Educational Environmental Projects, using Technology Applications, For Middle School Students in Formal and Non-Formal Settings Harriett S. Stubbs, Ph.D. With contributions from Kris Fowler, Jessica Ball, Nain Singh, DeeDee Whitaker, and Bennett Hawley Page 1 1|2|3|4|5
Abstract In 1996, SCI-LINK in the College of Education at NC State University, offered its first workshops focusing on Geographic Information Systems (GIS). These workshops aimed to support individuals in the use of environmental data to solve problems, using technology and new scientific findings. Workshop participants have introduced these concepts to students in their classrooms grades 5-12, as well as museums, nature centers, and other non-formal locations. DeeDee, Rita and Kris identify trees using field guides
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Over the past five years, in order to reach educators across North Carolina, and to overcome perceived barriers to introducing this more complex technology tool, a conceptual model was developed in 2000 entitled the
Environmental Studies: Student, Teacher, and Community Perspectives Winter 1998 Introducing Geography and Technology into Science Via Biodiversity Winter 2002
5-Step Leadership Model (Stubbs, 2000). Hagevik, utilizing SCI-LINK publications and the GIS workshops, developed a curriculum, MOSS (Mapping Our School Site and (Step II of the 5-Step Model) that has spawned a number of individual projects. Four projects are mentioned as exemplary cases of what can happen in formal and non-formal settings.
The 5-Step GIS Leadership Development Model.
The GIS Leadership Model is a graduated program composed of a five-step series of workshops and Visualizing Earth projects. After completing the five steps, educators from the engage in a leadership component that enables them Classroom to become mentors and workshop instructors for other Winter 1999 teachers. In their teaching, educators demonstrate increased learning and application of geographic information systems. A brief overview of each workshop follows, indicating the focus and software used. Each workshop focuses on a specific area of the environment and includes presentations by scientists, information personnel, and GIS professionals, emphasizing educational applications. In addition, management and pedagogy related to the implementation and integration of science, mathematics, and technology into instruction are addressed. These workshops are NOT just learning software programs. These workshops ARE about gaining specific knowledge using technology applications as tools for further analysis, understanding, and learning. For example, workshops in the first three Observing and collecting data on years focused on the environmental topic macroinvertebrates of hazardous waste. Workshops in the last two years have furthered knowledge of non-point source pollution, or polluted run-off – problems of water pollution. Overview of the 5-Step GIS Leadership Model All workshops focus on an environmental topic. Topics of past workshops include hazardous waste, river basins, watersheds, health issues, and polluted run-off.
Step I
Workshop Description
Software Utilized
Introduction to maps, spatial thinking, and learning about an environmental problem.
ArcVoyager GIS software
Step II
Mapping a specific site, monitoring components and parameters of this environment (plants, temperature, animals, cover, water and run-off, and non-living components such as soil and air).
MOSS [Mapping Our School Site], GPS, GLOBE protocols, CityGreen, handheld devices, ArcView 3.x
Step III
Community focus, field trips to compare various environmental factors at different locations. Individual project developed.
Beginning GIS using ArcView 3.x.
Step IV
Individual project developed by each educator augmented with an APlan, a document that reflects the participant’s integrated response to and use of all components in the GIS program in his/her educational setting.
Advanced GIS using ArcView 3.x.
Step V
Each educator is responsible for developing his/her individual project. Three days are spent in the classroom (two days with supervision by graduate students) and one day with subject matter experts. Two days are spent in the community, contacting cooperators and specific partners for each project, following the design of the APlan. Completed project plans submitted for review.
GIS, CityGreen, ArcVoyager
Leadership Component A teacher trainer component is an important part of the 5 Step GIS Leadership Model. Each educator, as they complete each step, receives a certificate and may then choose to team teach a workshop on that step with a trained GIS teacher educator. At the completion of teaching each of the workshops in the 5Step model, the trainer can then receive 3 graduate credits (equivalent for their work) in the College of Natural Resources at NC State University. The educator then becomes a GIS trainer and is prepared to Jessica leads discussion of problem questions teach GIS workshops in various educational settings. NCSU Program Seven colleges at NCSU offer classes in GIS. In the future, NCSU will establish an international Graduate GIS Certificate and GIS Minor program to compliment the traditional degree programs – a joint effort of 8 colleges, the NCSU Libraries, the Graduate School, and the IT program.
North Carolina GIS Consortium In 1996, the North Carolina GIS Consortium was formed. This organization represents a dynamic partnership between state agencies, universities, nongovernmental agencies, GIS users in municipalities, software companies, and professional organizations. Meetings, held twice a year, are chaired by the Director of the Office of Environmental Education, NC Department of Environment and Natural Resources. SCI-LINK represents NCSU’s College of Education, and the Center for Earth Observation represents NCSU’s College of Natural Resources. Since 1996, the Sci-Link project of the Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, College of Education at North Carolina State University has been conducting secondary level teacher workshops on the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in mathematics and science education. Sci-Link (Anderson, 1993) links scientists, teachers, and students to higher education and other community partners. Other cooperators include: NC Center for Geographic Information & Analysis, NC Department of Public Instruction, many entities in the NC Department of Environment & Natural Resources (NC DENR) including the Office of Environmental Education and its Divisions of Water Resources and of Water Quality , Urban and Regional Information Systems Association (URISA), and Environmental Systems Research Using GIS to analyze and solve teachers' Institute, Inc. (ESRI). Consortium environmental problem questions members function as the Steering Committee for this project and continue to provide professional expertise and resources to support the ongoing educational program. Members plan to expand the Consortium in the near future, as this network is vital for the growth and advancement of the application of GIS and related technologies to the public and the education of students. The MOSS Curriculum The Mapping Our School Site (MOSS) project has grown over many years of development, through the efforts of its developer, Rita Hagevik, who is a teacher and graduate student at NCSU. The project is now used to teach Step II in the 5-Step Model. MOSS uses guided inquiry to help teachers and students learn the
steps of skillful problem solving and the process of GIS analysis. Educators and students monitor a 10-meter by 10meter site on their campuses, whether Mapping ant density on school grounds it is a school or a nature center. Data collected is used to formulate and analyze relationships between abiotic and biotic components of the environment. Problem questions formulated by student research groups are analyzed using GIS, phenomena are modeled, and results are communicated visually. [MOSS] allows students to work in cooperative groups and experience hands-on science. Nain Singh, Carrington Middle School, Durham, NC MOSS helped show me how to engage students in inquiry-based learning. Belinda Hogue, Anna Chestnut Middle School, Fayetteville, NC In the MOSS project, the 3 X’s of technology are experienced using GIS— eXplore, eXpress, and eXchange. These three fundamental skills are necessary for digital equity in the 21st century (Hardel, Idet, www.mamamedia.com). A website is used to teach the unit or as explained by DeeDee Whitaker, “a guide and information management system.” A video of one school’s MOSS project was broadcast to more than ten states as an example of effective technology use in science (STAR network, NCDPI). With initial support from a US EPA grant to SCI-LINK, additional funding through an Eisenhower grant and from NC DENR, this project now is the “spawning ground” for new projects based on the ideas of monitoring and assessment of a site. For more information on the MOSS project, contact Rita Hagevik Exemplary GIS Projects A number of associated projects have grown over the past several years and have proven successful. These included a non-formal project, projects for schools, a graduate curriculum, and a world-wide web-based project. Current projects have been selected to illustrate the various approaches to using GIS in classrooms and non-formal locations. All of the educators mentioned here have participated in summer GIS workshops. Teachers Nain Singh and DeeDee Whitaker, and non-formal educators Kris
Fowler and Jessica Ball have envisioned and developed projects for and with their students. These teachers have been mentored by Rita Hagevik, local GIS users, and Dr. Hugh Devine of the Center for Earth Observation. These GIS projects are all interdisciplinary, focus on environmental problems, and are aligned with the National Standards for Science Education (NRC, 1996), Jason uses a handheld computer, GIS, and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards (NCTM,1986), GPS to collect data Technology Education Standards (ISTE, 2000), EPA’s Guidelines for Excellence in Environmental Education, and North Carolina’s educational requirements. Most importantly, each project is adapted to a specific audience and each project has captured the imagination of involved students. The educators are positive about the projects, adding components to the overall project each time it is taught, with the vision of disseminating the improved project. These projects are examples of the GIS Leadership Model in progress and are highlighted below. The educators, who present and describe the case studies below, have developed these projects as a result of their participation in the 5-Step GIS Leadership Model Program. 1. Learning After School GIS & CITYgreen Project (American Forests, 2000) by Kris Fowler, NC State University, and Jessica Ball, NC Wildlife Resources Commission (NCWRC) Kris Fowler and Jessica Ball have developed and implemented a hands-on inquiry-based learning project for students in the Girls Club of Raleigh, NC. The project uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology and provides students with an opportunity to explore and map real-world phenomenon. Using ArcView 3.2 and CITYgreen, a software extension, students in the project learned to map their club site and to use GIS software. Student participants ranged from 10-12 years old. During the 2002–2003 academic year, approximately 15 students participated. These students became familiar with natural resources (trees, ground cover, wildlife) on their club grounds, technology, and GIS-related career opportunities. GIS enables students to directly participate in the scientific method: ask a question, form a hypothesis, and test the hypothesis. Kris measures the diameter breast height Students collect real-world data outdoors, of the trees enter the data into the GIS software program, manipulate the data, then create maps and view the data in map form. Doing, seeing, and analyzing, are powerful learning activities. Using GIS, students move from being passive learners to being active learners. They create their own lessons, and learn from them. The project provided student
participants and Girls Club staff with a relevant, on-going connection with NCSU and the NCWRC. Goals of the project include: enrollment of students at NCSU after graduation and involvement of students in the new NCWRC Wildlife Education Center on Centennial Campus. Heather K. Brosz White, Director of Education Programs for the Wake County Boys and Girls Clubs says, Our partnership with NC State University through GIS has fit very nicely into the Project Learn Strategy, and into the core program area of Education and Career Development. Members who belong to the GIS group have become competent in a number of academic and technical skills through this program, and have had a growing bond with NCSU. It has been a fantastic experience for these members who have been able to learn new skills while finding real-world applications to things they learned in school. In May 2003, Kris Fowler and Jessica Ball, together with Rita Hagevik, taught an ArcVoyager workshop to staff members from each of the five Wake County Boys and Girls Clubs. The goal was to provide staff members with the ability to initiate and facilitate GIS projects at their clubs, thereby widening the educational opportunities for students in all Wake County Boys and Girls Clubs. For more information on this project contact Kris Fowler and Jessica Ball 2. What Are Nematodes? Developed by Dr. Nain Singh, from Carrington Middle School in Durham. A handful of soil contains thousands of microscopic worms, known as nematodes. Some live symbiotically with plants and animals serving as nitrogen fixers and gut microbes. Others play an important role in the decomposition of dead organic matter and the cycling of plant nutrients. However, many species of nematodes are parasitic to plants, animals, and even insects. This project includes methods of collection and extraction of nematodes from garden soil samples, nematode basic anatomy as a tool for identification, nematode feeding, plant disease symptoms, and the importance of nematodes in agriculture. To investigate such an unknown organism that has such an impact in our world today and for students to show such interest is a plus for this project.Students used GIS to examine 10 meter by 10 meter plots and to investigate the relationships between plants, soil, temperature, moisture, trees, and cover to the number and type of
nematodes found in the soil. The MOSS curriculum was used and modified to focus on nematodes in the soil instead of other types of animals. Students were able to relate abiotic and biotic factors to species diversity and numbers of nematodes found. GIS allowed the students to digitize the study area, analyze the data, and create a site map. GIS also provided a quantitative analysis as to the benefits of trees in the study site. It compared more than one modeling option at a time and manipulated the existing data to suit the new models. No other technology does it better than GIS. For more information on the nematode project, contact Dr. Nain Singh 3. GIS at Southwest Guilford High School by DeeDee Whitaker As a result of several workshops presented by SCI-LINK, NC State University, and the NC Department of Public Instruction, and NC Department of Environment and Natural Resources, a GIS component to the Earth Science and Chemistry curricula has been added at Southwest Guilford High. The Earth Science classes use ArcVoyager, a free CD provided by ESRI, which includes United States and world files for many of the objectives covered by the course outline. Students use the computer lab to investigate such topics as earthquakes and volcanoes, cloud coverage, climate change, and plate tectonics. The great thing about ArcVoyager is that students can visualize individual concepts as well as develop relationships among concepts that are presented visually on a map. The map layers are interactive so students can see how rainfall affects vegetation, how average July high temperature is related to latitude, or how the locations of earthquakes and volcanoes relate to plate boundaries, for examples. The students take to the program quickly, almost instinctively. They say the ArcVoyager lessons make learning the concepts easier. As the course progresses, students compete with each other for the best, most attractive map. There is never a discipline problem during computer time and all students experience success. But this is not the only way GIS has been incorporated into the classroom. As part of the Chemistry I program, a GIS project has been added that gives students a chance to practice their chemistry skills while completing an environmental assessment study. For seven years, we
have completed water quality analysis on the Deep River, a river close to campus that feeds into the local drinking water reservoir. The water is tested monthly for pollutants as well as other indicators of water quality. The results are added to a spreadsheet kept by the students and then added to a GIS project. With the help of High Point City data layers found on-line, a map is generated showing test sites and development along the river. Students are asked to provide a written environmental assessment of river health with justification based on data they collected. They must also hypothesize possible reasons as to why river health declined or improved based on the previous year’s data and support their hypotheses. The assessments are shared in class and the class makes a final decision on the health of the river and then brainstorms possible solutions if problems are found.In addition to water quality studies, a study-site has been added on campus that includes a pond, grassy area, and tree stand. The study site is a 30 meter by 30 meter site, within a larger fenced-in area. Students break into groups for the duration of the class and conduct water quality tests, soil analysis, collect weather and air data, and take topological measurements. They record their data, map it, and provide a detailed assessment of the plot. Again, the data is stored so that future classes have an archive with which to make informed decisions. The students enjoy being involved in a real-world problem. It gives them the opportunity to apply their chemistry knowledge and skills to something tangible. They get an idea of what it is like to conduct science research in the field. Often they must improvise on short notice. They must analyze and synthesize data. They know the entire class is depending on the quality of each group’s work. Communication sometimes get heated, but each student and each group quickly become very proficient at their appointed tasks. The addition of GIS to the science class has improved students’ thinking skills and the way they connect science, math, and technology. They see the way concepts fit together. They use what they learn in a practical and meaningful way. Their attitude toward chemistry improves greatly and some students even develop an interest in pursuing a chemistry or GISrelated career. The rewards for incorporating GIS into the classroom are bountiful and the possible ways to incorporate GIS are limited only by students’ and teachers’ imaginations. For more information about these projects, contact DeeDee Whitaker Projects in Development There are many more projects in process that deserve mention and attention. Several other individuals who have contributed to the use of new technologies include: Centennial Middle School, Raleigh, NC contact Betty Welsh Greensboro Day School,
Greensboro, NC contact Val Vickers McDougle Middle School, Chapel Hill, NC contact Lynne Gronback GIS Live an Interactive Online Conference GIS Live is a dynamic, interactive experience that can be shared by everyone in the world. Developed and carried forth by Rita Hagevik and Cris Crissman, NC Department of Public Instruction, GIS Live represents a new approach. Through the power of the Web, ways to use GIS to improve our everyday lives can be discovered. In 2002, the first GIS Live, exemplary GIS projects were showcased via the Web on health, flood plain mapping, critical incident response, NC State University science research, remote sensing and wildlife habitat modeling, crime analysis, urban planning, meteorology and snow command, Urban Ecological Analyses, and GIS in Marine Science. Students from various North Carolina schools demonstrated how to collect and analyze data using GIS with live reports on their progress throughout the day. Other schools worked along with the Middle/High School Team and e-mailed their results for analysis and display. The day closed with an electronic forum for educators led by teachers and students. All sessions are archived on the GIS Live website with pre and post activities so that anyone can attend over and over again. This demonstration model reached 3 foreign countries and over 20 states in 2002! What will happen in 2003? Join the website on November 19, 2003 and celebrate GIS Day. For more information on GIS Live and how you can participate visit the website. Experiences of a College Student by Bennett Hawley, Freshman at NCSU I had never heard of GIS or any of its relation to jobs in the world until I worked with my former high school Chemistry teacher DeeDee Whitaker. She introduced me to the effectiveness and versatility of the programs involved in GIS. Her direction inspired me to explore what GIS was all about. DeeDee and I used a classroom of marine science students to participate in the MOSS (Mapping Our School Site) program. With the experience gained from DeeDee, GIS, and MOSS, I went on to gain a scholarship in the forestry department of NC State University and will pursue a degree in ecosystem assessment. I have met many people in my field of work that have helped to further my knowledge in GIS and its use. I hope to gain more knowledge in this field and hopefully leave my own footprint on GIS. Summary Many educators who have attended the GIS workshops from 1996 to 2002 have continued their projects in their home settings.Multiple projects in schools and in non-formal settings are evolving, in which GIS is used to investigate a problem
common to many communities. Rivers and streams in watersheds common to different schools, for example, are monitored by students of those schools (Centennial Middle School and Southwest Guilford County High School, 2003). In 2002, 20 states and 3 foreign countries participated in GISLive (2002), an interactive online conference; the program will expand in the future to involve many additional states and foreign countries. GISLive 2003 will be held on November 20 and is the statewide celebration of GIS Day (2003). A collaborative network of professionals has supported educators in the workshops and in their home settings, providing essential expertise and professional advice to “make the projects work.” A collaborative network of individuals from K-12 schools, corporations, state government, universities, and professional non-profit organizations has developed over a period of years. We are at the beginning of an explosion and expansion of the use of environmental data to help solve the problems of humankind. It is important that all students learn how to use technology in their everyday lives and to be technologically prepared for the jobs of the future (Alibrandi, 2000). These methodologies integrate science, mathematics, and the newest technologies (GPS, remote sensing and wireless hand held devices) and will aide in preparing educators and students for the challenges of the coming decades. Support has been received from the Waste Division, US Environmental Protection Agency; Office of Environmental Education, and Office of Water Quality, NC Department of Environment and Natural Resources; College of Education, NCSU; College of Natural Resources, NCSU; Environmental Education Fund, 319 fund from NC DENR, NC Department of Public Instruction, and others.
About the Authors Dr. Harriett S. Stubbs is a member of the Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education and the principal investigator for the SCI-LINK and GLOBE-NET projects at North Carolina State University. These projects bring together science teachers and research scientists for teacher enhancement and the development of curriculum related to environmental change. She has presented at local, national, and international meetings on topics dealing with air quality issues of acid rain, air pollution and air pollutants' effects on forests, global climate change, curriculum development, and science education. She has focused on the professional development of educators and dissemination of current research in the environmental sciences. Email:
[email protected]
Jessica Ball is the Program Coordinator for the Centennial Campus Center for Wildlife Education of North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. She has her BS in Environmental Biology and Ecology from Appalachian State University and has an MS in Biology from Appalachian State University. Jessica’s research interests include wildlife biology and environmental programming using new technologies such as GIS to formal and informal educators. Email:
[email protected] Kris Fowler is the Assistant to the Associate Dean for Academic Affairs in the
College of Natural Resources at NC State University. Her work focuses upon enrollment management for the College of Natural Resources. She has a BS degree in Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management from NC State University and has an MS in Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management from NC State in May, 2003. Kris's research interests involve using Geographic Information Systems software as a primary tool to engage and motivate young people in the study of natural resources. Email:
[email protected] Bennett Hawley is a student at NC State University pursuing a degree in Ecosystem Assessment in the College of Natural Resources. His main interest is to learn more about the technical side to natural resources by using tools such as GIS. His past exposure to GIS has included work with Rita Hagevik, Kris Fowler, and Jessica Ball with projects involving SPACE and the Boys and Girls Club which forcused mainly on education others the applications of GIS. His first introduction to GIS was under his high school teacher, DeeDee Whitaker, by working on a web paged, technology centered MOSS project using his school grounds. Email:
[email protected] Dr. Nain Singh teaches biotechnology courses at Carrington Middle School in Durham, NC. He was born in the Caribbean and has a BSc. degree in Horticultural Science. His advanced degrees are in Botany and Plant Pathology. Dr. Singh spent over eighteen years in teaching and research at the University of the West Indies and the Caribbean Research Institute. During this period, he published over 47 research papers. He ended his career at the Caribbean Institute when its mission changed and returned to the United States to begin a new teaching career. Dr. Singh believes that teaching is a field in which the primary objective is caring and kindness. Email:
[email protected] DeeDee Whitaker is a chemistry teacher at Southwest Guilford High school where she has been teaching for 16 years. Her interests include environmental chemistry and GIS mapping. She was recently recognized by North Carolina Science Teachers Association and the Guilford County Business Advisory Board for outstanding science teaching. She is a graduate of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill with a BS and MAT in science teaching. Email:
[email protected] References American Forests. (2000). CITYgreen (Version 4.2). Washington DC: American Forests. Alibrandi, M., Thompson, A., & Hagevik, R. A. (2000). Historical Documentation of a Culture. In R. Audet & G. Ludwig (Eds.), GIS in Schools (pp. 47-54). Redlands, CA: ESRI Press. Anderson, N. D. (1993). SCI-LINK: An Innovative Project Linking Research Scientists and Science Teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 4(2), 44-50.
Centennial Middle School.Walnut Creek Project. Retrieved, 2003, from the World Wide Web: www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/project/ciwetlands/wc/ ccms_wc.htm DuBay, D. T. and H. S. Stubbs. (1997). “Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Education”. In Environmental Education for the Next Generation: Professional Development and Teacher Training. Selected Papers from the Twenty-fifth Annual Conference of the North American Association for Environmental Education, San Francisco Bay Area, CA. November 1-5, 1996. NAAEE, Troy, Ohio. Environmental Systems Research Institute. (1996). ArcView 3.x. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. GIS Day. (2003). Homepage. Retrieved, from the World Wide Web: www.gisday.com/ GIS Live. (2002). North Carolina GIS Day. Rita Hagevik & Cris Crissman. Retrieved, 2003, from the World Wide Web: www.ncsu.edu/scilink/gislive Hagevik, R. (1999). Mapping Our School Site (MOSS). Retrieved, 2003, from the World Wide Web: www.ncsu.edu/scilink/studysite International Society for Technology in Education. (2000). National educational technology standards for students: Connecting curriculum and technology. Eugene, Oregon: ISTE Press. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1986). Curriculum and evaluation for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. SCI-LINK. (2003). Homepage. Retrieved, from the World Wide Web: www.ncsu.edu/scilink Southwest Guilford High School. (2003). Deep River Watershed Project. Retrieved, 2003, from the World Wide Web: schools.guilford.k12.nc.us/spages/ swg/Index01.html Stubbs, H. S., & Anderson, N. D. (1996, August 17-22). Enhancing student skills in science with technology: Monitoring the Environment with white clover, ants, and other suggestions. Paper presented at the In the proceedings of the conference on science and technology education for responsible citizenship and economic development, IOSTE, Edmonton, Canada. Stubbs, Harriett S., Denis T. DuBay, Norman D. Anderson, Hugh A. Devine, and Rita A. Hagevik. (1999). Environmental Science Utilizing Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In Proceedings of a Conference, North American Association for Environmental Educators, Annual Conference, South Padre Island, TX. October 2000. 4 pgs. CD-ROM. NAAEE, 4410 Tarvin Rd., Rock Spring, GA 30739, USA.
Stubbs, Harriett S., Hugh A. Devine, and Rita A. Hagevik. (2002). Thinking Spatially: Curricula K-16 and Professional Development for Educators. In Proceedings of 10th IOSTE Symposium. Foz do Iguacu, Parana, Brazil. Acknowledgements. We are indebted to the many individuals who have provided their professional mentoring and advice to this project, which is vitally concerned with the furthering of the teaching and learning of educators and their students. We would like to thank Charlie Fitzpatrick of ESRI, Margaret Crowe of US EPA, Huge Devine of the NCSU Center for Earth Observation, Anne Taylor of the Office of Environmental Education NC DENR, and the many educators who have “hung on through thick and thin” to help develop the 5-Step Model, and associated projects.
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Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal a service of NC State University, Raleigh, NC Volume 6, Issue 2, Summer 2003 ISSN 1097 9778 URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/ Contact Meridian All rights reserved by the authors.
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