variety of possibilities for levels and types of higher education as a source of inspiration for future development of the process. Pavel Zgaga in his paper Between National Higher Education Systems and Internationalization: the Case of Teacher Education in Europe looks at another problem that has arisen for higher education as a result of the Bologna Declaration. Teacher education in Europe has over the past decades been ‘upgraded’ from training in teachers colleges and institutes to university programs with academic credentials. In keeping with the intent of the Bologna Accord, teacher education needs to be structured to allow mobility of teachers across Europe. Zgaga argues that if this is to be possible, teacher education institutes will need to work towards a policy for all of Europe. However, this will be a challenge since curriculum is localized to local cultures and national interests. Is it desirable to create one teacher education program for all of Europe? How will this affect linguistic and cultural elements, not to overlook history courses developed in the previous unitary states? One has to consider if it is possible for teacher education programs to meet the intentions of the Bologna Declaration with regard to development of a program that would make teaching credentials from any European Union country acceptable in the other nations of the union. The final chapter in the collection by Aljona Sandgren and Görel Strömqvist, Motivation and Incentives for University Entrepreneurialism in Eastern and Western Europe describes a study of twenty-nine universities from the European Union and the former Soviet States. The authors examine the extent to which entrepreneurialism has taken root in the universities. Their findings show what might be called a “Brave new world” among today’s European universities where contract work is on the rise and where academic freedom is tempered by the entrepreneurial initiatives espoused by the higher education institutions. What research is privileged and counts as worthwhile? The authors are concerned over the managerial culture that is coming to dominate the universities, and fear that academics are being forced into putting expedience before principles, pursuing narrow research agendas the institutions see as having best potential for concrete financial returns. Paradoxically, the promotion of entrepreneurialism, because it is restricted by a business, neo-liberal agenda, has, in their opinion, stifled true entrepreneurialism, risk taking and cutting edge research. FINAL OBSERVATIONS

An ongoing motif in many of the chapters in this collection has been the growing encroachment of neo-liberal forces of globalization into educational systems both in the developed and developing world. The authors agree that education at all xvii


levels–from primary school to university education–is undergoing a world wide transformation of its objectives, values, and practices. New emphasis on competition, quality control, entrepreneurialism, and commodification and the linkage of education to work means that schools now face innovations and challenges to established traditions. Taking into consideration broad historical, cultural, technological, and demographic changes, the contributors suggest that these global transformations, which require the massive spread of education and of Western oriented norms of learning at all levels have consequences for widely available schooling and are a large part of the globalization process. Furthermore, this process requires citizens to develop new skills, new languages and sensibilities, and orientations that are far ahead of what most educational systems can now deliver. It is striking the extent to which it is accepted as a given that this business oriented agenda should drive policy, even when the results have not been positive nor have ordinary people reaped the expected benefits of this supposedly efficient model of organization. In light of recent global economic problems where the serious shortcomings of neo-liberalism have been revealed, it will be interesting to see if the next few years will see adjustments in educational policy to negate the problems that neo-liberal globalization has caused. The question that still remains to be answered is how serious should we take a World Bank report titled The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa that calls for need to overhaul the education systems to meet the demands of an increasingly competitive world. REFERENCES Apple, M. (1999). Power, meaning and identity: Essays in critical educational studies. New York: Peter Lang. Arnove, R. (2009). World-systems analysis and comparative education in the age of globalization. In R. Cowen & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 101–119). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media. Benson, C., & Kosonen, K. (2009). Langue-in-education policy and practice in Southeast Asia in light of the findings from Ethiopia. In K. Heugh & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Successful multilingual education—from Africa to the world. (forthcoming). Chomsky, N. (2002, 2005). Globalization. Cited in Wikipedia from two Croatian interviews-Znet, May 7, 2002; interview by Sniježana Matejčić, June, 2005 en.2htm. Wikipedia on Globalization (article last modified November 2009). Retrieved November 27, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Globalization/ Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Dale, R., & Robertson, S. (2002). The varying effects of regional organizations as subjects of globalization of education. Comparative Education Review, 46(1), 10–36. Geo-JaJa, M., A. & Mangum, G. (2002). Sapping human capital investment: The impact of structural adjustment policies on African human development policies. Education and Society, 20(1), 5–28. Geo-JaJa, M. A. (2006). Educational decentralization, public spending, and social justice in Nigeria. International Review of Education, 52(1–2), 129–153. Mundy, K. (1999). Educational multilateralism in a changing world order: UNESCO, the limits of the possible. International Journal of Educational Development, 19, 27–52. Olmos, L. E., & Torres, C. A. (2009). Theories of the state, educational expansion, development, and globalizations: Marxian and critical approaches. In R. Cowan & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International xviii

OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION handbook of comparative education (pp. 73–86). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media. Rizvi, F., & Lingard, B. (2009). The OECD and global shifts n education policy. In R. Cowan & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 437–453). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education—or worldwide diversity and human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. “Globalization.” The SEP, Fall 2008 Ed., Edward N. Zalta, Ed. Retrieved November 27, 2009, from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall 2008/entries/globalization/ Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2009). Comparison: Quo Vadis? In R. Cowan & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 1141–1158). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media. Zajda, J. (2009). Globalization and comparative research: Implications for education. In J. Zajda & V. Rust (Eds.), Globalization, policy and comparative research. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

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PART I: EDUCATION PERSPECTIVES FROM ASIA AND AFRICA

SOLOMON ARULRAJ DAVID AND DANNY WILDEMEERSCH

1. GLOBALISATION AND GROWING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN HIGHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM: GENERAL TENDENCIES IN INDIA1

INTRODUCTION

Globalisation has steadily and deeply influenced many aspects of life and education is no exception. We understand that Higher Education (HE) is very sensitive to this development. The basic assumption underlying the relationship between globalisation and educational changes is that knowledge is considered an important driving force for globalisation and therefore globalisation should have profound impact on knowledge and education (Carnoy 1999). The forces of globalisation have introduced new discourses into curriculum planning. Curriculum in HE is undergoing severe changes that are predominantly influenced by global perspectives and market orientations. In this paper we would like to identify ‘how globalisation influences increasing global perspectives in HE curriculum. Specifically general tendencies in India are explored. New demands and challenges are posed to the curriculum in HE as the world outside the university is constantly undergoing dramatic changes. These new demands have brought in new contents, programs, methods and providers. One important aspect of this new demand on HE curriculum is the growth of a global perspective which is now more evident in academic planning than ever before. This has brought a shift in the goals and curricula of the universities from preparing better citizens for nation building to preparing active global citizens for growing global demands. What is meant by a global perspective? Where does the term come from? Is this unidirectional, flowing from the west/north to the east/south? To what extent are eastern/southern perspectives parts of this global perspective? Is diversity still possible in the growing homogenization trend? What do we learn from each other: independence, dependence or interdependence? And, how is this all reflected in the modern curricula in HE? These are of course very ambitious questions which should be made more concrete by linking them to the re-organisation of HE curriculum. Although other similar general questions to the above are also of interest, we choose to limit ourselves to three main specific research questions to help us identify how globalisation is influencing global perspectives in HE curriculum and how this is experienced in India. These questions are: 1.) What is globalisation and how does this affect HE? 2.) How are globalisation and global perspectives reflected in HE curriculum? 3.) What are the general tendencies of global perspectives in HE M. A. Geo-JaJa and S. Majhanovich (eds.), Education, Language, and Economics: Growing National and Global Dilemmas, 3–15. © 2010 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

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curriculum in India? The following sections address the three research questions. In the conclusion we support and recommend diversity in HE curriculum and reflect on further research. In this paper we address the issues of how globalisation is influencing global perspectives in HE curriculum by reviewing pertinent literature in the area. We concede that we have not succeeded in identifying strong evidence, especially in our particular case, India. We plan in future to explore further specific evidence in general and in particular for the case of India. GLOBALISATION AND THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN RELATION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

The term globalisation is complex, confusing and increasingly elastic and could even be considered a contradictory concept. It has been defined and interpreted in many ways. It has become one of the most contested words in many tongues and disciplines. To some, globalisation is what happens when the movement of people, goods, capital and ideas among countries and regions accelerates (Coatsworth 2004). It is a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people became increasingly aware of this phenomenon (Morrow & Torres 1999). Some understand globalisation simply as the global diffusion of western modernity (westernization)2. Conversely some others such as Giddens (1990) identify a distinction between globalisation and westernization. Globalisation highlights the complex intersection between a multiplicity of driving forces, embracing economic, financial, technological, cultural, social and political change at global level (Yang 2003). We have done an extensive literature review on the impacts of globalisation in our main study (David & Wildemeersch 2007) and here we highlight the important impacts of globalisation. Globalisation involves restructuring the global economy by creating avenues for free, borderless liberal trade demanding deregulation. The integration of countries in the global economy has diluted the notion of the nationstate and as a result the power of the nation-state is diminished by globalisation. Neo-liberalism has become the dominant ideology in the discourses of politics and policies, making the state as an enterprise. Thus the idea of the welfare state is under attack (Ibid). Trans-national practice has induced the establishment of international/transnational regulating bodies such as the WTO/WB/IMF and has led to the creation of regional political trade arrangements such as the EU/NAFTA/ASEAN. Globalisation promotes convergence/homogenization (Coca-Cola, MacDonalds), yet diversity is supported by the localisation movements and a mixture of both globalisation and localisation fusion signals the heteronomous trend (vegetarian Maharaja Burger in the MacDonalds in India). There are many social implications of globalisation; mainly creating and/or reinforcing disparities between rich and poor (individuals / sectors / countries / regions). Those in an advantageous position and/or are more competent on the world scene win, and others lose. This therefore creates social and economic polarization and furthers marginalization of those on the periphery (both physically 4

GROWING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN CURRICULUM

and ideally). Globalisation also results in educational disparities, where the rich have access to quality education and the poor do not or at most can access lowquality education. Globalisation has also reconfigured the notion of time and space by technological and logistical advancements. It has also pushed scientific and technological advancements (Ibid). Globalisation creates both opportunities and threats. Critics argue that globalisation is causing growing disparities between countries and between citizens of the same country (Tavenas 2003), while supporters point out the significant role of globalisation in poverty reduction and development among the countries that have been able to integrate with the world economy (IMF 2000). However realists contend that globalisation could be beneficial to everyone. C. Peter MaGrath quotes Diana Oblinger, who points out that globalisation is irreversible and suggests integrating it in a meaningful way (Magrath 2000). However it is important to be critical of the developments of globalisation. The impact of globalisation on HE involves finance, performance, demand and trade. Global financial bodies recommend the reduction of public funds in the name of efficient fiscal management. The decline of public funding for HE has resulted in the establishment of self financed colleges (for-profit HE) and self financed courses (in the public HE) and the downsizing of public HE system. This tendency paves the way for decentralization in which the federal government delegates its responsibility to the provincial / local (government) authorities and to private partners. The reduction of public funding has made HE institutions mobilize market based resources such as collecting tuition fees (under the rational ‘cost-sharing and cost-recovery’) engaging in consultation and selling knowledge products (David & Wildemeersch 2007). The emphasis on performance, quality, excellence, relevance, competence and innovation reflects the characteristics of neo-liberal policies, which have been promoted by globalisation forces and agents. The convergence trend is setting global standards for global portability of credentials as there is a growing migration among the workforce around the world. The use of English as an academic language has become global. Globalisation of knowledge although earlier viewed as unidirectional flowing from north/west to south/east, is presently perceived as multidirectional during this age of knowledge interdependence (Ibid). The knowledge based economy demands meta-cognitive, higher knowledge and a highly skilled workforce or knowledge professionals. Therefore it has become very important for success in one’s career to engage in lifelong learning. Globalisation demands the expansion and massification of HE, as there is an increasing demand for trained citizens for the knowledge-related economy. Trade in HE is one of the important impacts of globalisation to HE. This has become very much explicit when cross-border HE was legitimized under the General Agreements in Trade and Services (GATS). One interesting observation with regard to the globalisation of HE is that the mobility of students is directed from the South/east to the North/west but the mobility of programmes is directed from the North/west to the South/east. HE emerges as an instrument of national globalisation policy as the ability of a country to generate new knowledge will help it to compete globally (Ibid). 5


The global perspective in line with global education is viewed as the ability to understand and accommodate all cultures, nationalities, religions, races, and any other characteristic of humanity (The Global Educator’s Guide to Internet, 2007). In an attempt to define the global perspective, Hanvey (1982) comments that it is not something one either has or has not. Instead, it is a blend of many things in which, one may be rich in certain elements and relatively lacking in others. He identifies five elements or dimensions of a global perspective. Those are: 1. Perspective Consciousness, 2. State of the Planet Awareness, 3. Cross-Cultural Awareness, 4. Knowledge of Global Dynamics, 5. Awareness of Human Choices (Hanvey 1982). The above mentioned definitions provide a general pedagogical understanding of a global perspective. But by global perspective in relation to globalisation and HE curriculum, we understand the increasing tendency and attempt to develop curricula that are globally relevant under the globalisation framework. We see two major features in this regard: One is the tendency to internationalise the HE curriculum, which will attract (foreign and foreign driven domestic students and scholars) towards knowledge centres. Another feature is to develop or adapt globally relevant curricula to make students global citizens and citizens who are globally competent. The vision of the American Council of Education (1995) on the globalizing curriculum calls for the nation to provide a powerful, deep rooted understanding of other languages, diverse cultures, and global issues. And it further recommends that it be provided as an integral part of the educational experience rather than as something extra in the curriculum (ACE 1995). The need for a global perspective in HE has been well defined in the Global perspectives in the Higher Education Project Summary from the UK. Some of the questions which were raised by the project: Are UK graduates globally aware? Do students engage with the most contemporary global issues and understand the contribution of their chosen discipline to addressing these issues? Does Higher Education teach a balanced view of the ‘developing’ world? Do young people leave university with the knowledge and skills for working in international and multicultural workplaces? And do their experiences in Higher Education allow students to develop the values and attitudes to be global citizens? (Lunn 2006). The knowledge commission of India, (which was set up in the year 2006 to advise the government regarding the development of education in India) in its recommendation for HE has suggested that local and global knowledge be included in HE curriculum to enable students to be globally competent and locally relevant (NKC 2006). These are only some of the examples. It is important to observe that most contemporary educational policy documents articulate globalisation and global perspectives. GLOBALISATION AND GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN HIGHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM

The basic assumption underlying the relationship between globalisation and educational changes is that knowledge is considered to be an important element for globalisation. Globalisation continues to reorganize the economy (as it does with 6


politics, culture and all other social sub-systems) across the world. Knowledge and information are increasingly becoming the main resources for the modern economy (a result of globalisation) such that recent economic development relies more and more on knowledge. One such hypothesis established by Carnoy & Rhoten (2002) is that “If knowledge is fundamental to globalisation, globalisation should also have a profound impact on the transmission of knowledge” (Carnoy & Rhoten 2002). In this section we would like to explore the second research question. “How are globalisation and global perspectives reflected in higher education curriculum?” Curriculum in HE is understood as the structure of the courses offered for a particular program. In HE, the meaning of curriculum is far less explicit. In some institutions, it covers all courses offered rather than referring to particular programs. Usually, however, a curriculum refers to a field of study or a course of study (Dressel 1976). According to Ratcliff an undergraduate curriculum is formalized into courses or programs of study including workshops, seminars, colloquia, lecture series, laboratory work, internships, and field experiences (Ratcliff 1997). To understand curriculum better, the following illustration might help. Curriculum content could be ‘knowledge’, curriculum process could be ‘knowing’ and curriculum context could be place, time and person involved in knowing (Dressel, 1976). Some of the important implications of globalisation to HE curriculum are: growing demands for relevance and innovation, emphasis in knowledge application, importance of subject/course specification, competence based learning, regionally and globally comparable degrees, introduction of English taught Masters programmes by non English countries, internationalised curriculum, advent of creditbased programmes, introduction of fluid programmes, inter- and trans-disciplinary development, demand for meta-cognitive skills, student centred teaching, self regulated learning, cultural sensibility, university-industry linkages, market driven degrees, vocationalisation, changing and stratifying the values and importance of disciplines, challenges for universities in resource allocation for different disciplines (David & Wildemeersch 2007). These above mentioned implications of globalisation to HE curriculum could either have positive or negative outcomes, but the significant educational challenge for HE is to integrate globalisation into the curriculum in a meaningful way so that we can capitalize on – rather than be constrained by – globalisation (Oblinger & Verville 1998). One of the important implications of globalisation to HE curriculum is that there is a growing global perspective (globally homogenous) in HE curriculum. The national and local identities are increasingly diluted and compromised in the construction of a globally relevant curriculum. The drive for global perspectives in curriculum to some extent influences curriculum designers to adapt globally homogenous curriculum. One should also identify that some disciplines are much more aligned with global perspectives than others. Philip Altbach (2003) observes that disciplines and fields vary in terms of how globally homogenous they have become. Such fields as business studies, information technology and biotechnology are almost entirely dominated by the major academic centres. Other fields-such as history, language studies 7


and many areas in the humanities are largely nationally based, although foreign influences are felt in methodology and approach to research and interpretation (Altbach 2003). He adds that the internationalisation of the curriculum, like other aspects of globalisation, proceeds largely from North to South. Some might argue that it is easy for humanities and social science to be diverse, while physical science has to hold universal knowledge, but diversity must be welcomed in all spheres of knowledge. We presume that the quest for a global perspective paves the way for converging trends. Convergence does not mean that all higher education systems are one and the same, but that they are increasingly governed by similar pressures, procedures and organizational patterns (Schugurensky 1999). There are different layers of convergence. These include national level convergence (mostly among pluralistic countries, such as India, USA) regional level convergence (ex: EU, Bologna Process), and global level convergence (language and educational tests, such as TOEFL and GRE). Convergence tendencies have some advantages, such as mutual understanding and comparability, while endangering diversity and local knowledge. Knowing the key players who influence global perspective is an important aspect of understanding these dynamics. National, regional and international organizations (such as UNESCO, OECD, EU) are major players who possess higher capacity to influence national, regional and global level educational policies. These organizations produce or stimulate more or less consensual definitions of problems and solutions in education (Schugurensky 1999). Where does the notion of a global perspective come from? For different reasons, the U.S. system has constituted the dominant HE paradigm for the past several decades. Altbach says that there is no question that HE planners and others often look to the United States as the most relevant model for academic development in their countries (Altbach 1979). “It is also the case that all of the universities in the world today, with the exception of the Al-Azhar in Cairo, stem from the same historical roots—the medieval European university and, especially, the faculty-dominated University of Paris. Much of the non-Western world had European university models imposed on them by colonial masters. Even those countries not colonized by Western powers—such as Japan, Thailand, Ethiopia, and a few others—adopted the Western academic model” (Altbach & Selvaratnam 1989). It might be interesting to consider the major knowledge producers. Countries that invest more in research and development (R&D) generate more new knowledge. USA, UK and Japan have US$25,000 GDP and spend 2% of their GDP on research; Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia with US$ 5000 GDP, spend only 0.5% in R&D, India and China are spending 1% in R & D (Suwanwela 2006). Most developing countries spend less than 1%. Major universities and centres of excellence play a vital role in knowledge generation. Altbach illustrates this, as following: “The powerful universities have always dominated the production and distribution of knowledge, while weaker institutions and systems with fewer resources and lower academic standards have tended to follow in their wake” (Altbach 2003). 8


He adds that the world of centres and peripheries grows ever more complex. “The major international academic centres – namely the leading research oriented universities in the north, especially those that use one of the key world languages (particularly, English) – occupy the top-tier”. Multinational knowledge corporations have become key players, the owners of many of the databases, journals and other sources of information and most of these companies are based in North America and Western Europe (Ibid). Developing countries mostly are capable in the application part of the knowledge that has been generated by developed world. There are innovative countries, imitative countries and countries both innovative and imitative. The rigid regime of knowledge rights and knowledge piracy are two other key tensions one might find in this development. Knowledge economies and knowledge-based production are research driven. Their growth depends on the capacity of countries to invest in R&D activities (Sanyal & Varghese 2006). The disparity between the developed and developing world in knowledge generation will not help complement mutual wealth of knowledge. And it is not easy to develop to the level of the countries with higher knowledge advantage. “In many ways, it is now more difficult to become a major player in international higher education – to achieve “center” status. The price of entry has risen. Top-tier research universities, require vast resources, and in many fields, scientific research involves a large investment in laboratory facilities and equipment” (Altbach 2003). An interesting observation of Altbach is of relevance here: “Structural dependency is endemic in much of the world’s academic institutions. Any discussion of globalisation cannot thus avoid the deep inequalities that are part of the world system of higher education. Thus globalisation has added a new dimension to existing disparities in higher education” (Ibid). Multinationalisation of HE is one such dynamic which influences global perspectives in HE curriculum. The foreign HE providers (cross-border) often provide the same course as is provided in the home country. This influences local institutions to radically (re-)design their programs to correspond to the ones in the foreign institutions. Another important reason for growing global perspectives in HE curriculum is also that there is a big global marketplace for students and scholars. Students and scholars are increasingly expected to move around to gain knowledge resulting in ‘brain-drain’ for some, particularly developing countries. “As academic systems become more similar and academic degrees more widely accepted internationally, as immigration rules are tailored to people with high skill levels, and as universities themselves are more open to hiring the best talent worldwide, the global marketplace will expand” (Altbach 2003). Markets promise quality, diversity and efficiency, but in reality the market only pays attention to programs that are marketable. Michael W. Apple (2001) refers to the study by Gillborn & Youdell during 2000 in which they found that, in nearly all of the countries studied, that the market did not encourage diversity in curriculum, pedagogy, organization, clientele, or even image. Instead, it consistently devalued 9


alternatives and increased the power of dominant models. Equally significant is the fact that in general this practice also consistently exacerbated differences in access and outcome based on race, ethnicity and class (Apple 2001). It is also very interesting to notice that students move towards knowledge centres and the programmes (knowledge) flow to the receiving peripheries. As in the present age, English is central for communicating knowledge worldwide. Many countries have begun to introduce English-taught Masters’ programmes and internalized curriculum in order to attract international students (Wende 1996). The important pressure to internationalize the curricula for countries is to make their universities centres of excellence and to be attractive for foreign students (Ibid). Most universities adapt quickly to global trends in order to stay competitive and relevant. The rapidly changing world demands that universities be current and up to date. This dynamic redefines the importance of various disciplines. “A perennial challenge for universities and colleges is to keep pace with knowledge change by reconsidering their structural and resource commitments to various knowledge areas” (Gumport 2000). It is also very essential for universities to know, whether their graduates are capable enough to understand local and global problems and solutions. GENERAL TENDENCIES IN INDIA

In this section we will explore our third research question: “What are the general tendencies of global perspectives in HE curriculum in India?” Most contemporary policy documents emphasise the necessity of being globally competent and locally relevant. Unfortunately this has not been the experience in practice in India. Courses and curricula are a central concern for policy makers, but however strong the wish of policy makers and administrators to intervene in what goes on in the lecture room and laboratory; they remain dependent upon the voluntary cooperation of subject specialists (Taylor 2003). India has done remarkably well in education since independence. Yet it still has to struggle to educate a huge uneducated mass of people and has to fulfil many other critical issues in education, before addressing completely curriculum in a globalised world. Moreover, issues such as access / equity, faculty, and infrastructure are more politically sensitive compared to curriculum regulations and reforms. The means are more important than the ends in the case of educational objectives in India. Most official documents on education seem to include curriculum discussion, but global perspectives have not been directly highlighted. The country paper on Higher Education in India: Vision and Action presented at the world conference on higher education held in the year 1998, noted the importance of curriculum restructuring in HE in India (Ministry of Education, India, 1998). There has been a gradual promotion of HE curriculum reform in policy documents in India. One of the recommendations that the 1986 national educational policy made is the diversification of courses. And the 1992 national educational policy includes a similar recommendation of dovetailing the education 10


curriculum to the national culture, needs and aspirations. It has been observed that there has been a remarkable increase in the number of courses offered by the universities (Narkhede 2001). The model curriculum in India has been provided by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Universities have to design their curriculum in view of the standards set by UGC. The approach paper on education for the inclusion in the 10th plan recommends relevant curriculum in HE through modernization of Syllabi (UGC 2005). The national knowledge commission proposes a transition to a course credit system where degrees are granted on the basis of completing a requisite number of credits from different courses, which provides students with choices (NKC 2006). It is important to notice that there are also national and regional perspectives in India that take precedence over global perspectives. N.R. Narayana Murthy, the Chairman of Infosys said that government regulation resulted in India ‘failing to build truly world-class educational institutions’. He added that HE in India must be allowed to function as an industry in a free market environment. Universities should be allowed to form alliances with firms for research and funding. Businesses must be consulted in curriculum design and in the conducting of courses. Educational institutions, for their part, should stress innovation, research and development and the creation of new knowledge (Murthy 2005). Often the educationalists’ views are opposed to the views of such industrialists. Prof J Shashidhara Prasad, the Vice Chancellor of Mysore University strongly advocates diverse curriculum instead of universal curriculum in Indian HE. He adds that India has been resisting universal curriculum for a long time…hence there is a need to focus on diverse curriculum rather than on universal curriculum (Prasad 2006). Prof. Madhava Menon points out the reasons, why India is not a desired HE destination for foreign students. “The politics and economics of higher education coupled with unprincipled interventions from State agencies have eroded the dynamism and competitiveness of governing structures of educational institutions.” For several decades the curricula have not been revised. Teaching was geared more to examinations rather than to the acquisition of knowledge” (Satyanarayanan 2006). Like any other developing nation, India as well aspires to develop centres of excellence, desiring something like Oxford or Stanford. One of the recent government initiatives to fund premium institutions in India was in line with this desire; namely,.that the finance minister of India announced a grant of Rs 100 crores (1 crore is 10 millions) to the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, to help it raise its standards to the levels of Oxford and Cambridge. Will a fistful of crores help set up Oxbridge-level institutions of higher learning in our country? (Narlikar 2005). There are several stakeholders and HE systems in India. It is said that some of the state owned HE institutions are less effective and less innovative compared with some top rated entrepreneurial private for profit HE institutions that operate more and more by market rules3. For-profit HE institutions are quick to adapt to modern developments, integrate global perspectives and take advantage from such dynamics. Sanyal Bikas has identified several private HE institutions have signed a moratorium of understanding (MOU) with one or more foreign partners to provide 11


attractive and globally relevant and competent programs (Sanyal 2005). The National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) of India gives 131 examples of programs imported in 13 states from different universities abroad. They could be classified in four categories: Twinning, Joint Degrees, Franchise and others (NUEPA 2004). Some realists (who are neither promoters nor critics of globalisation) such as Azad advocate benefiting from the globalisation process. They content that in a market oriented competitive world, unleashed by the forces of globalisation, education has to assume a somewhat different role. It cannot afford to be conventional, rigid and impervious to change. It has to keep abreast of the latest developments in various fields and be capable of creating, absorbing and transacting neo-technology and information systems that are sweeping across the countries of the world. There also has to be a paradigm shift in the contents of education with substantial emphasis on the productivity aspect of the curriculum (Azad 2004). CONCLUSION

We have been informed by the available literature that globalisation is an important force that influences global perspectives in HE curriculum. This is a global phenomenon and countries differ according to their capacity to respond to this dynamic. We have identified some of the major indicators, which essentially show the relationship between globalisation and growing global perspectives in HE curriculum. We have also outlined different arguments of authors belonging to different orientations such as (neo-liberal, critical and socio-democratic). Being informed and having reflected on this research issue, we understand that it would be interesting to integrate global perspectives in HE curriculum as this might help everyone benefit from this development. But it would be necessary to be constantly critical about this dynamic, all the while continuing to foster local knowledge and helping curriculum to be diverse. We have arrived at this position given our understanding that we have not succeeded in finding strong alternatives for globalisation and this challenges us to explore for the possibilities for potential and meaningful alternatives. India, being a country in transition, is under severe confrontation with this dynamic. Indian HE is the third largest in size after China and the USA. India, having nearly 250 million youth (something like the size of the population of USA), being one of the attractive destinations for foreign investment and multinational companies and sending a large number of highly skilled work-force (ICT) to every corner of the world, it would be important for India to integrate global perspectives in HE curriculum. At the same time, it should remain very critical about this development and continue to protect and foster its local knowledge and diversity. Rabindranath Tagore (the first Indian Nobel laureate) objects to the artificial arrangements of foreign knowledge but invites us to consider it as food for thought and not as our burden in order to learn about other cultures and the wisdom and knowledge from other countries (IFIH 2006). 12


It is important to acknowledge the hard work and commitment of those who generate new knowledge and disseminate it for all to benefit from it. Building research capacities in developing countries would further advance research in the world. This will provide necessary confidence for developing countries to be competent and complement to global knowledge and be part of the global perspectives. Moreover, a diversified curriculum should support both local knowledge and will also provide opportunities to foster global perspectives. Engagement in north/west and south/east dialogues would help to make global perspective part of everyone’s perspective and bridge the knowledge divide among nations and regions. It is also important to democratise new knowledge, relaxing rigid pattern paradigms, while setting clear international codes to prevent knowledge/information theft. In this humble understanding we would like to raise further reflections to take this research further. They are: How can we ensure that globalisation favours not only the privileged? Should we not engage in searching for potential alternatives for globalisation? Should we leave education to be restructured by globalisation processes? How can global perspectives become part of everyone’s perspective? How can global perspectives be effectively integrated without endangering local perspectives? How can we foster diversity into the curriculum? Would dialogue help us to be interdependent? And how should pluralistic countries such as India foster diverse curriculum in Higher education rather than just focusing on national, and global perspectives? NOTES 1

2

3

This study derives from David’s doctoral research “Globalization and Curriculum Restructuring in Higher Education: Comparing the Impacts on Higher Education Curriculum Planning the States Kerala and Tamil Nadu of India.” The views and opinions expressed in this paper are the authors’ entirely and should not be attributed to the organizations that they are working with. American heritage dictionary (2007) defines ‘Westernization’ as ‘to convert to the customs of western civilization’ There are top rated institutions among both private and public HE and there are also sub-standard institutions among both the private and public HE.

REFERENCES ACE, American Council on Education. (1995). Educating Americans for a world in flux: Ten ground rules for internationalizing higher education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Altbach, P. G. (1979). Comparative higher education: Research trends and bibiliography. London: Mansell. Altbach, P. G. (2003). Globalization and the Universities Myth and Realities in an Unequal World. Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, XVII(2), 227–247. Altbach, P. G., & Selvaratnam. (1989). From dependence to autonomy. In Viswanathan (Eds.), The development of Asian universities. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer. American heritage dictionary. (2007). Definition to westernization. Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/westernize Apple, M. W. (2001). Comparing New-liberal projects and inequality in education. Comparative Education, 37(4), 409–423. 13

DAVID AND WILDEMEERSCH Azad, J. L. (2004). Globalization and its impacts on education: A challenge and an opportunity. New Delhi: Prof. A. N. Basu Memorial Lecture. Carnoy, M. (1999). Globalization and education reform: What planners need to know. Paris: UNESCO/ IIEP. Carnoy, M., & Rhoten, D. (2002). What does globalisation mean for educational change? A comparative approach. Comparative Education Review, 46(1), 1. Coatsworth, J. H. (2004). Globalization, growth, and welfare in history. In M. M. Suarez-Orozco & D. B. Qin-Hilliard (Eds.), Globalization culture and education in the New Millennium. California: The University of California Press & Ross Institute. David, S. A., & Wildemeersch, D. (2007). Globalisation and curriculum restructuring in higher education: Comparing the impacts on higher education curriculum planning in the states Kerala and Tamil Nadu of India. Belgium: (Draft doctoral proposal), Katholieke Universitiet Leuven. Dressel, P. L. (1976). Handbook of academic evaluation: Assessing institutional effectiveness, student progress, and professional performance for decision making in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gumport, P. J. (2000). Academic restructuring: Organizational change and institutional imperatives. Higher Education, 39, 67–91. Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Hanvey, R. G. (2001). An attainable global perspective. Theory into Practice, Summer 82, 21(3), 162, 6p. IFIH. (2006). Great Indian speak on education. International Forum for India’s Heritage, Coimbatore, India. IMF. (2000). Globalization: Threat or opportunity? Washington, DC: IMF. Lunn, J. (2006). Global perspectives in higher education. London: Research and Higher Education Division/Royal Geographical Society with IBG. Magrath, C. P. (2000). Globalisation and its effects on higher education beyond the nation-state. Higher Education in Europe, XXV(2), 258. Ministry of Education, India. (1998). Higher education in India: Vision and action, country paper in UNESCO World Conference on higher education in the twenty-first century. Paris. Morrow, R. A., & Torres, C. A. (1999). The state, social movements, and educational reform. In F. R. Arnove & C. A Torres (Eds.), Comparative education: The dialectic of the global and the local (pp. 283–304). New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Murthy, N. R. N. (2005). Government regulation stifling higher education. Kochi, India: United News of India. Narkhede, S. M. (2001). Challenges of higher education in India. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons Publishers. Narlikar, J. V. (2005). Rising for the stars: Higher education should fuse teaching, research to improve. New Delhi: Times of India. NUEPA. (2004). Foreign education providers in India: Directory. New Delhi, India: National University of Educational Planning and Administration. NKC (National Knowledge Commision). (2006). Recommendation for higher education in India. New Delhi: NKC. Oblinger, D. G., & Verville, A. L. (1998). Global interdependence, in what business wants from higher education. Arizona: American Council of Education, Series on Higher Education, ORYX Press. Prasad, S. J. (2006). Higher Education: V-C against universal curriculum. Mysore, India: Deccan Herald (daily). Ratcliff, J. L. (1997). What is a curriculum and what should it be? In J. G. Gaff & J. L. Ratcliff (Eds.), Handbook of the undergraduate curriculum: A comprehensive guide to purposes, structures, practices, and change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Sanyal, B. C. (2005). Trade in higher education in the context of WTO’s GATS. SEED and MHRD, India. Sanyal, B. C., & Varghese, N. V. (2006). Research capacity of the higher education sector in developing countries. Paris: UNESCO/IIEP.

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GROWING GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES IN CURRICULUM Satyanarayanan, K. (2006). Morsels and chunks from FICCI’s summit on private higher education opportunities and challenges. Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://prayatna.typepad.com/ education/higher_education/index.html, Prayatna. Schugurensky, D. (1999). Higher education restructuring in the era of globalization, towards a heteronomous model? In F. R. Arnove & C. A. Torres (Eds.), Comparative education: The dialectic of the global and the local (pp. 283–304). New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Suwanwela, C. (2006). Relvance and utility issues for research in developing countries. Paris: Colloqium on Research and Higher Education Policy, UNESCO. Tavenas, F. (2003). Universities and globalization: In search of a new balance. In G. Breton & M. Lambert (Eds.), Universities and globalisation (p. 223). Paris: UNESCO. Taylor, W. (2003). Steering change in tertiary education. In H. Eggins (Ed.), Globalization and reform in higher education. Berkshire: The society for Research into Higher Education, Open University Press. The Global Educator’s Guide to Internet. (2007). University of Victoria, Canada. Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://www.bayside.sd63.bc.ca/home/rcoulson/globaled/Perspective.html UGC. (2005). The approach paper on education for the inclusion in the 10th plan. Delhi: UGC. Wende, M. C. (1996). Internalising the curriculum in dutch higher education: An international comparative perspective. The Hague: Nuffic. Yang, R. (2003). Globalization and higher education development: A critical analysis. International Review of Education, 49(3–4), 269–291.

Solomon Arulraj David and Danny Wildemeersch Center for Research in Lifelong Learning and Participation Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Belgium

15

DAVID T. GAMAGE, JARATDAO SUWANABROMA, TAKEUKI UEYAMA, SEKIO HADA AND EDSUO SEKIKAWA

2. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) APPROACHES TO STUDENT SERVICES AT PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN JAPAN AND THAILAND1

INTRODUCTION

Higher educational reforms implemented in most countries around the globe during the last three decades of the 20th Century, have given different reasons to explain their educational changes. However, Gamage (2001); Gamage and Mininberg (2003) as well as Gamage and Yonezawa (2003) are of the opinion that the main themes or explanations provided included the need to ensure accountability, efficiency, managerialism as well of to take note of monetarist economic policies which advocate commoditization of education and considering higher education (HE) as an industry. Other challenges faced by HE in countries such as Japan and Thailand are government policies that are pushing the public universities to become ‘autonomous universities’, or public corporations with more administrative and financial autonomy. According to a survey conducted by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Sports (MESS), Japan had 744 universities of which 568 were established and managed by the private sector; while 87 and 89 universities were established and managed by the national government and municipalities respectively (Gamage and Yonezawa, 2003). In Thailand there were 79 Public universities and 61 private universities by 2006. This paper focuses on the current state of the services provided by the private universities and the student perceptions thereof. These results are likely to be a guide to the Japanese and Thai private universities to improve the student services in attracting students to the respective universities in competition with the public or government or local government sponsored higher education institutions. THE NEED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF STUDENT SERVICES

This situation has led to intense competition between private and governmentsupervised universities to attract more students and survive within the limited budget contexts where government subsidies are being gradually cut back. Moreover, Vargo (2000) is of the view that students and their parents who provide financial M. A. Geo-JaJa and S. Majhanovich (eds.), Education, Language, and Economics: Growing National and Global Dilemmas, 17–37. © 2010 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.

GAMAGE ET AL

support increasingly demand a stronger correlation between costs and the courses they follow and outcomes of such efforts and expenses. Thus, universities, through mission statements, now explicitly acknowledge their obligations to meet the needs of their stakeholders, more specifically those of students. This means that market mechanisms for quality improvements are currently under way in the universities as they work towards improving the quality of services of their organizations. For this purpose, a thorough understanding of the needs of their students is an important starting point to improve their quality of programs and services. It was in this context that this paper was designed to assist higher education providers in developing more effective quality assurance mechanisms by exploring students’ perceptions and their overall satisfaction of the quality of their current programs and services. Kato (1990), Oyama (2000) and Mori (2002) assert that up to the end of the Second World War (WW II) Japan was operating on an elite higher education system but after WW II, Japan had to embrace a mass higher education model as a result of the need to admit the ex-service men and women to the universities. In 1950, a group of HE experts sent by the American Government introduced the concept of student services to Japanese universities. This service reflected the socio-economic conditions that were prevalent in the USA in the 1940s and 50s. Later, the services were incrementally improved to provide access to university resources and services to educate the students from an ‘immature person’ who was not fully aware of how they could benefit while being on-campus to become a better informed or ‘a whole person’ (Ishii, 1974: 38). However, most Japanese universities provided only counseling (for those who were having mental problems) as in the Japanese tradition; the students were not interested in other services. In this context, it was only in the 1980s that the universities started to provide services other than counseling. Shimoyama and colleagues (1991) were of the opinion that the entire structure of student counseling activities encompassed support activities, educational and research activities and community activities. Urutha and Takano (2003), assert that the reconfiguration of the concept of student counseling included career guidance, preparation for qualifying exams, preparation for graduate schools, learning strategies, inter-personal relations, along with self awareness of health for mind and body. Hirano (2000) asserts that private universities started promoting a new idea called students’ personal services or student development to satisfy their expectations. He insists that it is imperative to organize the campus as a space for living. The expectations of students usually fall into four main areas such as: economic, physical, mental and habitual. Services in the economic area include concessions on tuition fees, loans and scholarships; in the physical area include participation in sports, recreation and maintaining health; in the mental health area services include psychological tests, vocational aptitude tests, support to raise consciousness towards employment; and, finally, in the habitual area services are provided to facilitate access to any information concerning employment opportunities, library facilities, educational affairs as well as student life and activities. The following section focuses on student perceptions on the quality of university services. 18

TQM APPROACHES IN JAPAN AND THAILAND

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE QUALITY OF SERVICE

Empirical surveys were conducted in Japan and Thailand, employing a validated Questionnaire from Australia. The main research conducted in Japan targeted a sample of 703 Japanese students and had 660 or 94% responses. The main study conducted in Thailand by Suwanabroma targeted 1900 Thai students and had 1532 or 81% responses. They have identified a total of 10 factors of service quality which were conceptualized as direct constructs. The correlations of these factors were grouped into three categories of services; namely, 1) Academic Aspects, 2) Non-academic Aspects, and 3) Facilities Aspects. In terms of academic aspects, students considered quality of academic staff, quality of programs, and university reputation as the important factors that influenced their perceptions of quality service. In the case of non-academic aspects, financial assistance and tuition fees, counseling and support services, job placement services, and grievance procedures contributed to students’ perceptions of quality service. In respect to facilities aspects, students considered physical plants and facilities, library and computing facilities, and student organizations as important factors in their perceptions of quality. The survey instrument asked the students to rate the conceptual statements on a 1–6 scale (Based on 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 = slightly agree, 5 = agree, and 6 = strongly agree) to determine the relevance and significance of each aspect of quality service. In addition, the students were also invited to provide their own independent comments at the end of the questionnaire. Harvey (1995), Hill (1995), and Gatfield (2000), conducted their studies within educational contexts and have identified those factors mentioned above amongst the most important factors where quality of services should be ensured. In this context, it is important for higher educational institutions to address the issue of quality, not only through the accreditation processes for recognition by governmental authorities or measuring teaching quality, but also through these aspects of service quality which the students themselves considered as key elements in quality service. The next section focuses on a comparative analysis of the Japanese and Thai students’ responses. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THAI AND JAPANESE STUDENT PERCEPTIONS

An identical questionnaire was presented to both the Japanese and Thai students requiring them to indicate the degree of satisfaction relating to different aspects of the services provided by the respective university they were attending. The questionnaire originally prepared in English was translated into Japanese and Thai for better understanding of the issues raised. In a comparison of the response rates, it was obvious that the Japanese response rate was higher. But, the reason for this higher rate of return could have been the fact that the copies of the questionnaire were distributed and collected during particular times of the academic year. An examination of the data relating to the Thai and Japanese empirical surveys shows that in Thailand a large majority comprising 89% of participants were females while only 11% were males, whereas in Japan, 51.7% of the participants were females and 48.3% were males. The wide gap could have resulted because 19

GAMAGE ET AL

Table A. Respondents with background details Japan %

Thailand %

Gender: Male Female

Background variables – Items

48.3 51.7

11 89

Age 18–22 years 23 and over

95.1 4.9

87 13

Year Study 1st year 2nd year 4th year

66.8 33.2

48

Field of Study International Relations-J; Nursing-T Humanities & Sciences- J; Liberal Arts-T

58.9 41.1

57 43

Location City with more than one million population Prefecture/Provincial – 50,000–1,000,000/Provincial Population of less than 50,000/rural

19.9 59.3 20.8

48 21 31

52

of the inclusion of Thai nursing faculties in which most students were females, whereas no comparable faculty was included in the Japanese study. In both countries the majority of the students were between the ages 18–22, amounting to 95.1% in Japan and 87% in Thailand. In Thailand, the survey was conducted towards the end of the academic year whereas in Japan, it was conducted at the beginning of the academic year which explains the reason for targeting second year students in Japan to provide them at least one year of campus experience. Thus in Japan 66.8% of the participants had one year of experience and were at the beginning of the second year of university study with 33.2% with three years of experience but at the beginning of the fourth year. Amongst the Thai students 52% had one year of campus experience while 48% had four years of experience. In a comparison of the fields of study, the inclusion of a large number nursing students in the Thai group had no parallel group amongst the Japanese participants. A study by Benesse, Kyoiku, Sogo and Kenkyusho (2004) involving 14,582 students across 156 universities and colleges in Japan observed a noticeable difference in students’ overall satisfaction amongst the different fields of study. In both countries the majority of the participants were city and urban students. STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF THE ACADEMIC ASPECTS

In an examination of student satisfaction relating to the quality of the academic staff, the Thai students rated ‘My lecturers have appropriate credentials’, and ‘My lecturers treat students with respect’ as the two most satisfactory aspects while 20


giving equal third place to both ‘My lecturers are aware of my learning needs and provide assistance after classroom hours’ and ‘Lecturers display empathy when I have difficulty in understanding a concept’. The Japanese students also rated identical aspects that the Thai students opted for, but chose ‘My lecturers are approachable and display a friendly demeanor’ as the third most satisfactory aspect. The Thai students expressed their dissatisfaction for not incorporating appropriate technology by the lecturers in their teaching whereas the Japanese students rated the Thai students’ third most satisfactory aspect as the least satisfactory one expressing the view that their lecturers were not very helpful in their learning needs and did not provide assistance after classroom hours as shown in the Table 1. Table 1. Quality of academic staff Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

My lecturers have appropriate academic credentials

1532

4.93

0.902

632

3.94

1.024

My lecturers are incorporating appropriate use of technology to teach

1532

4.74

0.903

633

3.71

1.011

My lecturers are effective communicators in the process of lecturing

1532

4.79

0.887

636

3.68

1.117

My lecturers are aware of my learning needs & provide assistance

1532

4.84

0.901

630

3.41

1.187

My lecturers are approachable and display a friendly demeanor

1532

4.78

0.938

635

3.72

1,176

My lecturers treat students with respect

1532

4.87

0.936

633

3.73

1.145

Lecturers have positive attitudes to students & do their best to help

1532

4.76

0.906

630

3.68

1.166

Lecturers display empathy when I have difficulty in understanding a concept

1532

4.84

0.989

627

3.61

1.148

In an analysis of the responses relating to the quality of academic programs as shown in Table 2, both groups have identified ‘Knowledge and skills gained in my courses will provide good jobs’ as the most satisfactory aspect. But, the Thai 21

GAMAGE ET AL

Table 2. Quality of academic programs Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

Course contents are appropriate & help develop skills that can be used in the real world

1532

4.78

1.058

640

3.66

1.066

Knowledge & skills gained in my courses will provide good jobs

1532

4.99

0.902

637

3.71

1.113

Curriculum contents are relevant and up-to-date

1532

4.60

0.998

637

3.70

1.069

Curriculum prepares me to meet the challenges of the 21st Century

1532

4.56

0.867

638

3.70

1.128

The system allows feedback from students to find out their impressions on existing programs

1532

4.66

0.833

632

3.28

1.122

I am receiving appropriate training for my future career

1532

4.56

0.921

628

3.43

1.123

students opted for ‘Course contents are appropriate and help develop skills that can be used in the real world’ and ‘The system allows feedback from students to find out their impressions on existing programs’ as the 2nd and 3rd most important aspects. The Japanese students awarded equal second rating to ‘Curriculum. Contents are relevant and up-to-date’ and ‘Curriculum prepares me to meet the challenges of the 21st Century’ along with the Thai 2nd most satisfactory aspect as the third. It is interesting to note that ‘Curriculum prepares me to meet the challenges of the 21st Century’ which is one of the second most satisfactory aspects for the Japanese students has been identified as the least satisfactory aspect by the Thai students. The Japanese students were most dissatisfied with ‘The system allows feedback from students to find out their impressions on existing programs’ which was the 3rd most important aspect for the Thai students. The perceptions of the Thai students show that they do not believe that their curriculum is up-to-date by assigning it a very low rating. Hence, it is obvious that the Thai universities need to give serious consideration to this aspect in up-dating their curriculum. In an examination of the data relating to the University’s reputation as shown in Table 3, Thai students have identified ‘University’s possession of nationally reputed academic programs and departments’; ‘The university has an attractive campus’; and ‘University is written and talked about favorably in the media’ as the three most satisfactory aspects in that order. The Japanese students have identified ‘University is committed to or involved in community services’; ‘University is well liked or 22


Table 3. University’s reputation Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

The reputation of my university increases recognition of my degree

1532

4.39

1.087

637

3.39

1.206

The University is well liked or respected by friends and family

1532

4.60

1.081

637

3.46

1.175

The University is written or talked about favorably in the media

1532

4.75

0.935

624

3.39

1.104

The University has nationally reputed academic programs & depts.

1532

4.86

0.929

630

3.24

1.135

The University is committed to or involved in community services

1532

4.59

1.046

628

3.57

1.142

The University has nationally and internationally respected professors

1532

4.38

1.094

625

3.42

1.193

The University has an attractive campus

1532

4.76

1.066

633

3.40

1.327

respected by friends and family’; and ‘The university has nationally and internationally respected professors’ as the three most satisfactory aspects in that order. It is interesting to note that the most satisfactory aspect for the Thai students was rated as the least satisfactory aspect by the Japanese students. Thus, in this area there were more differences rather than similarities between the two groups. The next section focuses on the results of data analysis on non-academic aspects. STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF NON-ACADEMIC ASPECTS

With regard to the ‘Financial assistance and tuition fees’ the Thai students rated ‘Flexibility of the plans offered by the university for the payment of the loans and tuition fees’; ‘Granting of financial assistance to eligible students in an equitable manner’; and the ‘Availability of a variety of scholarships for deserving students’; as the three most satisfactory ones in that order. The Japanese students rated Thai No.3 as the No.1 while rating the identical aspect as No.2; and rated Thai No.1 as the third most satisfactory suggesting many more similarities in the opinions relating to this aspect. The Thai students considered ‘Competitiveness of tuition fees with other similar educational institutions’ as the least satisfactory whereas Japanese students were of the opinion that advice on the types of financial support available as the least satisfactory as shown in Table 4. 23

GAMAGE ET AL

Table 4. Financial assistance and tuition fees Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

1532

4.20

1.205

636

4.15

1.071

1532

4.34

1.173

624

3.95

0.968

Loans and scholarships are advertised including advice on types of financial support available

1532

4.19

1.247

634

3.49

1.115

University offers flexible plans for payments of student Loans & T-fees

1532

4.37

1.110

605

3.62

0.855

Tuition fees are competitive with other similar education providers

1532

3.60

1.425

633

3.55

1.141

Student registration occurs within a reasonable period of time

1532

3.76

1.366

636

3.50

1.212

There are a variety of scholar ships available for deserving students Financial assistance is given equitably to eligible students

Table 5. Counseling and support services Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japanese Mean

Japanese SD

Guidance counselors are very generous in listening and assisting

1532

4.01

1.170

592

3.74

0.920

I am assured of assistance & support in dealing with academic problems

1532

4.14

1.097

623

2.97

1.266

I am able to consult counselors regarding personal problems

1532

3.87

1.245

606

3.21

1.266

I feel that counselors are genuinely concerned about student problems

1532

3.87

1.196

584

3.63

1.029

In respect to ‘Counseling support services’; the Thai students rated ‘I am assured of assistance and support in dealing with academic problems’; ‘Guidance counselors are very generous in listening and assisting’; as the 1st and 2nd most satisfactory 24


aspects in that order while placing the other two aspects in an equal third position. In an examination of Japanese data, it is clear that they have rated Thai No.2, as the most satisfactory aspect with ‘I feel that counselors are genuinely concerned about student problems’ in the second place and rating one of Thai 3rd options as the third most satisfactory. What is interesting is that the Japanese students rated Thai students’ most satisfactory aspect as the least satisfactory aspect at their university colleges. This particular finding suggests that Japanese university authorities should take appropriate action to provide sufficient assistance and support in dealing with their students’ academic problems. The details are shown in the Table 5. In an examination of the ratings in job placement services as shown in Table 6, both groups have rated ‘University provides infrastructure for career development and training’ as the most satisfactory aspect. Then, the Thai students have rated ‘University has connections with important industries that recruit students for career opportunities’ and ‘University has a network of communications to announce jobs’ as the 2nd and 3rd most satisfactory aspects. However, the Japanese students have opted for the Thai 3rd as the 2nd most satisfactory aspect and ‘University provides guidance to students regarding employment after graduation’ as the 3rd most satisfactory aspect. Thai students have rated the Japanese 3rd option, as the least satisfactory in their context while Japanese students have rated Thai 2nd option as the least satisfactory in their context. These ratings show more similarities than differences between the two groups as shown in Table 6. Table 6. Job placement services Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japanese Mean

Japanese SD

Q48. Uni provides infrastructure for career development & training

1532

4.24

1.089

638

3.83

1.076

Uni provides guidance to students re employment after graduation

1532

4.15

1.077

629

3.71

1.086

1532

4.21

1.045

623

3.49

1.058

1532

4.16

1.143

628

3.76

1.070

University has connections with important industries that recruits students for career opportunities University has a network of communications to announce jobs

In an examination of the grievance procedures adopted by the universities, the Thai students rated ‘Administrators keep their word in relation to promises to redress or implement university policies’; ‘The authorities take action with regard 25

GAMAGE ET AL

to student complaints’; and ‘Student representatives have access to administrators on student issues and concerns’; as the three most satisfactory aspects of the grievance procedure in that order. Japanese students expressed very similar opinions by agreeing with Thai 1st option and rating Thai 2nd as 3rd and Thai 3rd as the Japanese 2nd option suggesting a high degree of similarities of perceptions between the two groups as shown in Table 7. The next section focuses on the results of data analysis regarding the facilities aspect. Table 7. Grievance procedures Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

1532

3.97

1.204

632

2.93

1.292

1532

4.09

1.165

622

3.31

1.077

The authorities take action with regard to student complaints

1532

4.01

1.143

616

3.13

1.082

Student representatives have access to administrators on student issues & concerns

1532

3.98

1.205

606

3.17

1.102

It is easy to lodge complaints or suggestions to improve the current system of university operations Administrators keep their word in relation to promises to redress or implement university policies

STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF THE FACILITIES ASPECTS

A comparison of the findings of the two groups relating to physical plant facilities shows that the Thai students rated ‘Offices assigned to academic staff are appropriate to discuss personal issues’; ‘Lecture rooms are clean and tidy’ and ‘University provides dormitories for students in need’ as the three most satisfactory aspects in that order. The Japanese students rated ‘I feel physically secure anywhere on the campus’; ‘the lecture rooms are clean and tidy’; and ‘the most of the lecture rooms are well ventilated and lighted’; as the three most satisfactory aspects. Thus, both groups identified the same facility as their No.2 area of satisfaction. The Thai students considered non-availability of open spaces for rest and recreation as the least satisfactory aspect whereas the Japanese students rated the difficulty of finding parking lots inside or near the campus as the least satisfactory. The discrepancies highlight the differences in each group’s needs based on their socioeconomic environments as shown in Table 8. 26


Table 8. Physical plant facilities Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

1532

4.54

0.971

652

3.81

1.146

Lecture rooms are clean and tidy

1532

4.71

0.905

653

4.22

1.136

I feel physically secure anywhere on the campus

1532

4.47

0.956

652

4.57

1.243

Most of the lecture rooms are well ventilated and lighted

1532

4.59

1.003

651

3.93

1.207

Most lecture rooms have TVs, projectors, computers & white boards.

1532

4.62

1.032

652

3.54

1.294

1532

4.01

1.291

652

3.58

1.367

1532

4.18

1.352

623

3.42

1.167

1532

4.05

1.184

649

2.74

1.340

1532

4.78

0.962

651

3.78

1.057

1532

4.61

1.257

635

3.23

1.456

Campus atmosphere is conducive to teaching/learning

Adequate open spaces are there for rest & recreation There are adequate oncampus directional sign posts. It is difficult to find parking lots inside and near campus Academic staff rooms are OK to discuss personal issues Uni provides dormitories for students in need

In an examination of the results in Table 9 relating to library and computer facilities, the Thai students rated items ‘The Library provides quiet study areas’; ‘Computers for the library catalogue are sufficient and in working condition’ as the two most satisfactory aspects, while placing ‘Sufficient computers are available for internet use’; and ‘Library staff is available to assist in information retrieval skills’ on an equal third place. But, the Japanese students rated ‘Computers in the Lab generally work well and are properly maintained’, as 1st option while rating Thai 1st as the 2nd and rated ‘Computer hardware and software are up-dated periodically’, as the 3rd most satisfactory aspects. The Thai students rated ‘Non-provision of computer training for interested students’ as the least satisfactory, whereas the Japanese students considered that ‘Non-availability of sufficient numbers of computers for internet use’ as the least satisfactory aspect. Here again, we can identify some similarities and more differences in their ratings as shown in Table 9. 27

GAMAGE ET AL

Table 9. Library and computer facilities Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey Computer labs are open during suitable hours

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

1532

4.20

1.199

653

3.78

1.309

Computers in the Lab generally work well and are properly maintained

1532

4.11

1.178

653

4.27

1.152

Computer hardware and soft-ware are up-dated periodically

1532

4.14

1.129

639

4.02

1.061

University provides computer training for all interested students

1532

3.84

1.204

646

3.91

1.177

Uni library is equipped with up-to-date books and other library resources

1532

3.99

1.267

652

3.99

1.204

It is easy to find where books, journals & videos etc. are shelved

1532

4.17

1.224

650

3.77

1.223

Computers for library catalogue are sufficient & in good working order

1532

4.24

1.154

652

4.01

1.149

Library hours of operation meet my needs

1532

4.17

1.105

651

3.88

1.384

Sufficient computers are available for internet use

1532

4.21

1.161

653

3.25

1.412

1532

4.21

1.161

644

3.96

1.088

1532

4.42

1.138

649

4.15

1.233

Library staff is available to assist in improving infor retrieval skills Library provides quiet study areas

Table 10 shows the results of data analysis relating to student satisfaction regarding Student organizations and recreational facilities. In this area, both Thai and Japanese students rated ‘I enjoy the training I receive in participating in student organizations’ as the most satisfactory aspect. Then Thai students rated ‘Provision of university support for student organizations and social events’; and ‘Opportunities to be involved in student activities’ as the 2nd and 3rd most satisfactory aspects in that order. The Japanese rated ‘Availability of a variety of student organizations to cater to my needs’ and “I have opportunities to be 28


Table 10. Student organizations and recreational facilities Relevant Issue Raised in the Survey

N

Thai Mean

Thai SD

N

Japan Mean

Japan SD

There are a variety of student organizations that cater to my needs

1532

4.07

1.209

645

4.05

1.046

I find the life skills program offered by campus org very useful

1532

3.96

1.237

636

3.51

1.112

I enjoy the training I receive in participating in student organizations

1532

4.30

1.034

645

4.27

1.165

I have opportunities to be involved on extra-curricular activities

1532

4.08

1.123

647

3.98

1.390

Social activities at my uni make my studies more interesting

1532

3.95

1.185

644

3.88

1.192

University provides support for student organizations & social events

1532

4.13

1.122

638

3.51

1.168

involved in extra-curricular activities’ as the 2nd and 3rd most satisfactory aspects suggesting more similarities than differences with the opinions expressed by the Thai students. On the other hand, Thai students rated ‘social activities at their university make my studies interesting’ as the least satisfactory while the Japanese students rated ‘life skills program offered by the campuses and provision of university’s support for student organizations and social events as the two aspects which are least satisfactory at their institutions. It is clear that the university authorities can learn many lessons from these findings. IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS’ OVERALL SATISFACTION

The findings indicate that perceived quality has a positive impact on student overall satisfaction. Students who had high positive perceptions of services being offered at their universities tended to report a higher level of overall satisfaction. This implies that, to maintain students’ overall satisfaction, university administrators should enhance students’ perceived quality of the three main aspects: Academic, Nonacademic, and Facilities. The results also suggest that the aspect of service quality that most strongly impacts on students’ overall satisfaction is related to students’ perception of academic aspects, whereas the second strongest influence comes from the Non-academic aspects. The facility aspects are the least important in influencing students’ overall satisfaction. Findings based on student ratings of each of the three aspects are elaborated below. 29

GAMAGE ET AL

Academic Aspects The academic aspect was mainly determined by factors related to the quality of academic staff, the quality of programs, and the university’s reputation. It is important to note that the university’s reputation is the major contributor to the differences in students’ perceptions in this aspect, followed by quality of Academic staff, and Quality of programs respectively. University’s Reputation In the contemporary world, there is no doubt that a university’s reputation has become an increasingly important aspect in attracting students. Most universities are doing their best to develop distinct images in order to maintain their competitiveness in a keenly competitive market. Furthermore, in a number of previous studies, the importance of the university’s reputation has been identified by Nguyen and LeBlanc (2001), Kazoleas, Kim, and Moffitt (2001), and Hoyt and Brown (2003). According to the results of the study in Thailand and Japan, it is interesting to note that friends and family, local community, and society were the top three elements cited as the most important elements that influenced students’ perceptions of the university’s reputation. In this context, the university authorities should develop skills in effective communication and effective networks of communication to reach parents and families and place greater emphasis on communicating the positive features of their academic, non-academic, and facilities aspects in a wide variety of forums and media, thus building and projecting a better institutional image and reputation. However, it is important to note that there were fairly wide differences in the opinions expressed by the Thai and Japanese students. Academic Staff The quality of academic staff was considered very important with regard to the university’s reputation as a key element influencing students’ overall satisfaction. The results suggest that students most strongly valued the individual rapport and the establishment of a caring relationship between academics and students. These results support Lowman’s (1994) study of award winning teachers. Lowman notes that “interpersonal rapport” is a critical aspect in the classroom. This raises the point that, in any attempt to deliver a quality service, administrators need to be constantly aware that relationships and interactions between students and academic staff lie in the forefront and at the heart of good service delivery. Here, both the Thai and Japanese students’ opinions are congruent as both parties have rated ‘My lecturers have appropriate academic credentials’, and ‘My lecturers treat students with respect’ as the two most satisfactory aspects in that order. Quality of Programs When we consider relative importance, ‘the quality of programs’ followed by ‘the quality of academic staff ’ in the strength of influence on students’ overall satisfaction appears to be very important. Subject content of the curriculum in preparing students 30


for the workplace, and the applicability of knowledge were addressed by students as important elements that influenced their perceptions of quality programs. Students also indicated that they expected programs to be effective in procuring employment. In this aspect both groups of students rated ‘Knowledge and skills gained in my courses will provide good jobs’, as the most satisfactory aspect which contributed to their choice of a university. These findings suggest that both Thai and Japanese students believe that the nature and purpose of higher education should be more focused on the preparation of graduates for employment and the development of skill in achieving that goal. This view is supported by the findings by Geraghty (1997) who asserts that the most important reasons for students’ selection of a college or university were economic benefits after the completion of the course of study such as salary and benefits, as well as well-paying jobs. A significant feature of the survey results between the two groups is that the Thai students mean values show much more positive feelings towards their universities in respect of all three factors within the academic aspect with higher ratings between 4 and 5 as against Japanese students’ ratings between 3 and 4 on 1–6 scale. Non-Academic Aspects It was revealed that non-academic aspects were the second most important predictors of students’ overall satisfaction in a university setting. The non-academic aspects were mainly determined by the factors related to job placement, financial assistance and tuition fees, counseling and support services, and grievance procedures. Findings relating to each of these four factors are elaborated below. Job Placement The results demonstrate that job placement was the most significant factor associated with students’ perceptions of quality among non-academic aspects. The findings suggest that fourth year students placed more emphasis on job placement factors. These students want the universities to provide information about job opportunities, provide counselors for job placement, training for job applications, as well as guidance in developing connections with industry and employers. Both groups have rated ‘University provides infrastructure for career development and training’, as the most importnat aspect and there is a high degree of congruence with other aspects too. Kakwani and Pothong (1999) have asserted that with the introduction of mass higher education, the university students no longer have the guarantee or the luxury of good jobs waiting for them when they graduate, and therefore job placement services have become increasingly vital links. The findings of this study, suggest that job placement services should be viewed as one of the essential services rather than an optional, adjunct or a marginal service as it is valued highly by the students. Financial Assistance and Tuition Fees The availability of financial assistance and tuition costs is often cited as one of the important factors influencing student satisfaction with a university in motivating them to select a particular university (Gerahty, 1997; Lockhart, 1997; and 31

GAMAGE ET AL

Webb, 1996). The findings of the Thai and Japanese studies support this view and demonstrate that financial assistance and tuition fees are the second most important factors influencing students’ perceptions of non-academic aspects and their subsequent overall satisfaction. There is much more agreement between the two groups as they have rated the same aspects similarly. Counseling Support Services Archer and Cooper (1998), assert that the provision of effective college counseling services is bound to be one important factor contributing to student academic success. The results of this study clearly support this view and demonstrate that counseling support service is the third most important factor influencing student perceptions of the non-academic aspects and their subsequent overall satisfaction. The findings suggest that students value the availability of counseling support services to help them with academic as well as personal problems. The findings related to this aspect show that there is a significant degree of agreement between the perceptions of the two groups of students. Thomas (2001) asserted that in East Asian cultures, attitudes and beliefs about psychological problems have been identified as influencing the under-utilization of counseling services and psychotherapy. These attitudes and beliefs include the belief that seeking outside help for psychological problems will bring shame upon one’s family and that one must resolve problems of this type on his or her own initiative. Accordingly, universities should understand that many students are likely to hesitate to use counseling support services. In such a context, it is the responsibility of the university to promote the use of counseling support services among their students. The universities should raise the students’ awareness to show that it is not shameful to feel stressed or suffer from emotional problems and there is nothing wrong in seeking help. Grievance Procedures The findings of the Thai and Japanese studies show that a grievance procedure was the least important factor influencing students’ perceptions of non-academic aspects and their overall satisfaction. A tentative explanation for this has its basis in a number of often cited Thai and Japanese cultural traditions. For instance, interpersonal relations in Thailand and Japan are characterized by a medium-to-high power distance, which is to say that people with senior status (e.g. teachers and administrators) are approached with considerable deference and are not addressed frankly, and certainly are not contradicted (Prangpatanpon, 1996). These cultural attributes undoubtedly contribute to students’ hesitations to speak out or make complaints. The emphasis on maintenance of relationships and harmony in East Asian cultures also means that ‘an act of direct criticism is regarded at best as a sign of bad manners and at worst as a deliberate attempt to offend’ (Shute and Ciarlant, 1998). There is a high degree of agreement and compatibility in the opinions of the two groups of students as they have opted for identical ratings. 32


Facilities Aspects The findings suggest that facilities aspects were the least important predictors of students’ overall satisfaction in a university setting. The facilities aspects were mainly determined by factors related to student organizations, physical plants and facilities, and library and computing facilities. Findings related to each of these three factors are elaborated below. Student Organizations The results clearly identify that student organizations are the most significant factor associated with students’ perceptions of quality with regard to facilities. Students reported that involvement in student organizations is useful in the development of friendships, as well as work and life related skills. These findings are similar to previous research outcomes, which have suggested that involvement in student organizations can positively affect their satisfaction with the college or university (Cooper, Healey, and Simpson, 1994). These interactions help drive achievement, and build confidence in academic ability (House, 2000), academic performance and retention of such skills and competencies developed through such associations (Terenzini, Pascarella, and Bliming, 1996). The opinions of the two groups have a significant degree of compatibility as their 1st and 3rd most significant aspects were identical. It is also important for the authorities to encourage and assist students to get involved in organizations from their very first days on campus as it can shape their attitudes towards colleagues and universities. Universities need to ensure that sufficient time is allowed for the activities of the student organizations without conflicts with academic timetables. Physical Plants and Facilities The physical environment can and does influence customers’ behaviors, satisfaction and create an image that is particularly important for service industries such as hotels, restaurants, banks, retail stores, hospitals, as well as schools and colleges (Bitner, 1992; Hutton and Richardson, 1995; Tanner, 2000). The results of this study support the importance of the physical environment and demonstrate that the physical plant and environment is the second most important factor that contributed to student perceptions of satisfaction with the facilities aspects. The findings suggest that it is important to provide clean and tidy, well ventilated, appropriate sized lecture rooms, with adequate lighting. Another important element is the provision of places where groups of students could gather or hang around to socialize. It is also interesting to note that the design and structure of teachers’ rooms are one element that is important in students’ perceptions of the physical plant factors. Students prefer their teachers to have their own separate rooms rather than shared staff rooms, as they would be able to discuss personal problems, with no one else listening to what they discuss. There were some similarities as well as differences in the most preferred aspects of the physical plant facility. It is important for the university authorities to pay sufficient attention to improving such physical facilities. 33

GAMAGE ET AL

Library services and Computing Facilities The findings of this study show that library services and computing facilities are the least important contributing factor, on student perceptions of service quality and overall satisfaction. In relation to library services, one possible explanation may be due to library users approaching various aspects of service with different needs. Cook and Heath (2001) have asserted that when it works well, the library is a place that enters into the consciousness of the user little more than the span over open water enters into the awareness of the traveler. But, when their needs are not met whether it is inadequate collections, insufficient hours or otherwise, perceptions of service quality are altered. Comparing the opinions of the two groups, except for the ‘Provision of quiet study areas in the library’ for which both parties expressed high degree of satisfaction, their views were significantly divergent, but it is obvious that the students want their libraries to be well resourced and customer oriented. STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON OVERALL SATISFACTION

This study yields interesting results of the mediating role of student perceptions of service quality. The findings suggest that the level of students’ overall satisfaction with the university is affected by their perceptions of the three dimensions of service quality, both directly and indirectly. Of particular interest is that students’ individual characteristics have indirect effects on the level of their overall satisfaction with the university, through their perceptions of the three dimensions of service quality. The indirect effect each individual characteristic (year of study, field of study, and the university location), mediated through students’ perceptions of service quality has on overall satisfaction was over and above that of direct effects from these three individual characteristics. This implies that although there were students within different individual characteristic groups, who had lower levels of overall, satisfaction, their level of satisfaction was substantially increased because they felt more positive towards educational services they received. In this context, quality-improvement initiatives by the university authorities should not just focus on improving satisfaction but also need to target improving the students’ perceptions of overall service quality by taking all three dimensions into consideration. Institutions that want to increase students overall satisfaction should not restrict their efforts only to the academic issues or course reviews but should also consider non-academic and facilities dimensions within the university settings. In this era of intense competition within higher education sectors, satisfying customers only may not be sufficient. The veritable gain of a quality revolution comes only from customer satisfaction, which again to a very great extent depends on the customers’ perceptions of overall service quality. CONCLUSION

In the 21st Century, the adoption of quality assurance measures by higher educational institutions to improve student services is no longer an option. Especially in the context of private institutions of higher education, the quality of services is essential 34


for institutional survival. The increasing costs of services at a time of decreasing public funding and more intensified competition have forced private universities to struggle to gain a competitive edge by assuring high quality education and services to their customers. Under the circumstances, students’ opinions of all aspects of their higher education experiences are one of the core criteria for quality assurance with in-built accountability mechanisms. In addition to several other studies referred to above, the findings of these Thai and Japanese studies are likely to help identify aspects where the quality assurance in higher education based on students’ perceptions of service quality could be implemented. This study focused on several factors that were perceived to reflect on service quality in higher education according to student opinions. University authorities should be able to use this information at their discretion to improve the quality and capabilities of their academic staff, academic programs, services and the facilities provided to retain current students as well as attract increasing numbers of prospective students. NOTES 1

An earlier version of this paper appeared in Quality Assurance in Education (2008) Volume 16:2

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David Gamage Faculty of Arts University of Newcastle Australia Jaratdao Suwanabroma School of Education Siam University Thailand Takeyuki Ueyama Consultant for Educational Management and Leadership Sekio Hada Department of Education College of Humanities and Sciences Nihon University Japan Etsuo Sekikawa Department of Education College of Humanities and Sciences Nihon University Japan

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