Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in ...

Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in Asia

Educational Leadership AND

Leadership Education in Asia Jamaliah Abdul Hamid AND Narcisa Paredes-Canilao WITH Roshni Kumari AND Mohammad Babur EDITORS

The University of the Philippines Press Diliman, Quezon City

the university of the philippines press E. de los Santos St., UP Campus, Diliman, Quezon City 1101 Tel. Nos.: 9282558, 9253243 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.uppress.com.ph/ ©2013 by Luis H. Francia All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, and/or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author and the publisher. The National Library of the Philippines CIP Data Recommended entry: Book design by Lara Gotis Printed in the Philippines by

Table of Contents Preface MUHAMMAD BABUR AND ROSHNI KUMARI IV

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Introduction JAMALIAH ABDUL HAMID AND NARCISA PAREDES-CANILAO

PART I

1

Facing the Challenges of Educational Leadership in a Globalized World Leading Progress, Changing Reality: Women and Leadership in the United Arab Emirates SUAAD AL-ORAIMI

2

3

Entrepreneurial Leadership: Female School Principals in Azerbaijan CATHRYN MAGNO AND ELMINA KAZIMZADE

3

36

Leadership in Higher Education: The Normative Project of the Public Good in Conditions of Globalization, USM and APEX in Malaysia JAMES CAMPBELL

4

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56

21st Century Schools: Exploring the Efficacy of Public Private Partnership Models in India YAZALI JOSEPHINE

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PART II

5

Practical East-West Exploration of Leadership and Learning

6

Instructional Leadership Practice in Monitoring Student Progress Using the Headcount Technique

RICHARD KNOWLES AND GWEN ANDREWS

JAMES ANG AND BALASANDRAN RAMIAH

7 8

9

Horizontal Learning: Alternative to Centralized Governance

13

Actual and Desired Factors of Effective Organization and Management of Teaching and Learning Practices: A Case Study from Oman

14 155

PURWO SANTOSO

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Leadership Behaviors, University Culture, and Leadership Effectiveness for Academic Work in Malaysian Public Universities KIAN-SAM HONG, RUJHAN BIN MUSTAFA, PETER SONGAN, KWANG-SING NGUI, HASBEE HJ USOP, SIEW-LING GAN, AND GEORGE TAN GEOK-SIM

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Notes on Contributors

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Index

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XXX

Mainstreaming Asian Values in Educational Leadership and Leadership Education Educational Leadership When Competitiveness Means Collaboration XXX

Leadership Experiences and Motivation to Lead: Reflections of Student Leaders in Malaysian Public Universities JAMALIAH ABDUL HAMID AND STEVEN ERIC KRAUSS

11

12

129

Stakeholder Involvement Strategies in the Implementation of School-Based Management in Indonesian Public Senior Secondary Schools

LYNN ILON AND ANTHONY NORMORE

10

Case Studies in Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in Asian Universities

ANDREW THOMAS

UMIATI JAWAS

PART III

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Improving Head Nurses’ Leadership Skills through Leadership Development Program (LDP) in Aswan-Egypt YALDEZ KHAIRY ZAKARIA ZEIN EL DIN, MOHAMED H. KAMEL, AND MOATAZA M. ABDEL WAHAB

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Role of Transformational Leadership and Organizational Commitment and their Variability in Different School Settings P.T. RAVEENDRAN AND JOJI ALEX N.

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PART IV

Innovative Tools in Measuring and Improving Educational Leadership


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Preface Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in Asia The hegemony of Western theories and Western perspectives in the knowledge and practice domains of leadership and learning is quite evident, resulting in often an unquestioned transfer and/or adoption of these theories as ‘universal’ in other parts of the world, for instance, in Asia. Such transfer or adoption assumes that all contexts are similar and that they do not have any unique features that could or should influence theory and/ or practice. Such hegemonic approaches are being challenged as quite narrow and too prescriptive in nature, not just in the Eastern sphere of the globe, but also in the West, giving way to other perspectives from other parts of the world. The ELLTA, which stands for ‘Exploring Leadership and Learning Theories in Asia’ Conference has been a significant initiative in bringing to the forefront the Asian perspectives and theories. Hosted by the University Sains Malaysia, the ELLTA Conference took place in February 2011, and brought together a large group of leaders, learners, practitioners and scholars from various countries and diverse disciplines to contribute to theory generation in/ for/ from Asia. It was from the conference papers that the 14 articles in this volume were shortlisted and finally selected for publication in this volume. Thus the current book is a collection of the knowledge contributions from this group, representing the Asian perspectives on Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in Asia. This, we believe, is a very significant contribution by the authors to theory building as well as informing practice in Asia, for which the University of Philippines, very generously, provided the venue to further disseminate these theories and perspectives.

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The main editors of the book, Professors Narcisa Paredes-Canilao and Jamaliah Abdul Hamid, played a very critical and dynamic role in providing intellectual support and academic leadership to this book, so as to ensure that voices from Asia can get heard across the world. We deeply acknowledge all those who have generously contributed to this initiative and believe that the current book will inspire and expand the boundaries and relevance of educational leadership and leadership education theories. Muhammad Babur & Roshni Kumari Aga Khan University, Pakistan Co-Organizers, ELLTA Conference 2011 Penang, Malaysia

Introduction Research, Strategies, Challenges, and Directions of Educational Leadership and Leadership Education in Asia JAMALIAH ABDUL HAMID AND NARCISA PAREDES-CANILAO

This volume features scholars from or located in Asia, or working elsewhere, writing under the distinct but related fields of educational leadership and leadership education in Asian contexts. A book like this is significant for a number of reasons. First, it responds to the current dearth of literature on leadership from scholars working or situated in Asia, thus, contexts other than North America, Western Europe, and ANZ—the reigning leadership textbook capitals of the globe. The sparseness of literature on Asian leadership or leadership in Asia became the main impetus behind the 2011 ELLTA conference. P. Hallinger, one of the keynote speakers noting this fact, has advocated for East Asia what can very well be true for Asia as a whole, and this is the acceleration of the development of a valid knowledge base for educational leadership and management in the area. Hallinger’s recommendation is a result of his researches showing that the empirical bases of educational reforms and related educational policy solutions in the region are “distorted and lacking in validation” because they are informed by findings of researches “conducted largely in Western cultural contexts”(2011 p.3).

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Another significance of this volume relates directly to one concern meant to be addressed by the 2011 conference: Are there existing Asian leadership theories that have not been tapped for inclusion into the cannon? Contemporary Western educational leadership literature have started mining nuggets of leadership philosophy from Socrates, Aristotle (See Orozco 1999), Dewey, James, Habermas, (See Maxcy 1991), to name a few. But the very rich leadership lessons have not been mustered from Asia’s major belief systems (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Taoism, and Confucianism) which are for the most part instructions to rulers, sage-kings, princes, and teachers. Problematizing the biased notion of the “Oriental despot”, (Said 1979; Steadman 1969), are Taoist, Buddhist, and Hindu instructions on leadership directed to the ruling elite and in some cases they are given by persons of subordinate status (cooks, butchers, servants). For instance, from Tao Te Ching: “Ruling a big country is like cooking small fish,” and, “If you want to be great, be small,” (see Chan, W-t 1963). Non-attachment to one’s actions, Krsna’s admonition for Arjuna in Bhagavad-Gita, is also found in the Mundaka Upanisad: As the flowing rivers in the ocean Disappear, quitting name and form, So the knower, being liberated from name and form, Goes unto the Heavenly Person, higher than the high Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 55

These principles are more aptly called wisdom rather than knowledge because they are timeless, and in today’s world, they become potent counterdiscourses to the hegemony of just one educational civilizational source, and promise more harmonious, bio-diverse, and sustainable futures (Hutchinson, 1996; Inayatullah 2003; Krishnamurti 2002; Rafik & Badawi 1999; McClaren 1999; Radhakrishnan 1993; Shiva 1988, 1993; Tagore 1993). But leadership tenets are found not only in major Asian civilizations, but also in other cultures, most of which have until recently, used their languages to record, preserve, and pass on their indigenous ecological and cultural knowledge. Thus, Ibrahim Ahmad Bajunid urged scholars in his ELLTA conference keynote speech, to tap into leadership and learning theories

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that abound in marginalized and indigenous societies of Asia. For therein lie “corpuses of conventional, unique and rare human wisdom,” and “great knowledge civilizations,” such as those written in Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Malay, Thai, Vietnamese, Swahili and other languages. (ELLTA Conference Programme 2011, pp. 5-6).

Resistance-Recovery Projects in Education: Theory, Politics and Ethics Not only theoretical, but also political and ethical justifications have motivated projects spearheaded by Asian scholars since the 19th up to the 20th centuries continuing on to the 21st, taking issue with the unidirectional colonizers-to-colonized, now “North-to-South” flow of theories, expertise and technology in education and their implicit universalist, cultural-imperialist and racist assumptions. Mental captivity, colonial mentality, or educational neocolonialism were/are the inevitable results (S.H. Alatas, 1977, 2000; Altbach, 1977; Amin 1989; Constantino 1971; Enriquez 1994; Said 1979). In former colonies, formal colonization has ended, yet subservience to the former colonizing powers continues in the former’s educational system. Thus, aside from the development of a knowledge base, it is important that this corpus of knowledge be examined not so much in terms of their internal validity or logic of justification (are conclusions sufficiently established or warranted by the evidentiary arguments?), but more in terms of their sociocultural-political contexts and value presuppositions, in a word, their logic of discovery (See T. Kuhn, 1970). Logic of discovery studies (or metatheoretical studies) can be conducted productively on three types of researches in Asia: Western-inspired researches, researches intended as critiques of the state of academic dependency in knowledge fields, and researches on, or texts from the great but peripheralized knowledge traditions. Applying a four-pronged typology of meta-analysis, the sociologist, S.F. Alatas in Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Science: Responses to Eurocentrism (2006), was able to document and analyze the continued dependence of Asian social sciences (and the related fields of education and development), upon one civilizational source (the West) as either cognitive or institutional, and these two can be further analyzed as to whether they are external or internal. His metatheoretical analysis extends far back to 19th and early 20th century resistance to “Orientalist language and cultural studies,”

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(found for instance in F. Xiaotong, R. Tagore, A. Abdul Kadir Munshi, J. Rizal, A. Pané), up to the late 20th century attempts of Asian scholars from India, the Philippines, Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and Taiwan, at creating “alternative discourses.” He defines metatheory as “the reflexive study of theory, that is, the study of the underlying structure of theory or the social context within which theory emerges” (2006, p. 181). The incisive analysis of Alatas indicates the power of metatheoretical studies in rigorously exposing that no knowledge is ever objective, universal and value-free, and thus the ethico-political project of equalizing opportunities for different civilizations to participate in a truly universal exchange of wisdom. In the field of leadership studies, Maxcy has reiterated that: “Any philosophy of leadership must rest upon the physical and social environment on which it is developed,” noting that “an empirical understanding of the soiocultural conditions from which it emerges is essential” (1991, p. 5). The difference between Western and non-Western theories of leadership has often been traced to a difference of views on who should be a leader. In the former the leader is the individual spurred by psychological forces to aspire for positions of power and authority. In contrast, leadership in the latter is a phenomenon of a collective or community ascribing power and authority to someone already predisposed to leadership by their socio-cultural and economic contexts. This is the tenor of Yusuf Sidani’s contribution to the book of articles written by the ELLTA Advisory Board, Are Theories Universal? (2011). In “Beyond Ethnocentrism: A Cross-cultural Understanding of Leadership,” Sidani doubts the universal applicability of major theories of leadership from the West. He uses the notion of a charismatic leader as an illustration. In his analysis, charismatic leadership is explained in Western leadership theories as an individual impulse motivated by the need for power (“the desire to be influential controlling and competitive”), and thus power is a psychological construct. In contrast, East Asian and Middle Eastern societies construct power in terms of social relations (national culture, social upbringing, gender, social status, family). In calling attention to the role of socio-cultural constructions and relations, power and leadership are in effect taken out from the realm of Western individual psychology, and instead given sociological and cultural explanations. Sidani further notes that in the nonwestern societies mentioned, rather than sought after or worked for, leadership is a conferred

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status, where “humility, modesty, taking pride in teamwork” are operative and not individual accomplishments.

From Managers /Administrators to Leaders There is still another major significance of this volume on educational leadership and leadership education. In the wake of bureaucratic-managerial models of management and administration, ushered in by industrialization and globalization, “leadership” has become a counter-discourse, and is no longer an innocent but rather has become a value-laden term, and in a literal sense too, if you like. While “managing” and “administering” connote targets, efficiency, competition, and measurement, “leading” connotes a normative act inseparable from meaning, social justice and values (Burns 2003; Foster 1999; Francis 1993; Giroux 1991; Maxcy 1991; Orozco 1999). It is because of what may be termed “the normative turn” or “normative return” in educational leadership and leadership education that makes it all the more urgent to recover Asian marginalized or peripheralized texts/discourses on leadership. The Asian classical texts on leadership mentioned previously, are thoroughly normative. Some of this normative foundations have their parallels in Western leadership norms such as humanism (jen or human-heartednes), social justice (the negative formulation of the golden rule: “do not do unto others what you do not wish done unto you,” and transformational leadership (“sageliness within and kingliness without”), but have different conceptions and indications. For one thing, these normative precepts are integrally linked to a general truth about the cosmos at large, the cyclical movement of natural events, birth death and rebirth, and the social world patterned after familial relations. Political philosophy and ethics are drawn from social philosophy (in the case of Confucianism), or cosmology/metaphysics (in the case of Islam, Hinduism, Taoism and Buddhism). When creatively engaged in the realm of Asian educational leadership these instructions and many more that cannot be exhausted in this short introduction, can constitute a normative theory of leadership.

A Dynamic Mix of the Old and the New? Reforming Education in Asia

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Each in its own way, the 14 articles constituting the volume try to depart from managerial skills giving more dent on leadership qualities such as transformational leadership, servant leadership, leading by example, collaboration rather than competition, decentralization,—and more recently, sustainable leadership modeled after ecological and environmental principles (see specifically Campbell, Abdul-Hamid & Krauss, Raveendran & Joji Alex, Ilon & Normore, and Santoso). Care is exerted that the socio-cultural, political and economic contexts that test, or resist, or make difficult, the application of Western notions of leadership in education are described (Ang & Ramiah, Knowles & Andrews, Khairy, et al., Jawas, Hong, et al., and Thomas). Five articles provide the historical and political challenges faced by transitioning societies and how leadership as practiced or imbibed in the educational context, are basically resisting/negotiating the erosion of cultures by the very strong pull of globalization and neoliberalism (see Campbell, Al-Oraimi, Magno & Kazimzade, Josephine, Santoso, and Hong, et al.) The common jump-off point of the articles is a vibrant, dynamic, changing, and adapting Asian environment. The givens are changes in the educational system brought about by neo-liberalism, information-technology, and globalization. The articles commonly pose the questions: what are the new demands and challenges that are today faced by leaders, specifically leaders of academic institutions, and the education and training of future leaders? What traits and characteristics are we looking for today in the educational trainer-leader-manager who must also have to manage and administer over the training of future leaders? What reforms are necessary in educational leadership and leadership education today? What strategies work best—cooperation or competition, centralization or decentralization, personalized leadership or impersonal, macro- or micro-management, is there a role of traditional modes of teaching and learning leadership in today’s educational systems? Is the academic culture being internationalized or universalized everywhere in the globe truly international and universal; would Asia be an exception? What are traditional Asian sources of educational concepts, strategies, practices and discourses for educational leaders and the training of future leaders? In keeping with the theme of the book, the chapters tackle the cultural contexts and issues surrounding developments in educational leadership and leadership education in Asia. Education reforms in Asia have given rise to decentralization of many educational systems and along in its wake, greater expectation of commitment to the generation of best practices in organizational

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management and leadership, research and development, and strategic alliances and partnerships. The bottom line of many new governance of education systems is accountability to public money and how best to maximize returns from those public allocations in ways and means that respect local and national values and aspirations, whilst at the same time transforming them to become more relevant to modern society and globalization. Globalization, ideally construed as genuine sharing among various communities, appears to be the charted destination of society, and each and every group of community cannot but make it the agenda of their future identity, existence, and survival. Globalization has forced new levels of discourse on the definition and role of leadership as the world experiences closer connectivity, higher mobility of personnel and capital resources, and internationalization of local cultures and local contexts. The articles in this volume are divided into four parts. Part 1, entitled ‘Facing the Challenges of Educational Leadership in Asia,’ has four chapters. Chapters 1 and 2 written by Suaad Al-Oraimi, and Cathryn Magno with Elmina Kazimzade, are about a traditionally, and still, controversial topic of women’s leadership in Asia. Leadership is at times culturally bound: from the accepted definition of leadership to the selection of leaders and to the practice of leadership, the essence of being a leader and in providing leadership is closely circumscribed within what the society expects of the leader. In the Asian context, gender roles and gender relations are closely aligned to cultural traditions. The concept and the practice of women leadership in Asian societies cannot ignore the effects and consequences of the socialization experiences of women leaders. Suaad Al-Oraimi in her article ‘Leading Progress Changing Reality: Women and Leadership in the United Arab Emirates,’ writes about the different orientation towards empowerment of women educational leaders in her country, even amongst women themselves. At times, competition and self-interest dominate women’s thoughts and visions, causing them to act individually rather than coming together to form a network of support for one another to elevate women empowerment. She describes how the early socialization of women to their family roles may perpetuate negative self perception of themselves to include their inadequacy as leaders, and thus the need to establish more leadership education channels for young women in schools and universities. For some women leaders, having successful leadership careers have also begun to cause many of them to sacrifice home life, and this has led

Introduction

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to re-structuring of women’s roles in the family. Al-Oraimi does not hesitate to describe the realities of the persistent influence of tribal status and social class that threaten to marginalize the rise of women in leadership, in spite of allegations of unbiased state support of the fair selection of women to leadership positions. Cathryn Magno and Elmina Kazimzade’s article, ‘Entrepreneur Leadership: Female School Principals in Azerbaijan.’ describes the newly emerging female school leader in Azerbaijan. They describe life narratives of current female school principals along with their views on leadership in modern-day Azerbaijan. An interesting facet about women leadership in Azerbaijan is the dual cultural influence still inherent in the society: expectations that women should remain strongly family-oriented as opposed to the past inheritance of Soviet notions of equality for all, including gender. In the strongly secular Muslim society of Azerbaijan, religion condones the nature of hierarchical, paternalistic institutional system, ‘through which successful women must navigate to assume leadership positions.’ Yet, the authors continue, ‘Even if true equality was not achieved in the socialist era, its prominence as a societal value undergirds social beliefs and behaviors.’ Against this cultural backdrop, female school principals seize the opportunity to become new social entrepreneurs in order to re-engineer some social change within society through education. The style of leadership and communication of these women school principals tend to be personalized. In light of their own personal experiences as wives and mothers, they endeavor to engage in advanced analysis and in relationships with teachers and school community members. The authors find these Azerbaijan women principals to be leaders who use their instincts, their intelligence and their keen understanding of the educational and societal system to benefit their schools, the students, and the parents. In a patriarchal society, these women have negotiated a balance between leading privately and leading publicly, both maintaining and breaking cultural norms, and have found their place in leading the community towards a more democratic, evolving society. James Campbell in chapter 3 writes about leadership in higher education in Malaysia in its struggle to balance tradition and modernization in order to create legitimacy for change in those traditional values as demanded by globalization, but still holding these values much intact within the mould of the local culture and local aspirations. Campbell’s chapter ‘Leadership in Higher Education: The Normative Project of the Public Good in Conditions

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of Globalization, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and APEX in Malaysia’ is an enlightening journey to understand how the leadership in USM continues to pursue the public good as well as advance national interests within a wide framework of globalization using conceptual and operational terms and that simply just ‘are not reducible to western secularization’. In the USM experience, globalization is continually being translated as an enabling influence on how Malaysia acts and engages with change. The ability of USM to articulate its mission in a global discourse that is coherent with broader global civil society and global organizations provides it with the ability to articulate not simply national but also global leadership in higher education. Chapter 4 tackles prospects of 21st century leadership in educational management by Josephine Yazali. In India, globalization has created much awareness of the demand for new types of knowledge and skills. Schools are challenged to supply the job market with a future generation of human resource which can be gainfully employed through their relevant and competitive knowledge, experience, and skills. However, globalization has also threatened to widen the resource and student output gaps between fully private or partially aided private schools on one hand, and the government schools on the other. Schools for the future require good physical and social infrastructure resources along with resource management and development. Yazali writes about the need for participation of private sectors in the conceptualization, development, monitoring and delivery of the services and facilities in a strategy called Public Private Partnership (PPP). In her chapter entitled ‘21st Century Schools: Exploring the Efficacy of Public Private Partnership Models in India,’ she describes how PPP will enable full retention of responsibility to be held by the government to provide education service to the masses, while the nature and scope of service may be contractually determined between the two parties. Under PPP, the government will also be able to continue to retain the legal ownership of assets, which if under privatization only, would have to be sold to the private sector along with associated benefits and costs, thus depriving part of the population of their rights. Since PPP also enables contractual agreements between the government and private sector, risks and rewards are shared between the government (public) and the private sector. The PPP strategy is arguably the best path forward to provide the best education for the younger generation in India to help them meet the challenges of modernization and globalization.

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Part 2, is entitled ‘Innovative Tools in Measuring and Improving Educational Leadership.’ It also comprises 4 chapters. In search of successful leadership and management practices especially in times of increasingly stringent market and hierarchical accountability, performance standards, and complex multi cultural workplace settings, Richard Knowles and Gwen Andrews, and James Ang and Balasandran Ramiah write about organizational practices and culture that often hold back the progress of change in school and in the university. The authors then offer alternative solutions to spark off organizational renewal. Richard Knowles and Gwen Andrews in chapter 5 entitled, ‘A Practical East-West Exploration of Leadership and Learning,’ describe chaotic organizational settings where the levels of agreement amongst its members are typically low as a result of diverse groups of people being brought together, but not sharing vital information and not being able to participate in decision making or not knowing the extent that collective decision making would be accepted and valued. In these organizations, implicit values soon emerge which become values-in-use which are often invisible to upper management. Nevertheless, these values drive the behavior of organizations and how people choose to interact with one another and how they perform in their work. The challenge was to get people to work together to co-create their shared principles and standards of behavior and, using these, to explore together the best ways to solve the complex problems they face in the spirit of interdependence and trust. Richard Knowles and Gwen Andrews introduce the Process Enneagram as a tool that helps bring to light the patterns of how organizations work, and help people to reach rational solutions to complex problems, while simultaneously making the social connections they need to accomplish the work together, and building the emotional energy and commitment required to efficiently and effectively complete the job. They provide an account of how the Process Enneagram was used in EASY International Language School in Weihai, China where one of the authors worked as Vice Principal, and the successful organizational turn-around that followed. On a different note, James Ang and Balasandran Ramiah, Chapter 6, concentrate on instructional leadership effectiveness in schools. As in other parts of the world, in Malaysia, school leaders are facing increasing demands to be accountable for the quality of their education programs in school. School leaders are expected to practice stronger and better instructional leadership. The emphasis for greater accountability throws a challenge for school leaders

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to reshape the practices and cultures within their schools to respond with coherent accountability systems that principally establish two-way information flow connecting classroom practice and external accountability measures. To this end, many Malaysian schools are choosing to employ data-driven decisionmaking to improve student achievement. Data-driven decision-making also reflects the serious commitment to improve organizational quality movement, as inspired by Total Quality Management. Ang and Ramiah’s paper describes the way Malaysian school principals monitor students’ academic progress using the ‘HEADCOUNT technique’ and use the data to create an effective information flow that leads to improvement in student achievement. Ang and Ramiah proposed a simple but ingenious formula in the Headcount Technique to enable schools to correctly identify students who shall actually benefit from attending improvement classes. Data is crucial in the selection process to reduce the likelihood of haphazard guessing and randomness in the selection of students for improvement classes. In this information age era, their work is another milestone of achievement in educational leadership. In Chapter 7, Yaldez Khairy, Zein El Din, Mohamed H. Kamel, and Moataza M. Abdel Wahab write about head nurses’ leadership development program in Aswan Egypt. In their paper entitled, ‘Improving Head Nurses’ Leadership Skills through Leadership Development Program (LDP) in AswanEgypt,’ Khairy et al., assert that effective leadership is critical in delivering high-quality care, ensuring patient safety and facilitating positive staff development. This kind of nurse leadership would inevitably result in better patient outcomes. Head nurse leadership must be able to provide direction, and influence those under the nurses’ charge, to change. They must demonstrate leadership in the empowerment of others. The leadership development program involves identification and selection of potential candidates for leadership positions, detailing out the challenges in their work context, identifying mentors who will work with the candidates to establish expectations and accountability, providing continuing support, and finally, providing an ongoing education and learning loop to support continuous leadership development of the candidates. The leadership development program did result in improved skills in focusing on challenges, inspiring others, scanning the current work situation for challenges and problems, and aligning people and resources to mobilize change. The head nurses were able to develop a shared vision, devise measurable scales to obtain relevant results, and identify stakeholders of the chosen challenges. The highest percentage of change appeared in the scores

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of aligning practice. Percentage of change did not vary significantly between male and female nurses, but it was inversely correlated with the age of the nurse. Yaldez Khairy, and friends’paper proves that with leadership training and mentorship, future head nurses will be better equipped to recognize challenges in their work situation, and to quickly and efficiently organize and mobilize people and resources to address those challenges. More importantly, future head nurses will be able to knowledgeably measure to what extent improvements have been achieved based on hard data, and hence will be in a better position to answer to external accountability. Umiawati Jawas in chapter 8 ‘Stakeholder Involvement Strategies in the Implementation of School-Based Management in Indonesian Public Senior Secondary Schools,’ explores the involvement strategies used by the schools to get students, teachers, and parents engaged in school activities and programs. Using the High Involvement model to formulate her instrument to measure the extent of involvement of those parties in the strategic information sharing and decision making, Umiawati Jawas concluded that parents had the lowest involvement, followed by students and then teachers. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that the different strategies adopted for involving students, parents and teachers in school activities and programmes are likely linked to the lack of formally established structures and the lack of experience to exercise the delegated authority allocated to each stakeholder group. Once again, Indonesia’s long history of centralised bureaucracy in national education system has further strengthened the reservation about government’s real intention in putting education autonomy into practice. The most common reason for the centralistic system status quo in education is that decentralisation or delegation of control often leads to internal conflict and political struggles. Part 3, entitled ‘Mainstreaming Asian Values in Educational Leadership and Leadership Education,’ has three chapters. In Chapter 9, Lynn Ilon and Anthony Normore begin their chapter entitled, ‘Educational Leadership When Competitiveness Means Collaboration,’ with an account of the leadership saga in the era of globalization with a direct reminder that most ‘leadership makes a difference’ and ‘education policy solutions’ are still largely generated from the Western socio-cultural context, and therefore there is a strong need to examine the capability of leadership for change in the Asian experience. Ilon and Normore posit that ‘learning to lead’ is a challenge for educational leaders and most school leaders in particular are inadequately prepared to confront the

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realities to lead schools in an increasingly global society. The new leadership focus would demand a shift of emphasis from efficiency and competition to learning and collaboration, and from schools as guarded entities to being open communities with strong relationships with their surrounding environment. They write, ‘leadership will also involve leadership collaboration and creativity at a group level that will require a non-competitive education model to be developed.’ Education in the globalization era needs to advocate the generation of leadership for learning to help prepare education leaders to face political, economic, cultural, and social pressures. The Asian socio-cultural context of developing leadership for learning will enable comparisons and generalizations to be made across cultures and geographical boundaries. Leadership training and development is not new in Asian traditions, but leadership development as a formal program of training and learning is still relatively new. Nevertheless leadership training and development is catching up fast as is evidence in many human resource programs including staff development and student development. In many universities around the world, leadership skills training is closely linked to employability and career skills, and hence leadership development has become almost a nonnegotiable social responsibility of universities. But how are the universities faring in the student leadership development agenda? Jamaliah Abdul Hamid and Steven Eric Krauss, Chapter 10, in their article, ‘Leadership Experiences and Motivation to Lead: Reflections of Student Leaders in Malaysian Public Universities,’ write about the qualitative experiences of student leaders in public universities in Malaysia with respect to their leadership development experiences, leadership role, and the sources underpinning their motivation to take on student leadership roles. The authors define student leadership as the desire to provide service to others, to enrich group experience, or to initiate some desired change. In order to do that, the emphasis of student leadership development is first, on self- awareness or self-knowledge, other-discovery and task-discovery (Krauss, S.E. & Abdul Hamid, J. 2010). The interviews indicate that because of their close association with the administrative structure of the university, Malaysian student leaders developed an understanding of leadership from a relational and systemic perspective. They understood that leadership had political nuances which they could not ignore but must learn to manage. In the course of their leadership, Malaysian student leaders developed wider and more critical perspectives of change, but they were also concerned

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with achieving the performance status quo set by the university in terms of the annual number of programs, and their types, that must be accomplished. In order to do this, they learned to set realistic goals and clear direction for work, even whilst they were continuing to develop wider perspectives of change. In spite of the constraints, the sources of motivation to lead include: the desire to create change; preparation for future career; development of self-potential; appreciation of leadership-defining moments; the need to reciprocate trust given by supporters; the need to acquire power, status, and influence, and special privileges; and the desire to fill in leadership gaps. These sources of motivation were then grouped into three categories of motivational source: ‘Intentional-utilitarian’ which mainly described motivation mooted by an active desire to seek some functional or utilitarian purpose through one’s leadership; ‘intentional-obligation’ which is characterized by the motivation to “pay back” the support and trust that has been invested by others in oneself; and ‘cumulative-experiential’ which encompasses motivation emerging from the positive experiences while in leadership. Interestingly, although the student leaders expressed recurring interest in transforming their peers and colleagues to become persons capable of personal development and contributing back to society, their conceptualization of how this might be achieved was vague and appeared formless. The authors recommend that public universities in Malaysia should develop more strategic programs in order to encourage better self-awareness and self-knowledge amongst student leaders and among all undergraduates in general. Such a pro-active project enables students to become effective leaders of the future. In Chapter 11, P.T. Raveendran and Joji Alex in their article ‘Role of Transformational Leadership and Organizational Commitment and their Variability in Different School Settings,’ explore how the leadership style of school head masters influences the organizational commitment (OC) of subordinate teachers in challenged schools, normal schools, and proactive schools in the State of Kerala, India. The authors define challenged schools as those schools confronted with real challenge posed by the external environment against the normal functioning of the schools mainly due to falling demand for school admission, increasing staff turnover, financial crisis, insufficient infrastructure and poor image among people in the surrounding vicinity. Normal schools are schools which never face any immediate external challenges like shortage of students. These schools are mostly government schools or private aided schools. The leader typically is not proactive.

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Proactive schools on the other hand, provide ongoing learning opportunities for teachers to develop the skills, knowledge and dispositions necessary to reach to higher professional standards. The authors found that the OC tend to be low in poor school climates, which is usually the case in challenged schools. In normal schools where there are no survival issues or poor school climate, the OC was not very different from the challenged schools. Interestingly, teachers from both the challenged school and proactive schools responded that their headmasters practice high transformational leadership style. In challenged schools, the organizational setting including sense of loyalty and feelings of attachment are frequently absent as individuals fail to share common values with other members of the group. The authors posited that transformational leadership is high in challenged schools for the sake of survival as this leadership style is necessary to help the school to turn around. In proactive schools, high transformational leadership has led to high OC (mean score 4.48). High transformational leadership tends to induce high OC in good school climate, which is, also recursively an outcome of leadership vision. Thus OC and transformational leadership are proven to vary as and when the situation demands in different school settings. Raveendran and Alex’s article is valuable in its insight of the moderating effect of school setting on the direct relationship between leadership styles and organizational commitment of teachers. The final and culminating part, Part 4 is devoted to case studies, and it carries the title ‘Case Studies in Educational Leadership Education in Asian Universities.’ It has 3 chapters. In many parts of the Asian region, the decentralization of education systems have taken over from centrally controlled governance systems. Purwo Santoso, in Chapter 12, explores the theme of decentralization in Indonesia. Whereas previously during the New Order era, the logic of command and authoritative control was the dominant logic of governance, today’s climate of political democratization and decentralization in Indonesia has caused paradigmatic transformations in the structure of power relations in governance practices in the country. In decentralization, the onus is on local governments to develop strategic knowledge approach to generate better learning and more knowledge creation so as to maximize benefits from the mobilization and use of resources. Local governments need to look to each other, rather than to the central government, for support and guidance on how to create and use resources for mutual benefits.

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Purwo Santoso’s article, ‘Horizontal Learning: Alternative To Centralized Governance,’ explores the role of horizontal learning amongst local governments, and the role of central government as it moves into the role of a national hub to facilitate the collaborative efforts and networks among local governments. Unfortunately, the legacy of bureaucratic mindset from the days of centralized governance makes dependence a hard habit to break, and coupled with the low level infrastructure for decentralized governance, such collaborative efforts to form networks of learning and support are difficult and sparse. Such innovations and collaborative networks tend to emerge mostly in areas where the required infrastructure such as roads and transportation systems is already available. Collaborative efforts mostly arise as initiatives of individual agents within the state’s bureaucracy and technocracy organs. But these individual actors need to collaborate with other actors for only with national unity can they achieve their goals through combining their potentials and capacities in cooperation with other actors, aware of common goals. Secondly, an awareness develops that achieving common goals is crucial for the attainment of the interests of each actor. Purwo Santoso argues that the role of central government is still vital, but it must shift from top-down governance to a brand of national leadership, whose role is to unify and collaborate the efforts of different actors, thus retaining the central mandate to perpetuate unity in the Indonesian society. The central government plays a strategic role in maintaining the nation’s unity, even while the canvas of decentralization is bringing about independent networks of local governance. Chapter 13, is an exploration of organizational managerial effectiveness in multi-cultural settings. Dr. Andrew Thomas writes about the challenges of managing and leading private and public higher education in the cases of institutions in Oman in the Arabian Gulf setting. One prominent problem is to retain qualified and experienced personnel, of which a high ratio consists of expatriate staff. Problems and challenges surface at the strategic and operational levels as staff and leaders try to rise above diverse and conflicting values and viewpoints to work towards formulating teaching and learning policy and practices of quality management. He discovered that while there were consensus between multi- national lecturers and middle-leaders as to what criteria ‘effectiveness’ would constitute, yet there were diffuse notions of how success is to be measured, and this has led to some undermining of how effectively the lecturers and middle-leaders worked together.

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Dr. Thomas also writes that while people were in common agreement about the need for more collaborative and collegial work relationships between the different role holders in the institution, yet they differed in the way they perceived how concepts such as collegiality, collaboration and control were being understood between the role players. Moreover, while people believed that the management should open better incentives to promote personal and professional growth, there were more disagreements as to the extent this has been achieved in the organization. They also had mixed views on the extent that the organization has improved its work environment so as to enhance student, teacher and staff performance. One of the key findings highlighted by Dr. Andrew Thomas is that ‘the fault lines between organizational members may be deeper between roles than between departments or subject areas or individuals. This again impacts on how leadership is defined, communicated, perceived and operationalized’ in the higher education institutions in Oman, and in the Arabian Gulf. Leadership effectiveness is a broad concept. It extends beyond achievement of outcomes; and it can embrace group processes, group growth, subordinate satisfaction, and group performance. Indeed, the type of culture practiced and embedded within organizations may also be used to indicate the extent of leadership effectiveness. In Chapter 14, Kian San Hong, P. Songan, K.S. Ngui, S.L. Gan, G.S. Tan, Rujhan Mustafa, and Hasbee Hj Usop, in their article entitled ‘Leadership Behaviors, University Culture, and Leadership Effectiveness For Academic Work In Malaysian Public Universities,’ note that one of the greatest challenges to university leadership is how to effectively bind the university community to a common culture and vision of academic excellence. It is important that the academic community believe, and have the experience of being supported, in their pursuit of academic work excellence in teaching, learning and research. Kian San Hong and friends, set out to examine the academic staff’s perception of the behavior of their university leaders and the type of culture they experience in their respective universities, and how those perceptions relate to the staffs’ perception of the effectiveness of their university leaders in supporting academic work excellence. They found significant correlations between leadership behaviors (relating to people, leading change, managing process, and producing results), university culture types (adhocracy, market, and hierarchy culture types) and overall leadership effectiveness. Academic staffs in Malaysian public universities perceived that their academic leaders’

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behaviors were more towards managing process and producing results or can be considered as task-oriented style, but weak in interpersonal skills. Indeed, the academic staff in Malaysian public universities appeared satisfied with their academic leaders’ strategic and visionary leadership but they were definitely less satisfied with their academic leaders’ lack of interpersonal skills. The university culture of Malaysian public universities was likewise generally perceived as hierarchical and weak in adhocracy culture. The hierarchy culture is noted for a lack of emphasis on innovations, risk-taking and competitiveness. Hierarchy culture as we all know, also tends to be impersonal. Hierarchy culture also exerted the strongest negative influence in predicting overall leadership effectiveness for academic work, but nonetheless, hierarchy culture together with adhocracy culture and market culture were all significant predictors in the overall leadership effectiveness for academic work. Kian San Hong and friends’ recommendations are succinct to academic leaders: to be effective leaders for academic excellence, to improve on their leadership behaviors in terms of relating people and leading change, and to strive hard to cultivate adhocracy and market culture in their institution. They warn that the tendency in academic leaders’ leadership behaviors to concentrate on leading change, managing process, and producing results were mostly effective for the purposes of strategy and vision development and implementation, but these behaviors were ultimately less efficient in promoting teaching excellence.

Engendering Multi-lingual and Multi-cultural Knowledge in Academic Publishing One of the burning issues today is what we choose to call the ‘cultural-politicaleconomy’ of international publishing (Alatas 2003; Lillis & Curry 2010). Many works originating from non-English speaking parts of the globe have been rejected publication, and thus lost out on the chance to be disseminated, due to prohibitive gate-keeping practices of one-type-of-English-biased editing. Particularly in the field of education (and literature) Lillis, and Curry (Academic Writing in Global Context 2010), provided ethnographic accounts of nonEnglish-writing scholars (in Eastern Europe) about the debilitating impact of the reigning political economy of publishing upon their careers. They contend that facility in English should not be a primordial measure of when a piece of writing is of ‘quality’ or without. As the lead editors in this volume we tried our best to engender a culture-enabling and local language-sensitive editorial

xxviii


procedure. The featured scholars in this volume relate with the English language at different levels. It would have been a gross epistemic and cultural insensitivity on our part to have flattened the varieties and nuances of writing into a single hegemonic style. Our editorial advocacy was to ‘let a hundred writing styles bloom,’ thus we wanted to preserve each author’s way and tack of negotiating and appropriating English (to include the British and American ways), on their own, by very basic and minimal editing, for as long as the understanding of the idea being expressed is not constrained. A burgeoning literature has emerged calling attention to English-biased publishing and the need to veer away from the idea: ‘publish in English or perish’. Fortunately, there is a strong movement calling for the legitimation of many Englishes expressed in the pro-active term ‘World Englishes’ (Kachru, Kachru & Nelson 2006). World Englishes is a move to recognize the reality that English for now is the language of international trade, technology, and even education, however, non-English speakers depending on their geo-political and cultural locations can appropriate the language into their own pragmatic purposes, and make it adapt to their local/national languages. The Nepalese scholar, Canagarajah (1999), has contributed to the concepts, methodologies and strategies of using/teaching English, at the same time resisting its cultural dominance. English has not only curtailed the representation of a multi-lingual and multi-cultural group of scholars, it has affected what ‘content’, and what methodologies for social research are acceptable (Smith 1999; Alatas 2006). Alatas (2006) has taken issue with the way researches to be acceptable must start with a problem and end with a response or recommendation. According to him, that researches must always have a problem to begin with, is one manifestation of colonially implanted methods of research. The social sciences arose in Europe in response to massive problems in society, and it was rigmarole for social research to study problems, diagnose their causes, and recommend solutions, for better control and prediction that were very important functions of administration. As will become evident to the reader, the different contributions were not screened using this usual research structure. REFERENCES

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Alatas, Syed Farid. “Academic Dependency and the Global Division of Labour in the Social Sciences.” Current Sociology, vol. 51, No. 6 (2003): 599-613. _______________. Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Science: Responses to Eurocentrism. London: SAGE, 2006. Alatas, Syed Hussein. “Intellectual Imperialism: Definition, Traits, Problems.” Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science vol. 28, No.1(2000): 23-45. Altbach, Philip G. “Servitude of the Mind? Education, Dependency and Neocolonialism.” Teachers College Record, vol. 79, No.2 (1977): 187-204. Amin, Samir. Eurocentrism. London: Zed Books, 1989. Bajunid, Ibrahim Ahmad. “Towards an Integrated Theory of the Ecology of Learning and Leadership: Mirroring Multiple and Shared Realities Across Cultures. Keynote Address, at the Exploring Leadership and Learning Theories in Asia Conference, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Feb. 15-17, 2011. Beekun, Rafik. I., and Jamal A. Badawi. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective. Beltsville, Maryland: Amana Publication, 1999. Burns, James MacGregor. Leaders Who Changed the World. New Delhi: Penguin/ Viking, 2003. Canagarajah, Suresh. Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching. Oxford University Press, 1999. Chan,Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963. Constantino, R. (1971). The mis-education of the Filipino. In R. Constantino, The Filipinos of the Philippines and Other Essays (pp. 39-65). Manila: Cacho Hermanos. Enriquez, V. D. (1994). Pagbabangong-dangal:Indigenous psychology and cultural empowerment. Manila: Pugad Lawin Press. Foster, William. “Toward a Critical Practice of Leadership.” In Educational Leadership, edited by Linda Orozco, pp. 3-15. Madison, Wisconsin: Coursewise Publishing, Inc., 1999. Francis, K., ed. Education and the Development Challenge. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1993. Giroux, Henry. “Series Introduction: Toward a Discourse of Leadership and Radical Democracy.” In Educational Leadership: A Critical Pragmatic Perspective, edited by Spencer J. Maxcy, pp. ix- xiii. New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1991. Hallinger, Philip. “Accelerating Development of a Knowledge Base for Educational Leadership and Management in East Asia.” Paper for the Asia Leadership Roundtable 2010 (Draft Cite URL and date accessed) ______________. “Developing a Knowledge Base for Educational Leadership and Management in East Asia.” Keynote Address, at the Exploring Leadership and

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Learning Theories in Asia Conference, University Sains Malaysia, Penang, Feb. 15-17, 2011. Hutchinson, Francis. Educating Beyond Violent Futures. London: Routledge, 1996. Inayatullah, Sohail. Teaching future studies: From strategy to transformative change. Journal of Future Studies, vol. 7, no. 3, (2003): 35-40. Kachru, Braj, Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. Nelson, eds. The Handbook of World Englishes. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing, 2006. Krishnamurti, Jiddu. On Education. Chennai: Krishnamurti Foundation India, 1998/2002. Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. University of Chicago, 1970. Lillis, Theresa and Mary Jane Curry. Academic Writing in Global Context. London & New York: Routledge, 2010. Maxcy, Spencer J. Educational Leadership: A Critical Pragmatic Perspective. Critical Studies in Education and Culture Series, edited by Henry A. Giroux and Paulo Freire. New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1991. McLaren, Paul. “Introduction: Traumatizing Capital: Oppositional Pedagogies in the Age of Consent.” In Critical Education in the New Information Age, edited by M. Castells, et al., 1-36. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999. Orozco, Linda, ed. Educational Leadership. Madison, Wisconsin: Coursewise Publishing, Inc., 1999. Radhakrishnan, Sarvapelli and Charles Moore, eds. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957. Radhakrishnan, Sarvapelli. “Great Visions of Education.” In Education and the Development Challenge, edited by K. Francis, pp. 160-169. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1993. Shiva, Vandana. Staying alive: Women, ecology and development. London: Zed Books, 1988. ____________. Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology. Penang, Malaysia: Third World Network, 1993. Sidani, Yusuf. “Beyond Ethnocentrism: A Cross-cultural Understanding of Leadership.” In Are Theories Universal?, edited by Anders Örtenblad, Roshni Kumari, Muhammad Babur, and Ibrahim Ahmed Bajunid, pp. 25-32. Kuala Lumpur: ELLTA, & Yayasan Ilmuwan, 2011. Tagore, Rabindranath. “Great Visions of Education.” In Education and the Development Challenge, edited by K. Francis, pp. 169-179. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1993.

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PART ONE

Facing the Challenges of Educational Leadership in a Globalized World

1 Leading Progress, Changing Reality: Women and Leadership in the United Arab Emirates SUAAD ZAYED AL-ORAIMI Department of Sociology United Arab Emirates University

Abstract In recent years, there has been a great scholarly interest in the topic of women’s leadership. A growing body of research related to feminist thought has emerged not only from the West but also from other developing nations. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), women play different leadership roles in public as well as private spheres. In this context, this chapter explores the status of Emirati women as educational, social, and political leaders. The study is unique since it aims to explore an unidentified area of study in a tribal-based society and to clarify women leadership philosophy in the UAE. Therefore, it can be an additional contribution to a feminist theory of leadership and women’s empowerment. This chapter presents methods of evaluation and findings based on a study of 50 Emirati women leaders in education through interviews. These interviews were used to gather information regarding the perceptions and life

3

stories of the subjects, therefore the terms “life stories” and “interviews” are used interchangeably in this chapter. The methods of evaluation explore three key aspects of leadership: 1) the perspectives of women on their leadership competence; 2) the impact of socialization processes upon enhancing or hindering educational leadership of women; and, 3) the role of the state in empowering women and enhancing their leadership capacity. The study, which is the basis for the chapter, is an empirical research on the implications of these aspects (perspective, socialization and the role of the state) for Emirati women acting as leaders in the educational field. The study utilizes a qualitative approach of data collection that includes: face-toface interviews, focus group discussions, and non-participant observation.

Introduction Traditionally, in the UAE1, leadership positions were assigned to men; women were rarely promoted to such advanced levels. The social structure was based on a tribal and patriarchal system where women had limited access to public life. Males and females were socialized and educated differently; boys were educated to be leaders and girls were socialized to be housewives. The system of education was also segregated; young men and women were expected to behave in different ways. Under such circumstances, women were stereotyped as lacking in leadership abilities, and thus, they could not be considered as role models emulated by others. Leadership capacity was considered as a natural talent of, and only gifted to men. Prejudice, social perceptions and expectations often regulated women roles and performances. Today2, the country is in the process of strengthening its capacity to serve the nation in social improvement. Men and women are both needed to carry out the development process. The state encourages both genders to advance themselves and the nation. Such a strategy is viewed by policymakers as essential for the formation of a sound public policy. This reformation comes with a new paradigm shift: the articulation of clear and attainable goals against ad interim progress checks, with incumbent rewards for progress achieved. With the government officially subsidizing the empowerment of women by modernizing the features of traditional society, it is integral to study the changes these new policies are creating. The government has started to overhaul the social system of communities in the country. With due respect to the old tradition, the modern age now

4


requires enlightened capacities from the women folk, and this calls for a clear line of distinction to be drawn between classic and highly modernized society. Legislative reform is taking place and women are encouraged to pursue leadership positions. To promote women’s social status, the policy-makers try their best to eradicate male supremacy from top positions (Al-Oraimi 2011). In this context, women are trying their best to develop their capacity to attain decision-making positions. Education, career, and the state enable women to reach highly defined standings, according to Habeeb Salloum in her article regarding women’s status in the UAE. However, Salloum states that inspite of their leadership capabilities, decision-making positions still remain a challenge. In response to this situation, the study attempted to research women’s perceptions of their educational leadership roles, their socialization, and the role of the state impacting upon women’s leadership. These three aspects were divided into six categories: perceptions of leadership capacity; social status as educational leaders; social constructs of cultural, tribal and political systems; social changes redefining women’s leadership; government promotion of women’s rights; and, gender relations. This study is unique since it aims to explore an unidentified area of study in a tribal-based society and to clarify leadership philosophy in the UAE. Therefore, it can be an additional contribution to a feminist theory of leadership and women’s empowerment. Dealing with feminist theories, the study provides learning methods that examine forward-looking issues that are critical to educational leadership of women. In addition, the results of this study are significant because it explores the relationship between women’s role in the public sphere and their limited access to leadership positions (the ways in which the cultural, tribal and political systems construct female leadership as well as gender relations). The identified challenges from the research can be applied in private educational institutions and public schools to improve their approach, using the deficient areas and perceptions of women as major tools to modify how to best empower educational leadership of women. The perceptions of women and society regarding women in educational leadership are also expected to urge decision-makers in the UAE to recognize educational leadership of women and to increase leadership in different fields. The overall goals and outcomes of this study are compatible with the broad strategy of the state to empower women and to enhance their leadership capacity. This chapter is structured as follows: first the research study is introduced, beginning with methodology, including the sample selection,

Women and Leadership in the United Arab Emirates

5

followed by the sampling technique to give the reader an idea of the methods used, and to substantiate findings. Next, the chapter addresses the sources of inspiration for the research, including literature and previous studies which were used to gather background information regarding women in the UAE, Muslim women, Arab women, and feminist literature. Following the literature review, the chapter then presents local background in the UAE society through women’s roles in education, work, and business. Interviews were limited to women working within education in the aforementioned fields, since education itself is both work, and business. In the UAE, many schools are privately owned, and operated by Emirati women. A majority of Emirati women work in government and education, according to the Ministry of Social Affairs of UAE. The focus on education was intended to narrow the sample size while focusing on women who act as leaders for future generations through education, and those who are leaders of other educators. In my opinion According to observations in the UAE, education is vital to the advancement of women, particularly in securing employment and taking part in larger society. The findings of the study offer both results of the interviews and suggestions for improvement regarding the status of women. Like the objectives of the study, the findings focus on: 1) examining women’s perceptions of their capacity as leaders; 2) examining women’s social status as educational leaders; 3) identifying ways in which the cultural, tribal and political systems construct female leadership; 4) exploring how the dynamics of social change redefine women’s leadership; 5) examining the role of the state in promoting women’s rights; and, 6) examining gender relations in the evolving era of social transition. Finally, based on findings of the study in aforementioned categories regarding women in educational leadership, the chapter closes with implications for theory, and the implications of the study for practice in daily life and education of women. These implications are aimed toward public, private and particularly government institutions.

Methodology The basic questions of the contemporary feminist theoretical approach are: And what about the women? Where are the women in any situation being investigated? If they are not present, why? If they are present, what exactly are

6


they doing? How do they experience the situation? What do they contribute to it? What does it mean to them? (Ritzer, 1996). Enlightened by these feminist enquiries, the study explores educational leadership capacity of women through their perspective and identifies their positions as leaders. Some feminists study how women, in the leading divisions, advocate for social change, formulate strategy and manage institutions. Yet, few have examined feminist leadership in regards to how women lead to accomplish these objectives (Fletcher, 2007). Emirati women are increasingly taking on leadership roles, but their representations are still defined within a traditional context. From traditional perspective, to gain credibility as leaders, women must behave in a masculine manner; they can use feminist principles and still be successful leaders if they, effectively, adopt attributes of men leaders. Perhaps, this situation will create no-win situations. To meet its goal, the study implements the operational inquiries of feminist research and the basic questions are: Are women in the UAE present in the leadership arena? If they are present, what are their roles? If they are not present, why? To answer these questions, the study was formed with research designed to utilize feminist qualitative and interdisciplinary research methodologies. The qualitative approach is the most suitable method for discriminated groups, such as women because it provides them with open space to express their views. The qualitative approach of the research provided psychological and physical space for women to express themselves generously. Each interview took about 1- 1 ½ hours, while the entire project spanned the course of a year. Initially, a focus group was undertaken, followed by 50 interviews. Women under the study were enabled to tell their own stories and to express their opinions and attitudes. Furthermore, the qualitative approaches of in-depth and face-to-face interview and focus groups were more suitable for women in the UAE because people are not familiar with surveys. Technically, the faceto-face interviews provided the researcher with an opportunity to listen and observe directly the ideas and actuations of the participants. The important assumptions are that women in specific contexts are best suited to develop presentations of their lives and that contexts are located in specific structures and materials (Denzin & Lincoln 2000). Additionally, the relationship between social and life histories must be studied directly through historical events and the influences of these processes over the short and long terms.


7

In this study, the qualitative approach gave enough scope for direct interaction between researcher and participants. Focus groups and narratives of life stories with Emirati women also opened up a sufficient space for women to provide their perception on educational leadership; the purpose being to determine their perceptions on not only leadership, but also on social, cultural, governmental and gender-based influences. An interview question guideline was purposely designed to appeal for responses applicable to women’s early life socialization processes. Questions also elicited personal traits, work experiences, family influences and challenges that face women as leaders in UAE society, according to the perceptions of these educational leaders. In addition, the dearth of data about this topic regarding women, education and leadership in the UAE is another reason for conducting empirical research. Because the topic involves the new notion of women’s leadership in the UAE and people rarely research on such matters, qualitative methods worked as an effective strategy. Interviews are most effective tools with a specified set of activities or for an identifiable group who present them (Babbi 1997, Strauss & Corbin 1990). Indeed, field research provides the researcher with an opportunity to listen to women leaders while observing what these women were saying—not in just hearing what they say, but hearing what they feel (Smith 1990). To listen to people means to describe the place, to build a systematic knowledge of society in which the phenomenon under study occurs. This knowledge that I myself developed came from a woman’s point of view. Although I am from the UAE, there are some specific stories I have never heard before. These accounts not only helped me to develop a deeper knowledge of educational leadership of women in the UAE but also enabled me to create my own stories, separate from this study, about the situation under which women in the UAE are developing towards their own progress.

Sample selection The study employed non-probability sampling, which entailed purposive and snowball sampling; this type of sampling enabled me to select participants based on my own knowledge of the UAE’ population. For interviews, I selected available women in higher positions in the government, in business and in the Department of Education. The 50 interviewees were selected from the seven Emirates and represent Emirati women who have some role related to education, whether in government or business. Prior to surveys, I conducted

8


initial focus group discussions that included students from UAE University, males and females3. Only leaders from educational related fields (government and business education) were included in statistics and observations listed in Tables 1.1-2.3. The non-probability sampling and snowball technique allowed me to locate women in their actual settings. This strategy helped me previously to select the participants according to certain characteristics such as gender, occupation and geographical location. I carefully approached certain other characteristics because of their sensitivity, such as occupation, class and tribal status. Although the sample consisted of 50 women, I added 16 students for focus groups; 8 males and 8 females4, because college students are the future educators and future leaders; yet they are under the same pressures as these women leaders. I assume that this sample is representative of the population selected for this study; although this small sample set has certain limitations in terms of the conclusions that might be made drawn from the research findings. However, these issues are addressed in the study by detailing the motivation for this project, which seeks to understand the context of educational leadership of women in the UAE as well as cultural aspects in a particular setting. This study is grounded in the value of studying this topic within a very particular social and historical moment; it provides a specific historical foundation for further studies. Indeed, this is an original study obtaining information from literature reviews about UAE including one study about women’s role in decision-making, and from information gained through my own observation and participation. Although 50 women represent .1% of working women (there are 50,000 Emirati women employed today), they are representative of women in education fields, who are often viewed as role models and inspirations for coming generations and young women aspiring to leadership (Ministry of Social Affairs 2011). In other words, from a statistical point of view, these women are from various backgrounds from business and government but they all focus in some manner on education. Either through leadership, government education, or academic instructions, their focus is on education. The sampling across different fields aimed at a broad range of women, representing the fields most common to Emirati women at this time. The selection is meant to cover qualitative data from women who are involved in educating or influencing younger generations and other women.


9

Personal characteristics of (50) participants from the UAE Table 1.1 Marital Status Married

Divorced

Singles

Widows

Total

25

10

10

5

50

Table 1.2 Level of Education Married

Divorced

Singles

Widows

Total

10

15

20

5

50

MARRIED

DIVORCED

SINGLES

WIDOWS

TOTAL

25

10

10

5

50

Table 1.2. Level of Education PH.D.

MASTERS

10

15

BACHELOR’S DEGREE

HIGHER DEGREE MBA

TOTAL

20

5

50

Table 1.3

UPPER CLASS MIDDLE CLASS

LOWER CLASS

TOTAL

25

5

50

20

Interview Responses Women participants responded in terms of how many obtained state and family support (Table 2.1), their positions and challenges met (Table 2.2), and their level of awareness and empowerment.

Table 2.1 Number of Women Who Obtained State and/or Family Supports Family support

11

State support

15

Family and state support

19

Self-reliance The Total

50

Table 2.2

Age

Positions’ Challenges

20-30

30-40

40-50

50-60

TOTAL

10

20

15

5

50

Struggle with their positions

14

Able to overcome the challenges

15

Still uncertain

13

Feel more confident

Table 1.4 Social Class

10

5


The Total

8 50

Table 2.3


11

Level of Awareness of Empowerment Aware of self-empowerment

7

Did not use the term

13

Empowerment is the state’s business

19

Empowered by their families

11

The Total

50

The occupational characteristics of the participants were as follows: several were women leaders in private management including company presidents, managers, schools principals and department chairs. Many of the women were active in the Federal Government in roles including division presidents, and members of the council of representatives. Some of them were also members of division executive committees.

Table 2.4 Positions and Occupations Company president

3

Manager

4

Schools principal

Department chair

Division president

Council of representa-tives

Division executive

15

10

7

6

5

Literature Review This study is informed by feminist literature, ranging from books to academic articles that emphasize women’s leadership capacity. A majority of the literature is related to feminist’s leadership, women’s status in the Arab and Muslim-majority countries; however, other feminist literature regarding women and leadership were used in fashioning the study as well as in explaining and interpreting the study findings.

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Women’s transcendence in leadership is one of the most exciting implications of feminist theory, where in such that today educational leadership has becomes a critical approach of feminist analysis. Since women’s leadership is essential in the field of feminist research, it is also necessary for women in the UAE to examine their leadership capability on the ground. Increasing awareness of inspirational leadership has taken place not only in the West, but also in developing nations. As they are approaching a bright phase of empowerment, Emirati women play a substantial role of inspirational leadership in different ways (Al-Oraimi 2011). Scholars such as Bass and Riggio believe that inspirational leadership is manifested through providing meaning and challenge, painting an optimistic future, molding experiences, creating self-fulfilling prophesies and thinking ahead (2006). More recently, female leadership has become the most heated debate throughout the world. Today, there are various perspectives that define women and leadership in feminist literatures. Some of these approaches theorize leadership within its social contexts, and others conceptualize it based on general characteristics such as capacity, skills and behavior of the leaders. For example, feminists consider women leaders as agents of change. They examine the performances of women leaders through a collective empowerment in regards to characteristics and skills. In doing so, feminists emphasize dimensions of team and collaborative leadership (Fletcher 2007). Total Meanwhile, feminists examine the essential competencies of leadership capacity based on which women are identified. Through their analysis of the cultural aspects, feminists also focus on genuine behavior of women leaders and how they function in their communities. Social and cultural aspects are also taken into consideration because they very often limit women’s 50 attainments. However, the influence of feminism on women’s leadership varies from one culture to another (Fletcher 2007). An Islamic feminist, Zakia Belhachmi, incorporates history, education and feminism to understand the propositions of social change and culture identity. In doing so, she offers systemic analyses of women’s leadership in education and applies an epistemological study on the role that Arab-Muslim women leaders played in history. Equally, she considers women as agents for change if they utilize Arab feminist scientific legacy and its collective cultural reference. Just as I encourage the representation of Emirati women as educational leaders, Belhachmi provides a framework for self-representation.


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She calls for cultural exchange, international education and international feminism (Belhachmi 2012). Through my investigation of women and leadership in the UAE, I found out that women who occupy leading positions are not necessarily feminists. Neither feminist’s leadership standards nor achievements of feminist’s values are their goals. In this country, women demonstrate their leadership capacities as women not as feminists because feminism has no origin in the UAE. Perhaps, Emirati women are not feminist enough to demonstrate a feminist model of leadership. Based on this argument, women in the UAE operate in leadership as a natural capability regardless of power and gender differences. However, women leaders are faced by a variety of complexities not because they are ineffective leaders, but because they are women. In addition, many of the women believe that there is a gender partiality influencing social expectations of how they should behave as women leaders. Feminists also theorize that the social system, throughout history and across cultures, has been based on a gender inequality. A feminist scholar, Nancy Hartsock believes that sex, money and power have led to what we call today gender hierarchy. This situation has created a system of male domination and women’s subordination, and thus, leadership is exclusively a male dominant position. Women’s absence from this field is a matter of power distribution and gender hierarchy. Hartsock indicated that women’s exclusion from top positions was a hereditary phenomenon that is still operating in modern communities. Males’ superiority in public and private spheres enabled them to control money and manipulate power. Hartsock believes that a gendered division of labor and male—female dichotomy, created such a value system. She also assumes that early socialization process, in most of modern societies, still perpetuates sex differentiation (1996). Equally, Arab feminists believe that Arab culture is based on gender hierarchy; men and women are assigned different roles and leadership positions are delegated to men. An Arab feminist scholar, Fatima Mernissi, believes that policy-makers in the Arab world do not see women as a key force for leading roles. Rather, females are considered as dependent and worthless. Even in modern societies, Arab women are still limited in access to public life and rarely occupy leadership positions; they are treated as second class citizens (1996). Indeed, the promotion of Arab women has become an important concern after the UNDP report of 2001. The report drew attention to the insulate role

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of Arab women in decision-making positions. Some scholars indicated that the UN urged Arab countries to utilize women’s capacities as a potential force for socio-economic development (Fergani 2002). The integration of Arab women in the decision-making arena came as a response to the UN’s initiative and international pressure. However, I would argue that for newly established nations, like UAE, change in women’s status is not only a response to the UN’s proposal, but also a result of a significant social transformation. The UNDP report generalized the conspicuous deficit in Arab women’s empowerment; yet, in the UAE the situation is different. Despite the male’s supremacy in leading positions, women’s role in society has gained much attention over the last two decades. Considerably, over the past four decades, the UAE has undergone through economic progress and inclusive human development. The issue of sustainability of social progress has been at the forefront of women’s empowerment. This period was correlated with state building capacity, a rapid social change and a modernized educational system. Therefore, women’s promotion came as a function of all these processes. Scholars, such as Harold and Stephenson, stated that the creations of various foundations with goals to research and develop social, human and economic sustainability are of significance of to government agenda. To ensure the sustainability of educational development, authorities in the UAE have focused on administrative curricular reform in the nation’s schools. However, they indicated that educational leadership of women is not of significance of to the government’s policy. While there has been considerable research into educational leadership internationally, there has not been much attention paid to women’s educational leadership in the Arabian Gulf (Harold & Stephenson 2008). The feminist scholar, Mahnaz Afkhami,5 believes that the policymakers usually defined women’s rights in the context of national economic and social development. To spur economic development and gender relations, a modern state had to educate women. She stated that the first modern context for the promotion of women’s rights in the region was provided by the state. Therefore, women’s leadership was not seen as important enough to pose a threat to patriarchal social structures. Based on this attitude, men treated women’s rights as a function linked to traditional concepts, rather than as serious sociopolitical issues (1997).


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Since women’s empowerment enhances the image of the state’s performance, the government in the UAE is trying to redefine women’s leadership through a new understanding of their traditional roles. The increase of women in educational leadership is a new phenomenon that has taken place since 2004; this initiative is the first step towards women’s empowerment6. Indeed, it is not only the state that enhances women’s leadership, but women empower themselves as well. Using power as a strategy for empowerment, every woman has a decision to make, whether to improve her own life or to empower other women (Kabeer 1997). Certain educational leadership approaches were applied to by other Gulf States, such as Oman, via which women developed their own capacity of leadership. Distributed leadership was aligned closely with the concept of AlShura7 leadership as source of power (Al Hinai & Rutherford 2002; Harold & Stephenson 2008). Nancy Hartsock conceptualizes power as a self improvement and leadership as an instrumental strategy for a collective empowerment. In her view, women must be educational leaders for other women because leadership should not perpetuate any potential of individualism. Rather, its goal is to enable women to empower each other simultaneously and mobilize power to better their lives. Since leadership ability is socially constructed, this strategy would reshape the nature and practice of leading positions (1996). Postcolonial feminists, such as Naila Kabeer and Chandra Mohanty, urge women from different cultural and ideological backgrounds to empower themselves from within, based on their social contexts. They believe that each culture has its own mechanism of shaping and reshaping visions and ideologies, and each individual woman has an ability to deal with her social context. By recognizing their potential as a source of power, women can be transitional leaders and change the face of politics in their societies (Kabeer 1991; Mohanty 1997).

Women’ social status in UAE UAE’ society is based on a culture of tribalism and patriarchy. These two systems emphasized a group unity: males and females have to share a collective identity. Women were not considered as separate identities but as integrated bodies. They were embedded in their families; the family was the core in the tribal structure (Altorki 2000). However, despite the strict system,

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women had enough space to move outside the household. Within the tribal community, men and women shared equivalent responsibilities; limited division of labor was verified. My own theory on this fact is that in the desert, the tribal-patriarchal system did not find enough space and sufficient capital to practice an economic division of labor. The harsh environment in the arid region made it difficult for the patriarchy to establish itself as an economicpolitical system; while on social levels the feature of patriarchy was visible.8 Women did not play a significant role in political tribalism and religious life, as these areas are considered male domains (Al-Oraimi 2011). Yet, even within such a mingled system, political tasks and charges were defined based on division of gender. For instance, women were not allowed to lead a tribal community; this position was exclusively assigned to men. Women were also not allowed to be even heads of the family unless they were single mothers, or for a temporary task when males were not present in the household. Women also were not permitted to take full responsibility in the presence of men; they had to play invisible public roles. However, if men were away9, women would be needed to carry out male’s responsibilities in the public and private spheres (Al-Oraimi 2011). Recently, in the era of social transformation, women’s economic and social10 status has been going through massive changes as the old patterns of social structure have receded further. The first paradigm shift occurred during the establishment of the federal state in 1971. Since then, women have been recognized as equivalent citizens; they obtained equal rights in education and job opportunities. The state also redefined women’s personal and social standing with respect to their traditional roles. A whole range of conservative traditions were transferred transformed and new initiatives designed to enhance women’s capacity. Today, a large number of women are seated in different leading positions. These marks can be viewed as a significant shift from previously exclusive patriarchal rules to more recently updated social contracts. It is, perhaps, the pre-closing chapter of male’s domination and discrimination against women. Indeed, Emirati women have witnessed a significant social change. The second paradigm shift has occurred in 2004 when two women were appointed as ministers for the first time in UAE’s history. Since then, the state has paid notable attention to women’s leadership in social, economic and political fields. The state also has played a major role in eliminating dissentient mindset and all types of prejudice against women. In another word, women


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became a state’s project and their promotion to leadership positions seems to have become a state’s mission. Mervet Hatem11, a feminist scholar, believes that if women become a state project, they will serve the interest of the state rather than the need of other women. She indicated that the state constantly manipulates women’s civil organizations. Yet, if women’s movements gain power, the state will shift its discourse and be more open-minded (1997). With this paradigm shift, a new understanding of women’s role in society has taken place. Currently, Emirati women are exposed to higher positions in different fields12; this step is largely a result of an extensive educational policy.

Women and education Since the adoption of a Western model of modernization in the 1970s, education has become a key factor for economic and human development in the UAE (Al-Rasheed 2004). Since then, the country has made access to education rather easy; as a result, women obtained equal opportunity. Indeed, by reducing the gender gap, the state is feminizing education13, and thus, a large number of females yearly enroll in different educational levels. Gradually, women have been outnumbering men in higher education enrollment. The annual ratio of women graduating from colleges and universities is between 75 to 80 percent and of men is between 20 to 25 percent (Min. of Education 2009). In relation to the population rate, this percentage is the highest among women in the world. Such increases will make women even more determined to hold out for government jobs (Year Book, 2011). This finding is also unique since the illiteracy rate among Arab women is more than 50 percent (UNDP 2009). In recent years, the state has started to modernize the educational methods; apparently, the government has begun to overhaul the educational system. Curriculum reform has taken place and leadership education of women is of the significance to the state’s agenda.

Women and work Being highly qualified, Emirati women have approached the public sphere as full time employees. In the last two decades, female’s employment has increased significantly; today, more than 50,00014 women join the labor sector15, 35,000 of them are in the Federal Government16. The state encourages women’s integration in the development process; annually,

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more positions are created for them. Largely, females enjoy equal payment if they have the same qualifications and experience17. According to the UAE Human Resources Report (HRR, 2008), the contribution of female citizens to the economic activities rate increased from 5.4% in 1995 to 17.3% in 2008. Women constitute 60% of the workforce in the government sector18. In particular, women comprise over 45% of all employees in the Department of Education, 38% work in the healthcare and approximately 25% in social affairs (Ibid). However, even if women play a key role in the educational system, they are misrepresented in top-level jobs. Merely five women, out of twenty, occupy higher positions in the Ministry of Education (Ibid). Young women are increasingly employed by the government rather than by the private sector. Local businesses avoid employing females because they are stereotyped as lacking in professionalism. Women are also accused of sacrificing their jobs in favor of their families. Usually, young women are encouraged to establish families rather than to pursue careers. These circumstances affect women’s career and limit their leadership role in both private and government sectors. Meanwhile, those who work for the private business have limited access to leadership occupations. Justification for the quality of work rationalizes the traditional trend of favoring men over women (Abdulla 1996; Joseph 2000). Therefore, women’s recruitment in the private sector is low; local business places different rules on women’s employment; if they are hired, they will be classified as second-class workers. Deliberately, women will receive less training and their promotions are delayed. However, despite this fact, Emirati women are still active in the private sector. Even though they desire governmental jobs for remuneration levels and prestige, they are also present in business. Statistics show that 48% of working women are self-employed in business and the trade sector; 42% in different professional settings; 10% in services section, as specialists; and 4% in the industrial sector. Statistics illustrate that 66% of the government jobs are occupied by women and 30% of them occupy leadership positions (Women’s Unions 2009).

Women and business Empowered by the state, Emirati women get the courage to manage money and touch power. Education, family’s background and state’ subsidies enabled women to push their own way into males’ domain. Since the 1990s, female’s


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entrepreneurship has become a new phenomenon in UAE’ society. Capably, in 2002, businesswomen established their organization19; the state has recognized their initiative and empowered its sustainability. The state also encourages young women to establish their own business20. Broadly speaking, women from different social levels have begun to pursue self-employment. With the increasing rate of unemployment, young women have taken advantage of government funds and developed their own business. Women have full rights of ownership21; these rights are guaranteed by Islam and the constitutional laws of the UAE. Today, businesswomen are leading economic progress. For example, females who own business comprise 40%, own business comparative account 48%, and are themselves business managers 12%. Emirati women also invest in banking, tourism and real-estate; they own more than 12.8 billion, AED (Min. of Social Affairs 2010). Currently, women’s business leadership is receptively acknowledged by the decision-makers.

The Findings Some interviewees stated that the government confirms that men and women have equal rights and opportunities to advance themselves. However, the patriarchal system is still visible in the everyday life. Men continue to receive employment preferences in high state administration and private businesses. Notably, women do not play a significant role in the decision-making positions, as these areas are considered male domains. Feminists believe that through leadership dimensions, women can explore ways that open up a new phase of empowerment. Women’s legitimate representation in leadership arena will chart new approaches in social and cultural history (Hartsock 1996). In the UAE since the millennium a paradigm shift has taken place; women have been making change and leading progress. For example, most women in the sample perceive themselves as experienced leaders and capable in changing the existing reality. Yet, the question is, what kind of reality do these women wish to change, their own situation or the reality of society as a whole? Interviewees suggested that changing society still remains a challenge; while changing one’s life can lead to a comprehensive social transformation. In reference to the paradigm shift, women’s mobility in the public space has been expanded. Indeed, Emirati women are economically active, in public as well as in private sectors, according to the jobs they take part in recorded by the Ministry of

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Social Affairs of UAE. Socially, they are present in different settings, but their presence in some leadership locations is limited.

Women’s perceptions of their capacity as leaders Some interviewees indicated that without state’ support, Emirati women would not be able to achieve leadership positions. They believe that if women were holding leadership positions, they were able to do so only because they were appointed to those positions by the state. Others believe that since women rely on the state, they cannot develop a sovereign identity. As a participant commented: Emirati women are always looking for a state’ support; even if they are backed-up by their positions, they are still unconfident. Capacitybuilding is important for women leaders because they will educate other women in the field. If the women leaders are unable to maintain such skills, it will be difficult for them to manage leadership.

With respect to this argument, Emirati women have had a history in leadership, but their role was invisible because it overlapped with their families. Table 2.2 shows how confident the interviewees were with their ability to overcome challenges in their careers. Findings also reveal that, on some occasions, socialization processes did not enhance women’s educational leadership. In some subcultures, girls have never been educated to be leaders; therefore, they do not have the necessary aspiration to be civic leaders. An interviewee stated: “Leadership is a natural capacity; it is either enhanced or hindered by the socialization processes. In our culture, boys are socialized to be leaders and girls are trained to be housewives. Educational leadership is a new feature in the UAE and usually linked to men.”

Apparently, there is a linkage between women’s leadership capabilities and early socialization processes; child’s rearing shapes and re-shapes women’s awareness. Girls are highly committed to early socialization process, and thus, any unpleasant experience tends to undermine their self-confidence.


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Some interviewees attributed women’s absence from decision-making arena to their childhood experience whereby girls were raised to be less ambitious. Beyond this, women’s feelings of uncertainty are just a reflection of the damaged self; recovery, therefore, might take a long painful process. What is weird, however, is that women themselves do not exert efforts to overcome this anxiety; perhaps, they were raised to be satisfied with the status quo. Findings also show that there is a negative attitude among Emirati women. They seem to have a mind-set that holds them back from facilitating a sound cohesion amongst themselves. Lack of networking is an obstacle that hinders women’s leadership development. During the focus group discussions, participants raised a concern about women’s collective goals and plans. If the plan is designed for each individual woman, it will meet only a specific need. In their view, the focus must be on building women’s leadership capacity in order for women to function in a cooperative manner. A female student who participated in the focus group provided her vision: “As a student, I did not learn educational leadership or empowerment of women; my major did not include leadership or women’s issues. Female students do not think of women’s empowerment; they only focus on their studies.” Indeed, collective presentation is essential, and sharing power in the public sphere is the core of women’s leadership role. It is a fact that women are exclusively leading progress in the educational sector, but in the society they still act on an individual level. Many associations have been established by the state to serve women’s needs, but most interviewees are not involved in these organizations. They believe that these associations did not inspire them as they were established to meet the needs of average (uneducated) women. Competition and self-interest dominates interviewees’ thoughts and visions. Feminists theorize that empowerment refers to individual and collective resistance, protest and mobilization. Emirati women do not use empowerment as a source of power. Just as they hold back their ambitions, women restrain self and collective empowerment. Their understanding of empowerment is influenced by the traditional term of power struggle. Most interviewees indicated that empowerment implies power struggle, and thus, they avoid using it as a source for united identity. Indeed, Emirati women define empowerment within the context that values kinship bonds. Feminists believe that if power is redefined as empowerment and able to unite women, they will be able to use their gender as empowered body. According to feminist scholars, women’s empowerment has to be developed in

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the private sphere first and then in the public field. Through the change that must be created by women, a new collective strategy will be constructed, and a new path of equality must be forged (Hartsock 1996; Kaber 1997; Mohanty 1991; Hijab 2001).

Women’s social status as educational leaders Findings show that women are more active in a feminine environment. The majority of them work for the department of education, and thus, their educational leadership is intensely applicable to educational institutions. Even at schools, women’s leading roles only concentrate on female students since the educational system in the UAE is segregated by gender. Yet, if the situation is examined from a different angle22, women play leadership roles not only at girl’s schools, but also in the society as a whole. Respondents believed they shape and reshape the learning environment at schools and rebuild new understandings of female’s leadership in the communities. From their positions they saw their ability to inspire young generations of women in education when they teach, manage, lead and motivate their female students. A school’s principal shared her opinion: “In my school, I have an outreach system to interact with the community on a daily level. I believe that female teachers are educational leaders and their influence is not only on the girl students and their families but also on the community as a whole.” However, as a larger part of society, outside of their female circle of influence, Emirati women did not consider themselves as agents for change. Despite their achievement in career, they still harbor fear and anxiety, not only from their male counterparts but also from other women. Such anxiety separates rather than unites women. Naila Kabeer believes that women need to change their status first and then develop a collective unity (1997). Changes at the individual level have implications for change in power relations in the broader contexts. Solidarity should be viewed as a resource for collective empowerment, not only to utilize positions for self-interests (Hartsock 1996). In order to be empowered from within, Emirati women should share power with other women who will repeat these processes to maintain their leadership capability. It is not enough for women to gain leading positions, but it is important to maintain power and strength. Principally, Emirati women need to realize that their empowerment not only helps them to recognize the systemic forces around them but also enables them to change the existing


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power relationships. The unseen power that governs their interaction is that of culture and tribe.

Ways in which the cultural, tribal and political systems construct female leadership In the UAE, family is synonymous with the tribe. Until the recent past (preoil discovery in 1960’s), the tribe and Bedouin life meant a larger family community. Although many families are now situated in cities, some not their area of origin, they still identify with their tribe and family simultaneously. The strength of the tribe is an important aspect of culture according to the respondents. A tribal woman explained her position as a leader in relation to her tribal status: “Tribal women were socialized to be strong; even though tribes resided in the cities, they still keep some of their culture. My position in the department of education helped me to employ my capacity of leadership to education. I got the strength not only from my position, but also from my background as a Bedouin—free woman.”

There is an indication that the family has a strong influence on female leadership development. For instance, women who have positive early experiences in the socialization processes are highly motivated and ambitious. With respect to women’s experience, the family and the state have a significant influence over their achievement in education and careers. Most female entrepreneurs came from families that have business backgrounds, and the majority of successful women grew up in privileged families. Some interviewees stated that their familial background helped them to obtain leadership positions. As seen in table 1.2, the number of women who were supported by family was 60% of the total surveyed population, reflecting that a majority of women were privileged to enjoy family support. This situation shows that society is extremely selective; promotion of women is too often related to the position of their families. Despite the rapid change, society still stratifies women based on their class range and tribe. A private school owner shared her story:

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“Without my family support, I would not be able to develop my career. I worked in the family business for a while, and then, I got a fund from the state to establish my own private school. I think the family’s support is important in this period of time because Emirati women have limited experience in the public life.”

The interviewees also reveal that women are affected by social norms and culture in different ways; society defines women’s role based on their social status, and tribe. For instance, disadvantaged women receive less endorsement from the government as well as from social institutions. In spite of their achievement in education and careers, these women are hardly considered for promotions. Tribal status, gender and class play a significant role in the field of leadership. It seems that leading positions are available for everybody, but indeed, not for every woman. It is even more difficult for an average woman to be a head of a corporation unless she is backed-up by a strong family’s status. A school assistant complained about her work status: “I am a school assistant and did not get a promotion for a long time; my students occupy higher positions in the government while I was still in the same job. I am working hard, but I do not have a family background or connections.” It is also not easy for this cohort to establish their own business without state’ support. Even if they obtain such a sponsorship, it is still difficult for poor women to compete with the elites. Apparently, the government pays little attention to the marginalized women23, or perhaps the state is very selective. In her article: “Women Challenge Age-old Prejudices,” an Arabic writer, Roula Khalaf, came up with the same conclusion.24 Tribal status and social class created a dichotomy among women and separated them from each other.

How the dynamics of social change redefine women’s leadership Despite the importance of the family in modern society in the UAE, the family bonds are challenged by rapid social change, via which women become sovereign identities. As women have independent lives, the control of their families started to weaken; women pass on this experience through generations. Those who play leadership roles in the public life, become intellectual stimulators to other women. At schools and universities, women are educational leaders and inspirational agents for change. For example,


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female students appreciate women’s presence in classrooms as well as in the decision-making arena; they view them as inspiring role models. A newly graduated professor provided her view: “It is a fact that female leaders inspire other women. I have been inspired by my professor. When I was a student, I dreamed to be like her and study abroad and I did. Her presence in the university encouraged me to follow her steps. Today, she is one of the decisionmakers in the country, and I dream to be in the same position in the future.”

As more and more women gain more experience in the field of leadership, they may learn to become radical motivators. Yet, based on my observation25, I would say that Emirati women are still obliged and loyal to their families. In the UAE, the philosophy of leadership goes beyond the decisionmaking positions; women perform leading roles in their schools, offices and in the households. They also practice leadership in their extended families and tribes as daughters, sisters, wives, mother and grandmothers. Their spirit and strength inspire young generations. Chang in social expectation might eliminate certain social problems.

The role of the State in promoting women’s rights According to the UAE’s Constitution, the mission of the state is to invest in and empower its people to maximize their potential and reach their goals. Since its establishment in 1971, the Federal State has been trying to promote women’s rights on different levels. More recently, the government has improved women’s capacity to move them from a feminine atmosphere toward a more active public role. This tendency reflects the attempt of the state to encourage leadership of women in ways so that women behave as decisive and effective leaders. In another word, the government tries to create more egalitarian environments. Educational leadership of women is enhanced and perpetuated by the state. New schools and universities have been established only for women, such as Zayed University and Fatima College of Health. Women’s empowerment has started from schools to the higher positions in the government. For instance, in 2008, the Minister of Presidential Affairs established leadership schools for

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young men and women. Young generations of women have been encouraged to join these programs in order to be employed by the government. Similar attention has been paid to educational leadership by the UAE University (UAEU). For example, in 2009, a new department of leadership was founded only in the female’s campus (UAEU, 2009). On local levels, there are several new establishments that enhance women’s capacity in educational leadership and promote their performance in the field. For examples, Dubai School of Government and Dubai Women’s Establishment are the most regarded institutions in the UAE. These two establishments provide skills and training programs that enhance women’s intellectual proficiency not only in the in educational leadership, but in executive leadership as well. Correspondingly, the government, through the General Women’s Union has initiated a national strategy for women; its goal is to enhance women’s capacity in the development processes. The policy should be renewed every five years to meet the progress of Emirati women in social, economic and political development. Empowerment of women in the executive leadership and higher education are on the top priority of the strategy. As was mentioned previously, women’s leadership has started from education because women are the majority in this field whether they are students or teachers. However, due to cultural issues, women’s representation in the higher education is limited; and thus, the new strategy aims to promote women in higher education. An executive manager in the Women’s Union provided her view on the new strategy: “The main goal of the National Strategy of women is to enhance women’s capacity in the public life. The focus of this year is on the empowerment of women in leadership and higher education because Emirati women are still underrepresented in this area. The National Strategy of women is on the main concern of the decision-makers in the UAE.”

Gender relations in an era of social transition The results of the interviews reveal that UAE is redefining gender roles and making a difference; changing patterns of gender relations is the most important goal for the state to achieve. Through state empowerment, women


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demonstrate leadership capacity in the public life, particularly in the field of education Due to the change in women’s roles, gender relations in the UAE have also changed; the relationship between males and females is no longer based on gender hierarchy. Women’s presentations in leadership arena shook-up the masculine image in public and private spheres. Some males strongly oppose women’s participation in decision-making processes. The opponents believe26 that women do not have leadership’s experience; and thus, they do not fit suitably in the positions that are provided to them by the state. This discourse employs a level of power struggle, in public as well as private spheres. Since gender relations focus on power, they are understood only in terms of public realm activities that are dominated by men. Participants believe that men use leadership to exercise power, while women utilize their educational leadership to make a balance in society. In spite of this situation, society has a convincing faith in males’ leadership. As a result, the traditional solidarity between men and women has begun to fade. A school teacher shares her experience: “In the traditional society men and women shared interest and responsibility. They respect each other because they needed each other. Yet, the social structure has changed and gender relations have changed too. Social relations should be rebuilt based on restriction of gender roles in society.” Findings suggest that women are paying for their success; their achievements in leading positions interrupt their life in the private sphere. The majority of flourishing women stay single or divorced27. This situation challenged women’s traditional role as mothers and wives. Potently, women must hide their motivations if they wish to be married. Some interviewees commented: “Talented women must eliminate their inspirations and rein-in the driving force inside them to cope with their social norms.” This unpleasant experience plays a significant role in regulating women’s leadership capacities. Hence, educational leadership must be addressed through cultural awareness of power distribution in both public and private spheres. During the interview, I noticed that some women do not have enough inspiration to purse advancement in their leadership positions. These positions, as they believe, might separate them from men in their families. Their goal is to avoid power struggle over areas that are defined as male’s domains. Most interviewees stated that they are trying to make a balance between their careers and their roles in the private sphere. They are also trying to maintain a cooperative relationship with men in the workplaces. In the household,

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most participants indicated that they depend on men in the everyday life. An interviewee stated that: “Most Emirati women are not inspired by higher positions because they are trying to avoid conflict with men. Women who are still maintaining leading positions depend on the state.”28 This response seems to reflect concern that the advancement of women was only due to the nomination of the state, and not due to the skills the women possessed. Indeed, she reflected that women should do more to deserve their improved status. Feminists believe that leadership requires independence, space, freedom and self-reliance. If Emirati women are deficient in these necessary tools and skills, they will be challenged by any kind of job’s liability, not merely by leadership roles.29 Some participants believe that Emirati women lack independence, and thus, they avoid conflict and accept the existing social norms. As an inner observer, I would say that Emirati women are highly qualified to lead progress in their country, but they are still challenged by patriarchy. To overhaul this concern, women should believe in themselves first and then in their leadership capacities. As I mentioned earlier, modernized society, in the UAE, is still critical on women’s role in leadership. Again, I would say that social recognition is the base for women’s educational leadership. In order to achieve this goal, women should be ready to challenge power structure and the masculine framework.

Implications for Theory and Practice By viewing women’s perception of their capacity we see that the ways cultural, tribal and political systems affect female leadership can be also affected by government initiatives. However, it is not sufficient to support the overall positive social change which is already underway of increasing women’s roles in educational leadership. In general, the empowerment of women impacts upon their social status as leaders and the gender relations of the society. Yet, as reflected in table 2.3, while a majority of women are aware, in some parts, that empowerment exists, one quarter of women did not mention empowerment at all. In both education and general leadership, women must have the resources and support to engage in leadership. Thus, theory emerging from this study is that it is essential to restructure the concept of gender and educational leadership; it is also necessary to examine women’s role in educational leadership from within. Social acknowledgment of


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female’s leadership should be the most important goal for Emirati women and government initiatives alike; otherwise, their attempts will be challenged by outdated cultural and tribal traditions governing gender relations. Despite its acceptance of women as “semi-equal” partners, society still does not readily recognize them as reliable leaders. Applicable strategy that enables women to promote leadership culture in public and private realms is the significant implication of this study. The educational leadership of women should be increased by the government and recognized as an important goal. Positively, the study broke new ground for women’s educational leadership through which women can pass their knowledge and experience to other generations. Meanwhile, since this study is an initial step for similar researches, it will build up a new understanding of women’s empowerment in leadership arena. Since educational leadership is a new theme in the UAE, the outcome can be stratified as pure grounded data. Utilization of this information could move women in the UAE further to reach the highest levels in leadership positions. There are many practical implications of this study. Suggestions should be made to educational institutions to increase or start training programs for female students in the universities and colleges. Women’s organizations should be encouraged to increase workshops, seminars, lectures and update activities to be conducted in the communities. These organizations include women’s cooperatives and state-sponsored foundations for the preservation of family and culture, which serve as community centers in the UAE. Private businesses and government institutions should be encouraged to institute workshops for female teachers, managers and staff. Government campaigns should increase to change social attitudes about women’s leadership, including newsletters to be published online and hardcopies for distribution. Policy makers in the UAE must be encouraged to subsidize educational leadership of women in different felids. Educational institutions should increase meetings with school mangers to set up programs that encourage female students to practice educational leadership at schools. With so many factors such as culture, gender relations, societal change and government promotion of women’s rights influencing the perceptions of women in leadership positions, particularly those in educational leadership whose job is devoted to training young minds and continued education for those aspiring to leadership, the government and private institutions must intervene to guide women’s leadership further.

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NOTES 1. The United Arab Emirates is a small country located in the Arab-Persian Gulf; it was established in 1971 as a federation of seven Emirates (states). Since oil discovery in 1960, a massive economic progress has taken place. Policy initiatives were formulated to facilitate more high-tech and high-skilled economic diversification and build business base that has a global reach. Liberal economy with its physical infrastructure and public services is ranked as one of the best in the Arab region (Al-Bayan 2009). People throughout the world found enormous job opportunities; skilled and none skilled laborers flowed in from neighboring countries and abroad. With the influx of immigrants, citizens have become a minority. The population is about eight million and nationals account for only 15% of the whole population, while the international immigrants account for 85%. To deal with the unbalanced demographic rate, the government initiated labor-nationalization strategy. This guiding principle is linked with educational reform and policy initiatives building. Since the oil-price boom in the 1970s, policy initiatives have been formulated to build a progressive educational sector. All citizens are incorporated in different learning levels. As a result, the country achieved a high rank of human development in less than four decades. 2. The UNDP report for 2010, ranked the UAE in the first position of human development among the Arab countries. To sustain its development program, the government is overhauling the learning system and upgrading higher educational sector. The political system in the UAE is based on a combination of traditional foundations and modern structures. A presidential system and sheikdoms work together on local and federal levels. The citizens, both men and women, do not participate in the presidential election. The rulers of the seven emirates exclusively elect the president of the UAE every five years. The president and the rulers of the seven emirates usually appoint the government. For about forty years, this form of governance has successfully enhanced the strength and stability of both the federal and local governments. 3. Students were not interviewed in this study; the interview exclusively included women who occupy leadership positions. The initial focus groups that included students from UAE University, males and females were conducted to help me in the interview. 4. The focus groups were conducted in different settings because students are separate out in two campuses. 5. Afkhami mentioned women’s promotion in Iran in the sixties during the Shah time.


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6. Since 2994, women in the UAE have been in process of building leadership capacity especially in the decision-making arena. In the election of 2011, females account for 45% of average of the candidates who run for offices. 7. Al-Shura is an Islamic form of democracy. 8. This information was collected in 2002 from Emirati people directly, men and women and from different ages and used for an empirical research of my dissertation, which is published as a book in 2011. 9. For moneymaking reason, men were away from their household for more than eight months, and women had to take care of themselves and their families; they played public and private roles, in the presence of men, women’s roles were limited only to the household. 10. In the UAE, women’s personal and legal rights (e.g., rights of inheritance, maintenance, marriage, divorce and child custody) are governed by Islamic law the “Shari’a.” Islam also defines women’s roles in society as well as their right of education and work. Yet, social factors have a remarkable impact on women’s everyday life; the family is one of these forces that play a significant role in defining women’s social identity. Traditionally, the family is considered as self-enclosed space within which women’s personal status is defined by internal norms; such a family also ensures group solidarity. The daily face-toface interaction in the household has a deep impact on the way women define the self, the other and even their mutual relationship in the household and in the public life. Legitimately, the importance of the family as a legal, religious, ethical and moral institution is emphasized by Islam and reinforced by the legal system of the UAE. 11. Hatem refers her theory to women’s movement in Egypt in the seventies during AL-Sadat’s time. 12. In 2004, four women were named as ministers in the government, and in 2006, women obtained their suffrage for the first time. Small number of women participated in the election process for the National Assembly the (parliament).Marley one female own the election; this occurrence demonstrates that society is not ready yet to accept women as political representatives. To make a gender balance, the state employed quota system and appointed eight women. Consequently, the current National Assembly consists of nine women out of 40; this percentage is considered as the highest among Arab countries. 13. Through this opportunity, women are trying to forge a path toward gender equality in the leadership positions. Women also pursue higher education abroad and the government awards them distinctive scholarships; as a result, 15% of the UAE university faculty are women. This percentage seems low

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since female enrolment in universities and colleges is always higher than that of males. 14. The population rate of the UAE’ Citizens accounts for less than a million; it is around 800,000. 15. This information is documented during the news conferences with the Minster of Import and Export in the UAE, 2010. 16. The National Newspaper, October 10, 2011. 17. The labor canons highlight that Emirati men and women are equal in both rights and duties without any differences based on their genders (2005). Based on this situation, the number of women in the labor force is continually increasing. 18. This ratio presents women who are employed by the government in relation to men citizens who are also employed by the government except the military and the police. Immigrants are excluded from this rate. 19. Business Women’s Assembly was established in Abu Dhabi and Dubai in 2002, all business women in the country have membership in this organization. 20. Young graduated women can apply for grants or for free-of-charge loans to establish their own business. 21. According to Islam, women can hold property as personal belongings, such as their inheritance,, their salaries and other personal incomes. Women also enjoy equal rights to establish their own businesses as well as to buy and sell properties. They freely enter the trade zones and sign economic-related contracts as qualified persons without male brokers (UAE Constitution, 1971). Accordingly, women have full rights for ownership responsibility, and they are accountable before the law. In this regard, women can buy and sell their possessions, have accounts and not obligated to support their families. In other words, women virtually have equal rights to pursue economic roles just as men do, but they have no financial obligation toward their families (the Qur’an). 22. visited a number of schools and met a number of women: teachers and managers. 23. am from a small city called AL-Ain; it is located south of Abu Dhabi. The city is an oasis with a small population, and where people still keep their traditions and women are still considered as wives and mothers. Most women in ALAin work for the Department of Education as schools are seen as a perfect feminine environment. 24. conducted two males’ focus groups regarding women’s leadership. 25. he majority of Emirati men avoid marrying highly educated women because they believe these kinds of women are trouble makers.


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26. urrently, the Emirate of Abu Dhabi pays enough attention to less advantaged women. Many researches are taking place to illustrate the social situation of this category. I am working on one of these projects. 27. See The Financial Times, June 14, 2007. 28. he state nominated some women for the National Assembly (parliament); they were asked to run for office and participate in the 2011 election, but some of them reject such a leadership position. 29. the time of writing this paper, the country was going through an election season. Many women ran for offices and competed with each other and gave each other a hard time. REFERENCES Abdalla, Ibrahim. “Attitudes Towards Women in the Arabian Gulf Region.” Women in Management Review, vol. 11, No. 1 (1996): 29-39. Abu-Lughod, Lila, ed. Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998. Afkhami, Mahnaz and Fried Erika. Muslim Women and the Politics of Participation. New York Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997. Afkhami, Mahnaz. Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. NewYork: Syracuse University, 1995. AL-Nuaimi, Rashed. “Economic Development in Dubai,” Al-Bayan News Paper, March 20, 2009, 109. Al Hinai, H. and Rutherford, D. “Exploring the Alshura School Leadership Model in Oman.” Marriage and Family Review vol. 41(2007): 1-2. Al-Oraimi, Suaad. Gender and Development: The Role of Women in the Formal Spheres in the United Arab Emirates. Berlin: Verlag VDM, 2011. Altorki, Soraya. “Citizenship Rights.” In Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East, edited by Joseph de Suad. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2000. Al-Rasheed, M., ed. Transnational Connections and the Arab Gulf. New York: Routeledge, 2004. Bass, Bernard M. and Riggio, Ronald E. Transformational Leadership. London: Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2006. Barbara Harold and Lauren Stephenson Fakhro. “Gender, politics and the State in the Gulf Region,” Middle East Policy vol. 5, No. 3 (1997):166-70. Belhachmi, Zakia. Women, Education, and Science Within the Arab-Islamic SocioCultural History. Sense Publishers c/o Paul Chambers, 2012. De Suad, Joseph. Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East: New York: Syracuse University Press, 2000.

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Fergani, N., ed. Arab Human Development Report: Creating Opportunities for Future Generations. New York: United Nations Development Program, 2002. Fletcher, Joyce K. “Exploring Positive Relationships at Work.” LEA’s Organization and Management Series, (2007): 347-371. Habeeb, Salloum. “Women in the United Arab Emirates.” Contemporary Review, Vol. 283, No. 1651 (August 2003). Hartsock, Nancy. Money Sex and Power. Boston: Massachusetts, Northeastern University Press, 1995. Hatem, Mervat F. Economic and Political liberalization in Egypt and the Demise of State Feminism. New York: Olive Branch, Press, 1997. Hijab, Nadia. “Women and Work in the Arab World.” In Women and Power in the Middle East, edited by Joseph de Suad, pp. 41-54. Pennsylvania: University Pennsylvania Press, 2001. Mernissi, Fatima. Women’s Rebellion and Islamic Memory. London: Zed Books, 1996. Ministry of Social Affairs of UAE. Women in the Labor Force. UAE, Ministry Press, 2008. Ministry of Education. Female’s Enrolment in Higher Education. UAE: Ministry Press, 2008. Kabeer, Naila. Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. London: 1997. Khalaf, Roula. “Women Challenge Age-old Prejudices,” The Financial Times, June 14, 2007. Ritzer, George. Modern Sociological Theory. McGraw Companies, 1996. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1990. UAE Human Resources Report. Human Development. UAE: HR Press, 2008.


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2 Entrepreneurial Leadership: Female School Principals in Azerbaijan CATHRYN MAGNO

ELMINA KAZIMZADE

Connecticut State University

International Education Programs UNESCO, UNICEF, World Bank

Abstract The transformation from a centralized, autocratic regime to an ostensibly democratic regime in Azerbaijan since 1991 has affected public institutions and organizations, including schools, in various arenas ranging from teacher practice to school principal appointments. This paper focuses on the experiences and practices of female school principals who are demonstrating innovative and effective leadership approaches and evidencing a particular— and perhaps surprising—form of leadership imbued with unique historical and cultural features. In this paper, we describe the newly emerging female school leader in Azerbaijan by presenting themes based on life narratives of current female school principals along with their views on leadership in modern-day Azerbaijan. We first introduce the Azeri context through a brief presentation of

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its Soviet, post-socialist and cultural influences, then we turn to Azeri school principals as they reflect on school leadership across time, culture and gender.

Women and School Leadership Literature exploring women and school leadership tends to conclude that women use more interpersonally-oriented, transformational and democratic styles of leadership (Caldwell Embry, & Padgett 2008; Shapira, Arar, & Azaiza 2011), which echoes work by sociologists and psychologists who contend that women are socialized to be more dialogical and interested in power-sharing than men (Gilligan 1982; Tronto 1991). This literature base emanates from the West, where feminist movements sparked research into gender differences and women’s empowerment. Feminist critical theory, in particular, questions normative gender frameworks in which public life is male and private life is female (Fraser 1997; Pateman 1989), and calls for understanding that women’s agency can be exercised in a myriad of ways, depending on historical and temporal factors. Change agency is more feasible in certain environments in which major barriers for women might be less persistent. Non-Western literature has generated interesting conclusions regarding women’s leadership. There is little scholarship on women in educational leadership, but there have been some studies conducted on women leaders in the United Arab Emirates (Madsen 2010), Arab female principals in, for example, Israel (Shapira, Arar, & Azaiza 2011), and female school leaders in Turkey (Celikten 2005), Melanesia (Strachan et al. 2010) and South Africa (Moorosi 2010). These studies have found that women face similar barriers related to traditional and cultural resistance to women taking leadership roles and that women exhibit similar caring and collaborative approaches to leadership that depart from managerial administrative styles. Historically, gender stereotypes depicting women as emotional, collaborative, kind, understanding, and sensitive have worked against them, as male-stereotype characteristics such as independent, competitive, rational, aggressive, and dominant have been seen as preferable in leadership positions (Kruger 2008). Recently, the wider literature in the field of leadership has dismissed hierarchical forms of leadership in favor of collaborative, empowering styles as effective, particularly in school settings (Coleman 2003). This paradigm shift from more typically male to more typically female approaches to leadership has potentially opened opportunity for women to advance into

Female School Principals in Azerbaijan

37

higher positions. However, it seems that “while the leadership characteristics commonly associated with the female gender are becoming more accepted and valued, the actual gender is not” (Young 2005, p. 38). There has been a great deal of literature in gender studies focusing on the Western woman, and recently a growing literature on the “Southern” or “third world” woman attempts to complicate and de-center the hegemony of Western discourse (Fennell and Arnot 2008). This demonstrates a dichotomy that, in essentializing the “northern” and “southern” woman, misses complicating factors (e.g., race, class), but that also leaves out the “second world” woman—i.e., the woman emerging in the post-Socialist context. This is an extension of Mohanty’s claim that Western scholarship has applied social homogeneity to non-Western women, with the implication that the “third world woman” is in a singular category of oppressed, traditional, and poor, despite the realities of class, race and other difference (2003, pp. 61-65). In these binaries, the “second world woman” is essentially unidentifiable and displaced. Further, such “second world women” are themselves diverse across race, class, religion and geography. This study contributes to understanding women in a “second world” transition country and the nuances of gender in a country such as Azerbaijan. In the case of Azerbaijan, women are living in a patriarchal, postSoviet society in which women continue to assume very traditional roles in the home. In the Soviet system, men held the most prominent public roles, but women were also educated to equal levels and expected to work alongside men. It is also a Muslim society but strongly secular, making the influence of religion and politics less severe than in many Arab Muslim states where the two are more difficult to disentangle (Abuznaid 2006). Nevertheless, religion does intersect with culture to preserve a hierarchical, paternalistic institutional system, through which successful women must navigate to assume leadership positions. Women, therefore, occupy a transitional space, in which theirsociety’s history and culture offer the opportunity for some to attain public as well as private stature.

Education, School Leadership, and Female School Principals in Azerbaijan Between 1922 and 1991, Azerbaijan was a republic of the Soviet Union. As such, its actors and institutions functioned in a highly centralized, structured

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and authoritarian manner. Educational directives came from Moscow, through local authorities, to schools, and all schools performed according to the same rules, regulations, curriculum and schedule. School leaders during this period were largely functionary managers who were promoted to principal either through the prima inter pares model, in which the “best [teachers] among peers” would ascend to leadership positions, or through political connections (Magno 2009, p. 25). As such, school leaders did not necessarily have specialized knowledge and skills but rather were in place to ensure the basic order of the school. As well, under the Soviet system, the “women question” was declared solved because of supposed equality of opportunity and treatment in society and in the workplace irrespective of gender. Despite this ostensible gender equality, women were carrying the double-burden of work outside of the home as well as work inside the home as daughter, wife and mother. Higher level administrative positions were often closed to women. At this time, there were many more men in leadership positions, while schools were largely feminine institutions with mostly female teachers and staff.1 For example, in the 19651966 school year, women occupied approximately 76% of teacher positions and only 21% of principal positions (USSR Government 1965, 91). Since 1991, when Azerbaijan achieved independence, it has been an increasingly open society, but one with strong remaining remnants of the authoritarian regime. There still are more men than women in leadership positions. It has been noted that in political transition periods, sometimes spaces open for the generation of new opportunities to participate for previously marginalized actors (Jaquette 1989), such as, in this case, women in educational leadership. Indeed, the proportions have slowly been changing. Already in the 1997-1998 school year, 83.3% of teachers were female and approximately 52.5% of principals were female. Also, importantly, women occupy principalships in some of the most prominent schools in the country; for example the principal of the high school attended by the President is a woman. Russian sociologists currently discuss the changes in leadership paradigms throughout the transition period. They suggest that interpersonal skills are more important now, and that successful leaders have good communication skills and an open style (Shestopal 2002). In the case of female school principals in Azerbaijan, the transition has marked an opportunity to utilize their leadership abilities in ways that are recognized by Ministry of Education officials as strengths in the new socio-political context.


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Methodology The qualitative research methodology for this chapter consisted of interviews and participant observations. The aim is not to provide causal explanations of patterned behavior, but rather to describe (Zimmerman & Wieder 1970). The study is not about gender differences; it investigates how women recognize, describe and explain their lived experience (Smith 1987) in relation to their positions as school leaders. Six individual interviews were conducted with female school principals who were purposefully selected because of their professional experience and achievements. These women were known to the second author through prior professional affiliations or by reputation. Participant observations took place during three trainings for school leaders (which included both men and women) organized by the second author and led by the first author over a period of three years. During that time, the authors discussed emerging gender-based dispositions and behaviors that they felt merited further attention and investigation. By triangulating these data sources, intricate complementariness emerged regarding the women and their context. Interviews were semi-structured and included questions about the principals’ lives, early school experiences, relationships with family and community members, and beliefs about school leadership styles and practices. Three interviews were conducted by the second author in Azeri and then translated by the author into English. Four interviews were conducted primarily by the first author, with the second author serving as interpreter and co-interviewer. Each interview was approximately 60-80 minutes, and often included a walking tour (with classroom visits) of the principal’s school, during which additional questions were asked and answered informally. A summary of participant characteristics is provided in Table 1. Interviewees were between 40 and 60 years old, and had been school leaders for anywhere from 5 to 30 years. Most of the interviewees entered into leadership positions in the post-Soviet era, but had been teachers in Soviet times. Five interviewees are leaders in urban schools; one is a leader in a rural school.

Table 1 Participant characteristics

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Informant

Age

Position in school

School location

Years of experience working in school

Interview date

S.

55-60

Principal

Urban

30+

July 2011

O.

55-60

Principal

Urban

30+ 20+ in leadership

Aug 2008

J.

55-60

Principal

Urban

13 as principal

Aug 2008

M.

40-45

Principal

Urban

-

May 2010

T.

50-60

Deputy Principal

Rural

-

May 2010

A.

45-50

Principal

Baku

-

May 2010

NB The symbol—indicates lack of information Analysis was based on life stories as the major source of data (Smith 1987), which allowed researchers to gain insights into a participant’s psychological makeup and socio-cultural perspective. One author is a trained psychologist and the other is a political sociologist; they are both education experts. The intention was to develop an interdisciplinary appreciation of the women’s lived experiences. The participants’ life stories were compared across all interviewees to identify commonalities, differences and nuances, and then were considered in respect to the observations. The resulting analysis enabled the researchers to produce in-depth understanding of the phenomenon of interest (Stake 2005). Each author reflected and took notes on the interviews and the authors exchanged observations and interpretations of the data in order to develop themes and subsequent conclusions.


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Female School Principals Build Leadership Potential

Support of parents, husband, and family “Children’s opinions were valued by our parents; we were attentively listened to” (S.). The women we interviewed spoke of the importance of family in supporting them both as children and in adulthood. One said that it was a “common dream of both of my parents to give higher education to all of their children” (A.). Several mentioned that one of their parents were teachers; one even said that she took her mother’s place as a teacher when her mother was ill (J.). Others mentioned various ways their parents influenced them, such as one whose father was “. . . an outstanding representative of third generation Azeri intelligentsia with respect to children. He used the high form of respect in communication even with young children. Our visits to museums or cinema were followed by discussions and getting feedback from us children. Education was valued equally for girls and boys, but girls were still prepared to be modest as a mother taking care of children and husband” (S.).

She went on to describe her father: “I loved my father very much and his personality strongly influenced my own personality. He was always telling interesting stories, pushing us to think and to find out the answers to why questions, to come to conclusions, to look for cause-result relationships. If something negative was happening he tried to understand together with us why this was the case” (S.). Another woman described nights when her father would return home late, when the children were already in bed, but they left their school notebooks with the teachers’ marks open on the desk to be checked by him (J.). This demonstrated the investment and care he took in the children’s education. She went on to say that her leadership “began from my position as Komsomol [Young Communists Party] leader. My father was advising my first steps at that time” (J.). Mothers were also influential. One principal explained: “My father was highly respectful to [my mother]. She sacrificed her life to the family….When I was older during my married life she supported my

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career developments. I was promoted in my school and got an offer to be head teacher but it was not easy with my own family of three children and husband. She said, ‘Don’t worry, I’ll help you with your home business’ and I moved from teacher position to head teacher. I would note two persons who influenced my career…my husband and my mother. They were proud of my successes, abilities, achievements in professional life. My husband was glad to see my success, regardless of the fact that he was the main breadwinner in my own family” (S.). One principal mentioned the role of politics and political connections in supporting her achievement. She partially accounts for her success by saying that she has “the support from the Minister himself because I know him personally—he always highlights and recognizes my success” (J.). She acknowledged that this is perhaps not fair because others are also working hard but do not know the Minister personally. It is also likely more rare for women to have strong political connections than men, and one might question whether the ascent of some women into principal positions is related to their— or their husband’s—political attachments. Some interviewees are involved in hosting elections at their schools and it is possible that some female principals see this as a way to advance professionally, since locally elected officials take part in school principal selection and appointment. We did not ask directly about political connections, but some interviewees made a point of saying they were not politically connected and they rose to their positions through their own efforts (e.g., A., T.). Influential individuals have been perhaps more consequential for women in Azerbaijan because there has not been a feminist movement to support women’s professional emancipation from the domestic realm to the public realm. Women’s ostensibly equal status to men under the Soviet system overlaid patriarchal foundations so that it seemed women had equal opportunity to men, when in reality they did not. The lack of a movement meant that women had to make professional strides without the backing of a larger group. Without familial support, this would have been a major challenge.

Early successful school experiences as young leaders “In childhood, I wanted to lead the group” (M.). The women were leaders from young ages, and experienced success and accolades as schoolgirls. One interviewee recounted attending the country’s


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best school and being a leader of school groups. She was in the “Young Leaders Association” and was chosen for leadership roles (J.). She went on to say that she was always very committed to public causes, and this might explain her desire to perform well as director of a public school. She said “I like publicity, to be seen and to be first, to be noticed for something I have done well” (J.). Another interviewee said, “I liked school, I am a schoolgirl forever. My primary school teacher played a remarkable role in my schooling experience…. She was respectful of children. I used to be her favorite schoolgirl and she shared her thoughts and ideas with me and my reply was high responsiveness” (S.). This principal also told the story of being appointed as starosta2 in the first grade. She said “my teacher probably recognized my communication skills, responsiveness, and initiative to help classmates….[I] liked to organize activities in the class, to give tasks and coordinate their implementation” (S.). She also said later teachers were always praising her motivation to be the best student in the class. This early respect for a child’s ambition can promote a strong performer motivation that continues in later years. One interviewee described how her father had to work several jobs to afford to send all the children—even the girls—to school and university, and she said, “somehow it influenced me to try to be the best. I finished highest in school and was best student at Baku State University. I was sent to Czechoslovakia in my third year in university because I was best student” (A.).

Post-Soviet school culture is more studentcentered and more democratic “In Soviet times, there was a closed classroom environment and the students’ opinions were not counted. Now students can speak their minds. Now principals are much more free to realize ideas than in Soviet times when they just had to follow what the regime told them to do” (M.). One principal explained that teachers need to be “facilitators, not just dictate” and she is working to make the classrooms more student-centered. However, in observing classrooms in her school, it was evident that students still sit in rows facing the teacher, powerpoint is used as a lecturing tool, and classroom remain devoid of student work displays. The important observation during leadership trainings was that the women tended to overwhelmingly

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support the notion of student-centered learning whereas the men did not (or they did not verbalize or demonstrate agreement with this approach). The women interviewed stressed that while they support and seek out innovation and change, they work diligently to preserve continuity and stability. This is challenging in schools in which most of the teaching staff is part-time and not accustomed to participating in systemic democratic governance. As well, in the leadership trainings, male participants mentioned the need for the principal to provide stability and to be a “strong director.” One deputy principal mentioned that students were surveyed in her school and were found to be afraid of the (male) principal. Most of the interviewed female school principals referred to the mother image that helped them to be compassionate and understand students’ behavior as children. This mother pattern in behavior served as a channel to accept and apply successfully the new child-centered approach to teaching and learning. It also has helped them to embrace collaboration and teamwork in the school.

Decreased professionalization of teaching requires principals to be more creative One principal explained that there is a division between “Soviet and postSoviet” teachers. She believed that teachers were “strong, more professional, and more responsible during Soviet times” (O.). This was supported by Soviet ideology in which the same framework was applied for everyone and there was little deviance from certain expectations. Now, by contrast, the principal said that teachers have more choice and less responsibility. She said, “if I put pressure on teachers they will leave because they have the choice to do so” (O.). This was attributed in part to the fact that the standard of living is different. She felt that in Soviet times, it was limited and people were happy with what they had, whereas now they have more choices and therefore want more. Therefore she needs to be creative in providing incentives such as searching for opportunities for professional growth, new materials, and other needs of teachers. She needs to be more attuned to their needs and form stronger collegial bonds with them. According to one interviewee, in the Soviet system, teachers were more motivated and attentive to children’s needs, whereas now they are more concerned with their own needs. This can be partially explained by the lower salary for teachers today than in the Soviet times, when they made enough to be


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part of the middle class (thus ensuring the “modest parameters of paradise”) (O.). Now, the lower salary decreases incentive to enter the profession and as a result, students in pedagogical universities are lowest scorers on exams. These students are therefore not the most motivated, but rather they see teaching as their last chance for a career. It therefore requires principals to nurture a stronger school culture and a greater respect for teachers while simultaneously building their capacity. Another inherited aspect of the school system is the high number of part-time teachers. The fact that many teachers come and go throughout the day makes it difficult to create teams or mentorships. As well, in the current system there is no requirement for institutionalized professional development, nor is there incentive because salary is based only on years of experience of teaching. The women interviewed and in the leadership trainings are finding innovative ways to reduce these barriers to building cohesive school culture. These projects range from gathering teachers, students, parents and community members together to plant trees and flowers outside the school to encouraging and rewarding voluntary teacher exchanges among teachers in the same subject area. One principal discussed the gap in team-building in the school. She would like to increase teamwork but it is difficult when teachers do not feel they make high enough salary to put in extra hours or meet higher standards than the minimum. She said she “models behavior, especially creativity” and makes the effort to show them that they are working in the best school by, for example, inviting the Minister to visit (J.). The new competition, especially with prestigious lyceums, means that students have more choices and “I am visiting these schools, in search all the time. Never when I achieve something is it time for a break—I always move forward” (J.). Other principals noted the need for leaders to show “creativity” (A., O.).

Positive relationships with and among teachers is important “I am open—there is not a big distance between me and the teachers. They perceive me as an older friend” (O.). The interviewed principals discussed their desire to be democratic leaders and to open space for teacher innovation and trust-building. One principal said she is “not an ideal democratic leader but I am always trying

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to achieve the best in my work” (O.). This principal’s deputy commented that she “can share [her] mistakes and get feedback.” They have some fun, and in general they consider the school to be a place of happiness and optimism. Another principal said she maintains an “open culture” and that there is a “very easy, supportive relationship between teachers and me as principal…. It is a reciprocal relationship” (J.). She is also open to learning from teachers and not fearful of letting them know she is always in the process of learning herself. One principal noted that her role as a mother might make her a more successful principal. She explained, “there was some same understanding between women teachers and me as a woman….Maybe I have more responsibility as a woman—I transferred my family responsibility to the school” (A.). Another principal listed the five most important aspects for building good relationships with teachers: 1) discipline to ensure organization and quality, 2) commitment to responsibilities to increase professionalism, 3) objectivity to treat all teachers fairly, 4) creativity to solve problems and conflicts, and 5) respect to show equity in treatment (J.). One principal described the first task she had as principal was to build capacity. She said, “I had to do something about teachers’ potential. I tried to get for each subject one good teacher [who could work with the others]” (A.) and she developed teams of teachers who supported each other. She went on to say that “my first priority is to see what I can do for teachers’ development, then teachers will think about what they can do for the students and the school.” She explained, “I respect their needs, and they are satisfied with my sense of justice….I asked opinions of others to try to find decision accepted by everyone. Decisions are really shared because I really take ideas from others…and this was helpful to be a team” (A.). The following story illustrates how female identity helps to build trusting relationships with teachers: “A young beginning teacher in my school had a fiancé and their wedding was approaching. She shared with me that she was concerned that she would have to leave her position at school because her future husband was very traditional and he would not like a working wife. He would prefer to have her look after children and be in the house when he returns from work. I asked her to arrange a meeting with him. I invited him to talk hoping that I could change his mind. It was obvious to me that she would suffer from his decision because although she was committed to her teaching career it was hard to resist the


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decision of her future husband. Our talk was long and difficult. I explained how their future children will benefit from having a mother who is working in school, how valuable professional knowledge would be for family life. My efforts were successful. She did not leave the school and she is satisfied with her family life” (A.). Teacher evaluation for these principals is slightly more clinical than typically administrative. In other words, these women are interested in supporting and improving teachers’ instruction, rather than simply monitoring what they are and are not doing. One principal holds regular meetings with teachers individually and another visits each teacher’s classroom more than once per year to observe lessons and have a follow-up meeting to discuss the observation (J.). It was noted in the leadership trainings and by a few of the interviewees that it is more difficult to manage teachers nowadays because there are higher expectations. There are also new competing forces, such as private tutoring. Another principal described a conflict situation in which a math teacher was unsatisfied with his assigned teaching load and schedule because it was interfering with his personal schedule of private lessons which he was providing to high school students. Rather than bringing the issue to the public, she invited him for an individual meeting to resolve the problem (A.). One principal said that it is important to her to recognize those teachers who take initiative so she gives awards for best teacher and informs the Ministry of teachers’ achievements (J.). Also interesting is that during Soviet times, evaluation was a matter of monitoring teachers activity in the classroom, whereas now parents can express dissatisfaction and make choices. In that way, parents are taking a role in management, and interviewees stressed the importance of forming relationships with them as well. The women provided examples of how they support teachers both professionally and personally. One principal described helping a teacher resolve a problem she was having regarding a child with health problems. “Her husband’s family was proposing adoption but she was against this decision. I do not know why she decided to seek my advice with such as very personal issue. We had a long discussion on adoption issues and motherhood. After a few months I learned that she adopted the child. I was so glad to see her with her little daughter come to the school. She was happy and proud, and I observed positive changes in her classroom practice” (A.).

Principals build trust through increased transparency 48


“Open lessons are good for the school because people can come to see the classes and the school. Before the school was more closed but now we try to be more open” (T.). One principal holds regular five-minute briefing meetings with small groups. In these meetings she asks for advice from certain teachers, and even students, on various issues. She also holds all-teacher meetings once every three months to review topics relevant to the whole school. She believes that the principal should “never look from the top down” and that it is “not good if you are trying to show that you know everything” (O.). She said it is important to “be a model and perform well—to always be one step ahead of the school and not wait for others to come to you” but at the same time have respect for everyone who works with you (O.). One principal explained that she is “always asking community members and parents what they think of my school. I made an anonymous survey of students asking what they like, what to improve. It gave me good feedback” (A.). Another principal distributed a parent survey which asked about her own performance, and she shared the results publicly among the school community. She also has an “open door” to classrooms every last week of the month, during which time parents and other teachers can come into the school and observe classes. This is a new intervention that demonstrates increased transparency and the trust that the principal is building among staff and parents with the aim of “sharing knowledge and practice” (J.). She noted that “my role as principal is related to parents’ opinions so they are very important” (J.). With an increase in parent councils, some principals, such as the women in this study, try to collaborate with them and establish positive cooperation. Other principals do not do this, and often the councils are ineffective or nonfunctioning.

Innovation and external projects are possible. In Soviet times, “everything was planned” (O.) whereas now there is more choice for students, teachers and principals. The interviewed principals described their experiences of motivating teachers through competitions and external projects. They support teachers’ efforts to attend professional development opportunities, to apply for external funding and projects, and to bring new programs to the school. They are open to change and look both


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inside the community and outside the country to start new partnerships. For example, one principal encouraged one of her teachers to spearhead a project with Intel that brought computers and smartboards to the school. While she did not understand how to use the technology herself, she felt strongly that students should be exposed to it and was not afraid of such major change in instructional pedagogy that the technology would bring. Another principal said, “we are successful because we have really good partnerships” and explained that the internet is a good source of ideas, as are non-governmental organizations. She went on to say that “if someone comes and asks us, we don’t say no!” (O.).

Openness to leadership training and new approaches to school leadership There was unanimous support for more training in educational leadership by the women interviewed, and they offered suggestions of future training topics, such as financial management, strategic planning, building teacher capacity, parent involvement and teacher management. They gave positive evaluations of the leadership trainings that have already been held. In those trainings, several new concepts were introduced, starting with the difference between “management” and “leadership.” Interestingly, the men demonstrated resistance to the ideas of school leaders as visionary, innovative change agents, whereas most of the women made comments such as “I am already doing this” (Observation). The following are two reflections from women who participated in trainings in which they describe a growth in self-confidence and importance of networking. “My main benefit from these professional development sessions was a discovery of professional community of people. It was a great platform to exchange ideas, learn from others, to share own ideas and practices. What was surprising and gave a spirit to further work is overlapping of my thoughts related to school innovations and management with knowledge and skills learned from the training. My ambiguous ideas on how innovate schools, what change the school climate were echoed in dialogues with my colleagues” (A.). “The networking opportunity was a big advantage of those training sessions. To be in dialogue with colleagues from urban schools, to learn about best practices shared by people from other schools. It was the first time in my

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school principal life that I realized I can teach others just explaining what I am doing and how. We are practitioners who were never taught about theory. During the training I took steps back from management practice to theory. Academic (scientific) approach to interpersonal relationship in professional life was useful, as were measurement tools, leadership inventory, questionnaires. It helped me to assess and reflect upon my professional experience, how work in teams, and project work” (J.). After one training, each participant was interviewed by a Ministry of Education official because the Ministry had financially supported the training. In later conversation with the second author the official remarked, “the men did not accept the topics, but the women really comprehended the topics and had many ideas of how to implement changes” (Ministry of Education official, personal communication, 2008). During one of the trainings, participants were surveyed regarding their own leadership styles, and when disaggregated by gender, the women were much more relationship oriented than task oriented. With women more focused on building relationships in the school, sharing decision-making, and seeking innovation, they align more closely with newer theory on leadership supporting more transformational and democratic leadership than managerial approaches.

Conclusion Female school principals seem to be taking advantage of this post-transition era in Azerbaijan to be new social entrepreneurs. In other words, they are visionary, creative individuals seeking to solve educational problems in innovative ways. We attempt not to describe behaviors as “masculine” or “feminine” per se, but rather to describe the actions and beliefs of these effective principals to identify what aspect of their gendered experience might account for their success. In so doing, we try to understand what inspires “entrepreneurship” among these female principals in Azerbaijan. As other scholars have found to be the case with teachers (Stacki and Monkman 2003), women school leaders are critical actors in the promotion of social change in schools and, by extension, in society. For women in Azerbaijan, feminism is not a common self-attribution and women still play very traditional roles in the home. This domestic caring role might seep into their professional lives and allow them to demonstrate nurturing leadership approaches. It is also possible that, because of the Soviet legacy, they are functioning in a context in


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which the effects of public/private distinctions are less extreme than in other parts of the world, thus providing a unique opportunity to thrive as leaders in the public (school) realm. Although cultural perceptions and demands on women remain strongly family-oriented, they are perhaps mediated by Soviet notions of equality. Even if true equality was not achieved in the socialist era, its prominence as a societal value undergirds social beliefs and behaviors. For those women who were encouraged and motivated as young children, and who have supportive families and husbands as adults, this time of transition to a newer, more relationship-oriented style of school leadership has opened doors to success that fit naturally with their histories and experiences. Interviewed school principals were open to communicate and talk about their personal and professional lives. They enjoyed the opportunity to share their opinions about the school principal-ship experience and to tell about their successes. This style of behavior was observed as a pattern of successful family story telling. Psychologically it is an indicator of high social motivation when a person is open to public discussion by exchanging experiences and personal thoughts. Family experiences have supported successful interpersonal and collegial relationships with school community members, mostly constituting female teachers. Interviewees often referred to their mothers’ attitudes and maternal role modeling to explain their own behavior motivation in descriptions of school life. The style of communication of these women tends to be personalized and attentive to family and individual problems facing teachers and children. It seems that the school is a screen onto which female school leaders can project a family behavior model in light of personal experiences gained from their own school lives and roles as wives and mothers. In this sense, perhaps women’s lived experiences allowed them to engage in advanced analysis and application of relationships with teachers and school community members. Leadership in the new Azerbaijan context is becoming more personalized. Individuality and creativity are required for successful leaders, and the related communication and interpersonal behaviors are noted and rewarded by, for example, the Ministry of Education. Women in this study demonstrated identities that match well the new leadership demands. One principal summarized this in the following way: “In soviet times we were administered by the party and there was little attention to the personality of either the leader or the followers. Now as we

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experience democracy the society is respecting the individuals who are in leadership positions rather than the positions themselves. For me leadership is framed by key words such as self-actualization, self-confidence, self-respect. The new concept of leader requires more humanity to be more people oriented” (J.). We found women to be leaders by instinct, who have used their intelligence and their keen understanding of the educational and societal system to benefit their schools, the students, and the parents. They were not instructed to increase transparency or to seek partnerships; they did this because of a desire to improve their school, and by so doing became leaders who are respected in both their schools and in their communities. The Minister of Education has asked some of these women to advise schools that are less successful. They are the local experts—the social entrepreneurs— who can teach other school principals to be change agents. In a patriarchal society, these women have negotiated a balance between leading privately and leading publicly, both maintaining and breaking cultural norms. They are the actors who will transition schools in Azerbaijan from Soviet-style authoritarian institutions to democratic, evolving organizations. ENDNOTES 1. Of course this phenomenon is not unique to Azerbaijan/Soviet Union. In most countries, still today, women occupy the majority of teacher roles while men occupy the majority of leadership roles in schools. For example, in the United States, despite the fact that the field is largely populated by women, “the glass ceiling effect is still present” (Sanchez & Thornton, 2010, p. 2). 2. This is an informal position in the class in which the student assists the teacher with taking attendance, distributing and collecting notebooks, handling disciplinary issues, etc. REFERENCES Abuznaid, Samir. “Islam and management: What can be learned?” Thunderbird International Business Review 48.1 (2006): 125-39. Caldwell, Craig B., Andrew Embry, and Margaret Y. Padgett. “Can leaders step outside of the gender box? An examination of leadership and gender stereotypes.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 15.1 (2008): 30-45.


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Celikten, Mustafa. “A Perspective on Women Principals in Turkey.” International Journal of Leadership in Education 8.3 (2005): 207-221. Coleman, Marianne. “Gender and the Orthodoxies of Leadership.” School Leadership & Management 23.3 (2003): 325-339. Fennell, Shailaja and Madeleine Arnot. “Decentring Hegemonic Gender Theory: The Implications for Educational Research.” Compare 38.5 (2008): 525-538. Fraser, Nancy. Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “Postsocialist” Condition. New York: Routledge, 1997. Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982. Jaquette, Jane S. The Women’s Movement in Latin America: Feminism and the Transition to Democracy in Latin America. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989. Kruger, Meta. “School Leadership, Sex and Gender: Welcome to the Difference.” International Journal of Leadership in Education 11.2 (2008): 155-168. Madsen, Susan R. “The Experiences of UAE Women Leaders in Developing Leadership Early in Life.” Feminist Formations 22.3 (2010): 75-95. Magno, Cathryn. “Re-imagining a School Leadership Paradigm in the Post-Socialist Context.” European Education: Issues and Studies 43.1 (2009): 23-41. Mohanty, Chandra. T. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” Feminist Review 30 (2003): 61-88. Moorosi, Pontso. “South African Female Principals’ Career Paths: Understanding the Gender Gap in Secondary School Management.” Educational Management Administration & Leadership 38.5 (2010): 547-562. Pateman, Carole. The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989. Sanchez, Jafeth and Bill Thornton. “Gender Issues in K-12 Educational Leadership.” Advancing Women in Leadership Journal 30.13 (2010): 2-15. Shapira, Tamar, Khalid Arar, and Faisal Azaiza. “‘They Didn’t Consider Me and No-One Even Took Me into Account’: Female School Principals in the Arab Education System in Israel.” Educational Management Administration & Leadership 39.1 (2011): 25-43. Shestopal, Y.B. Web. 20 August 2011. http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Psihol/ Shestop/ 14.php. Smith, Dorothy. The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987. Stacki, Sandra and Karen Monkman. “Change through Empowerment Processes: Women’s Stories from South Asia and Latin America.” Compare 33.2 (2003): 173-189.

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Stake, Robert E. “Qualitative Case Studies.” In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, edited by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonne S. Lincoln, 443-466. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press, 2005. Strachan, Jane et al. “You Have to Be a Servant of All: Melanesian Women’s Educational Leadership Experiences.” School Leadership and Management 30.1 (2010): 65-76. Tronto, Joan. “Politics and Revision: The Feminist Project to Change the Boundaries of American Political Science.” In Revolutions in Knowledge: Feminism in the Social Sciences, edited by Sue R. Zalk and Janice Gordon-Kelter, 91-110. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991. USSR Government. People’s household in USSR. Moscow, 1965. Young, Michelle D. “Shifting Away from Women’s Issues in Educational Leadership in the US: Evidence of a Backlash?” International Studies in Educational Administration 33.2 (2005): 31-42. Zimmerman, Don H. and D. Lawrence Wieder. “Ethnomethodology and the Problem of Order.” In Understanding Everyday Life, edited by Jack D. Douglas, 285-295. Chicago: Aldine, 1970.


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3

leadership in USM is to engage in the forces of globalization and modernization while at the same time take cognizance of the characteristics and demands of Malaysian culture as central still to the successful mission of USM.

Introduction

Leadership in Higher Education: The Normative Project of the Public Good in Conditions of Globalization, USM and APEX in Malaysia JAMES CAMPBELL Deakin University/University Sains Malaysia Penang, Malaysia

Abstract In this paper, the author discusses the reform agenda undertaken by Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) to contextualise higher education reform within cultural and social theory. It is important to understand leadership in leading reform within a broader and more holistic fashion that takes into account local culture, politics and history. University Sains Malaysia is embarking on what is referred to as the APEX agenda. The APEX strategy in Malaysia is an important approach towards achieving world-class status university institutions. The Apex Universities will be the nation’s centres of academic distinction. Ensuring and building upon the ethical authority that APEX gives USM, the challenge of

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Robert K. Greenleaf in his important book titled ‘Servant Leadership’ outlined an important contribution to the study of leadership in institutions by recognising the critical relationship between the terms to ‘serve’ and to ‘lead’. Greenleaf’s argument that leadership involves a sense of service and that true leadership is strongly imbued with a desire to serve and recognition that serving is central to legitimate leadership is a critical insight that drives the following analysis in this paper (Greenleaf 2002). The following discussion focuses on the reform agenda undertaken by Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). I seek to engage the leadership USM is taking in higher educational reform and contextualise it within cultural and social theory. It is important to understand leadership in a broader and more holistic fashion that takes into account culture, politics and history. University Sains Malaysia is embarking on what is referred to as the APEX agenda. The APEX strategy in Malaysian higher education is itself modelled on the German universities excellence initiative and is part of the strategic aims of the National Higher Education Action Plan (NHEAP) 20072010. According to the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education, ‘An important approach towards achieving world-class status is the establishment of one or two Apex Universities. An Apex University is a conceptual construct that in due time will stand atop the pyramid of institutions. The Apex Universities will be the nation’s centres of academic distinction.’ (Ministry of Higher Education 2007, p.34) In Malaysia one university has so far been awarded APEX status. The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) successfully acquired APEX status in 2008. The important role that public higher education universities can play in setting the agenda and ensuring that values are not simply reducible to ‘cost effectiveness’ or ‘speed of return’ are critical in understanding the importance of APEX in Malaysian higher education. This is especially important given the rapid spread of private higher educational institutions, which are having a significant effect on the Malaysian higher education scene. Ensuring and building upon the ethical authority that APEX gives USM is a significant part of the USM project and represents a critical issue for the status of public

The Normative Project of the Public Good in Conditions of Globalization

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universities in Malaysia and the central role they play in ‘moral governance’. The nature of leadership in USM needs to be understood in reference to this broad social and cultural agenda.

Modernization Tradition and Leadership Legitimacy Contemporary Malaysian society is now buffeted by global popular culture, consumerism and growing individualism (Ravitch & Viteritti 2003; Razak, et al. 2008). Cultural values of care and respect and compassion are increasingly under threat by values of ‘possessive individualism’. Challenging this values shift and re-establishing the values agenda of Malaysian higher education is a critical aim within the USM strategy. The critical problem USM has to contend with in seeking to maintain and respect national cultural values is the problem of neo-liberalism and the broader and deeper problem of secularization and positivism of knowledge and how these ideologies and cultural practices manifest through globalization to dissipate and deny diversity and cultural respect. Dzulkifli Abdul Razak makes the point clearly: . . . we wonder what should be the role of our own indigenous wisdom, intellectual values, and cultural norms that are underlined by our centuries-old culture and civilisation? By this I mean our own values; Islamic, Malay, and Malaysian values and way of life. More specific to the Malay values for example, the ideology of padi—‘lagi tunduk apabila berisi’ [you are more humble as you become more successful] can be a significant factor in determining the way forward in the 21-st century (Razak 2009). For the USM project to be seen as legitimate in the Malaysian context it must address the basic dialectical tension that characterizes values and change in Malaysia. One way of characterising the problems besetting Malaysian higher education is by viewing the problems higher educational institutions face as tensions between tradition and modernization. Ronald Inglehart reminds us that two essential approaches to the relationship between modernization and tradition have contended in contemporary literature. The first sees modernization as a process of convergence and domination. In this sense any institution that wishes to remain relevant to modern society is bound to converge with the dominant values of globalization as expressed through neo-liberalism. The other approach ‘emphasizes the persistence of traditional values despite economic and political changes’(Inglehart & Baker 2000, p.20).

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The significance of culture and tradition to the way modernization is engaged speaks directly to the issue of legitimacy of change in the case of USM. This tension manifests in many other ways, for example between science and ethics, spiritual values and material values, between deep cultural identity and globalized hybridized identity or even in debates over language identity. Any reform project in Malaysian universities to be successful must be cognizant of the cultural and spiritual values of Malaysian society and successful reforms must adapt themselves to the cultural nuances of the host society. Even more importantly successful reform must spring from the culture rather than be alien or foreign to it. The success of the ‘university in a garden’ project which is a key metaphor for the USM identity stems from its cognizance of the local culture and traditional aspirations and values as well as its desire to engage modernity and develop in the framework of a knowledge economy. Dzulkifli Abdul Razak reminds us, ‘even if we adopt the garden metaphor, we cannot forget the value system—the questions of ethics and moral values which are an integral part of the education system.’(Razak 2009) The USM project is an effort to reassert the ethical leadership role that public universities and intellectuals play in Malaysian society in conditions where this role is being challenged. In part the challenge to the leadership role that public higher educational institutions play in Malaysian society stems from the pressures of globalization and the followon effects this has on the authority and influence of the state. The engagement of USM with this issue of ethical leadership in conditions of globalization is a critical component to the success or otherwise of USM’s agenda. This strategy finds support in the Malaysian cultural respect for temperance, moral and intellectual leadership, traditional moral values, spiritual commitment and a commitment to scientific advancement which is not contradictory to spiritual and moral concerns but concomitant with them.

Sustainability as Ethical Leadership USM’s key overarching philosophical commitment is to sustainability and the bottom billions. The framework of sustainability provides a renewed sense of intellectual and moral leadership and purpose to Malaysian universities in conditions of globalization. USM’s project is compatible with reframing the educational mission in a way that is showing leadership in both traditional and modern ways. The ideology of sustainability and commitment to the bottom


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billions provides USM with a terrain of moral leadership that is both relevant to Malaysian development, culture and spiritual aspirations but also connects to broader threads within globalization. Such a strategy provides USM, at least in principle with an overarching legitimating principle which can be used both to engage globalization in an alternative way to the neo liberal agenda. The key idea here is to recognise the terrain USM is now engaged in as engaged with the forces of globalization and the need to reframe the discourse of legitimacy in consideration and response to these. At the same time USM is a Malaysian institution of higher education and the characteristics and demands of Malaysian culture are still central to the successful mission of USM. Dzulkifli Abdul Razak argues: As we see more people becoming marginalised, it becomes ever more important for APEX USM to work directly with these groups of people. We often talk about how we want to reach out to the majority of the world’s population of the world—especially those who deserve a quality education. … We do not confine ourselves only to Malaysia, especially given that Malaysia’s problems relative to that of the developing world are somewhat manageable. In general, the poor in Malaysia are substantially better off than the poorest individuals in other countries in other parts of the world. … Accordingly—if we want USM to be a global player, we must have a global agenda and remain committed to it. We cannot be a global player without any commitment to a global agenda. Our global agenda is basically to reach out to the four billion people at the bottom of the socio-economic pyramid, in tandem with the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (Razak 2009). The university in a garden APEX agenda is an example of educational leadership interested in substantive issues of moral and cultural accountability. The philosophy of sustainability and commitment to the bottom billions provides us with a critical touchstone in reformulating and engaging with how USM can pursue the public good as well as advance national interests within a framework of globalization. The sustainability/inclusiveness/ growth strategy of Universiti Sains Malaysia represents a clear and intellectually challenging re-theorization of what role higher education must play in Malaysian national development. Linked closely with the idea that successful reform requires innovative leadership, the USM project needs to be understood within a cultural and social context in Malaysia where intellectual leadership by educators and a sense of public purpose in higher educational institutions is

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critical not only for the legitimacy of higher educational institutions as such but of the Malaysian polity in general. Grasping the role and function of USM’s APEX agenda requires us to engage the problem of how an institution maintains its legitimacy within its national society and the broader global environment. At a macro level the problem of legitimacy in Malaysian higher educational institutions, especially publicly funded ones is a problem of somehow maintaining a balance between the traditional needs of social values and culture and the needs of economic development and modernization. This balance is nuanced and complex given the ethnic divisions, role of religion and the diverse expectations of the public sector from the Malaysian community. In fact it is arguable that the binary that is presented in this paper is itself too simplistic and limiting. Clearly the issues of modernization and tradition are themselves discursive constructions. However the point being made in the discussion above essentially reiterates the fact that the issue of legitimacy for reform in USM is closely tied to cultural expectations and social mores. Leadership in higher education in Malaysia is critically concerned with how to articulate the mission of higher education in moral terms and in terms which are not simply repetitions of the secularized philosophy of knowledge which characterises contemporary Western culture. This issue, the need to understand that the secularized concepts of leadership and the secularized way that even processes such as economic development and social growth are understood in much contemporary analysis is itself difficult but necessary. To understand the USM project relies on how we understand its mission in terms that are not reducible to western secularization. To grasp the success and possibilities for legitimacy of leadership in Malaysian public universities is to begin to understand the importance of qualities rooted in the Malay and Islamic traditions which (especially in the public sector) confer upon leadership important moral and even spiritual dimensions. The concept of sustainability and the university in the garden must be understood as a renewed form of legitimacy for higher education in conditions of globalization and change. When viewed through this foregoing analysis the USM university in a garden model becomes clearer to understand from the point of view of the balance between national developmental aspirations and the maintenance of cultural values: between modernization and tradition. How does this tension manifest in the university sector and why is it important for APEX.


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Firstly the tension manifests in the need for higher educational institutions to engage and reform their managerial practices, research culture and pedagogical culture with reference to the needs of the knowledge economy and institutional modernization. Thus the needs of the knowledge economy, changes in management culture and institutional modernization can have a huge effect on the social relations and values that make up an institution. This may put incredible strain on social stability even in the context of university culture. Modernization in such a framework acts not as a form of cultural creativity and innovation between globalization and indigenous culture, but rather as a form of neo-liberal cultural imposition against the cultural norms and beliefs of the host society. Secondly as argued above if the discourse of reform is presented in a language that is stripped of normative and cultural value and richness, then the way such an institution relates to its surrounding culture is concomitantly stripped of depth and legitimacy. In these two ways the reform agenda if not managed properly and understood within cultural context can ‘offside’ the institution from its own cultural environment and act to delegitimize it in people’s eyes. This has implications for efficiency, effectiveness and the capacity to achieve goals. Leadership is thus a conceptual fame that needs to be assessed within a broader understanding of the tensions between modernization, tradition and the way diverse understandings of modernity frame these tensions. According to Dowling: Organizations seek to establish congruence between the social values associated with or implied by their activities and the norms of acceptable behavior in the larger social system of which they are a part. Insofar as these two value systems are congruent we can speak of organizational legitimacy. When an actual or potential disparity exists between the two value systems, there will exist a threat to organizational legitimacy. These threats take the form of legal, economic, and other social sanctions (Dowling and Pfeffer 1975, p.122).

Sustainability Legitimacy and Creative Leadership Given that the argument of this paper is that USM’s strategy is one of transformation in the context of adapting where necessary to convergent global realities and working within the specific cultural and institutional frameworks of Malaysian society, how do we understand the legitimacy of

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transformation? What kind of leadership is necessary for such transformation? How can legitimacy and leadership be understood from a framework that is not isomorphic? The following discussion will continue to elaborate this. According to many critics the pressure on the legitimacy of state institutions both as a result of globalization and the way trans-national organizational structures and cultural flows now seriously challenge the once certain authorities of the nation state (Appadurai 1996; Marginson and Sawir 2005). This has been compounded by the state sponsored reform process of liberalization and marketization in the Malaysian higher education sector. The growth of the private sector and corporatization of public universities in Malaysia poses issues with regards to the values orientation of Malaysian higher education and the public sector in Malaysian society. Created to address the needs of a growing domestic body of students who need access to Malaysian higher education, private higher educational institutions have filled a significant need. However corporatization and the growth of private higher educational institutions as a way to achieve the goals of nation building also put pressure on the moral leadership of Malaysian public higher education. These pressures on the ‘legitimacy’ and leadership role of public institutions given the difficulties involved in reconciling corporatization with issues of the public good put pressure not simply on Malaysian public universities to compete but also to retain their leadership role in Malaysian society. The core idea to grasp in the discussion above is not that the power and authority of the Malaysian state has withered to the point where the doctrines of neo-liberal reform and profane secularization are going unchallenged. In fact quite the opposite is true. The Malaysian state is a strong and active state which is introducing reform to higher education from a position of authority and strength. What we face in our analysis of Malaysian higher educational reform is an ongoing debate and contest between ideas many of which are initiated by the Malaysian state. In other words the state ideology and direction is itself a contested domain. This does not entail policy confusion, rather it suggests that the Malaysian public policy apparatus is characterised by vigorous debate and that like the society at large this debate is influenced by contemporary intellectual currents. In other words the state is engaging in the difficult task of rearticulating its mission. In doing this it has sought to create APEX as a path to reinventing higher education and has given USM the leadership task. Recognising this entails critiquing views of the state within contemporary globalization which


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posit the existence of hyper globalization and the utter diminution of the role of the state. Instead of accepting uncritically a view of the state based on hyper globalization theory we must rather understand globalization as also an enabling influence on how the state acts and engages change. Globalization and the pressures associated with it have generated significant debate within the Malaysian policy community, this debate has been generative of new ideas and approaches to public policy. APEX is a clear example of this. USM’s leadership strategy is a clear strategy for engaging the problems and vicissitudes of globalization and the functions of state educational institutions within the current climate. The dilemmas of globalization have helped enable the articulation of a policy strategy with respect to APEX and USM’s articulation of this which is innovative and genuinely original. Viewing the relationship between globalization and the state as enabling provides us with a surer way to understand the role and nature of USM and the APEX strategy. The consent upon which its mission is based is being redefined as a response to the pressures, conflicts contradictions and risks of globalization. Leadership in this situation relies upon consent and consent itself is derived in part from legitimacy and cultural relevance. Thus the leadership shown in USM is an articulation and effort to re-energise and ground the legitimacy of public education within a moral discourse that derives its force and authority from the consent and engagement of the Malaysian public. This point shall be elaborated in more detail later in this paper through the auspices of the concept of overlapping consensus. In principle the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) project, articulated through its overarching concept of the ‘university in a garden’ is fundamentally a project based on a renewed sense of moral leadership and direction. Moral leadership is ‘both a motivating and stabilizing factor in sustaining the performance’(Wong 1998, p.122) of universities in Malaysia. USM’s agenda is strongly linked to its ability to both adapt to the objective economic and global forces that frame higher education as well as express itself in a way that is commensurate with Malaysian values and culture. This point has been made previously in this paper and is critical to understanding the nature of reform. It is also critical to understanding the limits of reform and how reform in higher education can sustain consent and legitimacy in a society buffeted by global forces and increasingly dynamic information flows. The support of the Malaysian state for the project that USM is leading is a clear sign of the

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recognition within the Malaysian public policy apparatus of the limits and problems with pursuing a neo-liberal agenda. The recognition by the state of the need to think outside the box and to understand its own legitimacy in terms that are related to and driven by the particular nature and problems of Malaysian development and society puts a strict temperance on neo-liberal exuberance. In short the leadership at USM is part of the ongoing matrix of leadership in the Malaysian state. It is not without contradictions and tensions. However this is the nature of how consent and legitimacy is developed. Such consent and legitimacy is critical for higher educational institutions to function properly. USM’s mission is to re-establish and reaffirm consent and legitimacy through renewed moral leadership. Why is USM’s agenda so critical? Corporatization of the public sector by itself is not sufficient to maintain the legitimacy credibility and competitiveness of public institutions in the contemporary scene. This is largely due to the more complex social and cultural role and expectations that are placed upon public universities and the sense that they face competitive disadvantage under current conditions of globalization. Corporatization without a concomitant values agenda for Malaysian higher education may in fact accentuate contradictions between an increasingly privatized and efficiency oriented higher educational sector and the substantive moral and social values of inclusiveness and public purpose that Malaysians expect of their higher educational institutions. In this sense the balance between economic liberalization, and maintaining a relevant values agenda sets up significant and difficult problems for the Malaysian state and in this discussion for Malaysian public higher education. The existence of a strong interventionist and regulatory state framework for both the private and public sector does not dissipate the very real social and cultural issues that must be attended to in the higher educational debate (Lee 2004). How do we maintain the legitimacy and competitiveness and leadership of Malaysian public higher educational institutions in an increasingly challenged, globalized and fluid terrain? How do we regain the competitive advantage for Malaysian public universities? How do we ensure that neo-liberal prescriptions for Malaysian higher education do not undermine the substantive national goals of ethnic cohesion, social justice and moral purpose that are expected from Malaysian higher education? What is leadership in such a context?


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Assailed from without by neo-liberal managerial and isomorphic pressures and from within by state sponsored decisions to open up the educational market place to private competition, state institutions face what Jurgen Habermas refers to as a legitimation crisis (Habermas 1989). Yet this crisis offers the path for innovative responses. It is at this point that USM’s strategy and its innovative response to the dilemmas facing Malaysian modernization comes to the fore. The key point to note in the foregoing analysis is the USM’s agenda is part of an ongoing engagement with how Malaysia can leverage from the dilemmas, problems and opportunities of globalization and re-invigorate its moral purpose and relevance in shifting global circumstances. In this sense, the leadership provided by USM in the public sphere is critical to ensuring that the voice of anti-colonial and substantive values based agenda for Malaysian public institutions remains a driving and significant part of the mix of the rhetoric of Malaysian public policy. USM’s APEX strategy is an effort to regain the momentum in the current environment by reflexively modernizing its institutional aims and reasserting its moral vision. The need for USM to articulate its mission in a way that reinforces and establishes its social legitimacy within Malaysia is now strongly connected to how it establishes its legitimacy outside of Malaysia. The two aspects now intertwine in an “inside out” strategy that seeks to engage globalization leveraging from institutional strengths and cultural values (USM 2008). In a sense the role of USM is to re-articulate legitimacy for the Malaysian public sector in conditions where legitimacy can no longer be assumed simply from its location or generation from state ownership and power. Such rearticulation entails a reflexive engagement with globalization. The concepts of sustainability (Etzkowitz and Zhou 2006) and the blue ocean strategy (Kim and Mauborgne 2005) which give it direction provide an important discursive answer to the new Malaysian higher educational dilemma. Sustainability as a conceptual paradigm provides an overarching ideological basis for renewed justification of Malaysian public institutions. It does this because it establishes a link through network society and global civil society to principles of legitimation that are arguably equal to the power of neo-liberalism. It gives added impetus to developing the competitive position and the values of public institutions and is a way of squaring public purpose with the shifting forces that network society represents. It provides a critical link between the need to engage the diverse networks within higher education and the scholarly world as well as provide a continued more broadly ‘globalized’ legitimacy to

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the role that higher education can play in Malaysian society. It addresses the ‘legitimation crisis’ of Malaysian higher education. It also provides a plausible solution for the competitive crisis of Malaysian higher educational institutions. To outline the theorization behind this we need to go a little deeper.

Overlapping Consensus The principle or key way sustainability can legitimate itself in the Malaysian polity and higher educational scene is through establishing an overlapping consensus. This principle is drawn from the political philosophy of John Rawls (Rawls 1996). Overlapping consensus seeks to find points of agreement based on mutual recognition of commonly experienced problems. Overlapping consensus can only occur in conditions where inter-subjective dialogue, mutual respect and trust permeate the society. Sustainability provides an intellectual framework to achieve overlapping consensus. It does this through fusing and articulating critical interests together in a functioning overarching and unifying ideology. Sustainability as a doctrine provides a globalized inter-subjective ‘project’ that situates USM and provides ‘legitimacy’ to USM as a public institution in an increasingly globalized world. In short, the strategy of USM provides a practical example of how public educational institutions can engage the problem of the shifting and changing basis of legitimacy and democratic sovereignty within globalization. The core role of Malaysian higher educational institutions in maintaining and representing the critical social values of Malaysian society and the legitimacy for that society is reinvigorated by USM. Sustainability as a value system provides USM with a multi-pronged way to engage both the local and global problems that Malaysian higher education faces. How is this so? Firstly, the sustainability ideology provides an important border crossing value discourse that situates USM globally and provides moral authority locally. In other words the ideology of sustainability provides an important platform or site for USM to project itself into the global environment and an important platform for rearticulating its competitive aims in an asymmetric and difficult world. In economic language, the doctrine of sustainability repositions USM competitively which can advantage it in terms of its ‘ethical’ position in the higher education market place but also help to forge synergies and complementarities between its research and teaching agenda and the global higher educational sector.


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USM in this fashion establishes research credibility in under tapped research markets and links with global civil society and trans-national educational organizations which provide access to a discourse that is transglobal and innovative. This engagement with ‘global civil society’ concerned with issues of social justice and the focus of USM with sustainability issues articulates a moral agenda in the Malaysian public sphere which aids in providing ideological legitimacy to USM as a public institution dedicated to the public good. This does not necessarily lessen the authority of the Malaysian state in the process. In fact the opposite may be the case. The ability of USM to articulate its mission in a global discourse that is coherent with broader global civil society and global organizations (such as UNESCO) provides it with the ability to articulate not simply national but also global leadership in higher education. This reflexively then stimulates USM’s position of leadership within Malaysian society and reinvigorates its leadership role through moral leadership. The sustainability framework is also complementary to the public sector and nation building role that the Malaysian state expects from its higher educational institutions. As a legitimating ideology sustainability reflects and addresses many of the fears held in Malaysian society regarding the market ideology and possessively individualistic values of neo-liberal competition. The value of sustainability not only provides linkage between USM and the ‘Blue Ocean’ external to Malaysia; it also provides renewed legitimacy to the leadership role that higher educational institutions play in Malaysian society. The need for Malaysian higher educational institutions to maintain -indeed among some, re-establish- their moral leadership is increasingly critical in the face of the competitive position that they face in Malaysian society. Here the critical point is that sustainability as a binding normative commitment not only reenergises and deepens the basis for moral consent to Malaysian higher education as leaders in Malaysian society, it also provides a normative positioning for Malaysian higher education in the broader global environment. In short, USM is articulating a mission and moral project that provides broader moral leadership to Malaysian society and suggests an answer to the problems of direction and legitimacy of Malaysian higher education under conditions of globalization. The USM strategy is thus an important articulation of a renewed competitive edge for Malaysia higher education but also evidence of a renewed social and cultural leadership that such an institution plays in Malaysian

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society. Such an approach to the higher educational mission in Malaysia is an attempt to square one of the fundamental tensions that exists in Malaysian society with regards to higher education. This tension is between modernization competition and its connection to neo-liberal values and social and cultural stability and the necessity of public institutions to maintain a moral leadership role in Malaysian society. The focus on moral leadership by USM addresses this tension by reframing its engagement with globalization not through the lens of neo-liberal competition but through positioning itself as part of a bigger moral and values discourse which resonated globally. In other words, the USM APEX strategy with its focus on sustainability provides moral leadership and integration globally but also leadership locally in terms of articulating and establishing public universities to a clear public good that is inter-subjective and profoundly important. It builds an overlapping consensus as a basis for the direction and moral mission of Malaysian higher education. Such a theorisation is evidence of the way USM’s strategy transforms how we understand globalization and is neither an example of neo-liberal convergence nor an example of indeterminate difference from globalization, but rather a form of transformative adaptation of globalization within dynamic national ethical and global contexts. The key point here is that USM’s strategy is also an example of how the pressures, threats and opportunities of globalization have enabled the Malaysian state through establishing APEX to engage these issues in an innovative way. APEX is not an example of a state’s declining position or intellectual credibility in the face of globalization. Quite the opposite: APEX shows the way the Malaysian state can grapple with the vicissitudes of globalization and re-energise the moral and ethical dimension of Malaysian public higher education. USM’s agenda is thus genuinely ‘inside out’. USM’s moral leadership thus helps to provide a way for the Malaysian state to engage globalization without necessarily getting involved in the day to day nuts and bolts. The critical issue is the extent to which USM can in fact be seen as providing that leadership edge to higher education.

Conclusion: What is Sovereign in Malaysian Universities? Globalization is radically challenging conventional notions of sovereignty and thus challenging the basis for leadership. This poses threats and opportunities for universities and educators. The de-centering of sovereignty that is occurring


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under globalization is the corollary of the process of consumer consciousness, cultural acceleration and technological change. It is also of crucial significance to understanding both the problems neo-liberal globalization poses for contemporary societies (Sassen 1996). Framing a response to the complex web of changes that neo-liberalism and globalization pose is of critical importance. The role of the state and its continued authority is crucial to this debate especially in the context of higher educational institutions that are still ‘public’. The salient problem is that the forces of neo-liberal globalization challenge cultural barriers and accentuate the need for the state in its public policy to re-engage and re-assert public sovereignty both at the political, economic and educational levels of Malaysian society. Understanding USM’s APEX agenda in this light provides a far more nuanced understanding of the problems and dimensions of leadership than analysis that are either overly technical or lacks socio-cultural depth. The very process of globalization has engaged the Malaysian state to support and invoke the APEX initiative. The state recognizes that its response to globalization is critical to the success of Malaysian development. The role of education in our institutions and its ethical dimension is more central rather than less so in our contemporary de-centered globalized world. Recognizing this provides USM and its leadership with a language of possibility within globalization. The problem of leadership in Malaysian higher education is the problem of addressing the problems that beset Malaysian education and re-energizing a moral agenda for universities which can gain the consent of citizens and stakeholders in the Malaysian national polity. The leadership mission of USM is aimed precisely at re-invigorating an ethical vital centre and to provide broader leadership to the higher educational sector as a whole. In this paper, I have sought to make four essential points in regards to the state and its significance for the problem of leadership in public higher education in Malaysia. Firstly, following the arguments of scholars such as Linda Weiss the position put in this paper is critical of the view that posits the state as no longer relevant or severely dissipated in the context of globalization (Weiss 1997; Weiss 2000). This view severely misleads us in our analysis of APEX, USM and the problem of leadership. While it is true that globalization has put increased pressure on the nation state and thus its key ideological institutions, this pressure has also enabled the state to engage globalization in innovative ways: thus APEX. Secondly, the problem of Malaysian higher education under globalization is the problem of moral legitimacy and re-

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engaging consent for its mission and ethical leadership. The values agenda of USM is a serious attempt to engage this issue, and by inference, engender respect for the public role and function of state institutions and the normative authority of public education. The effect of this on the moral authority of the Malaysian state is not lost on policy makers. Thirdly, the way that USM through its APEX strategy re-energizes and legitimizes its project and engages public consent is through rearticulating its mission in the language of sustainability and the commitment to the bottom billions. This re-articulation builds an overlapping consensus for the values of USM and its moral mission. This overlapping consensus generates global position and identity as well as local national public leadership and respect. USM’s engagement with globalization is an attempt to recognise, name and respond to globalization and provide a language of possibility and cultural dignity for its direction. This language of possibility is most articulately put forward as global sustainability. Sustainability provides a vital principle that is democratic, inclusive and dynamic. Understanding leadership in the context of USM’s transformational reform agenda requires a deep interrogation of the way we understand the relationship between modernization and tradition, science and values and the secular and spiritual frameworks which inform how leadership is understood and practiced. It is a theoretically complex endeavour not given to positivistic simplicity. Finally, the dilemmas that USM faces in its quest for leadership mirror those faced by the broader Malaysian polity. One way of summarizing these tensions is to engage the difficulties, opportunities, threats and opportunities that exist between the modernizing forces of global economic engagement, rapid technological change, the role of the internet and communication, economic integration and standardization and other changes which characterize contemporary modernity and the still strong commitments of Malaysians to cultural values and notions of social justice and inclusion which are not reducible to the needs of neo-liberal globalization. The project of moral leadership is one that is both seeking to reinvigorate a vital ethical core in the university while at the same time avoiding any reductive interpretation of what this means. REFERENCES


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Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. Dowling, John. and Jeffrey Pfeffer. “Organizational Legitimacy: Social Values and Organizational Behavior.” The Pacific Sociological Review vol 18, No. 1 (1975): 122-136. Etzkowitz, Henry. and Chunyan Zhou. “Triple Helix Twins: Innovation and Sustainability.” Science and Public Policy vol. 33, No. 1 (2006): 77-83. Habermas, Jurgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1989. Inglehart, Ronald and Wayne. E. Baker. “Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values: Looking Forward, Looking Back. Continuity and Change at the Turn of the Millenium. .” American Sociological Review vol. 65, No. 1 (2000): 19-51. Kim, W. Chan. and Renee Mauborgne. Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create Uncontested Market Space and Make the Competition Irrelevant. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2005. Lee, Mollly. N. N. “Malaysian Universities: Towards Equality Accesssibility and Quality.” In Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges, edited by P. G. Altbach and T. Umakoshi, 221-248. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2004. Marginson, Simon and Erlenawati Sawir. “Interrogating Global Flows in Higher Education.” Globalisation, Societies and Education vol 3, No. 3 (2005): 289301. Ministry of Higher Education. National Higher Education Action Plan 2007-2010. Kuala Lumpur, Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, 2007. Ravitch, Diane. and Joseph. P. Viteritti. Kid stuff : Marketing Sex and Violence to America’s Children. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. Rawls, John. Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Razak, Dzulkifli. A. “USM APEX University Status: Transforming Higher Education for a Sustainable Tommorrow.” Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences vol. 16, No. 1 (2009): 1-6. Razak, Norizan A., et al. “Towards the Development of NET-Generation Among Malaysian Youth. In Joint Open and Working IFIP Conference ICT and Learning for the Net Generation. Kuala Lumpur: International Federation for Information Processing Digital Library, 2008. Sassen, Saskia. Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Universiti Sains Malaysia. Transforming Higher Education for a Sustainable Tomorrow. Penang: University Sains Malaysia, 2008.

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Weiss, Linda. “Globalization and the Myth of the Powerless State.” New Left Review vol. 1, No. 225 (1997): 3-27. Weiss, Linda. (2000). “Globalization and State Power.” Development and Society vol. 29 No. 1 (2000): 1-15. Wong, Kam-chueng. “Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective.” Peabody Journal of Education vol. 73, No. 2 (1998): 106-125


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4 21st Century Schools: Exploring Efficacy of PublicPrivate Partnership (PPP) Models in India

the need for private participation in the conceptualization, development, monitoring and delivery of services and facilities has become essential. In India at present, private sector participation in school education is a flourishing sector. At the same time, however, it has also been criticized that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families. Therefore, there is a need to work out a better mode of private participation. Before taking up any new model, it is essential to review the present mode of partnership and develop those according to the global changes and challenges. In this research-based chapter, I would like to examine some existing models of school management and analyse them in order to gain insights for future advancement in relation to the design, implementation and management of Pubic Private Partnership Model (PPP). This may help us to map the Way Ahead: leading educational leadership into the globalised world and face successfully the21-century challenges for leadership in school management.

Introduction YAZALI JOSEPHINE Department of Educational Administration National University of Educational Planning and Administration New Delhi, India

Abstract With the liberalization and globalization of the Indian economy, the rapid changes witnessed in the scientific and technological world, and the general need to improve the quality of life and to reduce poverty, it is essential that school graduates acquire a higher level of knowledge and skills than are currently being provided by the school education. Moreover, there are large disparities among different groups of children who do not have access to school education. Education at the secondary level, therefore, is a crucial stage in the educational hierarchy, as it prepares the students for higher education and also for their future professional work. However, providing quality in education to this large chunk by the government alone is a huge undertaking; the involvement of private sector in such situation is unavoidable. Therefore,

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Globalization is significantly influencing and demanding skills-oriented education. In the case of India, increasing numbers of adolescents are seeking enrolment in secondary education, due to rapid expansion of enrolments in primary education. However, these large numbers of young people are likely to be unemployed or underemployed. This is due to the mismatch between the supply of skills-oriented education and the demands of market forces. The results of this mismatch are reflected clearly in the widening of marginal urban areas within our cities, increasing migrations from rural areas into cities, xenophobia, violence, youth unrest, increasing youth delinquency, drug addiction, and other urban problems. The growing number of unemployed young people and the lack of opportunities to improve their conditions are leading to an even greater social, political, cultural, and environmental crisis. How to deal with this dilemma of changing demands? What role do education planners and policymakers play, particularly at this turning point stage in life of young adolescents? This is one of the crucial issues in secondary education. The research study presented in this chapter is intended to focus mainly on the role of India’s national education in between globalization processes, local demands and supply. Today, in this globalised system, it is widely recognized that school education has functions other than preparing students

Exploring Efficacy of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Models in India

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for higher education. The rapid changes witnessed by India in the scientific and technological world, and the general need to improve the quality of life and to reduce poverty, it is essential that school graduates acquire a higher level of knowledge and skills than are currently provided by the school education. In order to enable secondary education to play such a role, there is a need to create suitable educational environments, renew educational methods and contents, and modify the traditional structures of secondary schooling. This is a huge undertaking for the government alone. There is a need for involvement of the private sector. Public Private Partnership (PPP) offers a mix of qualitative and quantitative resources resulting in public and private players assuming different roles of varying dimensions in numerous Models of PPP. In India, currently, despite the fact that private sector involvement is flourishing, the need for examining the efficacy of the existing models of public-private partnership (PPP) is strongly felt. This is where the current chapter, based on research findings, makes a contribution. In this chapter, I would like to examine some existing models of school management and analyse them in order to gain insights for future advancement in design, implementation and management of PPP Model. PPP is not just limited to financing. It includes participation in terms of technical, legal and managerial inputs, which may result in change of public private interface byway of private sector sharing social responsibility.

Background of School Education in India India has a long history of indigenous education system, from childhood to university. The Nalanda University of India is the oldest known universitysystem of education in the world. But when Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj, India lost its native educational system. Today, education in India is mainly provided by the public sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Child education is compulsory. Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the states1, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy in some other aspects. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are either Union or State Government controlled.

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India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India. Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private institutions. The private education market in India was estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012. However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 35% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian students reach high school, and just 7% graduate. As of 2008, India’s post-secondary high schools offer only enough seats for 7% of India’s college-age population; 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant; and 57% of college professors lack either a master’s or a PhD degree.

The Challenge of Education Quality However, successes on the quantity front mask severe problems in educational quality. 60% of children aged 6-14 in India cannot read a simple paragraph, though over 95% are enrolled in school (PRATHAM 2008). Whereas research has shown that the returns to education (both at the individual and aggregate levels) are driven more by the quality than the quantity of education (Hanushek & Woesmann 2008). The lack of education quality severely limits the ability of education to serve as a vehicle for social mobility. Moreover, as the locus of job creation moves from the public sector to the private sector, the premium is now on skills rather than paper qualifications. Most policy discussions on quality of education tend to focus on increasing public spending, but very little on improving effectiveness of how the money is spent. Teacher accountability and effectiveness are the central issues (90% of recurrent spending goes to teacher salaries). The failure of Public Schools to address the demands for quality and job-skills has led to more and more private school entry.

The emergence of private schools According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools, making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated. According to some research, private schools often provide superior


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results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools. However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families. Private schools have been accused of being selective and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation. In their favor, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extracurricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama. The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37) as compared to the government schools (where the ratio ranges from 1:60 to 1:90 in certain states); and more teachers in private schools are female. There is some disagreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (para-teachers) is 54.91% in private schools as compared to 44.88% in government schools, and only 2.32% teachers in unaided private schools receive in-service training as compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most private schools make profit. Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free of cost. A study found that 65% of the school children in Hyderabad’s slums attend private schools. Private schools are often operating illegally. A 2001 study found that it takes 14 different licenses from four different authorities to open a private school in New Delhi and could take years if done legally. However, operation of unrecognized schools has been made illegal under the ‘Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education’ Act, which has also significantly simplified the process of obtaining recognition. Under this act every school must be recognised by the state government. And to get recognition, each school has to meet certain parameters, like playground, good faculty, etc. set by the Act. Also, these schools have to accommodate 25 percent children from the neighborhood in accordance with the rules of the state. In case of failure to meet these requirements, the school will be closed down. The Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in India whose main function is to advise Central and State Govt. in the field of education, its report says that almost 25 percent of the secondary schools today are private, unaided schools whose “clientele comes only from the privileged sections of society”. As an educationist says, “Private education has always played an important role — we have different types of private secondary schools, such as private unrecognized, private recognized but unaided schools, and private, recognized and aided schools.” In Kerala and West Bengal, it is common to see private aided schools, which

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are schools run by private managements that receive government grants. Going by the Seventh All India Survey Data, the CABE report notes that private aided schools account for over 50 percent of all secondary school students’ enrolment. The overwhelming participation of the private sector in secondary education, however, in no way absolves the government of its many responsibilities. Quoting the Kothari Commission Report of 1964-66, the CABE committee points out that the commission recommended using six percent of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) on education. While this percentage of investment was supposed to have been made by 1986-87, it still has not been implemented even six decades later, resulting in ‘underinvestment’ in access, enrolment, classrooms, teachers and other facilities, according to the CABE report.

Emergence of private global schools in India Globalization is significantly influencing skills in demand and the way work is organized today. Majority of the educational planners and administrators even today are either confused or unable to understand the concepts, merits and demerits of Globalization. Considering that the world has now become a global village because of improved connectivity, India faces the explosion of virtual and on line education services. Therefore, we need to watch constantly the world movement, demand, and accordingly make innovations to match with the world. Since India started globalizing, corporate sector also plunged into opening world class schools, such as: Big business families like the Ambanis have entered the arena, setting up international level schools. Denmark’s Egmont International has set up a chain of 129 pre-schools, (Eurokids), in India in the last two years. The Shemrock brandname has added 35 more to its chain of preparatory schools in the last four years alone. The number of private schools in education hub Dehradun has hit 250. Some 35-odd have come up in the last three years. The Pune zilla parishad has received 32 applications in just the last 20 months for starting private schools. The Jain group of Bangalore plans to set up about 100 Jain International Schools in the next 10 years, each at a cost of Rs 22 crore.


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Somewhere along the drab, dusty monotony of the Delhi-Jaipur highway, a milk-and-cream Greco-Roman style building makes a stunningly sudden and absurdly anomalous appearance. The discovery that it is not a luxury motel, but an International School in the village Binola within the district Gurgaon, Haryana—is even more staggering. Who would send their child to this strangely located “day, week and full boarding” school? Hundreds of education entrepreneurs wholeheartedly support the private school industry. The Great Indian School Bazaar (private school market) is booming as never before. In a country where demand for good schools has traditionally outstripped supply, and a new generation of upwardly mobile parents want to give their children only the best, businessmen of every hue— realtors, traders, hoteliers, industrialists, NRIS, franchisee chains—are setting up schools. For, interestingly, though government policy and a landmark 1993 Supreme Court ruling prohibit profiteering in education, schools are permitted to make an “excess of income over expenditure”: “excess” that is expected to be used towards further development of the school. In practice, school promoters often charge for consultation, management, catering, special coaching facilities and other such services, and eat up the “excess” (cf. authors’ personal experience and observation). Among the many factors that constrain the growth of private schools is the license raj (license rule) that results in most states legislating as many as twelve licenses before a school can legally operate as an accredited institution. That bureaucratic gauntlet, however, has not deterred either parents or operators as the latter set up shop by calling themselves ‘academies, learning centres’ or any other moniker that allows them to skirt the ‘law.’ The licenses supposedly are meant to ‘protect’ parents and their children from fly-by-night operators who presumably are only interested in ‘making money.’ That quite obviously ignores the reality that prevails in India where parents judge schools based on output, not on the number of licenses. It is no surprise that most kids studying in private schools have better test scores. That, of course, is an inconvenient fact for regulators in search of illegal gratuities. India has done well to recognise the benefits of public-private partnerships in a number of areas from roads to cell phones. By allowing the same process in education, far more can be done than any increase in public spending alone.

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Need for PPP (Public-Private Partnership) in New Mode The Indian government allocated about US$8.6 billion to education for the current financial year. But considering the significant divide between the minority of students who graduate with a good education and the vast majority who struggle to receive basic elementary schooling, or are deprived of it altogether, private participation is seen as the only way of narrowing the gap. Indeed, it is estimated that the scope for private participation is almost five times the amount spent on education by the government. Some studies estimate that the total size of India’s private education market could reach US$80 billion by 2012, with an 11% increase in the volume and penetration of education and training being offered. The K-12 segment is the most attractive for private investors. Delhi Public School operates approximately 107 schools, DAV has around 667, Amity University runs several more and Educomp Solutions plans to open 150 K-12 institutions over the next four years. Coaching and tutoring K-12 students outside school is also big business with around 40% of urban children in grades 9-12 using external tuition facilities. The country is currently moving towards an exciting phase of economic development and growth. In this, development of physical and social infrastructure resources is critical factor along with academic resource management and development. More than just creating the infrastructure through financial resources, it is important to design, implement and manage these resources. Expansion of infrastructure in recent times has been significant. In order to meet the need for expansion of the infrastructure, the existing public resources have proved to be inadequate. Therefore, the need for private participation in conceptualization, development, monitoring and delivery of the services and facilities has become essential. This need has been internationally recognized (World Bank 2011). Public Private Partnership (PPP) is a mix of qualitative and quantitative resources leading into public and private players assuming different roles of varying dimensions resulting in numerous Models of PPP. The new proposed PPP in School education are of two types: combined private operation/ public funding for the Welfare programs, and for schools, colleges and universities. The present PPP mode (old pattern) in Indian schools is of 2 types of PPPs: direct aid to private schools (supply-side funding) and school vouchers to parents (demand-side funding). In this mode, PPPs permit separates


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operation from funding. For example the typology of schools is as depicted below in Table 1.

Table 1 Typology of schools FUNDING

OPERATION BY GOVT/ PUBLIC

MANAGEMENT/ OPERATING AGENCY

EXAMPLES

1.Govt/ Public(Fully)

1. Govt Schools receives full funding from Govt and charges no fees 2.By Central Govt/charges nominal fees 3.By Central Govt/charges no fees

1. State Govt schools (School Education Department) 2.Central Govt 3. Central Govt

1. State Govt schools without fees. schools with fees 2.Central govt schools 3.Navodaya Vidyalayas under CBSE

2. Govt/Public (Aided &Voucher system)

Private Management with fees

Private Management Govt recognized Aided Private Sr.sec schools under CBSE

3. Private Funding Private Agency

1.Purely Private Funding 2.Govt recognized with fees

Govt Recognized unaided Private schools under CBSE

4. private funding

Purely Private Funding

international schools Under international boards

Private agency

Distinguishing Features of New Proposed PPP Model Three things generally distinguish this new model of PPP, namely: 1) a partnership based on well-articulated ‘contract’, 2) a long term relationship

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between the public and private sector, and, 3) flexibility and responsiveness in decision making. The roles and responsibilities of the partners may vary from sector to sector. The difference between PPP and privatization Under privatization, the responsibility for delivery and funding a particular service rests with the private sector. Privatization will also allow the private provider to determine the nature and scope of service to be delivered to clients. On the other hand, under PPP, full retention of responsibility is held by the government to provide the service, and the nature and scope of service may be contractually determined between the two parties. Under PPP, the government will also be able to continue to retain the legal ownership of assets, which if under privatization, would have to be sold to the private sector along with associated benefits and costs. Since PPP enables contractual agreements between the government and private sector, risks and rewards are shared between the government (public) and the private sector. On the other hand, under privatization, all the risks inherent in the business rest with the private sector.

Benefits expected from new PPP model Some of the benefits expected from the new PPP model are:

Cost-effectiveness Higher Productivity Accelerated Delivery Clear Customer Focus Flexibility on account of decentralization.

Some criticisms about the model are inevitable. It may exacerbate inequality since poor parents cannot afford to pay for supplements, and their children may have to remain in fully public schools. Private schools can reject poor applicants on grounds of low achievement. In many countries vigorous debate / experimentation are still going on with different types of PPPs, to include features such as demand-side funding (vouchers) and nonacceptability of profit-based approach.

PPP under right to education (RTE) Exploring Efficacy of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Models in India

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RTE approved by Parliament in August 2009 provides every child, aged 6-14, legal right to free and compulsory education at a neighborhood school till completion of elementary education. Compulsion is on the Government, not the parent, to provide education and ensure enrollment, attendance and completion of elementary education. The act mentions private unaided schools “shall admit in Class I, to the extent of at least 25% of the strength of that class, children belonging to weaker section and disadvantaged group in the neighborhood and provide free and compulsory elementary education till its completion.” Private unaided schools “shall be reimbursed expenditures so incurred by it to the extent of per-child expenditures incurred by the State, or the actual amount charged from the child, whichever is less.” If (and that is a big ‘if’) RTE is fully implemented, it will quickly result in the largest education sector PPP in the world. RTE represents a significant operational research opportunity, as disadvantaged children are supposed to be selected for private schools via a lottery. Households can choose to participate in lottery and can expect intense resistance from top private schools, which otherwise will seek ways to “cream” the best. Monitoring is the responsibility of National and State Commissions for the Protection of Child Rights (which, incidentally, is not quite prepared for this responsibility). Much of the potential of PPPs in RTE lies in the ability to align contract incentives with educational outcomes (public policy objectives), and maximize accountability for results. The actual market wage for academically qualified teachers is far below public sector salary levels, so there is an opportunity to achieve lower Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), increase cost-effectiveness of public spending and spend more on, e.g. learning materials through PPPs. However, considering the new per-student subsidy to private schools vis-à-vis government agreement to reimburse all expenditures incurred by the school through its provision of 25% of places to ‘weaker sections (Right to Education’ Bill 2005), long queues are expected as the manner of pupil selection of the ‘weaker section’ are not specified. Moreover, it is unclear whether response from private schools will be to create additional new places or to replace 25% of existing students or both. If existing students were replaced, departure of fee-paying students increases demand for establishment of new private schools, which will themselves allocate 25% places to poor students. Overall, the number of private schools is likely to increase in a chain movement. In such a situation, it is imperative to study the existing pattern of management model in schools to see how these sensitive issues may be

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resolved, and to make changes and suggestions as to how the new PPP Model can help India to face the challenges of 21st century. For this purpose, I have chosen schools in Delhi as a case study. Study of existing pattern of PPP in school education in Delhi I have examined existing models of public private management in different types of schools and analysed them in order to gain insights for future advancement in design, implementation and management of PPP. A sample of ten schools of each category was selected for the study. The study sought to investigate the present mode of public private partnership in three types of schools in India, which are government unaided private schools but recognized by the government and government aided private schools which are also recognized by the government. A stratified random sample, reflecting the mix of different type of Secondary Schools, under different management, was applied and schools were selected for the present study on that basis. The schools include: Ten Private Schools—(2 Boys. 3 Girls, 5 Co-educational) Ten Govt. Aided Schools—(5 Boys, 3 Girls, 2 Co-educational) Ten Govt. Schools—(4 Boys, 4 Girls, 2 Co-educational) For the purpose of this study, the data from the secondary schools, school principals, district education officers was collected. Primary sources and secondary sources of data collection were obtained. The primary source of data were the school results from class XII, detailed information regarding students, teachers, principals, educationists, and interviews with students, teachers, principals, parents, school managers and educationists, Senior officers of the Education Department. The secondary data was collected from the DEO (Directorate of Education Office) regarding the list of secondary and middle schools, and school principals. The data was collected in order to investigate the cost effectiveness under different types of schools. Prior to including the schools in the sample of the study, the approval of the principals was sought by explaining to them the purpose of the study. Once the questionnaires were finalised, the field investigator personally approached the principals of the schools chosen for the purpose of study. Principals were requested to fill in the questionnaires and to return them within two months. The computation of unit cost of education in secondary schools was carried out in order to facilitate the comparison of the unit costs among various schools under different management. The comparison helps to show the efficiency level of each school. It also enabled the administrators to find out


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abnormal cases where these unit costs are too high or too low in which case further investigation can be taken for corrective measures. It also facilitated the comparison of facilities under different management. The formulas used to compute different unit costs are given in Table 2:

Table 2 Formula to compute unit costs SL NO

INDICATOR

FORMULA

1

Per Student normal Cost

Total Expenditure ÷ Total Student

2

Per Student Effective Cost

Total Expenditure ÷ Total Students pass out

3

Per Student Teacher Cost

Total Salary of the Teaching Staff ÷ Total Student Total

4

Per Student Cost of Teaching aid

Total expenditure on Teaching aids ÷ Total Student

5

Total Wastage

Per student cost X No. of Dropouts

6

Pupil Teacher Ratio

Total Enrolment ÷ Total Number of Teachers

7

*Efficiency Level of the School

Per Student Effective Cost÷ Per Student normal Cost

*(the value equivalent to “1” is the efficiency level of the school, schools falling between 0.95 to 1 is considered as schools having cost effective or efficiency level is high )

Schools in Delhi are considered to be some of the highly acknowledged educational institutions in India. Being the capital city of India, it is a place where people from varied cultural and economic background migrate to for various purposes. Schools in Delhi scenario are worth mentioning because there are many schools whose standard of education can be compared to the schools abroad. The medium of education in private school is mostly English. Schools in Delhi are run under the authority of either the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) or the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (ICSE). The ingression of a large number of private schools in Delhi has increased the competition. There are many schools in Delhi, which

86


besides imparting knowledge on various aspects, also put a greater stress on understanding children psychology. One very important reason behind student immigration in Delhi for education in Delhi schools is its cost effectiveness. The hostel facilities in Delhi schools are quite good. The Delhi schools are modernized with computer facilities, libraries and well-equipped laboratories. There are school educational facilities for all stages of schools in Delhi. They are: Pre-primary, Primary, Middle/upper-primary, Higher secondary, and Senior secondary. Local bodies look after the education and facilities at the pre-primary and primary stages, whereas the middle and secondary schools are the responsibility of the Directorate of Education under the Government of Delhi.

Operational System of the Delhi Schools In Delhi, no detention policy is operative at the primary stage (grades 1—5). This implies that an automatic policy is followed, that is to say that the students are simply promoted to the next class on the basis of satisfactory attendance. Despite this, the dropout rate for Delhi continues to be high. It is estimated that 25-30% of the children dropout between classes 1 and 5. Any attempt to map the school level education system in Delhi is a daunting task. The data at hand is vast and complicated and the sources varied. The Directorate of Education itself is not clear about the most basic information: the number of schools it runs in Delhi. The number of schools as projected by them on their website is different from the one in their handbook. Data in the different sets of tables within the Selected Educational Statistics (SES) published by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is contradictory. The Economic Survey of Delhi provides one with yet another set of conflicting figures. It is with this scenario existing as a backdrop that the Directorate of Education is trying to provide education to the children of Delhi. In Delhi, pre-primary and primary education is the responsibility of the Minority organisations, namely, the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD), the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and the Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB). Middle, Secondary and Senior Secondary education are primarily looked after by Directorate of Education, Government of National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. However, the Directorate of Education has also introduced primary classes in some existing secondary/ senior secondary schools and converted them into composite schools. The Government of Delhi has converted 326


87

of its schools into composite schools now known as Sarvodaya Vidyalayas with classes from 1 to 12. The NDMC, though mainly concerned with primary education, is also running a selected number of middle, secondary and senior secondary schools in its areas. Apart from these a number of private organisations are also engaged to impart education at all levels of schooling. These organisations are given grant-in-aid by Government of Delhi to meet the expenditure on education. Besides these, recognised unaided schools are also being run in Delhi by registered trusts and societies. The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) has control over land use in Delhi. The respective Minority organisations have to purchase land from the DDA for construction of schools in Delhi. On the basis of management, the schools are classified as follows: Government, Local body, Private aided, and Private unaided. Apart from these, another set of schools include the Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNV’s) which are managed by autonomous organisations under the Ministry of Human Resource Development. A brief description of each category is given below:

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Private school: A private educational institution is one which is run by an individual or a private organisation including religious bodies, private trusts and philanthropic institutions. The data for the number of private schools is neither easily available nor accurate. There is apparently no written record of the number of private schools functioning in the city. The Directorate of Education itself is not clear as to whether the number of private schools is increasing or decreasing. Private schools are of two types: Private Aided School and Private Unaided School. Private aided school: A privately managed school that receives regular maintenance grant from the government, local body or from any public authority is called a private aided school. If an institution which is on the grant-in-aid list of a public authority but does not get the maintenance grant in a particular year, then that institution is still treated as an aided institution for that year. Private unaided school: A private unaided educational institution is one, which is managed by an individual or a private organisation and does not receive maintenance grant either from government, local body or any public authority etc. One time grant for a specific purpose like adding a science block, fencing of the institution, etc. does not make it an aided institution.


In the Indian context, the grant-in-aid norms evolved by various states all specify certain minimum conditions such as availability of teachers, buildings, salaries of teachers etc., which are necessary conditions for the accreditation of schools managed by private entities. However, in practice, these factors are not adhered to. The government, on its part, does not stick to these norms in its own recognition of government schools. There are also no steps taken to ensure that the private institutions follow these norms once their accreditation is granted. Government school: An educational institution run by Central or State Government, public sector undertaking, or is an autonomous organization wholly financed by Government will be classified as Government educational institution. For instance KVS, NVS, Sainik Schools, State Govt. Schools, Ashram Schools, Military Schools, Air Force Schools, Naval Schools, etc. will fall under this category.

Findings: Comparative Analysis PHYSICAL FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT THE SCHOOLS

As per the information of the questionnaires, the 6 type of physical facilities thought of as the most essential ones for the proper/ smooth functioning of a school and having direct impact on the educational standard of an institution are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

School buildings Number of classrooms Laboratory and other modern facilities Seating arrangements Cultural pProgramme equipment Water, electricity and telephone facilities.

The availability of physical facilities (in percentage) is as shown in Table 3:

Table 3 Physical facilities


89

CATEGORY OF SCHOOLS

FULLY ADEQUATE ADEQUATE (VERY (SATISFACTORY) GOOD)

INADEQUATE (NOT SATISFACTORY)

Government senior secondary High Schools(Indian boards -CBSE)

Nil

39

61

Private Aided senior secondary high schools (Indian boards-CBSE)

20

52

28

Private Unaided/ senior secondary high schools (Indian boards-CBSE)

46

52

2

From this, it is evident that the percentage of inadequate physical facilities in Government schools is highest (61%). The percentage of inadequate facilities is lower in private schools. 28% of private aided schools had inadequate facilities (which is tolerable) while the lowest percentage of inadequate facilities were in the case of unaided high schools (2%). None of the essential facilities are in the category of fully adequate in government high schools, and only 39% of the essential physical facilities were considered adequate. In the aided and unaided high schools 20% and 46% of schools are fully adequate. Thus from the point of view of the availability of essential physical facilities in schools, private aided and private unaided high schools come at the top while the Government high schools were at the bottom. Global schools as represented by these private type of schools are well equipped and fit for the globalised world. No educational institution can function properly unless the minimum essential physical facilities are made available to it and consequently it is found to affect the educational standard of the institution. Hence, the lower standard of education in Government high schools as compared to that of the aided and unaided high schools. Assessments of efficiency of the school system require a statement of its aims and objectives with a range of measurements of outputs that reflect these various objectives. The output is purely in quantitative terms. They are whatever the objectives of the school may be. The output frame is usually defined as the number of students who successfully completed the cycle

90


within the prescribed period. The quantity and quality of inputs differ from management to management and consequently output also varies. In the context of this study, inputs are teachers, finance, physical facilities etc., and the output refer to students. The comparison of the cost effectiveness/ efficiency of the schools under different management is shown in Tables 4(a-d). The tables show that 50% of the Private Schools are under the category of “Very High Efficiency” and 10% of schools are in the low efficiency category. However, Government sector has lower efficiency schools (40%), and only 30% of Government schools make it under the category of high efficiency. The Private School management thus has higher percentage of very efficient schools. Per student cost of schools under State Government Analysis of the data of the sample schools under the management of State Government reveals that during the period of study quite a large number of students has taken transfer certificates and joined in some other schools. In fact, it is not due to change in the financing pattern or policy of the Government. The reason for migration of student population to other schools is because of inadequate staff at a few schools. It has also bearing on the effective teacher cost as the percentage of potentially successful candidates has gone down. The effective teacher cost per pupil is also very high. The greater difference between normal cost and effective per student cost indicates that the efficiency level of the functioning of the school. This is clearly reflected in the final Higher Secondary Schools school-performance results. HS results have shown difference between the private sector and public sector. Per student cost of schools under aided management: Nearly 83% of schools in Delhi are under the Aided System. The information collected from the schools has indicated that the total enrolment of Aided Schools has shown an increase over a period of time. The change in the average value of expenditure is not much significant, because major increase in enrolment will also lead to opening of new sections in the class. The particulars of the data of per student normal cost in the case of Aided Management Schools in Delhi reveals that the number of teachers are full and the enrolment also very high. Therefore, in majority of the aided schools, the normal per student cost is less than the Government Schools. Table 4a. State government schools


91

SCHOOL CODE 1

NORMAL COST PER STUDENT 2103.40

EFFECTIVE PER STUDENT COST

EFFICIENCY LEVEL

2346.00

1.1

The demand for private school is quite high in urban areas. Parents make a conscious choice to pay high fees in private sector schools. In urban areas education seems to be a good business. The normal cost per student is not very high in private schools (Table 4c).

2

2062.90

2588.20

1.2

3

1840.20

1705.00

0.92

4

7009.00

7155.00

1.0

5

1210.50

2214.00

1.8

6

2929.30

3404.00

1.2

SCHOOL CODE

NORMAL COST PER STUDENT


EFFICIENCY LEVEL

7

2576.90

2718.00

1.1

1

2109.20

2678.20

1.3

8

5067.90

5494.20

1.1

2

2531.50

3402.60

1.3

9

4899.00

7019.20

1.4

1411.70

1.03

6758.00

9697.70

1.4

3

1361.10

10

Table 4b Unit cost variations in aided schools SCHOOL CODE

Table 4c Unit cost variations in private schools

4

1110.26

1900.04

1.7

5

9770.26

9770.61

1

6

5080.46

5970.98

1.17

7

4750.25

3360.04

0.70

NORMAL COST PER STUDENT


EFFICIENCY LEVEL

1

2907.60

3286.80

1.13

2

2843.90

3268.50

1.2

3

1456.30

1893.87

1.3

4

1240.70

1738.10

1.4

5

1572.30

1783.50

1.1

6

2999.00

3039.40

1.0

7

1992.60

2265.50

1.1

SCHOOL CODE

GOVERNMENT

AIDED

PRIVATE

8

1764.90

1864.40

1.1

1

1.1

1.13

1.3

9

3301.50

7252.80

2.1

2

1.2

1.2

1.3

941.10

941.80

1

3

0.92

1.3

1.03

10

8

2716.11

2816.11

1

9

1240.17

1340.10

1.1

10

1873.90

1926.50

1.2

Table 4d Comparison of per student cost effective/efficiency level under different management

Per student cost of schools under private management:

92



93

4

1.0

1.4

1.7

5

1.8

1.1

1

6

1.2

1.0

1.2

7

1.1

1.1

0.70

8

1.1

1.1

1

9

1.4

2.1

1.1

10

1.4

1

1.2

Low (either data discrepancy or inefficient schoolor other reasons)

40

20

10

TOTAL

100

100

100

* If the value of Efficiency is equals to the value “1” and up to 1.05 then it will be considered as highly efficient. if the value is less than 1 and above0 .98 is considered as High, if the value is less than 0.98 there is data problem

Table 6(a) shows that majority of the schools under private management with very high efficiency level has less percentage of Trained Teachers. Therefore, according to our analysis the relationship of the Trained Teachers to the efficiency of the school is negligible. In Government and aided schools, there are 100% of trained teachers. Even in the low efficient schools also, all the teachers are trained.

Comparative Analysis

Table 6a

The comparison of the efficiency of the schools under different management shows (see below Table5) that 50% of the Private Schools are under the category of “Very High Efficiency” and 10 percent of schools are in the low efficiency category in Private Management Schools. However, Government sector has more low efficiency schools (40%) than any other management. Only 30% of Government schools are under the category of high efficiency. The Private management has highest percentage of very high efficient schools, while aided schools’ percentage of efficient schools was also high.

Table 5 Distribution of schools under different efficiency levels (in %) EFFICIENCY LEVEL

GOVERNMENT

AIDED

PRIVATE

Very High (1 to 1.05)

30

30

50

High (than 1 and above0 .98)

30

50

40

Relation of school efficiency with teacher training GOVERNMENT

PRIVATE

SCHOOL

PERCENTAGE

SCHOOL

PERCENTAGE

SCHOOL

PERCENTAGE

EFFICIENCY

OF TRAINED

EFFICIENCY

OF TRAINED

EFFICIENCY

OF TRAINED

LEVEL

TEACHER

LEVEL

TEACHER

LEVEL

TEACHER

1

1.1

100

1.3

92

1.13

100

2

1.2

100

1.3

90

1.2

100

3

0.92

100

1.03

90

1.3

100

4

1.0

100

1.7

100

1.4

100

5

1.8

100

1

100

1.1

100

6

1.2

100

1.2

100

1.0

100

7

1.1

100

0.70

66

1.1

100

8

1.1

100

1

90

1.1

100

9

1.4

100

1.1

92

2.1

100

10

1.4

100

1.2

75

1

100

SCHOOL CODE

AIDED

Table 6b

94



95

Relation of school efficiency with teaching aids (Percentage of Schools) CATEGORY (IN RUPEES)

GOVERNMENT

PRIVATE

AIDED

Above 50

Nil

50

Nil

49—30

Nil

10

Nil

29—10

20

30

30

Below 10

80

10

70

Total

100

100

100

The above table (Table 6b) shows that 50% of the Private Schools has the highest per student expenditure on teaching aids. Therefore, it is understood that highly efficient schools under private management spend more on teaching aids than any other sector. Table 6c shows the relation of school efficiency with the level of teaching aids in each category of school management.

1.1

115.0

0.70

Nil

1.1

23.43

1.1

26.60

1

06.65

1.1

Nil

1.4

43.96

1.1

2.56

2.1

Nil

1.4

51.10

1.2

18.02

1

Other school factors (non-monetary and external) contributing to efficiency It has been concluded that many factors other than the per pupil expenditure are important items for determining efficiency of school education. For example, a large variety of contents, methods and materials may be met from a given cost. Teachers’ competency in subject matter, their enthusiasm, motivation, morale and leadership skills seem quite independent of teachers’ salaries which forms an important cost component in school education in Delhi. Further, the financial management itself is an important factor. With the same amount of money, affairs of the school can be managed with a wide range of difference. Hence, there is a complexity of the relationship of efficiency with other school factors. Some of the non-monetary factors contribute to efficiency and are important to meet the challenges of globalised world.

The Proposed PPP Model Schools

Table 6c Relation of school efficiency with teaching aids GOVERNMENT SCHOOL

PRIVATE SCHOOL

AIDED SCHOOL

SCHOOL

PER STUDENT

EFFICIENCY

PER STUDENT

EFFICIENCY

PER STUDENT

EFFICIENCY

CODE

COST ON

LEVEL

COST ON

LEVEL

COST ON

LEVEL

TEACHING AIDS IN

TEACHING AIDS

TEACHING AIDS

RUPEES

96

17.20

02.60

1.1

16.73

1.3

18.20

1.13

Nil

1.2

05.53

1.3

06.60

1.2

03.16

0.92

65.75

1.03

09.65

1.3

04.27

1.0

23.80

1.7

10.20

1.4

02.12

1.8

110.0

1

03.53

1.1

Nil

1.2

81.94

1.2

02.76

1.0


The 21st century schools need to work on strong partnerships with parents, other school providers and government. Government does not run schools. The job is to create the system that best supports school leaders and staff working in and around schools. That means streamlining the school accountability system so that it is clear, powerful, easily understood, recognises the whole range of school’s achievements, and focuses attention on the progress of all children. It means schools being properly funded and able to deploy a welltrained and highly professional workforce. The proposed model may be worked out firstly on improved cost sharing by the Private partners and implantation of School based management procedures; the proportion of the cost to be borne by GOI (Government of India) and private sector. In the case of present PPP mode, the grant in aid to schools of the private sector generally used to be 95:5. However, in the proposed New PPP, the share should be 60:40.


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Secondly, management of schools by the private sector could bring about school-based management strategies. It is the decentralization of levels of authority to the school level. Responsibility and decision-making over school operations is transferred to principals, teachers, parents, sometimes students, and other school community members. The school-level actors, however, have to conform to, or operate, within a set of centrally determined policies, such as: Innovative management systems Project management systems Professional performance measurement indicators Technical expertise in different domains Complete school autonomy to the private partner A school based teacher cadre system for motivation and accountability of teachers Teacher recruitment to be done by the private partner through an independent agency through written test and Interview Teacher/ Principal qualifications, their salary should be same as in government’s A holistic integrated approach to PPP with the involvement of all stakeholders—teachers non-teaching staff, fund providers, parents, students, community.

Conclusion Private education sector (comprising aided and unaided institutions) is widely appreciated for its complementary and supplementary contributions by building physical infrastructure and provisioning of services in both, rural and urban areas. Aided schools are governed by grants-in-aid policy of the state governments. In general, aid is limited to expenditure on salary and wages. Admission and fee structure are regulated by the government in aided schools. In fact, an aided school can be considered as a standard model of existing PPP in Indian school education. In essence, the new proposals are aimed at private financing of infrastructure facilities (e.g., office buildings and classrooms, water, sanitation and power), support services (e.g., ICT for teaching-learning activities, labs, transport and food), and education services (e.g. recruitment but not appointment of teachers and staff) in the existing and/ or new public schools.

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Financing and management of these facilities and services may be bundled or unbundled. Options are open for the government to provide land on long term lease basis. Private costs are proposed to be paid by the government on unit cost or per student basis. The new proposals mainly aim at different methods of cost-sharing between public and private sectors. They draw from PPP models for economic infrastructure, such as, roads and highways, bridges, power and telecommunications. They are built on cardinal principles of corporate governance in terms of resource efficiency, accountability for performance risk sharing, quality monitoring and flexibility. The current study is based on aided schools (currently working PPP Model). The intention of the study was to evolve a system of new model of PPP, which should be given more importance as being based on the innovative principles. Keeping in view the financial constraints to which the national educational system is subjected, it is impossible for the government to allocate sufficient resources for educational development. It is, therefore, necessary that besides streamlining the system of grantinaid, in much more management involvement should be there in financing the schools. It is true that, these schools enjoy better management, with freedom for better quality and efficiency. Every grant in aid institution has a managing committee consisting of representatives of the voluntary organisations, a member from education department and academic staff (teachers). Teachers in these organisations are recruited to the particular institution whereas in the government system the teachers are recruited for the whole system. Unlike government institutions, where teachers undergo frequent transfers and postings, the grantinaid institutions are in a better position to develop loyalty among teachers which is otherwise not found in the government system. In government system, the over security of service creates an atmosphere of compliancy and lethargy. The conduct and discipline rules of aid system are such that it is difficult to reward merit, and even more so, to punish slackness. In government system the teachers are recruited not to individual institutions, but to a cadre and are frequently transferred from one institution to another, therefore, they do not develop loyalty to any individual institution. Therefore, we can conclude that firstly Grantinaid schools are in a better position to contribute to quality education. The share of government aid needs to be reduced and more financial involvement by the private providers


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is needed urgently, especially, in the present situation, where the country is undergoing rapid economic reforms. The second important point is school based management reforms which are turning around the ailing education sectors of many nations. India is yet to fully internalize such developments. Many reports on Indian school education stressed for management oriented reforms for better quality and accountability. In the proposed PPP Model, adopt new equation of financial sharing between the government and private management along with changes in the management of schools. To conclude, the PPP model in education in its simplest form can broadly be synergised at three levels i.e.: the building of infrastructure, management and cost sharing for schools. These functions may be outsourced to the private sector through its own resources and could be paid for by the public sector on an annuity basis, subject to satisfactory performance to be judged by an ‘independent’ evaluation mechanism. If this formula works, meeting the global challenges by the school sector may be solved. For millions of children studying in government schools across the country, here is some cheering news. In a historic move, the Human Resource Development Ministry has proposed Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) in government school system. PPP emerges as a viable alternative to improving access to quality school education while ensuring equity and social justice. I also believe quality of education can be significantly enhanced as there will be accountability. END NOTE 7. The Government of India, officially known as the Union Government, and also known as the Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of the union of 28 states and seven union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. REFERENCES Aggarwal, Y.P. Some Economic Aspects of School Education. New Delhi : NIEPA Publications, 1986. Ministry of Human Resource Development. Annual Report. New Delhi: MHRD Publication, 1993-94. Azad, J.L. State Grants Pattern and Procedures, Training Material. New Delhi: NIEPA Publications, 1987.

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Batra, Amba. “Schools Begin Session Without Books.” The Indian Express, July 3, 2003. Hanushek, Eric A. and Dennis Kimko. “Schooling, Labor Force Quality, and the Growth of Nations.” American Economic Review, vol. 90, No. 5 (December 2000): 1184-1208. Hanushek, Eric A. and Ludger Woessmann.”The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development.” Journal of Economic Literature vol. 46, No. 3, (September 2008): 607-66. Josephine, Yazali. Resource Management in Education. New Delhi: NIEPA Instruction Material 1989. Josephine, Yazali. Administration of Grant in Aid System of Indian States. New Delhi: NIEPA Instruction Material ,1989. Cuban, Larry. The Managerial Imperative and the Practice of Leadership in Schools. New York: State University Press,1988. Laven & Carnoy. Schooling and Work in the Democratic State. New York: Stanford University Press, 1985. Mishra A. Grant in aid of Education in India. New Delhi: Macmillan, 1973. Government of India, Selected Educational Statistics. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Department of Secondary Education, 2000-2001. Visscher, Adrie J. and Coe, Robert. School Improvement Through Performance Feedback. Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., 2002. www.ssa.nic.in India New Delhi Municipal Council. Official Website. Accessed at http://www.ndmc.gov.in/main_edu.htm http://www.ndmc.gov.in/edu_ras.htm http://www.ndmc.gov.in/edu_ruas.htm Planning Department. Official Website. Government of Delhi. Accessed at http:// www.delhiplanning.nic.in/Write-up/2002-03/volume-I/General%20Education. pdf www.nuepa.org www.ncte-india.org http://www.delhiplanning.nic.in/Write-up/2002-03/volume-III/General%20 Education.pdf http://www.edudel.nic.in/directorate.htm


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PART TWO

Innovative Tools in Measuring and Improving Educational Leadership

5 A Practical East-West Exploration of Leadership and Learning GWEN ANDREWS and RICHARD N. KNOWLES The Center for Self-Organizing Leadership Saint Petersburg, Florida, USA

Abstract This paper aims to test the validity of a cross-cultural leadership model, The Process Enneagram, which Gwen Andrews introduced to EASY International Language School, Weihai, China, in June 2005. Using certain criteria and parameters, the paper argues that the adoption of the tool resulted in the transformation of the school and opened up its growth to new prosperity. Part I of this article by Richard N. Knowles, relates to the discovery and use of the Process Enneagram© and Part II by Gwen Andrews, describes the practical use of this tool to help in the transformation of EASY English Language School. This article is the first published study of the use of the Process Enneagram in Asia.

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Richard Knowles I earned a PhD. in organic chemistry from the University of Rochester, Rochester, NY USA in 1961 and worked for E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc. for over 36 years. After having patented 40 inventions I moved into various management roles and served as the manager of several large chemical plants. During this time I discovered and developed the Process Enneagram, a powerful, robust, business focused tool for organizational transformation. For example, in one large chemical plant in West Virginia, USA, using this approach, injury rates dropped by over 95% and earnings rose by over 300%. Since moving on from DuPont, I have used the Process Enneagram for over 16 years in the transformation of all sorts of organizations like steel mills, sugar mills, school boards, credit unions, law firms, children’s homes and coal mines in many countries around the world and across many cultures.

Background The Enneagram, a tool for transformation, was introduced into the West by G. I. Gurdjieff (ca.1870–1949) in St. Petersburg, Russia, in about 1915 (Tamdgidi 2009). Gurdjieff came from Greek-Armenian parents and grew up and studied in the Caucasus. During the years 1919 through 1922, he deepened his teachings, gained a following, and founded the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man, at Fontainebleau, France (Tamdgidi 2009). No one, other than Gurdjieff himself, knows the origins of the enneagram. He believed that this was a tool for the conscious evolution of man. One of his students, P. D. Ouspensky, first published information on the enneagram in the book In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching, in 1949. While I have found very little of practical guidance for the use of the enneagram in any of these writings, I felt that something important was here that needed further study. A.G. E. Blake, a student of John Bennett’s who developed Systematics from the work of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, has written extensively about the theory of Systematics and the enneagram in his book, The Intelligent Enneagram (1996). This book also has very limited practical information in how to use it, but again I was drawn to continue my studies.

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I was fascinated by the writings of these authors and was searching for something practical that would help me understand two troubling questions I was struggling with in my role as a plant manager: Why do people in most organizations get so tangled up in the way in which they work? What happens in a crisis that enables these same people to quickly shift and work in extraordinarily effective ways? In thinking deeply about these questions and reading books like those mentioned above, I extended my studies to the writings of Margaret Wheatley (1992) relating to chaos and complexity in organizations. In my search to answer these questions, I discovered the key to working effectively in an environment of chaos and complexity was to use the enneagram and other insights from Systematics. The version of the enneagram I developed is a practical, robust, business focused tool for helping people to solve complex problems. A complex problem is any problem where people need to come together to talk in order to solve an important challenge facing them. The answers to these questions slowly emerged. I then expanded this work by developing a practical application of the enneagram called the Process Enneagram (Knowles 2002). My book, The Leadership Dance, Pathways to Extraordinary Organizational Effectiveness, and my other papers (2001, 2002 and 2006) (see also www.RNKnowlesAssociates. com and www.CenterforSelfOrganizingLeadership.com) are almost the only body of Process Enneagram writings to date. All these writings go deeply into the theory and use of the Process Enneagram. Recently Tim Dalmau and Jill Tideman (2011) have written an important paper on using the Process Enneagram called The Middle Ground: Embracing Complexity in the Real World. This paper provides additional practical insights regarding the use of the Process Enneagram. This work mentioned above provides much of the basic information regarding the use of the Process Enneagram and Self-Organizing Leadership©. This is the practical applications side of complex systems leadership theory (Hazy, Goldstein, and Lichtenstein 2007). Based on many years of work, (Knowles 2002; www. RNKnowlesAssociates.com; www.CenterforSelfOrganizingLeadership.com) I postulate that the Process Enneagram is a deep, archetypal pattern that is valid across many cultures. It operates below the social level of culture. The insights developed by Gwen Andrews in this paper provide additional support

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for this proposition. The Process Enneagram is focused on the activities taking place that usually go unnoticed by people—either while doing something or after it is completed. It is like seeing a table set for dinner but not seeing all that went into making this happen. While the Process Enneagram is valid at a deep level across ethnic and organizational cultures, particular details revealed during its use will reflect the individual culture in which the work is being done. I have called my particular creation of the enneagram, The Process Enneagram to distinguish and separate it from the work of others using it for typing personalities. The two uses are totally unrelated. It is also important to point out that I use the Process Enneagram because it works at a practical level, and is not dependent on the esoteric ideas of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky that have no role to play in our work in organizations.

The Process Enneagram Tool This tool shows the patterns of how organizations work. While it can bring to light any such patterns, it is especially useful in addressing complex problems, whose effective resolutions require a cyclical, recursive methodology. The Process Enneagram provides guidance to specific sequences of steps a team can take together to reach long-term solutions. It is consistent with the theory of self-organization as developed by Guastello, Koopmans, and Pincus (2009): Order emerges naturally among mindful individuals when the system is open, recursive, and interacting with the environment. Structures are emergent, and information flows are patterned. The system naturally evolves toward the edge of chaos. The system maintains its identity as it continuously evolves. The Process Enneagram is the only known tool that helps people working at the edge of chaos to reach rational solutions to complex problems while simultaneously making the social connections they need to accomplish the work together and building the emotional energy and commitment required to efficiently and effectively complete the job. Complex problems are encountered when (a) a diverse group of people are brought together to develop and work toward a common goal, (b) levels of agreement as to what they need to do are low, and (c) the certainty of the outcomes of their decisions is not clear. Complex problems are recursive and replete with questions, ambiguity, and surprise. Small changes can lead to big outcomes and visa-versa. A seemingly minor change—or unexpected

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outcome—in one area may dramatically affect the whole. Complex problems are fundamentally different from linear, step-by-step problems, which may be as simple as how to plow a field or as complicated as how to assemble a car. To approach complex problems effectively, people must be open and trusting; it is critical that firm boundaries be established for personal safety, to ensure that there are no barriers (e.g., personal attacks or reprisals) to the free exchanges needed to find solutions and achieve the best outcomes. The development of the information at the various points of the Process Enneagram helps people set these boundaries, organize themselves, and uncover the true challenges that underpin the complex problem they are facing so that they can achieve the most all-encompassing, effective, and sustainable resolutions. It offers a map for the initial work (the discussions in which possible solutions emerge), a map for implementing the procedures necessary to effect lasting changes, and maps for assessing progress and continually refining the participants’ suggestions, recommendations, and ideas. The nine points on the Process Enneagram, visited in various sequences, are the basis for the creation of these pathways to success. The complexity of interaction among the nine points of the Process Enneagram during the discussion and the development of the work toward a common goal is clearly delineated by dominant and less dominant lines within the Process Enneagram diagram. The Process Enneagram is shown in Figure 1. There are nine points beginning with point 0, 9 at the top and moving clockwise around to number 8 and then back to 0,9. These points are labeled as follows: Point 0—Identity Point 1—Intention Point 2—Issues and Ambiguities Point 3—Relationship Point 4—Principles and Standards Point 5—Work Point 6—Information Point 7—Learning and Potential Points 8—Context, the external environment, and Structure, the internal view of the organization Point 9—Identity, the completion of the cycle, and the beginning of the next cycle


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Three primary processes are shown: The Circular Process, the Zigzag (recursive) Process, and the Triangular (self-organization) Process. The Circular Process (points 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) represents the visible world that can be seen by the people working in an organization. Often, unique cultural features show up here. The Circular Process is the starting process and provides the basis for working with the Process Enneagram. In this process, a working group establishes baseline data from which to proceed. Supported by the baseline data in the Circular Process, the Zigzag (recursive) Process (points 1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, and back to 1) represents the unfolding of a world that is invisible to most people; this is the process of how work is accomplished. This is the process of transformation. When an organization is guided by the sequence and order of these steps, the people in it are co-creating their current implementation plan to help them solve the complex problems they are facing. At the same time their creative energy is

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being stimulated, and they are developing a strong commitment to address the problem. The deepest of the processes, the Triangular (self-organization) Process (points 0, 3, 6, 9) is the core process and supports the other two. This process is also invisible and represents the process of self-organization. It guides participants as they share information, build interdependent, trusting relationships, and develop their identity and meaning as a group. This is how they fit into the whole. Critical social connections emerge as they engage in this process with integrity. The Process Enneagram is cyclical; every point is revisited and further developed in subsequent cycles allowing more, often new, information to be exposed. In using this tool, the organization becomes more sustainable and experiences sustainable transformation. In returning to the questions I asked earlier about why people in organizations get so tangled up and why everything changes in a crisis, I have found the answers. First, in command and control organizations information is usually poorly shared so people are often in the dark about what is happening and why. The imposed Principles and Standards of “you should do this” and “ought to do that” are in deep conflict with the actual values by which the organization operates so there is a lot of cognitive dissonance. Cynicism and resistance to change are the order of the day. This is what Chris Argyris (2000) is referring to in his book, Flawed Advice and the Management Trap when he is talking about espoused values and values-in-use. The values-in-use are not openly discussed and are obscure to upper management, yet these are the values that drive the behavior of organizations. Second, when a crisis occurs like a fire, the Intention of the work is clear, “get the fire out”. The espoused values and values-in-use are essentially the same for the duration of the crisis. For example, values like, “we are going to help each other”, and, “we are going to share all the information and tell the truth”, are shared by all. In operating with a clear Intent, shared Principles and Standards of behavior and a focus on dealing with all the Issues, interdependence and trust emerge. People quickly become a high performance team. Therefore, as we co-create our future together we engage in important conversations that reveal our true Intent. We co-create our shared Principles and Standards of behavior and, using these, explore together the best ways to solve the complex problems we face in the spirit of interdependence and


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trust. We can then organize ourselves in the best way we can, take on the Work before us and Learn together and co-create a better future. This is what happened in the work that Gwen Andrews describes in Part II of this article

Part II: The Transformation of EASY English Language School Gwen Andrews In 2004, after years of work in the fields of Health Care and Education, I accepted the opportunity to teach caregiver skills to folks in China who were hoping to immigrate to Canada to work. At the same time, I was working on my Masters degree in Organizational Leadership. Very quickly, the need for further English training for the nursing students became apparent, and I completed the training to become a language teacher. Following the completion of the training contracts, I moved into the Vice Principal position at EASY International Language School in Weihai, China, the small private school that became the sponsor for my thesis, with the entire staff and management as the participants in the data collection. I found Dr. Knowles’ work, The Leadership Dance in the required reading list of my Master’s program through Royal Roads University, Victoria, BC, Canada, and obtained his permission to use the Process Enneagram tool in my data collection and dissemination. I choose this tool for its simplicity in design and use, sensing that it would allow and encourage the emergence of the complexity of organizational data that I needed to record. Dr. Knowles’ accounts of the use of the Process Enneagram in differing situations assured me that the tool would be a fit for data collection and the dissemination of the information within the creation of my thesis as well as within the organization. I was to use the action research approach, focused on qualitative rather than quantitative data. The participants of the research as well as myself were to be continuously engaged in conversation and implementation of the learning from the process in our day-to-day work life. The action research methodology uncovered the true obstacles to the school’s growth and was the key to overcoming them. Engaging the staff (Chinese, African, North American) in talking, listening, and co-creating a shared future using the Process Enneagram resulted in vigorous, sustainable growth: expansion of facilities, measurable

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increase in student performance and higher revenues. This archetypal model has been used successfully in many organizations and countries. This is the first formal case study of its use in Asia.

Introduction I served as vice-principal of EASY International Language School (EILS) in Weihai, China, from June 2005 to March 2007. The principal, who was also the owner of the school, believed that cross-cultural communications difficulties were at the root of the major problems facing the school. She agreed that I, in addition to my other assignments, would explore EILS’s cross-cultural communication practices and suggest ways to improve them. It was thought cross-cultural communications difficulties were hindering the school’s growth and that fixing them would boost marketing thus attracting more students, building community and governmental support, and increasing the school’s revenues. I decided to take an action-research approach to EILS’s cross-cultural communications challenge, using it as the topic of my master’s thesis. I chose a tool called the Process Enneagram© developed by Richard N. Knowles (2002) for use in organizational transformation. This tool’s roots reach back over 100 years to G. I. Gurdjieff. For the last 15 years, it has been used in many Western countries with great success. It is important to note that the Process Enneagram is different from the Enneagram of Personality and that attempts at mixing the two will result in failure. The Process Enneagram is the only known tool that simultaneously helps people reach rational solutions to complex problems, develop the social connections they need to reach the most comprehensive solutions, and build the energy and emotional commitment to get the work done efficiently and successfully. At EILS, I found an ideologically driven, top-down management system in line with traditional and cultural notions of education in China. I discovered that this linear educational model—based on a hierarchical approach to learning and relying on repetition, drills, shame, and punishment as motivators— resulted in brittle administrative processes that discouraged improvement and growth and led to a less-than-optimal educational experience for the students. I observed that the traditional hierarchal approach produced a lack of open communication between the principal and staff, curtailed the expression of personal opinions, suppressed critical decision-making skills, and inhibited


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learning. At the same time, I observed the desire of both management and staff to increase effective communication, and the frustration of not knowing how to change or improve the existing state. The principal viewed herself as a competent, modern leader. Many in the local entrepreneurial community also saw her this way. But the topdown, traditional management approach is not an ideal leadership style for promoting a strong educational system and robust learning environment. Contemporary formulations of people-centered leadership, such as those developed by Rost (1991), Wheatley (1992), and Knowles (2002), embrace the concept that organizations are complex adaptive systems of autonomous people continuously evolving and changing and seeking rational solutions to complex problems. Effectively addressing these problems requires using recursive processes in which information is freely, and abundantly shared and interdependent relationships are developed opening pathways to vibrancy and growth. The more traditional, top-down, linear tools are ineffective. The need to find and implement rational, innovative, coherent solutions is of equal importance in both the East and the West. In my action-research study at EILS, both the instructors and administration were engaged using the Process Enneagram. This enabled the principal, myself and the participants in the Process Enneagram workshop to continually grow, evolve, and transform the processes that we were using. Advances in our leadership and in learning and sharing were indicative of both the process and the outcome. The educational system, the faculty, and the students all began to thrive, showing the relevance of the use of the Process Enneagram tool in the East as well as the West. The success of the workshop at EILS supports findings of corporations, municipalities, nongovernmental organizations, and other groups across several continents, indicating that the Process Enneagram is archetypal in nature. My work proved effective in producing positive changes, which were initiated by those affected—the administrative staff, clerical workers, and faculty. However, this resulted in conflict as the system opened up and fear of losing control became evident. Cultural differences in management strategies were cited as the reason to initially dismiss the workshop’s suggestions for change, particularly since the majority of the suggestions came from the lower levels of the organization, and were not part of the original strategic plan. The staff people were excited about possible changes, while the leadership feared loss of control, potentially leading to business failure that would occur

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from rapid change. The fear caused resistance and a loss of momentum. While the staff saw the principal as a powerful leader and role model for their future in business, they also shared some frustrations about not being able to share their level of skills and their creative and critical thinking abilities. Furthermore energy and time were not being used to the best benefit of either the organization or their own growth. This kind of frustration and top-down management behavior in organizations is, unfortunately, found in both the West and East, with similar organizational results. I had discovered that the cross-cultural communications problems were not at the root of the school’s lack of performance and growth. Rather, the hierarchal, top-down management approach was like a blanket smothering the people and the system. When it was lifted, new insights, energy, and commitment emerged. The cross-cultural communications difficulties were merely one part of a much bigger picture. The use of Process Enneagram was fundamental in revealing this new insight. With the fear and loss of momentum, my work could not be sustained with the impetus desired by the staff. However, following the completion of my degree, my subsequent departure, and with heartfelt support, the principal gradually adopted the workshop’s recommendations as she gained confidence in the staff’s more participative and open approach, realizing that the ideas brought forth by the workshop participants were logical and sound. While the principal had feared loss of control, she now recognized that this newer way of leading gave her better control since everyone was working toward the same objectives. She saw remarkable differences in learning, teaching, and interstaff communications, which resulted in significant increases in enrollment, revenue, staff/student retention, and staff satisfaction. In this paper, I will examine the implementation of the Process Enneagram at EILS and the results to date of my work there. Also, we both explain the Process Enneagram and illustrate its use through the example of the EILS workshop. The Process Enneagram Workshop: An Example of its use in the EASY International Language School in Weihai, China In any situation, the Process Enneagram workshops begin with a question that is important to the participants; they need to have a sense of urgency about addressing it. At the EASY International Language School, the question for the group was, “How should we create and clarify cross-cultural communications within the multicultural workplace?” While this question


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seems a bit vague, it was fine as a starting point. This beginning question framed all the subsequent work and formed the baseline for the workshop’s progress. In Process Enneagram workshops, three maps are often developed over times ranging from one day to several weeks, depending on the availability of the participants to work together. Map 1 is the initial state; Map 2 is the current implementation plan; in Map 3 the agreed-upon recommendations become a living strategic plan. In the case of EILS, the elements of Map 3 emerged after my departure as the people in the school lived out the plan of Map 2, supported by shifts in the principal’s thinking. (Later, as we will see, I created Map 3 from these elements.) Even though the formal workshop had disbanded, the work did not die. The entire workforce at EILS—teachers as well as administrative and clerical staff—participated in the Process Enneagram workshop that I facilitated. They were from several areas of China—which comprises 56 distinct cultures—as well as North America and Africa. Many of the staff members held dual responsibilities as teachers. The principal did not participate in the group sessions as it was clear to me that her presence would have intimidated the others, dampening free expression and precluding meaningful involvement. She was separately interviewed, using the Process Enneagram and the identical questions from the group exercise, and her information was anonymously included in the data. I started the first session of the group workshop by creating the conditions for openness and safety, including confidentiality, agreement to hear opinions you do not agree with, etc. I then encouraged the participants to discuss each point around the Process Enneagram, beginning with Identity (point 0). Here the group began to develop a sense of clarity about who each person was in this effort. Next, at Intention, the participants co-created their vision of the school. By imagining, sharing, and exchanging freely, they developed a sense of camaraderie and ownership. I chronicled the process by jotting down a collage of thoughts at each point. I did this during the sessions in full view of the group so that each participant could see that what he or she had said had been recorded (see Map 1 [Figure 2]). This was the first time many of the employees felt they had been heard in the organization, thus intensifying an already exciting and engaging atmosphere.

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After establishing the group’s Identity and Intention, the participants moved to Issues and Ambiguities. At this point, a host of problems surfaced, arising from people’s frustration with the way they were forced to work— separately and together—in the school; a lack of clarity regarding roles, responsibilities, and expectations; and a dearth of opportunities to express opinions or offer suggestions. This could have degenerated into a complaint session, but the participants were continually encouraged to keep the focus on the bigger picture, which required coming back to the question frequently as well as reassuring the participants that they had been heard by documenting the comments on the initial Map. We then moved forward to Relationships. Here it became clear that there were low levels of trust and interdependence among the employees, hampering their effectiveness. It also became clear that there was a strong desire to change. The desire was focused on building a better school rather than the discord. During the discussion of Principles and Standards, the top-down process of management came into sharp focus. Rules, regulations, and the like were imposed on staff with no discussion or participation by those affected. Treatment was arbitrary and based more on the “rule-maker’s” attitude toward an individual than on his or her performance. Rewards and punishments were meted out inconsistently. The picture of the school as an organization controlled from the top was emerging. And the group discovered that the things imposed from above were driving the difficulties that had come to light at Issues and Ambiguities. In this discussion, it was imperative to not allow the discussion to sink into blame on authority, but rather to look at the historical and global results of hierarchal and flat management styles and their espoused organizational Principals and Standards. As I moved the discussion further around the Circle, more characteristics of a strong, top-down management approach appeared. No longer held back by fear and fragmentation, employees were sharing stories and experiences, and in this exchange, they were seeing beneath the surface of the school and uncovering the values underlying its operation, the “values-in-use.” Values-in-use are what drive much of an organization’s real behavior and dysfunction and are often inconsistent with its espoused values (Argyris, 2000). It is imperative to bring the topic of values-in use and espoused values into the discussion and record the findings. As the EILS workshop participants visited and revisited points on the Circle, it became clear that the espoused values of the school—such as “honoring teachers and students”—did not match what


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was surfacing in the workshop—such as punitive practices and humiliation (see Principles and Standards, Map 1). In addition, it became clear that much of what the principal thought was holding the school together—such as her role as sole leader (“director rules” in Principles and Standards; “director sees no need to change” in Issues and Ambiguities)—was in fact creating much frustration among the teachers and staff, dampening their effectiveness and thus preventing what the principal herself wanted most, the growth of the school’s revenues and increased respect from the outside community and party leaders. When the workshop had completed the Circular Process of the Process Enneagram, it was on its way to uncovering the real obstacles to the school’s success. The collage of thoughts voiced at each point during this workshop became the organization’s “Initial State” (Map 1). As in many Process Enneagram workshops, this is most comprehensive picture that many of the participants have ever seen of their organization. It is clear from Map 1 that the challenges the EASY International Language School faced were almost all related to the traditional, hierarchal, smothering, top-down management style. During the discussions, I realized it is sufficient to get only about 80 percent right at any point. This is because the process is cyclical, and each point will be revisited and further developed in subsequent cycles. To address the gaps and inconsistencies in Map 1, I repeated the Circular Process informally with the workshop members. There were few changes in the group’s Identity and Intention, which is normal. Now they were ready to co-create their current implementation plan, or “Plan for Change” (Map 2 [Figure 3]) using the Zigzag (1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, 1) Process, which is the sequential process of how work actually gets done. After looking at Intention (point 1), they established a new set of Principles and Standards of behavior, ones to which all the participants were willing to commit in a courageous and disciplined way in order to accomplish the Intentions they had set at point 1. By comparing the Principles and Standards in Map 1 and Map 2, one can see the differences are quite distinct. It is critical that the cycle to create Map 2 begins here. It is interesting to note that based on Knowles’s experience across organizations (2002; www.RNKnowlesAssociates.com; www. CenterforSelfOrganizingLeadership.com), regardless of differences in the nature or area of their work—the patterns of behavior shown in maps of topdown management systems (Map 1 in this paper) are remarkably consistent; similarly maps of more participatory, Self-Organizing Leadership management

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systems (Map 2 in this paper) are remarkably consistent regardless of the type of work in which the organizations are engaged. After reviewing Map 1, and collecting suggestions for new Principles and Standards, I moved the participants on through the Zigzag Process, and in the co-creation of Map 2 a living, vibrant organization began to emerge. When they examined the Issues and Ambiguities in Map 1 in light of the new Principles and Standards of Map 2, many of them changed or even disappeared. Once the Issues and Ambiguities were reworked, the participants moved to Structure and Context, where they determined the major changes needed to move the school beyond the obstacles uncovered during the Circular Process. The group continued to the Work point at which they identified the specific activities or tasks needed to address unresolved issues and ambiguities and to provide support for the new Principles and Standards, because only new information is recorded on a new map, when the group arrived at Work during this second cycle, they returned to Map 1 to review Issues and Ambiguities.) At Learning and Potential, they discussed what they had learned in Work and the new prospects and possibilities that were emerging. Since everything is interconnected, when one point changes, all the points need to be revisited; they all change. No matter which specific process is being followed (e.g., Circular, Zigzag, Triangular), its completion requires that the participants review every point on the Circle. So, for instance, after the EILS team had worked through the points in the Zigzag Process in the appropriate order, they went back to Triangle and discussed these points in the light of the new information that had surfaced during the Zigzag Process. This completed Map 2. The focus of the EILS workshop was now aimed at accomplishing their Intention. And because the process is iterative, the learning continued at a new level.


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When the first two cycles (which may be conducted over a long period of time) have been worked through with integrity and good will, the Triangular Process (points 0, 3, 6, 9) illuminates a healthier, more sustainable environment, which can be seen by comparing Maps 1 and 2. Interdependence and trust emerges at Relationship; new information emerges at Information; a deeper meaning emerges at Identity. The new camaraderie leads into another cyclical process of learning and growth. The new information and insights provide the basis for people to have the courage and will to work in new ways.

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The living strategic plan (Map 3) is the guide for everything that needs to be accomplished for the process of transformation to occur. It should be posted on the wall of the workshop’s meeting rooms and reviewed each time the group reconvenes. This is essential as it keeps the conversational space open and alive. In the case of EILS, I created Map 3 a full three years after my departure from EILS. It shows the state of the school I observed in a visit in 2010. Although Map 3 was not created by those who accomplished this work—the principal, participants in the workshop, and employees who came later—it clearly shows that they were creating their future based on the recommendations, discoveries, and ideas generated by the workshop and captured in Map 2. This is especially striking when one compares the Principals and Standards of Map 3 with those of Map 1. The school is becoming more vital, self-organizing, and sustainable. I shared Map 3 with the principal, and this updated Map is currently providing powerful insights for her and the staff as they progress. I am confident that if Map 3 could have been co-created while I still there and the workshop was intact, the progress would

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have been even quicker. However, the natural and elongated timing allowed for a progression speed that reduced fear, and held my connection with the organization intact. Self-organizing processes need to have some structure to help people maintain their focus so the organization does not fall apart. The key element of this structure is a metaphorical Bowl that simultaneously provides the order and boundaries necessary for the organization’s continuance and the freedom people need to do their best work. It contains the organization’s vision, mission, expectations, principles, and performance standards. Workshop participants co-create their Bowl while developing their living strategic plan (Map 3). The leader of the group uses the Process Enneagram Bowl to keep


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everyone focused and living up to their commitments. This is a key piece of work for the leader. In this case, the group created a ‘Process Enneagram Bowl’ without the principal’s presence. My work included sharing the conclusions and excitement of the group with the principal, and gaining support to move forward and implement new learning on the road to growth and success. The group had to decide what actions were possible and could be absolutely committed to within their time, energy, skill levels, so there was commitment behind the plans that I took to the principal. With a well-developed Bowl, the organization does not crumble into fragmentation and confusion. This was a crucial piece of information for me to share with the principal, and while there is chaos in the process, the Bowl contains the activity. Viewed and supported by the leader of the process, in this case myself, fear can be reduced, and forward movement can result. The dialogue and thinking developed using the Process Enneagram moves from the outside to the inside. Once created, the ideas at the core move to the outside and are quite stable applying to everything an organization does going forward. A strong core is fundamental to any future work that the people want to do. The process is co-created and cyclical, building on itself and opening up growth and potential, thus fostering learning in a more sustainable environment.

Some Important Experiences During this work at the EASY International Language School, with confidentiality assured and with guiding questions to allow the focus to be maintained, information sharing became a living and growing entity and people became empowered. Sharing Issues and Ambiguities did not “open a can of worms,” but rather was just one step in a larger process. People steadfastly kept their eyes on the whole, the larger picture of the school rather than individuals, so that they would not get stuck at any point. In working their way around the Circle, they came alive with suggestions and a willingness to make commitments to the hard work ahead, work that was not ordered from the top, but that they had initiated and co-created themselves. They left the sessions with gratitude for the opportunity to be heard, for the ability to help create the future of their workplace, and for the recognition they were receiving for the good work that was being done, individually and collectively.

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When the process was completed, they realized that the information had always been available to them through each individual staff member’s knowledge. Previously, the information had been scattered, withheld or held closely by individuals, and now it was whole, a living, changing and accessible unit of their organization, through shared, open communication.

Learning The Process Enneagram work at EASY International Language School began after the principal and the vice-principal, myself, agreed that I would examine cross-cultural communications practices, which the principal believed to be the most significant obstacles to the school’s growth and performance. With input from teachers and staff, I quickly determined that these were not the cause of the fundamental problems facing the school. The visible crosscultural issues were merely a cover for invisible problems created by the top-down management process. Once this came to light, everything began to change. The first picture that the workshop developed (Map 1) was the organization’s present moment. It was the most comprehensive picture that the people had seen of themselves. As they developed Map 2, interesting gaps and inconsistencies emerged. Everyone could see these in their own words. This provided guidance and opened up opportunities for their continued evolution. Due to the principal’s fear of chaos, anarchy and too rapid growth, she did not readily accept many of the workshop’s initial recommendations. Instead, she stored them for possible future review. Original data was destroyed, as the Ethical Review for the thesis demanded. However, I gave every member of the staff and the principal a copy of my thesis to thank them for their participation. But when they did not see immediate change in the school itself, many felt that their voices had once again been shut down. Most of the staff people were university students, and their tenure at the school was based on the amount of time left in their university studies. When the principal tabled the workshop’s recommendations, many staff members reorganized their curriculum so they could focus on personal and professional goals. Even those who continued for the full length of their original contracts lost the zeal for the longer-term changes, those toward which they happily would have worked even though they would not have been around to see their full flowering. I left the school shortly after the workshop’s plan was turned


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over to the principal, and the role of facilitator of the process appeared to be vacant, which further demoralized the staff. However, unknown to the staff, the principal had decided to take on the role of facilitator herself. The ideas and plans that emerged from the workshop were incorporated into the growth plan that only the principal had knowledge of.

Success Realized In the three years since I left EASY International Learning School, the principal has put into practice many of the recommendations generated by the school’s Process Enneagram workshop, and they have been remarkably successful. The action plan that was created using the self-organizing process of the Process Enneagram has more than exceeded anyone’s expectations. Even though the principal has not formally used the Process Enneagram in her implementation of these changes, as with all archetypes, the Process Enneagram operates below the horizon; its conscious use is not always necessary. The workshop’s recommendations were implemented and the energy and resources invested resulting in rapid growth in student enrollment and staff retention, markedly higher scores on standardized tests, and expansion into other facilities—all bringing increased revenue. The school’s enrollment has doubled; students now travel from all parts of the district to attend EILS. It attracts more international teachers and offers programs in Russian, French, and German as well as English. Not only has it exceeded growth expectations in all areas, but also it is receiving recognition for the high quality of the education it provides and for its professionalism. EASY International Language School is now considered to be Number One in the district. The principal deserves much credit not only for the insight she showed in initiating this process and the skill she exhibited implementing the strategic plan, but also for seizing new and exciting opportunities, such as online and multi-language training workshops. She maintains sole directorship of the organization but is open to suggestions from the teachers for continued growth. The staff members who co-created the strategic plan are no longer at the school, but new successes emerge and weave through all points of the process. At EILS, merging the traditional hierarchal system of management with aspects of collaborative and Self-Organizing Leadership has provided

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continuing positive outcomes for staff, students, management, and the bottom line. When I visited the school three years after the delivery of the recommendations, I saw a dramatic difference in attitude between the current staff and management and that of the group engaged in the original strategic planning process. I observed that the school now has a deep sense of professionalism and teamwork and is proud to continue the work that transformed EILS into the district leader in language education. With or without the conscious use of the Process Enneagram process, the principal and her staff have a deep awareness of the interrelationships among the points of the Process Enneagram and a wider understanding of the impacts, both positive and negative, of those interrelationships. REFERENCES Argyris, Chris. Flawed Advice and the ManagementTtrap. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Blake, Anthony G. E. The Intelligent Enneagram. Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1996. Dalmau, Tim and Tideman, Jill. ECO vol. 13, Nos. 1-2 (2011): 71-95. Guastello, Stephen J., Matthijs Koopmans, and David Pincus. Chaos and Complexity in Psychology: The Theory of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Hazy, James, Goldstein, Jeffrey, & Lichtenstein, Benyamin (Eds.). (2007). Complex systems leadership theory. Boston, MA: ISCE. Knowles, Richard N. The Leadership Dance: Pathways to Extraordinary Organizational Effectiveness. Niagara Falls, NY: The Center for Self-Organizing Leadership, 2002. Knowles, Richard N. (2001). “Self-Organizing Leadership: A Way of Seeing What is Happening in Organizations and a Pathway to Coherence.” Emergence vol. 3, No. 4 (2001):112-127. Knowles, Richard N. “Self-Organizing Leadership: A Way of Seeing What is Happening in Organizations and a Pathway to Coherence, Part II.” Emergence vol. 4, No. 4 (2001):86-97. Knowles, Richard N. Engaging the Natural Tendency of Self-organization. The World Business Academy, Transformation vol. 20, Issue 15, August 10, 2006. Ouspensky, Piotr D. In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1949. Rost, Joseph. Leadership for the Twenty-first Century. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1991.


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Tamdgidi, Mohammad H. Gurdjieff and Hypnosis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Wheatley, Margaret J. Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco, CA: BerrettKoehler, 1992.

6 Instructional Leadership Practice in Monitoring Student Progress Using the Headcount Technique JAMES ANG JIT ENG AND BALASANDRAN A. RAMIAH Institut Aminuddin Baki The National Institute of Educational Management and Leadership Ministry of Education, Malaysia

Abstract The role of school principals to achieve students’ academic results cannot be downplayed. School leaders need to take the right actions to solicit muchdesired academic results through the model of instructional leadership, which emphasizes stated roles that include monitoring student progress. The aim of this paper is to highlight the benefit of employing data-driven decision-making in the instructional leadership process, which is often referred to as monitoring students’ progress. The paper is based on practical experience of the writers in coaching Malaysian and Maldivian school leaders in operationalizing the method of monitoring student progress by using a five-step process, which is referred to as the HEADCOUNT technique. This technique enables schools to better plan and implement appropriate academic programs. The chapter

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will include examples from selected secondary schools in Malaysia and the Republic of Maldives in improving students’ academic performance.

Introduction Malaysia seeks to attain the status of a developed nation and a high-income society by the year 2020. The deadline is fast approaching and there seems to be much urgency and intensity by the Malaysian Government to make that happen at various fronts. The GTP (Government Transformational Plan), NKRA (National Key Results Area), and NKEA (National Key Economic Area) are some of the major initiatives launched by the government in 2010 to further intensify the efforts to make that happen. On the educational front, much soul searching was made by the various educational players; to take stock and to identify the various problems hindering their ability to attain the desired results with the goal to further narrow the gap between student competencies and employability. The NKRA focuses on improving the students’ outcome and to ensure that the following Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are achieved (Government Transformation Program: The Roadmap Executive Summary 2010).

Increase the pre-school enrollment rate of both 4+ and 5+ year-old students and improve the quality of the system; Ensure that all children have acquired basic literacy and numeracy skills after three years of education; Develop High Performing Schools (HPS) and uplift the performance of all schools in the system; and, Significantly improve the performance of head teachers and principals via performance management.

Even though Malaysia has made tremendous strides in its education system: achieving an adult literacy rate of 92 percent, having compulsory primary school education, and one of the highest growth rates in secondary school enrollment amongst developing countries; still, Malaysia’s education outcomes have fallen behind countries like Singapore, Hong Kong and Korea. Quite alarmingly too, the academic gap among Malaysian students is also widening with about 20 percent of Malaysian students failing to meet the minimum TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Scores)

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benchmarks for Mathematics and Science in 2007, as compared to about 5 to 7 percent in 2003. The TIMSS report for 2003 and 2007, for example, noted that Malaysia dropped 10 rankings for Mathematics; from 10th place in 2003 to 20th place in 2007. As for Science, Malaysia dropped from 20th place in 2003 to 21st place in 2007 (Government Transformation Program: The Roadmap-Executive Summary, 2010). It was also quite alarming a revelation that almost 25 percent of the Malaysian students enter the workforce with only SPM level (O level or Grade 12) qualifications, and thus limited future employment. Public and private institutions of higher learning in Malaysia generate around 80,000 graduates per annum but many still lack employability competencies (Teacher Education Division, 2010). This is not good news for Malaysia, as the nation does not possess the optimal quality in human capital to capitalize on the need for skilled workers to drive the economy. Concerted efforts are therefore required not only to stem the decline but also to further boost academic standards as well because educated students are the source for a highly skilled workforce that will spearhead the Malaysian economy and help attain the status of a high-income society. In the NKRA, the Ministry of Education (MOE) Malaysia was entrusted with the task to increase access to quality and affordable education. To this end, the success or failure of this task falls squarely on the shoulders of school leaders who are the front liners in the delivery process.As with their counterparts in other parts of the world, school leaders in Malaysia are facing escalating public scrutiny and demand to be accountable for their actions and educational programs which were largely paid for by taxpayers’ money. The push for accountability has led both policy makers and the public to hold schools and teachers responsible for improvements in student learning. While it can be argued that teachers are ultimately responsible for improving student learning in the classrooms, changing the organizational conditions for improvement within the school is the central task of school leaders. As in the words of Van de Grift and Houtveen, “school leaders must have the ability to initiate school improvement, to create a learning oriented educational climate, and to stimulate and supervise teachers in such a way that the latter may exercise their tasks as effectively as possible” (1999, p. 373). A similar view is emphasized in the Malaysian Education Development Plan, 2001-2010, when it noted that excellence in education can only be

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attained if the roles of school leaders are reemphasized as instructional leaders, and this role takes precedence over all the other tasks. This paper highlights the role of an instructional leader in employing data-driven decision-making, which is one important aspect in the instructional leadership process. This paper is based on the practical experiences of the writers in coaching Malaysian and Maldivian school leaders and seeks to describe ways school principals can better monitor their students’ academic progress. This paper will describe the benefits of operationalizing the method of monitoring student progress by using a five-step process, which is referred to as the ‘HEADCOUNT technique’. This technique creates an effective information flow that leads to improvement in student academic achievement. The ‘HEADCOUNT technique’ provides a framework that enables school principals and teachers to reshape mediocre schools into vibrant organizations that are able to react effectively to the feedback from standardized testing and represent a significant step forward in the understanding of monitoring student progress that is often highlighted but seldom explained in the instructional leadership literature. The first part of this paper discusses the challenges faced by school leaders as instructional leaders and it is followed by a detailed explanation on the Headcount technique employed in the second section. In the third section, the success stories of Headcount technique in Malaysia and the Republic of Maldives are highlighted. It describes the benefits of using the method and gives an insight about its practicality in monitoring students’ progress across boundaries. Finally, discussion and conclusion are presented. The Challenge of School Leaders as Instructional Leaders In this section, the role of school leaders as instructional leaders and the challenges faced by them will be discussed. It is followed by a brief description of the current demands in the Malaysian education system and the instructional leader’s task to monitor students’ progress and making data driven decisions. The central task of instructional leaders is to create the conditions for improving teaching and learning in their schools. Cuban (1984) noted that instructional leaders lead from a combination of expertise and charisma. They are hands-on principals, hip-deep in curriculum and instruction and unafraid of working directly with teachers to improve teaching and learning. The effective instructional leader is able to align the strategies and activities of the school with the school’s academic mission. Thus, instructional leaders need to focus

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not only on leading, but also on managerial aspects such as coordinating, controlling, supervising, and developing curriculum and instruction. Having noted that, the new instructional leader should push beyond the debates between instructional, managerial and transformational practices to a new conception of creating accountable learning systems in schools. The emphasis for greater accountability then is not a call for schools to begin to use data in decision making but rather a challenge for school leaders to reshape the central practices and cultures of their schools to react intentionally to external accountability systems. Thus, the heart of the new instructional leadership is the ability of leaders to shift schools from cultures of internal accountability to external accountability. As described by Wilson (2004), coherent accountability systems depend on establishing two-way information flow connecting classroom practice and external accountability measures. In order to realize this goal, school leaders need to reframe the traditional practices of schools to make sense in a culture of external accountability. Apart from school leaders, teachers too should be held accountable for their students’ achievement. According to Barber and Mourshed (2007), the quality of an education system cannot exceed the quality of its teachers. The report further stressed that the only way to improve learning outcomes is to improve instruction, whereby high performance requires every child to succeed. Excuses about family background, locality of the school or other characteristics should not detract them from carrying out this task and responsibility with much earnestness and zest because measures of student performance are noted as keys in determining the extent to which issues relating to equity and social justice are addressed in schools and classrooms nationwide (Langston et al., 1998). As in the words of Edmonds (1979), effective schools avoided actions and activities that did not work and were committed to implementing teaching strategies that did, and teachers should continuously reevaluate their teaching pedagogy and change as students’ needs change.

Current Demands in the Malaysian Education System One of the new educational initiatives noted in the NKRA (National Key Results Area) on education was the introduction of a ‘new deal’ for teachers. The purpose of the ‘new deal’, which will be introduced in 2011, is to evaluate and reward schools based on students’ academic performance. This initiative is based on the assumption that school leaders and teachers play the


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paramount role of molding their students. They are the major agents of change and are responsible in ensuring student learning and success. Under the ‘new deal’, the top two percent of Malaysian schools will be rewarded. The criteria in school rankings are a combination of ‘school grade point average’ in public examinations (70 percent) and compliance to the Malaysian Educational Standards (30 percent). Schools are then categorized into three categories namely:

Exceeded target (2% of the total number of schools) On target (88% of the total number of schools) Below target (10% of the total number of schools) Schools in the ‘exceeded target’ status will be accorded the following treatment:

Principals get a cash payment of RM7,500.00 and a letter of appreciation, Principals who are able to maintain the ‘exceed target’ status for three continuous years will be given a fast track promotion and chance to attend attachment programs in top institutions of learning, locally or overseas. A cash payment of RM1,800.00 for teachers in the top 5 percent, A cash payment of RM900.00 for teachers in the subsequent 95 percent.

Schools in the ‘below target’ status will be accorded the following treatment:

Principals are required to attend remedial courses, Principals that did not show significant improvements after seven continuous years will be offered the Voluntary Separation Scheme (VSS), The Inspectorate of schools will closely monitor schools.

Apart from government initiatives, current public demands for quality and accountability require school leaders to innovate and improve. To this end, many Malaysian schools are choosing to employ data-driven decision-making to improve student achievement (Institute for Educational Leadership 2000; Johnson 2002; Massell 2000). In many ways, data-driven decision-making

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reflects the central concepts of the organizational quality movement inspired by Edwards Deming who inspired organizations to move beyond bottom-line results to focus on embedding quality cycles throughout the organization (Deming 2000). A successful and sustainable method of employing datadriven decision-making usually involves translating students’ summative achievement test data into formative data that teachers can use to improve their teaching and students can use to improve their learning.

Monitoring Students’ Progress Practices associated with the systematic monitoring of students’ progress and utilizing data to evaluate school performances are firmly grounded in the effective schools movement literature. According to Lezotte (2001), schools that are most effective in educating all students, regardless of socioeconomic status or family background, use the results of assessments to improve teaching and learning at the individual student level. A meta-analysis of quantitative research examining the effects of leadership on student achievement by Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) identified 21 leadership responsibilities with statistically significant relationships to student achievement. Among them, monitoring the effectiveness of school practices and their impact on student learning is of prominence. Rutherford (1985), after reviewing and synthesizing more than 75 studies on effective principals, noted that one of the four major behaviors that differentiated effective principals from less effective ones is that, effective principals do not stand back and wait for things to happen, but continuously monitor progress and intervene in a supportive or corrective manner when this seems necessary. Blase and Blase’s findings (1998, 1999) further indicated that when instructional leaders monitor and provide feedback on the teaching and learning process, there are better outcomes: increases in teacher reflection and reflectively informed instructional behaviors; rise in implementation on new ideas; greater variety in teaching strategies; more response to student diversity; lessons were prepared and planned more carefully; teachers were more likely to take risks and to have more focus on the instructional process; and, teachers used professional discretion to make changes in their classroom practice. They further noted that monitoring has positive effects on motivation, satisfaction, confidence, and sense of security among teachers.


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Conversely, principals that did not engage in monitoring and providing feedback on the teaching and learning process had a negative effect on teachers and classroom practice (Blase & Blase 1998). Teachers with non-instructional leaders felt a sense of abandonment, anger, and futility, as well as lower levels of trust and respect for the principal, motivation and self-efficacy. While the importance of monitoring students cannot be denied, actions towards this end cannot be done hastily. Research on school reform indicates that it takes an average of three years for a primary (elementary) school to implement changes that will improve student achievement. Secondary (high) schools take six years on an average to implement such changes (Fullan, 2000). Fullan further noted that in a standards-based accountability environment, schools must reform quickly. While some short-term strategies may achieve initial gains in student achievement, these are at best “quick fixes” designed to provide incentive for more lasting change. To maintain the momentum, schools must take on a long-term approach that addresses the organizational and cultural changes needed to sustain improved student achievement.

Data Driven Decisions Data-driven decision-making in education derives from the same principle of continuous improvement that is central to Edwards Deming’s concept of Total Quality Management (Sagor & Barnett 1994). The manifestation of Deming’s Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycle is commonly reflected in the stages of collaborative action research — problem formulation, data collection, analysis, reporting, and modifying practices (Sagor 1993). With its emphasis on data-driven decision-making, a systematic inquiry system replaces the more informal or intuitive methods often employed by principals and teachers when evaluating their own practice. Killion and Bellamy (2000) further clarified the relationship between data-driven decision-making and school reform by saying, . . . understanding and using data about school and student performance are fundamental to improving schools. Without analyzing and discussing data, schools are unlikely to identify and solve problems that need attention, identify appropriate interventions to solve those problems, or to know how they are progressing toward achievement of their goals. Data are the fuel to reform (p.1). Mason (2003), who draws from the systemic reform theory and knowledge management theory, arrived at the following definition of what it

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means for schools to learn from data or to use data effectively: “Learning from data means to transform data into information as it is interpreted in context. Data then becomes knowledge as it is shared, applied, and used to promote change and improvement throughout an organization” (pp. 8-9). Data-driven decision-making involves gathering data to determine whether a class, school, or district is meeting its purpose and vision, which then enables the selection of appropriate interventions to meet specific goals. With regard to using data on the most central goal of schools — student learning — the call for data-driven decision-making is based on the assumption that collecting and analyzing data helps to elucidate the causal link between particular school policies or teaching practices with student performance. Subsequently, the most successful educational interventions can be utilized to produce optimal student achievement (Miller 2000). The above discussion is crucial to better understand the role, challenges, and skills required by an instructional leader in monitoring students’ progress. It is necessary to have a background understanding of the significance of monitoring students’ progress before indulging into the headcount technique in the section that follows.

The HEADCOUNT Technique In this section, the simple five-step process in the Headcount techniques will be discussed. The steps are: identifying the students’ profile; tracking students’ achievement via academic indicators; determining key performance indicators and making academic projections; implementing post mortem analysis; and, developing an action plan. Protocols used in each step are also described in detail. As was noted previously, research on school reform indicated that it would take an average of three years for an elementary school and six years for secondary schools to implement changes that will improve student achievement (Fullan 2000). In a standards-based, accountability environment, however, schools must reform quickly. Short-term strategies for moving schools forward quickly include aligning the results of student’s assessments to the formal and taught curriculum. This involves continuously monitoring student progress, analyzing student achievement data, and identifying the most critical needs for immediate action. This might include providing professional development directly linked to the needs of the teachers to effectively implement the


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instructional program required and providing additional learning time for those students who need it. The HEADCOUNT technique is most appropriate for short to medium term school reform plans, whereby the principal needs a “quick-fix” to provide confidence, morale boost, and motivation to implement more lasting changes. This does not, however, discount in any way the possibility that it too can serve as an excellent long-term strategy that seeks to closely monitor student academic achievement and identify the most critical needs for which immediate and/or common achievement goals and strategies can be developed. This technique will help schools identify their students’ current status quo, evaluate their potential, plan appropriate intervention activities according to the students’ ability, and conduct post mortem on examination results for continuous improvement. Through this method, the school would set a certain expected standard for each student, with instructions and school programs tailored to the individual students’ needs. Furthermore, special attention and recognition would be accorded to the students identified. In the process of exploring the different methods of interventions that will most likely transform a school into a better-performing one, each school must be viewed as an individual case with its own strengths and weaknesses. The same is also true in the analysis of student academic data whereby principals and teachers need to identify and select appropriate interventions methods to meet the needs of an individual student or groups of students. The HEADCOUNT technique to be used here is a five-step process: 1. Identify students’ profile, 2. Track students’ achievement via academic indicators, 3. Determine key performance indicators and making academic projections, 4. Implement post mortem analysis, and 5. Have an action plan.

the existing school records, student information could also be gathered from a variety of other sources such as subject teachers, homework, marks, and through observations.

Figure 1 Five-Step Process in HEADCOUNT [INSERT FIGURE]

Track Students’ Achievement via Academic Indicators In the second step, the principal would track students’ achievement via academic indicators. Here, the principal performs a trend analysis to determine the pattern of his/her students’ academic performance within a time frame of three to five years. Patterns of students’ performance could be in the form of percentage of passes for each subject, subject grade point average, or school grade point average. An example of tracking students’ achievement is shown in Table 1. Tracking of students’ academic achievement can be in other forms such as in the number of As obtained as shown in Table 2 or in ‘subject grade point average’ as shown in Table 3.

Table 1 Student Academic Achievement (Percentile) from 2008—2010 Year

Malay

English

History

Geography

2008

97.1

88.6

92.5

95.7

2009

96.5

87.0

93.3

IDENTIFYING STUDENTS’ PROFILE

2010

94.8

83.3

90.9

As shown in Figure 1, the HEADCOUNT technique involves a five-step process. The first step is to identify students’ profile. The school needs to have an in-depth understanding about the student’s family background, prior academic achievement, behavior records, and current activities. Apart from

Table 2

138


Science

Living Skills

89.3

92.5

89.4

92.3

93.0

92.3

91.3

86.0

88.8

86.3

91.4


139

Number of As Students Obtained from 2005—2010 NUMBER OF AS

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

7As

2

5

4

5

3

6

6As

15

10

10

9

12

9

5As

10

10

15

16

8

12

4As

16

10

15

12

10

14

3As

18

16

22

14

18

13

2As

23

16

25

23

21

23

1A

49

62

44

51

34

42

Number of Students

339

330

328

283

285

333

Number of Passes with Minimum D in all subjects

254

248 243 (75.2%) (74.1%)

211 (74.6%)

215 (75.4%)

212 (63.7%)

Science

269

63

92

83

22

260

9

2.34

Living Skills

269

150

63

25

10

248

21

1.84

2010

After having conducted the trend analysis and determining the school and subjects grade point averages for the particular period of time, the principal will then identify what the ‘killer subject’ was. ‘Killer subject’ or ‘critical subject’ is a term coined to identify the academic subject that the students in the school were weakest in and that subject is normally depicted by the lowest percentage of passes or the highest value in the subject grade point average. Referring to Table 3, the killer subject is Mathematics with the subject grade point average of 2.95. After determining what the killer subject is, the next step is to tabulate the information into a table as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Analysis of Students’ Results for the Purpose of Identifying Near Misses and Near Passes Class

Number of Students

Pass All Subjects

‘A’ in All Subjects

Pass in Killer Subject

‘A’ in Killer Subject

3A

37

37

1

37

9

Average

3B

37

37

0

37

1

Table 3 Breakdown of Subject Grade Point Average Subjects

Number of Students

As

Bs

Cs

Ds

Number of Passes

Es

Subject Grade Point

Malay Language

269

124

71

66

6

267

2

1.85

3C

34

14

0

16

0

English Language

269

196

51

10

1

258

11

1.44

3D

33

0

0

6

0

History

269

68

80

78

25

251

18

2.42

3E

33

11

0

14

1

Geography

269

86

61

91

15

253

16

2.31

3F

33

0

0

9

0

Mathematics

269

11

87

95

56

249

20

2.95

140



141

3G

31

0

0

0

0

3H

31

0

0

2

0

Total

269

99

1

121

11

After tabulating the information in the table, the next step is to identify ‘near misses’ and ‘near passes’ for the students concerned. ‘Near misses’ is a term coined to identify students who scored an ‘A’ in the killer subject but yet did not obtain straight ‘As’ in the examination. The rationale behind the identification of ‘near misses’ is students who obtain an ‘A’ in the killer subject which is the weakest subject for a particular group of students/schools, should also obtain ‘As’ in all subjects. The identification of students in the ‘near misses’ group could be done with the following simple mathematical formula: (N students with straight ‘As’)—(N students with ‘A’ in killer subject) If we refer to the data in Table 4, the ‘near misses’ group can be identified by subtracting the number of students with an ‘A’ in the killer subject with the number of students with straight (all) ‘As’, which is 10 students in total (1—11 = 10). Therefore, the next step is to identify who the 10 students are. This could be done by sorting the students’ scores base on their killer subject (Math) in a descending order as shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Identifying the ‘Near Misses’ Group by Sorting of Students’ Results by Killer Subject in a Descending Order NO

NAME

1

TEH HUI YEN

3A

100

A

95

A

92

A

92

A

96

A

88

A

2

LEE XIN YU

3A

91

A

89

A

83

A

88

A

69

B

68

B

3

YEO YEU YING

3A

90

A

94

A

82

A

80

A

86

A

78

B

142


4

PRIYANKA A/P SANDRA

3A

85

A

87

A

82

A

74

B

78

B

5

TAN SHIEN NIE

3A

82

A

92

A

74

B

74

B

94

A

6

HIW SHIAU ENN

3B

82

A

68

B

55

C

49

D

50

C

7

LEE PEI WERN

3A

81

A

72

B

73

B

73

B

69

B

8

P’NG LI SHENG

3E

81

A

50

C

53

C

42

D

65

B

9

EE SEOW WERN

3A

80

A

73

B

72

B

78

B

72

B

10

JENIFFER LEE LIN LENG

3A

80

A

65

B

68

B

78

B

87

A

11

AIN AQILAH BT ZAMSAR

3A

80

A

62

C

78

B

61

C

68

B

12

WONG YIN

3A

79

B

87

A

78

B

78

B

76

B

‘Near passes’, on the other hand, is a term used to identify students who scored a pass (grade C or D) in the killer subject, yet failed in the examination because he/she failed in other subject(s). The rationale behind the identification of ‘near passes’ is the assumption that students who passed the killer subject, which is the weakest subject for a particular group of students/ schools, could have passed the other subjects. The identification of students in the ‘near misses’ group could be done with the following simple mathematical formula: (N students pass killer subject)—(N students pass all subjects) Referring to the data in Table 4, the ‘near passes’ group can be identified by subtracting the number of students with passes in the killer subject with the number of students who pass all subjects, which is 22 students in total (121—99 = 22). Therefore, the next step is to identify who the 22 students are. Determine Key Performance Indicators and Making Academic Projections The third step in the HEADCOUNT process is to determine key performance indicators and to make appropriate academic projections based on achievable targets. Key performance indicators (KPI) could be in the form of increases in the percentages of student passes, decreases in the percentage of student failures, or in ‘subjects grade point averages’ and ‘school grade 87 A point averages’. 83 A After determining the type of KPIs’ that will be adopted, the instructional 94 A leader with the assistance of his/her team will then make appropriate academic


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projections based on the ability of the students to achieve them. Among the actions to be taken is as follows: Identify the take-off-value (TOV) Determine the benchmark Set the expected target result (ETR) Determine the operational targeted increment (OTI) Take-Off-Value (TOV) is the student achievement at entry level, i.e., prior to the implementation of HEADCOUNT or the start of other academic improvement programs. As an example, the TOV of Year Six students could be the final examination results in their Year Five. Benchmark is a mark or point of reference in terms of percentage or grade point averages that the school strives to attain. A school can benchmark against the best results it has ever obtained or the best results in the school district, state, or even the nation. Expected target result (ETR) is the projected final results that are achievable by the students after having attended the intervention program(s) introduced by the school for them. Intervention programs should be tailored to the needs of a particular group of students to ensure that students benefit fully from them. The ETR could be set higher than the benchmark as shown in Figure 2. Operational targeted increments (OTI) are the ‘checkpoints’ between the TOV and ETR. A simple formula to determine OTIs is shown in Figure 2. OTIs are used to monitor and align the intervention programs introduced by the school to ensure that the ETR can be attained. TOV (Straight As’)

1

144

OTI1

OTI2

OTI3

10 ÷ 4 = 2.5

ETR (including the student who has achieved straight As in all subjects)

Benchmark (refer to Table 2 for the best ‘O’ Level results)

11

6


1

1 + 2.5 = 3.5 4

3.5 + 2.5 =6 6

6 + 2.5 = 8.5 9

8.5 + 2.5 = 11 6 11

Figure 2 Operational targeted increment As an example, the school can set an ETR of 11 straight A’s among the current batch of students taking their ‘O’ level examination in 2011 from the TOV of one student. OTI1 to OTI3 will provide an early indication of how well the school is faring towards the goal (ETR). In Figure 2, the OTI1 is 3.5 (rounded to 4) to indicate improvements in student achievement and the effectiveness of the intervention program introduced. If the results from the OTI show a declining trend, the principal may have to reexamine the program. Determining KPIs and making academic projections can be equated with ‘framing clear school goals’ in the Hallinger and Murphy (1985) instructional leadership model. Hallinger (2005) noted that instructional leaders must be able to define a clear direction for the school and motivate others to contribute to its success. For instructionally effective schools, this calls for improvement in student academic outcomes. In relation to framing clear goals, Latham and Locke (1990) assert that goal setting is an effective way to increase motivation and performance. They postulate that goals increase attention to attainment of the task, increase the effort expended on goal relevant activities, increase persistence to achieve, and increase the development of strategies to obtain the goal. This is true even in loosely-coupled organizations, such as public schools. Brewer (1993) in his study found higher academic gains in high schools where principals framed educational goals and held high academic goals. Locke and Latham’s goal setting theory (1990) postulate that setting defined challenging goals helps motivate individuals to increase performance toward the goals and feedback which is important to maximize the motivating force of the goals. To operationalize goal setting in schools, Hoy and Hannum (1997) uses the term ‘academic press’ to refer to “the extent to which the school is driven by a quest for academic excellence. High but achievable academic goals are set for students, the learning environment is orderly and serious,


145

teachers believe in their students’ abilities to achieve, and students work hard and respect those who do well academically” (p. 294).

Implement Post Mortem Analysis The fourth step in the HEADCOUNT process is to ‘implement a post mortem analysis. This step is taken immediately after student test scores are obtained. Post mortem analysis involves teachers at three levels: the subject’s teacher; the subject’s panel; and the school’s curriculum committee. At the first level, the academic subject teacher needs to analyze students answer sheets to identify their understanding or weaknesses on a particular topic. They can conduct an item analysis to identify the concepts that students have difficulty comprehending. An appropriate interventions program would then be carried out based on this analysis. An example for an item analysis for Chemistry is shown in Table 6. The second level involves the subject panels. The lead teacher in every subject panel needs to identify the various instructional problems faced by teachers teaching the subject. The lead teachers would also compare and analyze the performances of teachers and their ability to improve their students’ performance. Appropriate classroom teaching and learning strategies, coaching and mentoring programs, and other staff development activities will be undertaken for teachers deemed not performing the required standards.

Table 6 Example of Item Analysis: O Level, Chemistry Paper 1 The third level involves the school’s curriculum committee. The committee comprising of school administrators and subject lead teachers will meet to analyze the students’ academic performances. The committee will analyze the results and decide on the appropriate actions that the school will take at a macro level to rectify the identified problems such as providing individualized coaching for teachers or students, providing tuition, or introducing specialized program for those identified (James & Balasandran 2009).

Action Planning

146


The final step in the HEADCOUNT process is ‘action planning’. It is a three-part process: 1) initiation, 2) implementation, and, 3) institutionalization. The first part is the initiation or mobilization, followed by implementation, and, finally institutionalization (Regional Laboratory for Education Improvement of Northeast and Islands, Andover Massachusetts, 1987). These parts are further refined using the Maheswari (2007) portfolio achievement approach and David’s (1997) strategic approach as shown in Figure 3. Through action planning, instructional leaders are able to manage a planned change of sharing responsibility with the school’s middle managers and the front liners (teachers). Action planning ensures that instructional leaders are accountable for the intervention programs taken (Stronach 1993). Action planning is a platform for the school to transform itself while providing opportunities for teachers to change their practices. It enables the school to change its instructional practices by including teachers in the decision-making process. Besides helping the school in implementing a systematic internal audit on curriculum implementation, action planning also enhances teamwork and cohesiveness among its staff.

Figure 3 Three-Part process in action planning This technique is employed at various secondary and primary schools in Malaysia and the Republic of Maldives. The benefits and the significance of this technique could be a workable framework for other schools in this region. Success Stories The HEADCOUNT technique had recorded numerous successes when understood and implemented appropriately in schools. It is not geographically bound but has been successfully implemented both in Malaysian schools and also in the Republic of Maldives. The implementation at the Republic of Maldives is provided to reinforce the idea that this technique is applicable in different context and culture. A brief review of the success stories of two of the schools and a more detailed account of their successes is described below and in the appendixes.

Convent Green Lane Secondary, Penang, Malaysia Instructional Leadership Practice in Monitoring Student Progress

147

Convent Green Lane Secondary School is a government aided, girls only, secondary school with an enrollment of 1,096 students and 67 teachers. Among the students, 30.3% are ethnically Malays, 42.7% Chinese, 24.2% Indians, and 2.8% from other ethnic groups. The school has two sessions and is located in the suburbs. The HEADCOUNT technique brought impressive improvements in Grade 9 (PMR) and O Levels (SPM) examination results from 2007 to 2009. The school grade point average and subjects’ grade point average have shown tremendous and sustained improvements for three consecutive years. Appendix 1 provides a detailed account of the successes of Convent Green Lane Secondary School.

Majeediyya School, Republic of Maldives Majeediyya School is a government owned, boys only, secondary school with a history of more than 83 years. It has an enrollment of 1,600 students with mixed ability from Grade 8 to 10. The school receives its students from six primary schools every year and will usually include around 90 students who are very weak academically. The HEADCOUNT technique brought tremendous improvements in the O Levels examination results in 2009 when it was first implemented. Mathematics, which had been one of the weakest subjects for the past 8 years with an average passing rate of 40%, rose to 75%. The same could be said for almost all of the other academic subjects as well. Appendix 2 provides a detail account of the successes of Majeediyya School.

Discussion and Conclusion In the quest for quality, equality, and excellence in education, irrespective of students’ backgrounds in an unequal world, instructional leaders and schools in general need to do more for their weaker and lesser-endowed students. It is the personal view of the authors of this paper and other educators at large that all students irrespective of their background be given equal opportunity to learn and to excel in their studies and reach their fullest potential. This is a task that schools are entrusted to do and are to do well. It is also common knowledge that schools have always strived to better their results each year by a gradual increase in their students’ academic

148


achievement. Fortunately, much has been done towards this end. A good number of schools have succeeded but there is an equal number that seems ineffective. Those schools that did not perform did post mortems on their examination results, had extra classes, provided motivational talk, and did a host of other activities but more often than not, academic results still remained stagnant. Many schools seem to be at a loss on what to do next and they urgently seek answers to their dilemma. In the HEADCOUNT technique, acquired data is given meaning to create knowledge and information that can be used by instructional leaders to make meaningful instructional decisions. Translating the large amount of student data into information and knowledge to promote change and improvement makes good sense for school management. It is also in tune with the push for data driven decisions instead of just drawing from the school leaders’ experiences alone in enhancing curriculum management in schools. The HEADCOUNT technique enables the task of school and curriculum management to be made more manageable and transparent as principals, middle management, lead teachers and other academic staffs understand the processes involved in enhancing student learning. Thus by employing data-driven decision making, the instructional leaders creates an effective information flow that leads to improvement in student achievement. The HEADCOUNT technique is a simple yet systematic method that uses data and simple mathematical calculation to identify what a school could conservatively strive for and achieve. It does not seek to project or target what the school is unable to attain because each school is unique in its own ways. The simple five steps process in HEADCOUNT discussed in this paper focuses on the very basic essential elements in monitoring students’ progress that will further enhance and complement other elements noted in instructional leadership models. As noted in the success stories, the method provides a framework that can serve as a vehicle to bring about quick changes to a school such as boosting morale among teachers and students while the school is seeking out for more concrete long term goals and strategies. This does not, however, discount in any way the possibility that HEADCOUNT can serve as an excellent long-term strategy that enables a school to closely monitor and enhance its students’ academic achievement. REFERENCES


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Barber, Michael, and Mona Mourshed. “How the world’s best-performing school systems comes out on top.” (2007) Retrieved November 30, 2010 from http:// www.mckinsey.com/App_Media/Reports/SSO/Worlds_School_Systems_Final.pdf Blasé, Joseph, and, Jonathan Blasé. Handbook of Instructional Leadership: How Really Good Principals Promote Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin Press, 1998. Blasé, Joseph, and Jonathan Blasé. “Principals’ Instructional Leadership and Teacher Development: Teachers’ Perspectives.” Educational Administration Quarterly vol. 35, No. 3 (1999): 349-378. Bossert, Steven, Dunn Dwyer, Rowan Blanchard, and Gary Lee. “The Instructional Management Role of the Principal. Educational Administration Quarterly vol. 18, No. 3 (1982): 34-64. Brewer, John D. “Principals and Student Outcomes.” Economics of Education Review vol. 12 (1993): 281-292. David, Fred. Strategic Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997. Deming, Edwards W. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 2000. Edmonds, Ronald. “Effective Schools for the Urban Poor.” Educational Leadership vol. 37 (1979): 15-27. Fullan, Michael. “The Three Stories of Education Reform. Phi Delta Kappan Online Journal vol. 81, No. 8, (2000): 581-584. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from www.pdkintl.org/kappan/karticle.htm Hallinger, Phillip. (1992). “The Evolving Role of American Principals: From Managerial to Instructional to Transformational Leaders.” Journal of Educational Administration vol. 30, No. 3 (1992): 35-48. Hallinger, Phillip, and Ronald H. Heck. “Exploring the Principal’s Contribution to School Effectiveness: 1980-1995). School Effectiveness and School Improvemen vol. 9, No. 2 (1998): 157-191. Hallinger, Phillip and Ronald H. Heck. “What Do You Call People with Visions? The Role of Vision, Mission, and Goals in School Leadership and Improvement.” In Second International Handbook of Educational Leadership and Administration, edited by K. Leithwood and P. Hallinger, 9–40. The Netherlands: Kluwer, 2002. Hallinger, Phillip, and Joseph Murphy. “Assessing the Instructional Management Behaviors of Principals.” The Elementary School Journal vol. 86, No. 2 (1985): 217-247. Hallinger, Phillip, and Joseph Murphy. “The Social Context of Effective Schools. American Journal of Education vol. 94, No. 3 (1986): 328-355. Hoy, Wayne K., and John Hannum. (1997). “Middle School Climate: An Empirical Assessment of Organizational Health and Student Achievement. Educational Administration Quarterly vol. 33, No. 3 (1997): 290-311.

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James Ang Jit Eng & Ramiah Balasandran. Kepimpinan Instruksional: Satu Panduan Praktikal. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Profesional, 2009. Johnson, Richard. Using Data to Close the Achievement Gap: How to Measure Equity in Our Schools. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin Press, 2002. Killion, Joellen, and Thomas G. Bellamy. “On the Job: Data Analysts Focus School Improvement Efforts. Journal of Staff Development vol. 21, No. 1 (2000). Retrieved October 10, 2010 from http://www.nsdc.org/library/jsd/killion211. html Latham, P. Gary, and Edwin A. Locke. “Enhancing the Benefits and Overcoming the Pitfalls of Goal Setting.” Organizational Dynamics, vol. 35, No. 4, (2006): 332– 340. Langston, R., Gilbert McClain, B. Stewart, and J. Walseth. An Exploration of Strategies Which Elementary Principals New to Their Schools Use to Learn About Their School Culture (Report No. EA029163). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED421769), 1998. Lezotte, Lawrence W. Revolutionary and Evolutionary: The Effective Schools Movement (2001). Retrieved October 12, 2010, from www.effectiveschools. com/downloads/RevEv.pdf Maheswari, Kandasamy. Information Booklet: Attachment Program and Portfolio of Achievement. Kuala Lumpur: Open University Malaysia, 2007. Mason, Simon A. “Learning From Data: The Role of Professional Learning Communities.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.:, 2003. Massell, David. The District Role in Building Capacity: Four Strategies. (CPRE Policy Brief RB32). Philadelphia, PA.: Consortium for Policy Research in Education, 2000. Miller, Christine A. “School Reform in Action.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.: 2000. Prime Minister Department. The Roadmap: Executive Summary. Kuala Lumpur: Government Transformation Programme, 2010. Regional Laboratory for Educational Improvement of the Northeast and Islands. Implementing School Improvement Plans: A Directory of Research-Based Tools. Andover MA.: 1-152, 1987. Sagor, Richard. How to Conduct Collaborative Action Research. Alexandria, VA.: ASCD, 1993.


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Appendix 1: Convent Green Lane Secondary School, Penang, Malaysia SCHOOL’S PROFILE

Convent Green Lane Secondary School is a girls, government aided secondary school comprising 1,096 students and 67 teachers. Among the students, 30.3% are ethnically Malays, 42.7% Chinese, 24.2% Indians, and 2.8% from other ethnic groups. The school has two sessions and is located in the suburbs. STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE PRIOR TO IMPLEMENTING HEADCOUNT: ISSUES FACED

Students are weak in certain academic subjects due to inexperienced and new teachers. WHEN & HOW THE HEADCOUNT PROCESS WAS INTRODUCED

HEADCOUNT was first introduced in 2007 involving only students in the first and the last classes of Form 3 (Grade 9). The girls were selected for the program based on their Form 2 (Grade 8) final term examination results (2006). In the year 2008, the HEADCOUNT technique was extended to classes in all grade levels. WHAT ARE STEPS TAKEN BY THE SCHOOL TO IMPLEMENT THE HEADCOUNT TECHNIQUE

1. Take-off-value (TOV) of every student is first determined based on the previous year final examination results. 2. Subjects’ grade point average (GPMP) and individual students’ grade point average (GPI) were calculated twice a year based on the students’ mid-term and final-term examination results. 3. The analysis of the HEADCOUNT data was then given to the principal, vice principals, student counselors, and heads of subject panel. 4. Each subject panel member (subject teacher) determines the expected target result (ETR) of their students.

152



153

5. Based on the mid-term examination results, an analysis is made on whether the ETR is achieved. 6. From this analysis, a list of potential high achievers for Grade 9 (PMR) and Grade 11 (SPM) and their critical subjects were prepared and given to all the teachers concerned. 7. Immediately after trail examination for Grade 9 (PMR) and Grade 11 (SPM) students, a “Flexi Timetable” program for Grade 9 and Grade 11 students comes into effect for the critical subjects determined in the HEADCOUNT. The “Flexi Timetable” program started in 2006 with two periods per day for critical subjects for all Grade 9 and Grade 11 classes. It was duly extended to 4 periods per day in 2010. 8. Based on the individual student’s grade point average (GPI) in the HEADCOUNT, all students with a GPI of ≥ 4.0 (PMR) and ≥ 7.0 (SPM) were placed under a special program called “Jalinan Kasih Murni”. In this program, students, parents and teachers were grouped together to discuss ways to improve students’ performance.

7 Improving Head Nurses’ Leadership Skills Through Leadership Development Program (LDP) in Aswan-Egypt YALDEZ K. ZEIN EL DIN

MOHAMED H. KAMEL

Damanhour University Alexandria, Egypt

Suez Canal Unversity Cairo, Egypt

MOATAZA M. ABDEL WAHAB Alexandria University Alexandria, Egypt

Abstract This paper reports on a study to assess the effect of implementation of the Leadership Development Program (LDP) on head nurses’ leadership skills. The method used was quasi experimental conducted on 50 head nurses from 8 different governmental hospitals in Aswan before and after the implementation of the LDP. The LDP constituted of 4 workshops, coaching visits and network meetings. The training core in the LDP essentially required participants to choose challenges in their workplace and apply the LDP

154


155

methodology to produce measurable improvement. Participants in the LDP reported significantly more favorable perceptions of leadership abilities after the LDP (p=0.0001). There were significant improvements in all the measured practices. The average percentage of change in the scores of aligning practice was the most significant, after the intervention (164.3 ± 79.2 %). The authors conclude that leadership is a learnable set of skills and practices. Participants markedly improved their previously perceived weak practices after going through the process of LDP.

Introduction Leadership is not merely a series of skills or tasks; rather it is an attitude that informs behavior (Cook 2001). Leaders communicate vision, motivate, inspire and empower others in order to create organizational change (Bryant 2003; Faugier and Woolnaugh 2002; Bass 1999). Egger (2007) stated that good leadership and management in health service contexts, are about providing direction to gain commitment from partners and staff, facilitating change, and achieving better health services through efficient, creative and responsible deployment of people and other sources. Powerful leadership skills are needed by all nurses—those providing direct care and those in top management positions. Anyone who is looked up to as an authority (e.g., a nurse taking care of a patient) or who is responsible for giving assistance to others is considered a leader (Mahoney 2001). Effective leadership is critical in delivering high-quality care, ensuring patient safety and facilitating positive staff development (Frankel 2008; Stanely 2010). In more practical terms, nurse leadership is seen as a cost effective way to improve patient outcomes in times of limited financial resources when leaders can provide direction, influence, change and empower others (Cook 2004; Gullo and Gerstle 2004). Health care leaders, including nurses, frequently learn needed skills on the job and do not always have a good understanding of what they are practicing (Swearingen 2008; Longenecker 2006). In Egypt, nursing leadership had been studied widely applying different perspectives. In most studies, the leadership style was the dominant research concern. Gallab et al. (2006), studied the relationship between leadership styles, psychological empowerment and job satisfaction of nurses in Assiut University Hospital. Also, Mohamed et al (2008) conducted a research to study the relationship

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between assertiveness and leadership styles among nurses’ managers at Assuit University Hospital. In Alexandria University, Hassan (2005) studied the relationship between head nurses’ leadership styles and their job satisfaction. Abd-El Rahman (2009) conducted a research to study the impact of head nurses’ leadership development training program on workgroup climate and performance. Management Sciences for Health (MSH) adopted the leadership development program which is based on providing challenges, feedback and support to head nurses, developing head nurses’ self awareness and measuring program impact. Morsi, Mansour and El Sweswy (2010), applied the leadership development program in Upper Egypt and studied the improved public health interventions after implementing the program. The researchers found that when teams learn and apply empowering leadership and management practices, they can transform the way they work together and develop their own solutions to complex public health challenges. Also, the researchers reported that committed health teams can use local resources to scale up effective public health interventions. The leadership development program (LDP) passes through four phases. Phase one is about scanning the environment to identify the key challenges. The second phase focuses on filling the gap in management and leadership capability. This can be done through discussion groups amongst head nurses who would identify whom they generally expect to become leaders in their organization, and what they would like to see either maintained or developed in current and new leaders. Phase three focuses on mobilizing emerging leaders first by selecting a group of interested, promising managers for leadership development, and then mobilizing this group to develop action plans to address challenges. Mentors within the organization are identified who will work with this group to establish expectations and accountability and to provide support. The fourth phase concerns inspiring the leaders through education and development. On- going education, challenge, feedback and support are given. Each of these four phases consists of many tools that can be used to reach objectives (MSH 2001). By participating in effective leadership development programs, head nurses will be in a powerful position to influence the successful development of other staff, ensuring that professional standards are maintained and thus, enabling the growth of competent practitioners (Bakker et al. 2000).

ImprovingHeadNurses’LeadershipSkillsThroughLeadershipDevelopmentProgram(LDP)inAswan-Egypt

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Developing effective leaders is one of the most critical challenges in many organizations today (Madsen 2009).

Brief Description of the Study The objective of the study was to measure improvements in head nurses’ leadership skills through the implementation of the LDP (Leadership Development Program). A quasi experimental pre-and post study was conducted. A questionnaire which was originally developed and used by the MSH was translated into Arabic by the researchers and revised by five experts in the field for content validity. This questionnaire was then used to assess the four leadership practices: 1. Scanning, 2. Focusing, 3. Aligning and mobilizing and, 4. Inspiring. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part one consisted of items related to head nurses’ demographic data such as name, age, work place in addition to the date of completing the questionnaire. The second part included questions that are related to the four practices: namely Scanning (6 questions), Focusing (6 questions), Aligning and mobilizing (6 questions) and Inspiring (7 questions). The participants responded to a 5 point Likert-Scale ranged from “I never do this” (1) to “I usually do this” (5). Part three consisted of open ended questions which were used as a self assessment tool for head nurses about their current weaknesses and strengths. A pilot study for questionnaire was carried out on 5 head nurses to test the clarity of the questionnaire and to identify difficulties that may be encountered during the completion of the questionnaire. The final questionnaire was distributed to 50 head nurses from 8 different governmental hospitals in Aswan. Base-line data was collected, and the questionnaire was re-administered three months after the implementation of the LDP. The intervention program constituted of 4 workshops with a unique educational methodology for MSH that helped participants understand the concepts behind each leadership practice and apply them in their workplaces. The participants shared their experiences in these workshops on monthly intermittent intervals. The first workshop was related to “Scanning” in which the head nurses met, discussed and came to an agreement on the mission, vision, current situation and measurable results of a challenge that they chose. They developed a shared vision, measurable scales for results and identified stakeholders of the chosen challenges. During the month between workshop one and two, the

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participants conducted structured meetings with stakeholders, patients and colleagues. They also scanned their workplace regarding the current situation’s pros and cons. One month later, a second workshop was conducted where participants learned how to investigate root causes, and to select priority actions to focus towards the achievement of their measurable results. By the end of the second workshop, the participants completed their challenge models using many tools including priority matrix, important and urgent matrix, monitoring and evaluation plan, and fish bone diagram. Again, they shared what they had learned with their colleagues and superiors when they went back to their hospitals and developed an action plan. The third workshop focused on how to align, mobilize and inspire others in order to gain their help and support. This workshop consisted of sessions about how to work effectively in teams, how to inspire others and how to lead change and produce results. The final workshop was about preparing their presentations of their experience through the LDP and the outcome of their work. The participants worked in teams consisting of 5-7 persons who chose a challenge to work on within their hospitals. In-between the workshops, coaching visits and meetings were conducted to help participants develop and apply their challenge models and action plans. To build sustainability into the LDP workshops and team meeting, they were led in Arabic. Exercises were reviewed by local facilitators to ensure that they would be understood and accepted in the local context. The authors (consultants) facilitated short sessions of the program and led coaching visits between workshops to reinforce learning.


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Before the LDP, the nurses reported scores of 41.7% for each of scanning and focusing skills, 37.1% for inspiring and 36.7% for aligning. Participants reported significantly more favorable perceptions of leadership abilities after the LDP (p=0.0001). There were significant improvements in all the measured practices: focusing on priority issues (93.3%), inspiring others (88.7%), scanning of the current situation and construction of means to measure results of change (86.7%) and aligning and mobilizing people and resources (86.7%). They developed a shared vision, measurable scales for results and identified stakeholders of the chosen challenges. The average percentage of change in the scores of aligning practice was the most significantly changed after the intervention (164.3 ± 79.2 %). The inspiration practice had a percentage change in score of 111.2± 56.6%. Figure (1) shows the results. Percent of change did not vary significantly between male and female nurses. Percent of change in leadership skills was inversely correlated with age of the nurse, yet only significant for scanning (inverse, intermediate correlation, p=0.047), (see Fig. 2).

Discussion

Statistical analyses were done using SPSS 18.0, significance was set at a CL of 95%. Percent of change in scores was calculated as difference of scores (after—before LDP) * 100/score before LDP. Descriptive statistics, represented in box plots (Fig. 1), were performed. The data were tested for normal distribution using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and accordingly, Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used to test change in scores before and after LDP. Correlation between percent of change and age was tested using Pearson correlation coefficient, and the difference in percent of change between males and females was tested using t-test. The study involved 50 nurses, aged between 20 to 57 years old, with an average of 34.4±10.9 years. Only six (12%) of them were male nurses.

Results 160


Leadership development is a dynamic, ever-changing process directed at improving leaders and their organizations (Swearingen 2009). Different studies showed the relationship between leadership styles and different aspects. Gallab et al. (2006) found that there was a statistically significant negative effect of leadership score on the score of job satisfaction, and recommended that the head nurses should be aware of how to use the suitable leadership style that empower their staff nurses. Also, Mohamed et al (2008) found that there were no statistically significant differences between leadership styles and assertiveness among the nurses’ managers. The researchers recommend the necessity of including nurses in decision—making and policy making. Nurse managers must be briefed with information about their position, the nurses’ managers must have authority commensurate with their responsibilities, and must have adequate opportunity for promotion, professional growth and inservice training in communication and leadership in nursing. The present study results showed a significant improvement in all leadership skills. This could be attributed to the nature of the work done during the workshop, as all participants were active learners and freely shared opinions with their colleagues. Application of different tools was ensured


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during coaching visits and network meetings. The fact that they have worked in teams to develop their own challenge models and worked their way towards achievement of measurable results was a critical success factor for the work done. Also, the unique teaching methodology was another success factor, as facilitation rather than traditional teaching using the expert model enabled participants to interact with each other and exchange experiences, perceptions and ideas. Each person in the group was a valued active participant whose opinions and inputs are always respected. The same was found by Morsi, Mansour and El Sweswy (2010) after implementing the Leadership Development Program for one year. They reported that eight of the 10 involved health teams had achieved 95% or more of their desired measurable results and had selected a new challenge without prompting. Also, they found that by applying leadership and management practices to health care service

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challenges, they had significantly improved service delivery indicators and the operations of primary health units. The results of the current study showed that the implemented (LDP) has a significant effect on the “focusing” practices of head nurses, which mainly were decision making abilities, time management skills and priority setting practices. This finding could be contributed to the nature of head nurses’ work, as they are immersed in work where they should make daily decisions, and manage their time properly. Apparently, they were not previously equipped with the tools that could help them to focus. The same result was found by Thomas, et al. (2004) while implementing political leadership program at the Royal College of Nursing. The authors stated that the program included some steps such as: first, identifying the issues to be changed which is implemented in the current study by selecting a challenge to produce results; second, turning the challenge into a proposal for change which is achieved in the current study by developing a challenge model working on it for 6 months to achieve their measurable results. Hassan (2005) found that there was a positive relationship between the transactional leadership style of the head nurses and their job satisfaction. Abd- El Rahman (2009) studied the impact of leadership development program on first line managers, and she reported that the program added new information to the first-line manager. The current study findings show an inverse relationship between the head nurses’ age and their response to change. This means that younger nurses’ leadership skills improved more than the older ones. This finding may be justified by the enthusiasm of younger nurses and their need to implement leadership skills to reach better patient and staff outcomes. Leadership development has been linked to several outcomes in nursing. Blanchard & Player (2008) found that innovative leaders attract and retain the nursing workforce. Wong and Cumming (2007) found that nurse leaders who used their leadership skills to transfer strategy of patient care delivery in an organization improved patient outcomes, including reducing patient mortality and adverse events and increasing patient satisfaction. Scott & Caress (2005) contended that transformational leadership lead to increased motivation and staff contribution, encouragement of creativity and increased sense of worth. In Canada, the Canadian Nurses Association (CNA 2005) issued a report about nursing leadership development programs used for Canadian nurses. One of the leadership programs that had been evaluated by CNA was the Leadership Change Project developed by the International Council


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for Nurses (ICN). They found that the implemented program resulted in nine new policies, offer of leadership development programs for other nurses, and curricula changes. Also, the program helped in improved perception of nursing, as well as, individual nurse leader’s development (increased strategic communication, negotiation, equipped to implement change, and increased self-confidence).

Conclusion Leadership is a learnable set of skills and practices. Before the implementation of the LDP, head nurses perceived some weakness in their leadership skills such as communication and problem solving skills. They were willing to learn and to improve their skills. By participating in the leadership training program they showed improvement in the four aspects of LDP.

Acknowledgement Many individuals contributed to our completion of this paper. The authors are grateful for all of their support. We would like to thank Dr. Morsi Mansour, the project technical advisor, for his guidance in this project, and Dr. Abdo El Swesy, the project manager for his support and cooperation throughout the workshops. This project was supported by Management Sciences for Health (MSH). However, the present paper content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of (MSH). REFERENCES Abd-El Rahman, and M. Reem. “The Impact of First-line Nurse Managers Leadership Development Training Program on Workgroup Climate and Performance.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Alexandria University, 2009. Bakker, Arnold, Christel Killmer, Johanes Siegrist, and William Schaufeli. “Effort– reward Imbalance and Burnout Among Nurses.” Journal of Advanced Nursing vol. 31, (2002): 884–91. Bass, Bernard. “Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational Leadership.” European Journal of Workload Organizational Psychology vol. 8, No. 1 (1999): 9-32. Blanchard, Ken, and Kathy Player. “Nursing Leadership Can Be Taught. Nurse Leader, vol. 6, No. 1 (2008): 28-9.

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Bryant, Scott. “The Role of Transformational and Transactional Leadership in Creating, Sharing and Exploiting Organizational Knowledge.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Study vol. 9, No. 4 (2003): 32-44. Cook, M.J. “The Renaissance of Clinical Leadership.” International Nursing Review vol. 48, No. 1 (2004): 38-46. Egger, D. and E. Ollier. Managing the Health Millennium Development Goals: The Challenge of Management Strengthening: Lessons From Three Countries. Switzerland: Name of publisher?, 2007. Faugier, J., and H. Woolnough. (2009). “National Nursing Leadership Programme.” Mental Health Practice vol. 6, No. 3 (2009): 28- 34. Frankel, Andrew. “What Leadership Styles Should Senior Nurses Develop?” Nursing Times vol. 104, No. 35 (2008): 23-24. Retrieved on August 23, 2008, from http://www.nursingtimes.net/nursing-practice/1811643.article Gallab, Soad Ahmed, Ehsan Ahmed Gaber, Ramzy Hala Youssef, and Eman El Shazly. “Leadership Style, Psychological Empowerment and Job satisfaction of Nurses in Assiut University Hospital.” Unpublished paper, Alazhar University, 2006. Gullo, Shima, and David Gerstle. “Transformational Leadership and Hospital Restructuring: A Descriptive Study.” Policy, Politics and Nursing Practice, vol. 5, No. 4 (2004): 259-66. Hassan, Wafaa. “The Relationship Between Head Nurses’ Leadership Styles and Their Job Satisfaction.” Unpublished Master’s Thesis. Alexandria University, 2005. Longenecker, Paul. “Evaluating Transformational Leadership Skills of Hospice Executives.” American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine vol. 23, No. 3 (2006): 205-211. Madsen, Suzan. “Transformational Learning Experiences of Female UAE College Students, Education, Business and Society.” Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues vol. 2, No. 1 (2009): 20-31. Mahoney, Joseph. “Leadership Skills for the 21st Century.” Journal of Nursing Management, vol. 9, No. 5 (2001): 269-71. Management Sciences For Health (MSH). Developing Managers Who Lead.(2001) Retrieved on August 8, 2011, from Management Sciences of Health web site: http://erc.msh.org/TheManager/English/V10_N3_En_Issue.pdf Mansour, Morsi, John Mansour, and Abdo El Swesy. “Scaling Up Proven Public Health Interventions through a Locally Owned and Sustained Leadership Development Programme in Rural Upper Egypt.” Human Resources for Health vol. 8, No. 1 (2010). Retrieved 8 August, 2011 from http://www.human-resourceshealth.com/content/pdf/1478-4491-8-1.pdf. Mohamed, Fatma, Samah Abdellah, and Sahar Morsy. (2008). “Relationship Between Assertiveness and Leadership Styles Among Nurses’ Managers at


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Assiut University Hospital.” The Medical Journal of Cairo University vol. 76, Number 4 (2008): 12-16. Scott, Linda, and Ann-Louis Caress. “Shared Governance and Shared Leadership: Meeting the Challenges of Implementation.” Journal of Nursing Management vol. 13, No. 1 (2005):4-12. Simpson, Beverly, Judith Skelton-Green, Julia Scott, and Linda O’Brien. (2002). “Building Capacity in Nursing: Creating a Leadership Institute.” Canadian Journal of Nursing Leadership vol. 15, No. 3 (2002): 22-7. Stanely, Davis. “In Command of Care: Clinical Nurse Leadership Explores.” Journal of Research in Nursing vol. 11, No. 1 (2010): 20-39. Swearingen, Sandra. “A Journey to Leadership: Designing a Nursing Leadership Development Program.” The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, vol. 40, No. 3 (2008): 107-12. Thomas, Sue, Angela Billington, and Kathryn Getliffe. (2004). “Improving Continence Services—A Case Study in Policy Influence.” Journal of Nursing Management, vol. 12, No. 4 (2004): 252- 57. World Health Organization. Building Leadership and Management Capacity in Health. (2007) Retrieved on August 10, 2011 from: http://www.who.int/management/ FrameworkBrochure.pdf Wolfram, Hans- Joachin, and Gisela Mohr. “Transformational Leadership, Team Goal Fulfillment, and Follower Work Satisfaction: The Moderating Effects of Deeplevel Similarity in Leadership Dyads.” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, vol. 15, No. 3 (2009): 260- 74. Wong Carol, and Greta Cummings. “The Relationship Between Nursing Leadership and Patient Outcomes: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Nursing Management vol. 15, No. 5 (2007): 508- 21. World Health Organization. Regional Office for Eastern Mediterranean. A strategy for Nursing and Midwifery Development in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. (1997). Alexandria, Egypt. Retrieved on August 10, 2011 from http://www. emro.who.int/dsaf/dsa22.pdf.

8 Stakeholder Involvement Strategies in the Implementation of School-Based Management in Indonesian Public Senior Secondary Schools UMIATI JAWAS Faculty of Education University of Canberra, Australia

Abstract The basic premise of School-Based Management (SBM) is that strong stakeholder involvement is the determining characteristic of high-performing schools. Using High-Involvement Management model as the framework, this study examined stakeholder involvement strategies in Indonesian public schools. Designed quantitatively, the study found that there were different strategies used for student, parent and teacher involvement. The difference is linked to the lack of formally established structures and the relevant experience to exercise the delegated authority. The results imply that the

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adopted strategies do not really facilitate the involvement required for SBM implementation.

It is a matter of fact that the world has been going through immense changes due to the rapid and sophisticated innovation in technology. These technology advances have changed the society in many crucial ways and made it even more complex. As schools are the mirror of the society, the complexity going on in the society is equally affecting schools. Consequently, school reform or school improvement remains to be a serious and influential issue (Dalin 2005). Furthermore, the global economics collapse begun in the late 1990s and the following monetary crises that have crippled many nations have brought the urgency to rationalise and reform public sectors including the education sector. To reform education sector as the effort to meet the demand of this technology-driven and economics-sensitive society, many governments around the world have redefined their approach to educational change. The most obvious to notice is the redefinition of authority given to schools resulting in a new balance and distribution of roles between government and local schools in both decentralised and centralised systems. The democratisation of school system done through stronger empowerment of school stakeholders in school decision making is among others, a tangible proof of these shared roles. These balanced and distributed roles are believed to be an effective measure in eradicating problems faced by contemporary schools and have become the global approach for school reform. School-Based Management and Stakeholder Involvement in Indonesia School-Based Management (SBM) has been extensively advocated as an effective tool for school improvement worldwide (Raihani 2007; Abu-Dohou 2003; De Grauwe & Varghese 2000). SBM recognises individual schools as the most important unit of improvement and emphasises on the redistribution of decision-making authority as the key approach (Hannaway & Carnoy 1993 in Ogawa & White 1994). In SBM practices, formal decision making authority is assigned to and distributed among school-level actors to promote site participations in school-wide decision making (Malen, Ogawa & Kranz 1993 in Ogawa & White 1994). Indonesia has adopted the practice of SBM after the enactment of National Education System Act Number 20 Year 2003. Article Number 50

Section 5 grants the local governments the autonomy to manage primary and secondary schools within the area that best suits and promotes local characteristics and potentials. It is anticipated that the implementation of SBM will result in the improvement of democratic practices, community participation, equity, and the accommodation of diverse local interests and needs (Ministry of National Education 2004). The use of SBM principles in managing Indonesian primary and secondary schools is specifically explained in Article Number 51 Section 1. The implementation of SBM is further authorised by the endorsement of Government Decree Number 19 Year 2005, Article Number 49 Section 1 on National Education Standard. This mandatory implementation of SBM is intended to promote school independence, teamwork, partnership, openness, and accountability. Schools are expected to be independent in their leadership, instructional and curriculum development, learning facilities, school resource allocation, and stakeholder participation (Fadjar 2002 cited in Abu-Dohou 2003). There are four major objectives of SBM implementation in Indonesian schools as set by the Ministry of National Education (2004). First, it is to improve the quality of education through school independence and initiative in managing and empowering the available school resources; second, it is to promote participation of school stakeholders in education through shared decision making practices; third, it is to increase school accountability to parents, community, and government; finally, fourth, it is to encourage healthy competition among schools to perform better and to offer improved quality. Principally, the premise of SBM is that high-performing schools are basically high-involving schools and SBM can be instrumental towards achieving this objective (Abu-Duhou 2003; Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). To do so, the empowerment of school stakeholders becomes paramount. School stakeholders have to be provided with greater roles and responsibilities in terms of operational decision making on the national education policies (Bandur 2009). A successful SBM implementation can be accomplished if stakeholder involvement is present and promoted (Zainuddin 2008). High Involvement Management and the Strategies of Stakeholder Involvement It has been asserted that strong stakeholder involvement is the determining characteristic of high-performing schools (Abu-Duhou 2003; Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). The High-Involvement Management (HIM)

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StakeholderInvolvementStrategiesintheImplementationofSchool-BasedManagementinIndonesianPu

INTRODUCTION


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proposed by Lawler provides a set of decentralisation strategies for improving organisation members’ working performance and their contribution to the success of the organisation (1986, 1992 in Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). It stems from the need to change the logic of an organisation in terms of work responsibilities by eliminating strict job descriptions of those in service line and those at management level (Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). The framework of HIM model is set on the principle that getting people involved in the success of their organisation depends entirely on increasing their abilities to influence their jobs and work settings, to participate in identifying and solving problems in the organisations, and to understand and contribute to organisational success (Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). The framework requires the availability of the following four resources throughout the organisation: 1) information that enables individuals to participate and influence decisions with reference to organisation’s environment, strategy, work systems, performance requirements, and level of performance, 2) knowledge and skills required for successful job performance and for effective contribution to organisation’s achievement, 3) power to influence decisions about work processes, organisational practices, policy, and strategy, and 4) rewards that align the self-interest of employees with the success of the organisation (Mohrman & Wohlstetter 1994). These four resources are used alongside strategies of information decentralisation, knowledge and skills decentralisation, power decentralisation, and rewards for performance decentralisation.

What strategies are used to decentralise information to school stakeholders? What strategies are used to decentralise knowledge and skills to school stakeholders? What strategies are used to decentralise power to school stakeholders? What strategies are used to decentralise rewards for performance to school stakeholders?

Research Design To answer the research questions this study was designed as a descriptivequantitative study. This study was driven by the need to identify the patterns and regularities of the strategies of stakeholder involvement employed by Indonesian Public Senior Secondary Schools. Finding the patterns and regularities is among the objectives of quantitative research (Scott and Morrison 2007). Questionnaire survey was used as the main instrument for data collection to describe the strategies of stakeholder involvement used in six participating schools. Surveys aim to collect data at a given time with the objective to describe the nature of existing conditions (Scott and Morrison 2007).

Participants

Using the framework of High Involvement Management (HIM) model, this study aimed to identify the strategies used in involving school stakeholders in the implementation of School-Based Management (SBM) in six Public Senior Secondary Schools in Kota Malang, Indonesia. This study was conducted in 2008 and funded by Indonesia’s Directorate General of Higher Education under competitive research grant. The main research problem that this study aimed to answer is: What stakeholder involvement strategies are used to implement SchoolBased Management analysed by using the High Involvement Management framework? This problem is divided into the following sub research problems:

The targeted participants of this study were teachers, students and parents from senior secondary school level. Therefore, cross sectional questionnaire survey was used in this study. Cross sectional surveys collect data at a point in time from pre-defined sample population (Mertler and Charles 2008; Scott and Morrison 2007). Teachers and students represented the internal school stakeholders while parents were the external school stakeholders. Senior secondary schools were selected because it was assumed that the stakeholders particularly the students were eligible to participate in this study and to use their critical thinking in evaluating the issues presented to them. Purposive sampling technique was used in selecting the participant schools. The schools were chosen based on the academic performance measured by the enrolment score requirement for 3 subjects: Mathematics, Bahasa Indonesia and English within 0 to 100 score range. There were three classifications resulting from this academic performance: highly-competitive

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Research Problem


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(score for each subject above 80), averagely-competitive (score for each subject from 70 to 80), and fairly-competitive schools (score for each subject below 70). This classification was done so that the selection could approximately represent the existing profile of public senior secondary schools in Malang. Altogether, there were six public senior secondary schools involved in this study with two schools representing each classification. To ease the process of data collection, 25 respondents per stakeholder group were randomly selected. Altogether there were 150 teachers, 150 students and 150 parents participating in this study.

Questionnaire The questionnaire was formatted in Likert-type scale and developed using the strategies of Lawler’s High Involvement Management model. The strategies consist of decentralisation of information, decentralisation of knowledge and skills, decentralisation of power and decentralisation of rewards for performance. The items of the questionnaire were constructed using the guideline as follows: Decentralisation of information: Knowledge of school vision (for students, teachers and parents) Knowledge of school missions (for students, teachers and parents) Knowledge of school progress (for students, teachers and parents) Feedback practices (for students, teachers and parents on their child’s progress) Availability of academic information (for students, teachers and parents) Availability of non-academic information (for students, teachers and parents) Decentralisation of knowledge and skills Availability of academic trainings (for students) Availability of non-academic trainings (for students) Availability of job skill trainings (for teachers) Availability of social skill trainings (for teachers) Availability of organisational skill trainings (for teachers) Team work practices (for teachers and parents) Knowledge of school financial system (for teachers and parents) Knowledge of school revenue and expense sources (for teachers and parents)

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Knowledge of school’s problems (for students, teachers and parents) Decentralisation of power Shared decision-making practices (for students, teachers and parents) Input for school programmes (for students, teachers and parents) Decentralisation of rewards for performance Recognition for personal achievement (for students, teachers and parents) Reward for personal achievement (for students, teachers and parents) Reward for personal contribution (for students, teachers and parents) School’s attention to personal welfare (for students, teachers and parents) There were 3 different sets of 5-point Likert-type scales used in this questionnaire. First, the respondents were asked to describe the extent of their knowledge from 1 (do not know), 2 (less know), 3 (somewhat know), 4 (know) to 5 (really know) for questionnaire items number 1, 2, 3, 13, 14, and15. Second, for items number 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, the respondents were asked to describe the availability of school resources provided to them to promote involvement from 1 (not available), 2 (less available), 3 (somewhat available), 4 (available) to 5 (greatly available). In items number 4, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21, the respondents were asked to describe the frequency of stakeholder involvement practices from 1 (never), 2 (seldom), 3 (sometimes), 4 (almost always) to 5 (always). The analysis of the collected data was done by using simple statistical calculation where the responses were mainly tabulated to get the frequency of each response for every questionnaire item. The frequency was then calculated to get the percentage of the given response. The obtained percentage was used in interpreting the results and drawing conclusions of this study.

Questionnaire Pilot Test The pilot test of the questionnaire used in this study was done in one of the participating public senior secondary schools involving 25 teachers, 25 students, and 25 parents. A pilot test provides the means to test the reliability of research instrument. Reliability means that a research tool is consistent and stable, and consequently, predictable and accurate (Kumar 2005). This study used Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in measuring the reliability of the questionnaire. The results of the test showed .87, .93, and .89 respectively


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for student, teacher and parent questionnaire. The scores showed that the questionnaire was highly reliable.

STRATEGIES OF INFORMATION DECENTRALISATION

Percentage (%) Teachers

Students

Parents

Having the knowledge of school vision

92

16

11

Having the knowledge of school missions

94

18

12

Strategies of Information Decentralisation

Having the knowledge of school progress

99

41

63

Within the framework of High-Involvement Management model, for stakeholders to be involved in the success of the organisation, they need to know and understand the organisation’s mission, strategy, plans, and goals and how these factors are measured and how they can contribute to the organisational success. They have to be provided with ongoing feedback about their work performance and the performance of the organisation to identify the areas where corrective actions are required. However, the responses showed that the students and parents were left out from some strategies adopted by the schools in decentralising information. More than 80% of the students and parents did not know the vision and the missions of their school. This was in contrast with the responses provided by the teachers. More than 90% of the teachers were well-informed about their school vision and missions. The responses on knowledge of the students and parents on school progress showed a slight increase (41% for the students and 63% for the parents). The responses from the teachers kept showing a significant level of knowledge (99% of the teachers). Strikingly, the responses on feedback practices showed a totally reverse outcome. While the responses from the students and parents indicated a significant frequency of the practices (95% for the students and 83% for the parents), the responses from the teachers showed an extremely low frequency of the feedback practices given to them (97% chose never as the answer while 3% ranging from seldom to sometimes). The balanced responses were on the availability of academic and nonacademic information provided to the students, parents and teachers. The results showed that they had the access to this information (more than 90% of the students and the teachers and more than 70% of the parents).

Getting feedback

3

95

83

Having access to academic information

99

98

72

Having access to non-academic information

97

98

76

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 Strategies of information decentralisation

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Strategies of Knowledge and Skill Decentralisation High Involvement Management model requires a number of knowledge sets and skills to promote stakeholders’ involvement so that they can understand and process information in a way that leads to better decisions and better results. Job skills, social skills, and organisation skills are the domains of knowledge and skills important to performance improvement in addition to statistical quality analysis and other problem-solving techniques. While job skills are fundamental for effective performance, social-skills are essential for team works and other performance improvements. Contributing to the success of an organisation also requires the understanding of its organisational elements such as its financial systems, sources of revenue and expense, and the various constraints and requirements it has to meet. Competent decisions can be made if stakeholders understand these issues. The responses on school’s strategies in decentralising knowledge and skills showed that the involvement strategies were not fully adopted. While more than 80% of the students claimed that academic and non-academic trainings were available to them, the teachers only had the opportunity to attend job skill trainings. The availability of trainings on social and organisational skills for the teachers was very limited (more than 70% of the responses). This was quite contrasting with the responses on the frequency of teamwork practices which require the exercise of social skills. 83% of the teachers chose that teamwork practices were always done. However, the practices of teamwork were almost non-existent among the parents (87% of the responses).

Table 2 StakeholderInvolvementStrategiesintheImplementationofSchool-BasedManagementinIndonesianPu

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Strategies of knowledge and skill decentralisation

model, to decentralise power requires the establishment of forums that enable stakeholders to exercise influence and to vest their input in decision-making process regarding their job and organisation performance.

STRATEGIES OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL DECENTRALISATION


Students

Parents

Getting academic trainings

NA

96

NA

Getting non-academic trainings

NA

82

NA

Getting job-skill trainings

98

NA

NA

Strategies of power decentralisation

Getting social-skill trainings

29

NA

NA

STRATEGIES OF POWER DECENTRALISATION

Getting organisational-skill trainings

14

NA

NA

Involving in teamwork practices

83

NA

13

Having the knowledge of school financial system

11

NA

Having the knowledge of school revenue and expense sources

27

Having the knowledge of school problems

97

Students

Parents

Involving in shared decision making practices

33

6

9

9

Giving inputs for school programmes

35

4

9

NA

8

27

70

From the collected responses, it seems that shared decision-making practices were very rare. The practices were considered being seldom done by 67% of the teachers, 91% of the parents and 94% of the students. The responses on the practices for stakeholder’s to give inputs for school programmes were also similar. Even, the responses from the students showed insignificant practices where the option “never” was selected by 96% of the students.

Strategies of Power Decentralisation It is common that in organisations decisions are formally vested in positions and those who are not in these decision-making positions are restricted to exercise influence. Procedures and policies are usually determined centrally and imposed on the organisation with limited opportunity for stakeholders’ input and influence. Within the framework of High Involvement Management



The knowledge of school financial systems, sources of revenue and expense, and its problems came with different results. The responses on the knowledge on school financial system showed a substantial lack of knowledge. Many of the teachers and parents did not understand the system adopted by the school (89% for the teachers and 91% for the parents). Similar to the responses on school financial system, the responses from the teachers and parents revealed that they did not have sufficient knowledge of school revenue and expense sources (83% of the teachers and 92% of the parents). Nevertheless, the teachers and parents were aware of the problems faced by their school. 97% of the teachers and 70% of the parents had the knowledge of their school problems. However, only a small fraction of the students had the knowledge (27%).

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Table 3

Strategies of Rewards for Performance Decentralisation In the concept of High Involvement Management model, the decentralisation of rewards for performance acts as a personal acknowledgement for stakeholders’ contribution to the success of the organisation. The practices on this decentralisation strategy can reinforce stakeholders to exercise influence that can lead to greater performance. However, the practices can have their intended impact if there is clear definition of the desired performances and how the performances will be rewarded. From the responses on these decentralisation strategies, the practices to recognise personal achievement were common for student’s achievement in contrast to teacher’s achievement and parent’s achievement. 89% of the students chose “always” as the frequency of the practices. However, the frequency of the practices was considered as “seldom” by 87% of the teachers and 91% of the parents.


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Practices for rewarding personal achievement also showed similar responses. The majority of the students selected the frequency of the practices to be always (94%). The practices to reward the achievement of the teachers and parents still showed a low frequency where 91% of the teachers and 93% of the parents selected seldom as the answer. The responses for the practices of rewarding personal contribution were slightly different. Different figure came out from the responses of the teachers. 78% of the teachers selected the frequency to be “always” as 92% of the students did. 91% of the parents still thought the practices to be seldom done. The responses for school’s attention to personal welfare showed similar answers from the students, teachers and parents. More than 85% from each group chose always as the frequency of the practices (88%, 93% and 89% for the students, teachers and parents respectively). The responses indicated that personal welfare of the students, teachers and parents received substantial attention from the school.

The results above clearly show that there were different involvement strategies used by the schools to involve the students, teachers, and parents in school activities and programmes. The parents had the lowest involvement followed by students and then teachers. The parents averagely had insignificant involvement in all four decentralisation strategies. The students had the highest involvement in the decentralisation of rewards for performance but the lowest in the decentralisation of power. The teachers had the highest involvement in the decentralisation of information but the lowest in the decentralisation

of power. As described, the results clearly show that the decentralisation strategies were not fully applied to promote school stakeholder involvement as required to implement SBM. Indeed, these results actually reflect the apprehension that has been surfacing since the initiation of decentralisation practice in Indonesia back in 1998 after the collapse of the centralised government. Although the decentralisation of authority was welcomed with much enthusiasm, there has been hidden anxiety of its realistic implementation in the long run. Culturally, centralism government is deep-engrained in Javanese respect for hierarchical system and a single source of power (Anderson 1990; Errington 1985 cited in Bjork 2005). In Javanese society, the most leading ethnic group in Indonesia, the state has been defined hierarchically with power positioning at the top (Emmerson 1978; Mackie and Macintyre 1994, cited in Bjork 2005). Therefore, this change of government’s paradigm from centralism to decentralism will require the need to alter the long-established structures in the community and the functions entitled to its members (Zainuddin 2008). This lack of formally established structures in the society will be a huge road block to power decentralisation. In addition, Indonesia’s decentralisation programmes have been described as one of the fastest and most comprehensive initiatives ever attempted in the region (Bandur 2009; Guess 2005). This is a remarkable contrast to Indonesia’s characteristics as one of most highly centralised nations in the word at the end of the 20th century (Bjork 2003). This contradiction brings reservations on the attainability of the programmes. The apprehension on this power redistribution also emerges in the prospect of decentralising education. The core of this lack of confidence rests in the reality that this change of authority and the resulted transition has been done in a very short time without sufficient readiness and preparation to embrace the consequence especially by those working in the affected sectors (Nandika 2007). Another major concern is on public readiness to take a more active role in decision making. The extensive reliance on centralistic and hierarchic government system has made public participation in decision making a limited experience for Indonesian citizens (Nandika 2007; Bjork 2005). Moreover, there has been lack of experience in executing authority by local school leaders and concrete supports from the central authority to empower local schools (Bjork 2003 cited in Raihani 2007). This condition has made many of the school principals not dare to take any initiatives and make

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Table 4 Strategies of rewards for performance STRATEGIES OF REWARDS FOR PERFORMANCE DECENTRALISATION


Students

Parents

Being recognised for personal achievement

13

89

9

Getting reward for personal achievement

9

94

7

Getting reward for personal contribution

78

92

9

Getting attention for personal welfare

93

88

89

Discussion


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any necessary changes and still rely on directives from their superiors in their school district (Sidi 2002, cited in Irawan, Eriyanto, Djani and Sunaryanto 2004). As a result, the centre-local relations in education system in Indonesia are still at a more centralised point on the continuum where the central government still exercises leading role in decision making and articulating directions for school development (Raihani 2007; Bjork 2005). Additional concern is on the empowerment of teachers. There has been lack of political will from the government to appreciate teaching profession, to organise and manage teacher training institutes to attract potential candidates and produce qualified teachers, and to protect and empower teachers through teacher professional organisation (Sapari, 2003). The protection and freedom given to teachers to be creative, to develop their teaching competences, and to focus on their profession to be professional teachers, are rarely taken into consideration by their superiors (Kintamani 2002). The government has shown little interest in teachers’ performance in the classroom so the responsibility to improve the quality of teaching has been neglected by both the government and the teachers themselves (Bjork 2005). Doubts also overcast community and parental involvement in school management process. According to Fadjar, a former Minister of Education, although the element of community is an emphasis in SBM concept, the role of community participation in the implementation of SBM in Indonesia is only superficial (2002 cited in Abu-Dohou 2003). Community and parents are rarely considered as school partners and their voices and concerns are hardly ever taken into consideration in formulating school policies and the related programmes (Nandika 2007; Irawan, Eriyanto, Djani, and Sunaryanto 2004). Strong influence and practice of feudalistic and paternalistic culture of Indonesia’s society contributes more to these reservations (Fadjar 2002 cited in Abu-Dohou 2003). This cultural practice is rooted in Javanese value for hierarchical society and a single source of power (Anderson 1990; Errington 1985 as cited in Bjork 2005). In this cultural perspective, people from the top hierarchy are those who have the authority and capability to make decision while people from lower level are supposed to accept and comply with the decision. This practice of social stratum may discourage broader community participation in school activities and programmes. Another concern is on the government’s true willingness to distribute authority to subordinating level (local schools). Some case studies on educational decentralisation have revealed that a primary block to its

implementation has originated from central government resistance (Govinda 1997 cited in Bjork 2005). Nandika argues that the bureaucracy approach employed by the government has become the obstacle of SBM implementation in Indonesia (2007). The enactment of Government Decree Number 19 Year 2005 on National Education Standard and Minister of Education Decree Number 19 Year 2007 on Management Standard has been criticised as the efforts to maintain central government’s hegemony. A study done by Bjork reveals that there has been a lack of commitment from Indonesia’s central authority either to empower local schools or to provide them with sufficient means and assistance (2003 cited in Raihani 2007). In addition, Indonesia’s long history of centralised bureaucracy in national education system has further strengthened the reservation about government’s real intention in putting education autonomy into practice. The most common reason on the centralistic system status quo in education is that decentralisation or delegation of control often leads to internal conflict and political struggles (Bjork 2005). These threats of disintegration can make it legitimate for central authority to resume the control and strengthen its role in decision making (Bjork 2005). Being a vast archipelago makes the possibility of disintegration wide open to Indonesia and the sign of it can be seen from the political struggles going on in some regions. It has been asserted that the education system in Indonesia remains organised vertically with the ultimate authority established at the top of the hierarchy (Nandika 2007; Bjork 2005; Irawan, Eriyanto, Djani, and Sunaryanto 2004).

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IMPLICATION The main conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that the different strategies adopted for involving students, parents and teachers in school activities and programmes are likely linked to the lack of formally established structures and the lack of experience to exercise the delegated authority allocated to each stakeholder group. These different strategies imply that school stakeholder involvement is fragmented and the adopted strategies do not really facilitate the involvement required for effective SBM implementation. The fragmented involvement of school stakeholders brings to light the issue of management and leadership in education. It is a matter of fact that most of school authorities themselves today strictly function as managers. Managers are more concerned with rules and regulations for job performance

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rather than investing in people (Weller and Weller 2000). Leaders, on the contrary, focus on developing human potential, delegating responsibility, and sharing power. Leaders seek to form bonds and relationships with their stakeholders to accomplish organisational goals (Weller and Weller 2000). However, effective leadership requires skilled management. An organisation that has an excellent leader but nobody with good management skills may aspire to achieve great objectives but can fail to make them happen because there is no one to follow through (Beekun and Badawi 1999). An organisation with good management but poor leadership will preserve the status quo and may not be able to progress to a higher level of performance (Beekun and Badawi 1999). Leaders can reframe experiences to open new possibilities while managers can provide a sense of perspective and order so that the new possibilities become realities (Beekun and Badawi 1999). Another implication of this study is on the issue of leadership power. Much attention has been given to formal leadership where power is vested on the top of school structure (Middlehurst 2008). This type of leadership entitles the single authority to the leader alone that minimises school-wide participation and neglects the existing leadership potential in a school. Framing the authority only on the top of hierarchical structure, formal leadership may fail to recognise informal and emergent leadership that has been asserted to have significant impacts on the accomplishment and sustainability of school improvement. School improvement works effectively if leadership is shared and distributed (Fullan 2001 cited in Davies 2005). In addition, leadership thrives if those who lead focus on the stakeholders and their ability to act productively together (Donaldson 2001). The complex and dynamic nature of contemporary schools requires the exercise of different array of competencies and this can be best achieved through empowerment of and collaboration with stakeholders. Research evidence has shown that school improvement is more likely to happen if stakeholders are involved and empowered in areas of importance to them (Silin and Mulford 2002 cited in Davies 2005). This is because when the involvement is strong, stakeholders will have more constructive opinions towards each other, more adherent and committed to their collective vision and more motivated to accomplish their collective objectives.

Abu-Duhou, Ibtisam. School-Based Management. Jakarta: Penerbit Logos Wacana Ilmu, 2003. Bandur, Agustinus. “The Implementation of School-Based Management in Indonesia: Creating Conflicts in Regional Levels.” Journal of NTT Studies vol. 1, No. 1 (2009): 16-27. Beekun, Rafik. I., and Jamal A. Badawi. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective. Beltsville, Maryland: Amana Publication, 1999. Bjork, Christopher. “Local Responses to Decentralization Policy in Indonesia.” Comparative Education Review vol. 47, No. 2 (2003): 184-216. Bjork, Christopher. Indonesian Education: Teachers, Schools and Central Bureaucracy. New York: Routledge, 2005. Dalin, Per. School Development: Theories and Strategies. New York: Continuum, 2005. Davies, Brent, ed. The Essentials of School Leadership. London, UK: Sage Publications Company, 2005. De Grauwe, Anton and N. V. Varghese. “Improving School Efficiency: Issues and Priorities.” In Improving School Efficiency: The Asian Experiences. UNESCO Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning, (2000):1-32. Dillman, Don A. Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007. Fowler, Floyd J, Jr. Survey Research Methods, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2002. Donaldson, Gordon A. Cultivating Leadership in Schools: Connecting People Purpose and Practice. Columbia University: Teachers College Press, 2001. Fowler, Floyd J, Jr. Survey Research Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2002. Guess, George M. “Comparative Decentralization Lessons from Pakistan, Indonesia, and the Philippines.” Public Administration Review vol. 65 (2005): 217–230. Irawan Adi, Eriyanto, L. Djani, and A. Sunaryanto. Mendagangkan Sekolah: Studi Kebijakan MBS di DKI Jakarta. Jakarta: Indonesia Corruption Watch, 2004. Kintamani, Ida. Guru dan Dinamikanya in Selintas Pendidikan Indonesia di Akhir 2002: 8 Isu Pendidikan. Jakarta: Indonesia Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pusat Data dan Informasi Pendidikan, 2002. Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology: A Step-By-Step Guide for Beginners, 2nd ed. New South Wales: Pearson Education Australia, 2005. Mertler, Craig A. and C. M. Charles. Introduction to Educational Research. 6th ed. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2008.

REFERENCES

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Middlehurst, Robin. “Not Enough Science or Not Enough Learning? Exploring the Gaps between Leadership Theory and Practice.” Higher Education Quarterly vol. 62, No. 4 (2008): 322-339. Indonesia, Ministry of National Education. Manajemen Berbasis Sekolah, 2004 http://www.depdiknas.or.id. (accessed July 14, 2009). Mohrman, Susan A and P. Wohlstetter. School-Based Management: Organizing for High Performance. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994. Nandika, Dody. Pendidikan di Tengah Gelombang Perubahan. Jakarta: Pustaka LP3ES, 2007. Ogawa, Rodney T and P. A. White. School-based Management: An Overview. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994. Raihani. “Education Reforms in Indonesia in The Twenty-First Century” International Education Journal, vol. 8, No. 1 Australia: Shannon Research Press (2007): 172-183. Sapari, Ahmad. Peranan Komite Sekolah in Selintas Pendidikan Indonesia di Awal 2003: Tujuh Isu Pendidikan. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pusat Data dan Informasi Pendidikan, 2003. Scott, David and M. Morrison. Key Ideas in Educational Research. London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2007. Sidi, Indrawati. D. Interview Remarks in A. Irawan, Eriyanto, L. Djani and A. Sunaryanto. Mendagangkan Sekolah: Studi Kebijakan MBS di DKI Jakarta. Jakarta: Indonesia Corruption Watch, 2002. Silins, Halia C, R. M. Mulford, and S. Zarins. “Organisational Learning and School Change” Educational Administration Quarterly vol. 38, No. 5 (2002): 613-642. Weller, David L. and Sylvia Weller. Quality Human Resources leadership: A Principal’s Handbook. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc, 2000. Zainuddin. Reformasi Pendidikan: Kritik Kurikulum dan Manajemen Berbasis Sekolah. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2008.

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PART THREE

Mainstreaming Asian Values in Educational Leadership and Leadership Education

9 Educational Leadership: When Competitiveness Means Collaboration LYNN ILON Seoul National University

ANTHONY H. NORMORE California Lutheran University

Abstract School leadership is generally framed within the context of the school building yet education is increasingly conceived in a global context, especially in rapidly developing Asian countries. This follows an overall trend where development itself is being rethought less as purely economic and more as social progress. The theoretical basis of these changes bring into focus a need to collaborate even as global competitiveness ramps up. Theories which emerge from a competitive environment, nevertheless emphasize a need for collaboration in learning and innovation. In an age when many Asian educational systems are viewed as globally competitive, can the inherent Asian value of collaboration be a benefit? This chapter links the emerging theories and concepts of competitiveness and collaboration with a needed refocusing of educational leadership away from school buildings toward global perspectives which can handle this new thinking.

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Introduction The nexus of educational leadership appears to be shifting towards Asia in two distinct ways. First, education growth and achievements are most dynamic within Asian countries relative to the former dominance of Europe and the Americas. Second, collaborative/ institutional structural approaches to organizing governments and civic society within Asian contexts (Dodgson 2007; Aggarwall & Koo 2008) are being examined for the apparent success of such educational achievement. Are these patterns of collaboration and competition at odds or is there a means of integration that has not been apparent previously? Are the latest international achievement tests a measure of which country is “ahead” in the national education race? Certainly, Asian countries appear to be fully within the international competition and moving towards the top of the achievement levels.

Table 1 International PISA Rankings by Region TOP 1-5

TOP 6-10

TOP 11-15

Asia/Pacific

3

3

1

Americas

1

Europe

1

2

4

3

TOP 16-20

OVERALL TOP 20

2006 7 1 4

5

12

2010 Asia/Pacific Americas Europe

7

1 1

1

5

1

2

4

11

Table 1 shows the results of the 2006 and 2010 PISA results of readings, science and math achievement as measured by OECD. It shows the top twenty countries. In 2006, Asia was at the top and represented by three of five countries, but the number increased to four in 2010. By 2010,

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seven of the top ten countries tested were in the Asia/ Pacific region. This is a considerable gain from earlier international tests. Clearly, international competition is important for Asian countries and requires a leadership focus that goes beyond the school borders. Yet, traditionally, school leadership training has long been conceived within a framework of a school building, as influencing the functioning of school personnel and students. Often it speaks to efficient and effective management. This chapter posits a very different framework for leadership, one that is global in perspective. In so doing, it examines a recent tension in the literature being embraced within the Asian context. That is, the need to collaborate within a competitive environment. The chapter, thus, launches from a global, theoretical and conceptual base and then examines how this base would influence educational leadership much as it has business leadership. The global context in which Asia’s environment is being developed required that a shift from school-based leadership to global-based be conceptualized and it is the purpose of this chapter to begin this conceptualization.

The Changing Environment Is competition among nations, measured by individual student’s mastery of subject matter, a good indication of life chances and opportunities for residents of countries? Education is generally thought to be part of a nation’s competitive strategy. Fast-growing and industrialized countries have emphasized education as a means of increasing national income and placement among nations (Cardoza 1997, 1999; Cho, Hyun, & Lee 2007; Segal 2004). Yet, increasingly, the new forms of learning and the frameworks for education are turning toward a language of cooperation. Industry, itself, sees that collaboration, even with one’s competitors, is a necessary part of staying viable within a global economy (Faulkner & de Rond 2002; Golich 1992; Oinas 2002; Wolfram-Cox, Mann & Samson 1997). New learning theories, meant to equip students for innovation-focused societies, emphasize the role of collaboration as a tool for innovation. Increasingly, knowledge is a component of jobs, civic progress and economic growth. The critical competencies required to fully participate in these emerging social structures require collaborative skills which cut across disciplinary and cultural lines:

Educational Leadership: When Competitiveness Means Collaboration

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Educational principles and cultures focusing on collaboration, interdisciplinarity and engagement with real-life problems are needed to prepare people for flexible and innovative participation in the economy and society (Lundvall, Rasmusseen & Lorenz 2008, p. 681).

Yet, these frameworks do not coincide with reforms of many educational systems which continue to focus on schools, classrooms and teachers as the central core of education (Barboza 2010; Department of Education 2010; Duncan 2010). Although the recent release of PISA scores (OECD, 2009) has sent education officials scrambling to explain or extol their country’s performance vis-à-vis other countries, the attention remains firmly focused on education methods that brought about the industrial revolution and from which achievement scores intended to show individual, school and national competitiveness arose. Several fundamental changes in the learning environment point to the importance of collaboration as an important skill and as a means of fostering the type of learning that will move societies forward. This chapter proceeds in this manner. First, innovation is being recognized as a central component of social progress in societies. This is a fairly new development beyond former models based on inputs. Second, new theories are being developed that show how learning must change into a collaborative learning model in order to foster innovation. Third, new thinking is emerging that highlights the need to broaden opportunities as a balance to building achievement at the top. Recent international results bear out this conclusion. Finally, it will take leadership to make this happen. Just as the framework for schooling must adapt, so too does leadership. Schools did not always define, so comprehensively, our learning environment. Societies have gone through periods where formal study was an enclave of the elite or of a secluded life. During those periods, societies depended upon a few who could read and write. Later, bureaucracies required an educated class, but the typical laborer was educated through a mentorship or was not educated at all. It was the industrial revolution that began to formalize schooling for whole nations and made schooling compulsory (Deyoung 1989).

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Now, perhaps, that era is breaking free of another access barrier that seemed quite logical in its time. That is, the notion that learning takes place largely within the confines of a school, largely though self-study, largely until the age of 20 or so, and largely at the behest of a teacher. New technology makes learning available in one’s home, easily collaboratively, and compelling throughout one’s life. But it is not so much the technological possibilities that are defining a new education era, as the new ways that knowledge is contributing to social well-being and societal progress.

Innovation Innovation is now a central focus of new economic thinking about how societies progress. Romer (1990, 1993) following Solow (1956) speculated that it is the way that a nation uses its resources, rather than the resources per se that determines a nation’s progress. Romer speculated that: Ultimately, all increases in standards of living can be traced to discoveries of more valuable arrangements for the things in the earth’s crust and atmosphere . . . No amount of savings and investment, no policy of macroeconomic fine-tuning, no set of tax and spending incentives can generate sustained economic growth unless it is accompanied by the countless large and small discoveries that are required to create more value from a fixed set of natural resources (Romer 1993, p. 345).

This stands in contrast to the foundations of human capital theory (Denison 1962; Schultz 1961). Education was thought to be an additional input to a nation’s resources—adding to the value of land, labor and capital (Polachek, Kniesner, and Harwood 1978). The idea that economies grew purely from the input of land (natural resources), labor, and capital (all physical investments) was refined, somewhat in the seminal work of Michael Porter in 1990. He incorporated the notion that advanced economies relied on innovation. Under the assumptions of human capital theory, people’s education made them better workers by improving their productivity. The focus was on industrial productivity. New growth theory, on the other hand, assumes that


191

humans directly affect advancements. Einstein’s invention of the telephone or light bulb did not, likely, increase his productivity, but it did influence the ability of the entire world to move forward. The invention of irrigation meant that one person could produce more food, but it also opened up possibilities for human organization, communal living and quality of life far beyond the farm. The discovery of penicillin changed the life course of millions of people; albeit making drug companies wealthy in the process. Innovation is far-reaching. While it might affect the productivity of some directly, it has the potential for changing human life on a broad scale—not always through increased productive work. Linsu Kim (1999) makes the point that innovation and productivity are not independent of cultural influences in the case of Korea. He posits that the Confucian work ethic and value of education inherent in Korean culture has combined to move Korean innovation quickly into international competitiveness. The interplay of education, innovation and technology are combined in a uniquely Asian way. Lim (1999) makes a similar point.

Learning Sawyer (2009), a learning psychologist is tackling the question of how learning must change to adapt to an emphasis on innovation and creativity: The most pressing problems that face our world are large in scale and complex in nature, far out of the realm of any one person to resolve—poverty, pollution, hunger, disease, armed conflict. The creativity that matters in today’s world is the creativity of teams and organizations with the capabilities to make a difference (Sawyer 2009, p. 42). His leap, in a single paragraph from the needs of industry for innovation to the social implications of a broad spectrum of people who are diverse and good learners, demonstrates a crucial link between education and innovation. Sawyer explains elsewhere that particular competencies are needed— the ability to work creatively to build new ideas, to critically evaluate what is already known, and to take responsibility for learning throughout a lifetime (Sawyer 2009, p. 2). The need for largely homogenous, procedure and rule oriented workers is declining not just in high tech industries, but in the very heart of the poorest countries. Sawyer and other learning psychologists (Barab & Duffy 1999; Jonassen, Cernusca & Ionas 2007) view cooperation and collaboration as necessary

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elements of innovation and creativity. Cooperative and collaborative skills are generally learned in a group environment even as mastery of particular knowledge may be learned through a one-on-one interaction with a computer. Technology can be helpful in collaborative work using social networks, blogs and shared technology. None of these skills are things one “learns” in school, masters and then moves on to a work environment. Rather, they are learning processes that need to be used, reshaped and adapted through one’s entire life. Lundavall Rasmussen & Lorenz (2008) suggest that this pace of change, much more than its substance or the technology that accompanies it, defines the new learning environment. When knowledge is continually revised, invented and redefined, it becomes important to learn to learn, and to incorporate it into everyday life. In this context, “education” is reframed as “learning” and moves from a school/non-school dichotomy based on time and age to a flow that moves throughout one’s life—lifelong learning. This need to think of learning as a lifetime pursuit is not just theory. Researchers writing in applied fields in engineering and technology are already using these concepts (Lim 1999; Archibugi & Bengt-Ake 2003). In these fields, innovation cannot stand by hoping that educational theorists can explain the pace of learning in their industries. These engineers and applied economic specialists understand that education is being redefined within their work environments and is a leading source of innovation. Given the evolution in thinking about economic development represented by this new theory, the stage has been set for the incorporation of lifelong learning concepts into the pedagogy, structure and measurement of social progress and through this measurement into the substantial change in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) thinking1. The OECD began to tackle these issues as it found that knowledge productivity did not follow the tenants of GDP productivity metrics. Their report of 1996 (OECD 1996) “adopted a definition of lifelong learning that was consistent with the concept characteristics identified by UIE experts” (Tuijnman & Bostrom 2002, p. 101). In their view, lifelong learning “refers to all systematically organised learning activities associated with formal education as well as to learning that takes place in informal or non-formal settings” (Tuijnman & Bostrom 2002, p. 102).

Collaboration


193

The older thinking of education viewed as an input into productivity is being challenged at many levels. Those challenges seem to lead, increasingly, toward a more collaborative model of learning. One of the more startling theories to emerge in the last decades is Amartya Sen’s theory of how societies progress. In his view, one critical element is the fundamental role of collective conversations, debate and action. His view, explained most succinctly in his 1994 address as President of the American Economic Society (Sen 1995) is that collective dialogue creates knowledge that can be widespread and robust among many people. In so doing, it can be acted upon. Such actions generally lead to high levels of development and greater social progress. This view combines two themes heretofore discussed—collaboration and innovation. The collaboration results in new knowledge that differs substantially from scientific knowledge. It is a kind of collective awareness which leads to action. This collaborative learning adds directly to societal progress without going through the productive (industrial or agricultural) process. The innovation comes from the growth of new ideas. Unlike technological innovation or engineering inventions, collective knowledge innovation comes from increased awareness and a diversity of ideas, thoughts, opinions and possibilities. As the collective weighs various ideas, a consensus arises around the most appealing actions. Sen’s work, which won him a Nobel Prize, asserts that no society which is free to create this collective knowledge and to act upon it, has experienced a major famine. Rather, creative ideas on how to distribute resources or avoid the tragedy are put into action. An entire literature is rapidly growing around the notion that viability in knowledge industries means learning how to collaborate—even with one’s competitor (Dyer & Singh 1998; Powell, Koput & Smith-Doerr 1996; Teece 1986). The idea is that knowledge comes from a collection of people who are working on similar or related issues. The literature emphasizes that, while company-specific designs may need to be kept private, the creative thinking behind them is fostered by cross-company relationships and dialogue (Krugman & Venables 2004). We have gone full circle in industry—from competition to collaboration. But such collaboration is not just a condition of continued viability. It is a condition of creativity within a company. Where efficiency of operation might once have been the goal, new theories of innovation contend that efficiency should give way to innovation within organizations whose value is based on knowledge. Since knowledge is a constantly expanding resource

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with marginal costs of production near zero, there is no reason to emphasize efficient resource use. Rather, the goal ought to be to maximize the potential for innovation within organizationally defined values (Cortright 2001; Romer 1998; Lundall 1996). In this view, innovation can drive huge leaps in value in unplanned and unexpected ways. The ability of a group to learn and innovate is the driving force behind such leaps. Lim (1999) makes the point that this very integration lies behind the emergences of Korea’s IT sector. Whereas the West’s design of higher education draws a rather strict line between the interest of private business and that of public universities, mitigated carefully through research monies, the Asian model integrates the two explicitly, viewing industry and educational interests as aligned toward the larger public interests (Hershberg, Nabeshima, & Shahid 2007). Industrial collaboration across borders is also more common in Asia than in the West (Borrus, Ernst, & Haggard 2000). How is education preparing for this emphasis on innovation? For the shifting from efficiency and competition to learning and collaboration to occur, thinking must go beyond the classroom or the institutions. OECD’s careful look at learning environments does not see much to be hopeful about in recent educational practice. According to Dumont and colleagues: However valuable that self-study and personal discovery may be, learning depends on interacting with others. There are robust measured effects of cooperative forms of classroom learning when it is done properly …. Despite this, such approaches still remain on the margins of much school activity. The ability to co-operate and learn together should be fostered as a “21st century competence”, quite apart from its demonstrated impact on measured learning outcomes (Dumont, et al. 2010, p. 15)

Leadership Society, its identity and cohesion, and its understanding and acceptance of other societies, is seen to be largely created in our schools. Yet, learning is no longer restricted to what goes on within the school walls. In fact, it is universally accepted in OECD countries that schools must build strong relationships with their surrounding communities if they are to be effective (Hallinger & Kantamara 2001; Hofsted 2001; Walker & Dimmock 2002). Essentially, society’s most important investment is increasingly seen to be in the education of its people—we suffer in the absence of good education: we


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prosper in its presence (Mulford 2002). In an era of high expectations and demands worldwide, school leaders have an enormous responsibility. A growing concern among education reformers and their communities is whether emerging and practicing education leaders are prepared to face political, economic, cultural, and social pressures and create schools that advocate for education that advances leadership for learning. Schools are thrust into the realistic notion that they must prepare children and communities for participation, collaboration, and for engaging in new and innovative ways that knowledge is contributing to social well-being and societal progress. Research calls for leadership that promote a broader and deeper understanding of issues related to reforming educational leadership and learning in an ever-changing world (Jean-Marie, Normore, and Brooks 2009). Learning and leadership seem to be two very broad areas with a great importance for issues such as globalization and whether ideas and theories are universally applicable, whether they have to be adapted to the local contexts, or whether they are context-dependent and designed and developed accordingly (Huh 2010).

A New Leader for a New Age In the book Global Perspectives on Educational Leadership Reform: The Development and Preparation of Leaders of Learning and Learners of Leadership, Normore (2010) spearheaded a dialogue across local, national, and international boundaries and examined the scope of various program reform propositions and leadership and learning considerations around the world. The dialogue was dedicated to the development and preparation of school and community leaders to think globally and act courageously about issues that promote positive education reform. International scholars were represented from Israel, Canada, The Netherlands, Democratic Republic of Congo, Australia, New Zealand, Zambia, Greece, USA, UK, Hong Kong, South Korea, and focused on leadership and learning from an international perspective. Common conclusions made by the contributors indicated that efforts to increase the capacity of schools by broadening educators’ work beyond conventional notions of teaching and leadership would be improved by paying attention to socio cultural context, lifelong learning, and how issues of leadership and learning shape and influence possibilities and desires for a more harmonious society that transcends national and international boundaries.

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The research lends itself as a response to earlier researchers in the USA who suggested a need for comparative studies of educational leadership and development that investigate the contexts, processes, leadership and work experiences, and attitudes of school leaders with particular reference to similarities and differences between countries that experience modernization and industrialization and poor countries (Jean-Marie, et al. 2009; Walker & Dimmock 2005). Normore and colleagues intended to spearhead the crossfertilization of ideas and experiences that could provide insight into leadership, learning and education reform efforts. The shifts involve radically new thinking about how value is created within a society and, with this new understanding, how whole societies and individuals within the societies need to rethink their views of education. Implicit in these new developments is a serious examination of the very definitions of both education and leadership. Facts and skills can increasingly be acquired on demand through technology or in computer aided situations and represent just one dimension of learning. But, collaboration, networking, innovation and creativity is a social exercise that requires a skilled leader— someone who guides the interactive process and shows groups how to find new paths to information and guides the exploration of opportunities. As entire societies become learning systems, leadership will also involve leadership collaboration and creativity at a group level that will require a non-competitive education model to be developed. New ideas thrive in an environment where people are free to try new things, experiment and spend time sharing ideas. It means that the learning system must take advantage of the inherent characteristics of knowledge—that it grows naturally if provided the right environment (Normore & Ilon 2010). Research on globalization continues to emerge in education albeit briefly (Brooks & Normore 2009, 2010; Jungck & Kajornsin 2003; Spring 2008). However, this relatively small body of knowledge that connects globalization to educational leadership indicates that it is likely that school leaders are inadequately prepared or ill-equipped to confront the realities of what it means to lead schools in a global society. As Brooks and Normore (2010) suggest, this dearth of extant inquiry may also mean “that educational leaders are oblivious to the way that local and global forces interact to shape the context of the lives of those responsible for delivering quality instruction for student learning and the school and communities in which they lead” (p. 54).


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Research has clearly indicated that an education must not focus on geographically myopic perspectives that offer little benefit to students. A myopic education (that is, education focused only on geographically local perspectives) will not prepare them as they enter into a shrinking but competitive world where they will need to engage in global partnerships, institutions, and economies (Brooks & Normore 2010; Kapur & McHale 2005; Ohmae 2000; Rohwer 1996). The learning method is not institutional but instead it is one of cooperation, networking and innovation (Taylor 2001) that fit as a piece of a large learning system. The learning network itself can be used to create a public dialogue about the parameters of the learning infrastructure—who ought to have access, when access is restricted, what elements are needed and how they are built and regulated. As public sophistication grows, it will adjust the value set, design new norms and imagine new ideals. Therefore, a critical part of the new learning infrastructure ought to be a means whereby its parameters are set by an ongoing public dialogue. Such changes imply not only a very different type of learning system, but one led by leaders with a particular set of skills. These skills are important for consideration to those who prepare educational leaders and to those who practice educational leadership for two reasons: (a) to support and encourage leaders to take responsibility for how they set agendas, provide direction, and influence, and (b) to translate their competencies into leadership that can provide students with a meaningful global educational experience (Brooks & Normore 2010). Given the rapidly changing educational context, learning to lead change represents one of the central challenges facing Asia’s educational leaders. New school leaders must understand the demands and opportunities of the global context and be able to articulate these to their constituents (Hallinger 2003; Leithwood & Day 2007; Walker, Hallinger, & Qian 2007; Walker & Kwan 2008). These new kinds of leaders must also recognize that even in the midst of rapid global change, people are still subject to the norms, values and customs of their traditional cultures. In the global context of educational reform, policymakers have increasingly focused their attention on school leaders as agents of change. A global consensus exists among policymakers that “leadership makes a difference” in the quality of school education, the capacity of schools to implement change, and in student learning outcomes. These conclusions ring equally true in East Asia and other parts of the developing world where school systems have, over the past 20 years, implemented a broad range of

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new policies, systems, and programs aimed at increasing the capacity for leadership, especially at the school level (Cheng & Walker 2008; Hallinger 2005; Walker & Kwan 2008). Yet, it should be noted that both the assumption that “leadership makes a difference” and related “education policy solutions” derive from research generated largely from Western socio-cultural contexts (Cheng 1995; Hallinger, Walker & Bajunid 2005; Walker & Dimmock 2002).

Conclusions In this chapter, we argued for the potential synergy of a new kind of leadership in a globalizing, linked world of learning. Understanding the trends of the future and histories of the past is significant in the development and preparation of the new kind of educational leader. Fortunately, due to technology access, the world has grown to meet students and adults alike and the preparation of students globally, the preparation of those who teach and lead them, and the preparation of those who prepare the teachers and leaders have become critical. Contemporary educational leaders ought to lead their communities in broad-based conversations about what they want for their students and their future in a global society. In this vein educational leaders of learning demonstrate understanding, embracing, and acting as globally competent cultural leaders. This implies that educational leadership of the future requires a person who can guide a dynamic, high growth, vast network of learning that is both importantly locally defined and globally responsive. Far more than today’s school leaders or today’s corporate leaders, such an environment changes daily and is defined largely by its users. There is a need to examine generalizations related to learning and leadership across cultures and geographical boundaries, between East and West, but also between Eastern contexts. As with all complex systems, each has its own life, shape, growth pattern and members. It is not enough to be caring, intelligent and informed. Mastering, upgrading and adapting leadership in context is the only way that such a powerful, globally linked learning system can be guided to ensure that society’s goals are being met (Normore & Ilon 2010). In order to meet the heightened, multiple expectations now placed on schools and to have engaged students and teachers, it is argued that schools need leaders who lead learning organizations, consciously and continuously pursuing quality improvement. Schools without the proper leadership cannot be changed effectively, and it cannot adequately assure the success in educational reform.


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Part of the challenge for new leaders is to evaluate approaches as they unfold, and to be willing to adapt strategies in the light of their outcomes, as well as applying multiple strategies as appropriate to different contexts. In other words, in developing new learning approaches for students, schools themselves have to be good at learning (Mulford 2002). NOTE 1. Along with many organizations. See UNESCO (undated).

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10 Leadership Experiences and Motivation to Lead: Reflections of Student Leaders in Malaysian Public Universities JAMALIAH ABDUL HAMID

STEVEN ERIC KRAUSS

Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Institute for Social Science Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Abstract Leadership development is an important social agenda of institutions of higher learning. Astin (2001) declares that it is the social responsibility of colleges to prepare students for future leadership. Despite the various literatures on leadership development among undergraduate students, there is a lack of in-depth understanding of leadership experience and motivation as leaders amongst student leaders in non-Western settings. In response, this paper reports on a study of focus group discussion with twenty-seven student leaders from twelve public universities across Malaysia to explore their leadership experience, and the motivation in their leadership.

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Introduction In 2010, the strategic plan for national higher education of Malaysia declared 23 critical agenda projects. One of the critical agenda was to focus on the holistic development of the university student, and to ensure he or she has the necessary leadership skills, self-development skills and employability skills to be competitive in job recruitments. The critical agenda project aims to achieve excellent outputs by the year 2020. With only nine years to go till 2020, how much has public universities in Malaysia progressed towards achieving the aspiration of the critical agenda? Student leaders are representatives of the student population. They represent important thermometers and bench marks of students’ self-development, not only because they are able to feel and sense the quality of student development from an insider’s point of view but also because they are able to do with a macro bird’s eye sweep of the entire picture. In this study, we report on interviews with student leaders who reflected on their leadership experiences and development, and the motivation in their leadership. To a certain extent, the student leaders also described their views of other student-colleagues in the course of describing their leadership experiences.

Student Leadership As apart from the definition of corporate leadership with its mark in competitive standards of performance, Astin and Astin (2000) define student leadership as the desire to provide service to others, to enrich group experience, or to initiate some desired change. In the exercise of leadership, students might be motivated to develop skills to serve others, to bring about some desired change, or simply to have a more interesting group experience. The emphasis of student leadership is on self- awareness or self-knowledge, other-discovery and taskdiscovery (Krauss & Abdul Hamid 2010). Self awareness entails developing awareness of strengths and weaknesses in one’s character, awareness of fields of interest to which one would like to make further commitments, and awareness of one’s ability to manage personal emotions in response to interactions with others, diversity of culture and beliefs, and to problems. Other-discovery involves awareness of differences and diversity in people and their culture, beliefs, and value systems. The discovery of others means to accept those differences and to find creative and constructive ways by which

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development for the common good might be achieved. Task awareness is a relatively new concept. Student leaders generally get their first real experience of hands-on leadership when they attempt to unite and mobilise others, mostly their peers and fellow students, to collaborate in planning and implementing projects and activities. Task awareness entails being aware of the importance of goal setting, being able to devise a plan of action to achieve those goals, and being able to coordinate and steer the members of the committee in a positive and collaborative climate towards the completion of the project or activity (Krauss & Abdul Hamid 2010).

The social responsibility of campuses to develop student leadership Many researchers (e.g., Cooper, Healy, and Simpson 1994; Astin 1993; Foubert and Grainger 2006) have confirmed the importance of the campus environment in fostering leadership development. For many students, getting admitted to the university is perhaps the first experience of being away for a considerable period of time from their immediate family and familiar childhood or neighborhood friends. The university campus is the place where students first experience full autonomy and independence as adults. They are expected to make decisions which concern their academic and social life; they are expected to learn how to cultivate broader and mature interactions as they become more exposed to different people and cultures; and they are encouraged to explore broader fields of interests and gradually learn to identify which areas of interests they would prefer to commit their time and energy in. Campus have at their disposal the primary motivators to initiate and develop the extent of student involvement. Through policies, faculty and university programs and merit systems, they have the capacity to rouse students’ interest in joining many campus activities, thereby opening the opportunities for different levels of socialization and interaction that help students to mature and develop their character. Some universities use Chickering’s (1987) seven vector model as a basis to model their strategy to develop leadership amongst students. The seven vectors comprise: developing intellectual, interpersonal and physical competence; management of emotions through increasing self awareness and control and management of expressions; developing the ability to balance between the complementary role of personal autonomy and interdependence on others; learning about and establishing self

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identity and recognizing and appreciating the diversity of others; developing a sense of purpose in life, and developing integrity through the adoption of a set of values, behavior, and beliefs that would guide one’s actions and decisions.

Context of student leadership in Malaysian campus In the context of Malaysia, rigid administrative and tight programmatic structures are trademarks of public institutions of higher learning (Abdul Hamid & Krauss 2010). Innovations in student-initiated programs led by student leaders are always possible and encouraged, but the bottom line is to ensure that the program would be approved and endorsed by the university or faculty authorities. There are programs offered for student participation at the faculty and university campus levels, and more within the residential colleges for undergraduates. These programs are overseen by faculty members, but often the planning of the content and activities within those programs is delegated to appointed student leaders. Student participation in those programs is often noted, and sometimes the participation quota is determined. In theory, all students need to maintain a certain minimum level of attendance to ensure a balanced holistic character development. As they interact with faculty members, university staff, and peers, student leaders adopt different roles (Whitehead 2002). As a result, student leaders also face considerable amount of role conflict. This section of the literature review draws on empirical research on role demands of student leaders in Malaysia. Role demands can develop a person in a positive light, but it is possible that they might also become de-motivators. This section on role demands provides useful background to understanding student leadership experience and their motivation as leader in Malaysian campus. First and foremost, student leaders are undergraduates with serious academic responsibility (Said 2006). Excellence in academic performance is still the bottom line expectation of any undergraduate, regardless of the positions they might hold throughout their scholarly career. The faculty expects good academic grades, as do the parents of most undergraduates. As role models to all students, student leaders cannot but abide by the motto of academic excellence. The challenge to meet academic demands whilst simultaneously planning and coordinating other tasks have been documented in various research (example, Said (2006); Boon (2006), Abdul Hamid & Krauss (2010)).

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Student leaders are also student representatives. They are expected to listen to students’ expectations and mediate on other students’ behalf. Students often demand for better welfare and better support from faculty and university in all aspects of academic and co-curriculum. In addition, students generally want campus programs that are fun, hands-on, experiential, and contribute to self-development, but student leaders find it difficult to amass resources and experts to provide the necessary input (Abdul Hamid & Krauss 2010). As the liaison person between students and the authorities, student leaders find themselves having to learn, respond to, and anticipate the politics of both sides. The role of student leader is a political one. Finally, student leaders are emblems of their university. They must support, persuade, and cajole their student colleagues to respect the university culture and identity with pride. In the campus, student leaders are expected to run and coordinate activities that foster and portray unity and solidarity, have intellectual yet egalitarian appeal, and are unique yet diverse (Abdul Hamid & Krauss 2010). Through programs such as community involvement, collegial sports, and volunteer activities, student leaders work to fulfill their obligations to help other undergraduates to acquire better skills, knowledge, and social experiences (Astin & Astin 2000). At the same time, they assist the university in dispensing its social responsibility to develop broader and wider perspectives and knowledge horizons to the student population.

Sources of motivation for leadership Many previous research studies in student leadership in Malaysia has focused on the campus environment and the role demands of student leaders. Yet, in spite of the multiple demands on the role of student leaders, surely leadership has its own attraction and motivation. The motivation of student leaders in Malaysia is an unexplored field to the researchers’ knowledge. Barbuto (2001) described five sources of motivation among leaders (Table 1). These sources of motivation are not rigidly exclusive; instead they sometimes blend and flow into one another (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). Table 1. Sources of motivation Motivation Source Definition


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Intrinsic process

Derived from fun or enjoyment of the task

Instrumental

Derived from expectations of tangible rewards

External self-concept

Derived from a desire to improve reputation and image

Internal self-concept

Derived from a need to meet personal standards of ideal self

Goal internalization

Derived from a deep-rooted belief in the cause or principle

Source: Barbuto 2001, 714. Intrinsic process motivation refers to the pleasure derived from being the leader in spite of the challenges faced. Some people are motivated by the challenge to develop the direction of change and working with people and resources to achieve those goals. Instrumental motivation is closely aligned to the transactional reward or gain obtained from being the leader. Rewards may come in the forms of status, respect and authority, and reputation and image. Motivation driven by external self concept occurs when individuals seek others to affirm their leadership with respect to the traits, competencies and values normally associated with ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leadership. The ideal leaderself is adopted from the role expectations of certain reference groups, so that the self gains acceptance, and after achieving that, gains the status desired. Motivation driven by internal self-concept is the reverse of motivation by external self concept. Individuals driven by internal self-concept set internal and personal standards for traits, competencies, and values that become the basis for their ideal selves (Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl 1999). Finally, motivation by goal internalization occurs when individuals adopt and make leadership as a means to manifest beliefs, attitudes and behaviors congruent with their personal value systems (Barbuto and Scholl 1998). Another major work on source of motivation of leaders is that by Chan and Drasgow (2001). Chan and Drasgow (2001) proposed the Motivation to Lead (MTL) model, whereby motivation to lead is defined as an ‘individual difference’ construct affecting the leader’s—or future leader’s—decision to take on both the role and responsibilities of leadership. The MTL construct is articulated along three dimensions called Affective-Identity MTL (AI), Non-Calculative MTL (NC) and Social-Normative MTL (SN). A person may simply like leading others, hence the Affective-Identity MTL; whereas others

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might choose the role of group leader because they feel it is their duty or responsibility, hence, the Social-Normative MTL. On the other hand, some people may decide to accept a leadership role only if they are not too overly ‘calculative’ in the cost effectiveness of being the leader of a group. The Noncalculative MTL measures one’s willingness to take on leadership roles without being too calculative about the costs involved. The Non-calculative construct has received some criticisms, mainly because the reverse of non-calculative, that is calculative motivation—has not been adequately addressed in the composite index of motivation to lead. Moreover, it was argued that calculative motivation to lead can well stand on its own as an alternative measure of motivation to lead (and perhaps a stronger one).

Aim of the Study and Research Questions This research is an attempt to address the lack of empirical study on leadership experiences and the motivation underpinning leadership of student leaders in Malaysia. The research questions that guided this qualitative research are as follows: What are the leadership experiences of student leaders in Malaysian public universities, and how have those experiences developed their leadership? What motivates student leaders in their leadership? Methodology Sampling This paper reports on focus group interviews conducted with twentyseven undergraduate leaders from twelve public universities in West peninsular Malaysia. Participants came from a variety of academic programs including engineering, medicine, education, social and political sciences, computer science, business and economics, agriculture sciences and leadership and management. These students were either nominated by the Student Affairs Office or were identified directly by the researchers if their information was complete and available on the website of their respective university. Upon being briefed of the purpose of the research, all of these student leaders consented to be interviewed. All participants were full-time undergraduates, seventeen of whom were males. The age range of the participants was 20 to 25. The student leaders interviewed on each campus were often familiar with each other, having served together in various leadership roles such as on their


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respective university student representative council (SRC) or as collaborators on university student programs. Thus, the focus groups were very informal and relaxed. According to Raby (2010), conducting focus groups with young people who know each other facilitates meaning-making and can also help to offset the potential age-based power imbalance between researcher and younger research subjects. Prior to each focus group, participants were assured that all data would remain anonymous and confidential and would be used only for research purposes.

Interview guide A short, semi-structured interview guide was initially prepared containing questions pertaining to experience of leadership and sources of motivation in their leadership. However, generally the focus of the interview was a free narration of undergraduates’ leadership experience and factors that motivated their leadership. The guide served only to ensure that the questions asked were relevant to the objectives of the study, thereby reducing the error of researcherbiased interpretation and imputation of findings. Each respondent was allowed free response time and to talk as broadly as they wished.

Data collection The interviews were held at the respective campuses of the student leaders, at a place and time that they themselves arranged. Each focus group ranged between two to five members at one time. According to Toner (2009), more free flow of response is encouraged in smaller focus groups. Either one or both of the authors conducted the focus group discussions, which took between one to two hours each. The interviews were tape recorded with the consent of the participants. No representatives from the respective Student Affairs Offices, Faculties, or Residential Colleges were present during the interviews.

Data analysis The interviews were all audio-taped, then transcribed verbatim. Some of the interviews were conducted in Malay (which is the official language in Malaysia), some in English, and others a mix between the two languages. Graduate research assistants experienced in qualitative research methods and

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who were fluent in both languages were hired to transcribe all of the interviews. The transcripts were then spot-checked by the researchers for accuracy. The spot-check involved listening to parts of selected interviews, and verifying the accompanying transcription and/or translation. Eight student leaders in a nearby campus were also sent transcripts of their interviews, which they verified with few inconsistencies. The transcripts from the interviews were then coded and used to analyze and generate themes as well as conclusions. Although observation and immersion were not a formal method used in the current study, the researchers found that interacting with students while they were on campus and discussing relevant issues enabled the researchers to obtain other students’ views about student leadership, which added depth toward understanding the context of student leadership. But in analyzing the themes, the researchers were careful to let the data speak for itself and avoided author-biased imputations by peer-reviewing each other’s analysis and interpretation. The resulting themes were generally forthcoming according to the focus area of the study, although as is typical in naturalistic inquiry, the themes occasionally occurred in a few other places as well. When this happened, we analyzed the context of the narration before and after the case in point, and by using certain verbal cues in the narration we identified the themes that fell within the focus area. We did not attempt to enumerate the frequency of theme occurrence since it was not our intention to generalize the findings.

Findings Research question: Could you describe some of your experiences as a student leader? All respondents described their experience as student leaders as exhilarating and beneficial. They related many learning experiences that developed them as better leaders and better persons. A few themes drawn from their interviews that point to some learning experiences are as follows.

Leadership as an experience of systemic entity To some, the experience of leadership was described from a systemic view. Student leaders described how for the first time they understood the whole picture of how things were done in the campus. They learned about the micro


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processes that went into the planning and implementation of programs. They were able to appreciate the differences between the “planning of” (writers’ italics), which refers to the conceptual part of programs and the “planning through” (writers’ italics) which entails the blueprint of implementation. One particular response is illustrative of this: “As a student leader in the university campus, we have to do everything, from A to Z. We have to think about the programs we want to do for the students, and how to do them. We have to write proposals to submit to the Student Affairs, we write letters, we advertise our programs, we find money and resources, book the transport. We also find who to invite as guest speakers- everything, from small to the end. I never experienced this before, and suddenly, wow, I suddenly see all the big picture.”

Leadership as a political liaison experience Within this view of systemic whole, there was also much awareness of their role as a middle person in the system. All student leaders spoke of this role. “We are appointed by the university or the faculty, and we have a duty to represent them and we must implement what they want us to carry out with the students,” was one example of such a response. The two quotations below illustrate the student leaders’ growing awareness of the political role they had to play. They also learned that the liaison role was not without difficulty, because it demanded from them high personal ingenuity rather than mere intermediary skills. “The faculty wants us to promote awareness of excellence amongst the students, but our students, from what I can see, they are not so concerned about quality. I and my EXCO have to try to find way and means to approach them and slow talk them into being more serious with their academic. It is up to us… Although our students love to go for site visits and do hands-on type of activities, we don’t usually get the permission to from the Student Affairs. They just encourage us to run the usual type of forum formats so that more students can join in, and besides, it will help to reduce the cost. So we have to find a balance in a creative way.”

Leadership as relational experience

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From the participants’ responses, it was clear that they were beginning to understand that student leadership was a social relational behavioral act. They described of now being able to see the bigger picture of how their role fitted in with the role of others, who also shared common goals and responsibility. These student leaders began to experience leadership in bi-directional or multi-directional relational contexts that was markedly different from the topdown authoritative leadership experience they were exposed to while they were students under the charge of their teachers in school events. They all learned that leadership had to be communal and collegial on the campus. One example of a response was as follows: “In school you were just some teacher’s team of helpers. But in campus, I and my committee members, we are our own team. We plan the activities, and we think of how we can get it off the ground. As we work together, I think we all learn more how to lead others, because sometimes you take the lead, and at other times the other person takes the lead. There has to be real leadership at every point, because people tend to get emotional, and you must learn to control the situation.” Another student response added more insight to the previous citation. This student leader said: “Yes, like you have to respect all other people’s views. I mean, everyone on campus here is a smart person, otherwise they won’t be accepted to study in the university. So they have their own views, and you cannot just force people to accept your views only. For me, after I became involved in many activities, I realize how huge the university is, and the thought came, how can I lead all of them? Surely, that’s impossible. But now, now, I realize my role is to listen to them and together we decide on the plan.” One student leader described the bitter lesson she learnt that leadership was about developing communal relationship. Leadership was not merely a showcase of personal strength alone. She related: “I was too powerful -people said that I wanted to control everything. One day my committee members disagreed with me and did things differently. We quarreled, and I walked out. But later I apologized. What I realized was that I was too used to being independent. People thought because I showed independence, I would naturally become a good leader. I thought I was a good leader too. But leadership is not like that. My experience has taught me that to be a good leader, you have to convince others to work together with you.”


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Leadership as a catalyst for setting directions, shaping reality and goal achievement Student leaders were also aware that people expected them to set the direction of work, and clarify the goals to be achieved, and the actions to be taken to achieve those goals. For a few, this was a sudden awakening from the usual “wait and follow” (writers’ italics) self culture. One particular quotation is illustrative of this view: “I used to be shy and uncertain. I just wait for others to decide, then I will help them to do whatever needs to be done. I am still shy, but when I became a leader, I realized I have no choice but to perform. Even if I haven’t done anything like writing a proposal before, nobody expects me to say “I don’t know.” They just expect me to say, “OK. I will do it”. To me, when I became a student leader, it was all about making things happen. Things real. People depend on you.” While they realized team work was essential to support their leadership, they all learned the lesson that that the last line of command was theirs. It remained their duty to make the final decisions on the line of action to be taken and to ensure that work is well coordinated. As one student leader sums it up, “If we don’t coordinate well, we can only blame ourselves when things go wrong. People will point their finger at us.” With regard to goal achievements, a related theme emerged. A few student leaders described their leadership experience on campus as a marathon to achieve targets. One response as the one following is illustrative of this theme: “We have to complete a certain amount of programs per year for the students, and if we spend too much time planning on new things, I am afraid our performance will be down.” As a result, three student leaders compared their leadership experience to being task managers, rather than authentic leaders. One of them said, “Frankly, my concern is to get the programs running and I don’t have much time to plan for many new things”.

Leadership experience with growing critical perspectives It was evident from their responses that throughout their experience as student leaders they had developed increasing awareness of issues from a macro perspective. They developed critical perspectives that separated them from the rest of the students. As a result, they began adopting broader visions of

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change. For example, one common issue raised by all student leaders was that of student participation in campus activities.. Two citations illustrate how student leaders took an ‘external’ critical perspective on this issue: “One main weakness of students on this campus is that they don’t take the programs we run for them seriously. They just don’t realize that by joining these programs they will develop as better people. They will participate only if they their friends are also going, but they won’t think of coming to our events on their own. If there is a change I want to implement right away, it is to change their attitude. They should realize the benefits of joining these events”. “Unity is our weakness. Our programs still fail to attract the Malays, Chinese and Indians to come together. Some programs will still attract mostly the Chinese, and some mostly the Malays. If we fail to promote unity in the campus, then it will be much harder to unite outside. My ambition is to unite them but I don’t know how.” These responses showed that their leadership experience developed them as persons, and as leaders with emerging bigger visions. The responses indicate that the student leaders were having their first real insight into people leadership, that is, what they thought was good for the people. They have become aware of the cause they should like to personally champion. Yet, these student leaders are simultaneously aware of the constraints in pursuing their visions of change. Time and resource constraints, constraints set by university regulation, and their own lack of knowledge and experience in change transformation were some of the realities mentioned by these student leaders. Student leaders seem to hear two tunes as they ride in the chariot of leadership: drive innovation by one hand, but practice the art of handling the cup of tradition in the other. Above all, they must make sure the chariot stays on course because at the end of their leadership, they must be able to show, like all other previous leaders before them, the amount of programs successfully implemented during their time. Successful quantitative rates of implementation are important, because they are often the only status quo recognized as the critical indicator of great leadership. This means that visions of innovativeness of change must be carefully tampered with sober logic so as to ensure a healthy level of credibility in their leadership. Research Question: What motivates you to become a student leader?


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Student leaders were asked what motivated their leadership, in spite of having to face a lot of constraints and limitations. These student leaders described their motivation to lead as following. Motivation from the desire to create change The student leaders described their motivation to create change and to make improvements in their peers and surroundings. Examples of their responses were: “When I took this position, I had one aim—to push and to help our friends to generate, to give lots of ideas on how we can make our faculty better, in fact, the whole campus better, ” or, “I want to change the discipline and the attitude of the students here. Because from what I see, all the students here have less discipline and poor attitudes. Well, if they stay like this, …. I want to help them to change,” or, “I want to help my peers change and to build on their self-value. We all should have leadership qualities in ourselves whereby we can sell ourselves. …we need to be able to promote ourselves. Self-value is important, in my view.” People or peer development appears to be the major theme of their leadership mission. Although the underpinning concern was mainly peer development, their responses sometimes illustrated expressions of consciousness of a calling to create change at a broader societal level. The following citations illustrate the desire to create macro level change: “What we see now, social ills are widening. Still, there are students who think too little of our nation. Too many are still thinking only about themselves. I think I want to be with others who think of how we can help our nation in preventing social ills. Maybe I can persuade other students to change the way they think. I think most of the students do not think of the world….just think about themselves. Just think about what they want. The community cannot change if people just think about themselves. As a student leader, I think I have this opportunity to change the mindset of some of our students.” “For me now, it’s my ultimate vision to unite all these students regardless of their race. I want them to come and join in all our campus activity, be together, work together, as a community. Because like what our prime minister said, we must learn to live successfully in a multiracial country. He said it’s difficult. But we have to learn and learn.” Shertzer and Schuh (2004) reported that the desire to create change is a major motivation for people to serve as leaders. Our study similarly showed that student leaders desired to create change in the form of helping their fellow

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students change their attitudes and develop better characteristics and skills. This motivation for people development is commendable, and seems to be in line with the emphasis on character development stipulated in the goals of public universities in Malaysia (Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, 2010). We wish to argue further that this finding is suggestive that student leaders in Malaysian public universities see their leadership role as an extension of the paternal custodian/stewardship role that the university management explicitly declares in their policy. In this sense, the student leaders’ source of motivation appears to emerge from the policies upheld by the organization. We refer to this source of motivation as convergent type source of motivation. The buoyancy in their leadership, therefore, is contingent to the degree that the leader believes that his or her goals are closely aligned to those of the organization, the community, or the nation. We argue that had there been some ‘non-standard’ responses such as “the motivation to spark innovative learning ethics amongst the student population to encourage the graduation of scientists, economists, politicians, and artists from every residential college in every matriculation year”, then it would have been possible to suggest that these student leaders demonstrated a divergent type source of motivation.

Motivation from early preparation for future career All of the student leaders in our interviews said that they were motivated to lead because they believed their leadership experience helped them to acquire relevant skills for their future career. One citation illustrates this: “From it [leadership experience- writers’ explanation], we will get the experience of how to manage our members, and how to lead our groups to achieve the objectives. We gain experience in how to communicate with others so that they can accept what we say and they become willing to support us. You gain all this experience when you become a leader, and it will be useful in our future career.” Specific skills mentioned included interpersonal skills, team working, and planning and decision making. They described their appreciation for the opportunity to learn to interact with people, to lead different groups of people, to learn how to communicate effectively, and to build on cooperation and collaboration. The results showed that these student leaders valued their leadership experience as a career preparation strategy. In contrast, Shertzer and Schuh


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(2004) found in their study that their respondents hoped that their leadership would enable them to secure future positional leadership opportunities. The context of student leadership cannot be more different between the Western and Non-Western setting! Still, the importance of leadership experience for a future successful career is explicit, as described in this quote: “…because from being a leader now, we gain more experience and more knowledge that we can put to use in our future work.”

Motivation from challenging self-potential A number of student leaders described how they were motivated to become student leaders in their community because the role challenged them to explore their self potential. One student leader commented: “I am excited by the challenge of being a leader. It’s not just about holding a post or having power, instead we have the responsibility to challenge our own potential to achieve something.” To another student leader, his leadership experience was the leveling start of self knowledge, and an important pre-requisite for engaging in the more serious work of self-development. He said: “I think that when we become a leader, we actually get to know our level of ability to handle problems; we get to know what we really are. Then we can start improving ourselves.”

Motivation from leadership-defining experience Almost all student leaders recounted events and incidences that defined and challenged their role as leaders. These moments were key learning moments, and after an initial phase of self-reflection, these defining moments became motivators for these student leaders to continue to self-improve as leaders. One student leader narrated how conflicts and arguments with team members had caused her to break down during her time as a leader, but she learned to accept her own mistakes and became a better leader. Many of the learning experiences described were poignant and bitter, but these student leaders were honestly sincere in attributing to them their motivation to improve. Some of these defining moments are as follows: “It’s very difficult to make other people follow our way of seeing things because students in university—they are all grown up. Above 20 years old.

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They have their own thinking. It’s very frustrating when they fight back and ridicule you. But I learn from there, I try not to give up”. “They [the students—writers’ insertion] keep fighting back, they just keep being difficult and challenge everything I say. I wanted to cry. But I forced myself to think positively. I tell myself that people don’t want to follow me only because they don’t understand what I want. I just have to learn how to talk to them.” “For me it’s not easy to get the people to work with us. They ask me, why should they support me? What’s there in return for them? I was shocked and I realized then that good intentions were not enough. So we have to make some extra effort to find certain soft spots in our friends, so that we can talk to them, and then slowly we can attract them and make them our followers. It’s not easy actually.” It seems that the learning experiences made these leaders aware that commitment to their roles meant having to find the means and ways to achieve their goals in spite of the resistance and difficulties. They became aware of lessons learned on how to encounter resistance, and this was indeed a valuable lesson to them.

Motivation from the need to reciprocate trust given by supporters The motivation to lead also came from a feeling of personal commitment to serve in the best interests of those who had in the first instance believed in their ability and, who, through their votes, had entrusted them with the responsibility to achieve greater heights for the common good of the community. This obligation to ‘pay back’ was demonstrated in this response: “For me, why I became a leader was because firstly, they elected me, they voted for me, so I have to give them something back. As a leader, I should do what I have promised, and I should lead them, this faculty and my friends, to achieve better.”

Motivation from having power, status, and influence Motivation seemed to stem from the power associated with the leadership position. “Platform to voice views”, “visibility and recognition”, “influence” and “power to get things done” are phrases that cropped up in these student


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leaders’ accounts of what motivates them to lead. The following are some excerpts: “I don’t have any regrets in being a leader, because one of the good things about being a leader is that your opinion will be heard. Yes, if you want to be heard, you have to have some position.” “When we hold a position, we have a bigger influence on students. They trust us. They will work with us when we tell them to do something or join any activity. It’s different, when we are holding post and when we are not holding a post, because when we don’t have a post, people don’t even see us.” “What makes me to become a leader is also because I love to be the highest, at the top of others. Because when we are at the top, people get to know us, they will follow our instructions, and so we can get more work done.” Positional power was a strong motivator because it enabled these leaders to be heard; it gave them the credible authority to command others; and it enabled them to influence other students to do what was required. It seemed that these student leaders saw that the implementation of any activity needed an authoritative push, which could only be gotten from a positional appointment. There was no reference made to acquiring or using other forms of power to influence students, such as “knowledge power” or “referent power”. These other forms of power did not seem to be a source of motivation. This implies that it was difficult for student leaders to use and develop multiple types of power to influence their peers. The fact that these student leaders only sought positional power exclusively to execute their visions of change or to carry out their responsibilities suggests that they tended to perceive their leadership as an extension of the university management arm. They had difficulties in perceiving themselves as empowered agents of change who could bring innovations through other means such as persuasion, influence, and peer mentoring.

Motivation from special privileges All student leaders talked about the special privileges that came with their position, and these were sources of motivation for them. There were notable forms of privileges that almost all student leaders without exception described. The following are some excerpts of what was said:

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“During Hari Raya open house celebrations or special dinner with the Minister or the Prime Minister, we [committee of student representative council—writers’ insertion] are often elected by the university to attend. I mean, the chances are slim if I were just a student only... “ “As someone holding a position in the university, I get lots of chances to attend different courses, like leadership...” “One thing that attracts me to become a leader is that you can get a good resume for your future job. Sometimes it is also easier to guarantee that you get a place in the hostel until you graduate. So you don’t have to worry about finding a room outside.” Notably, the source of these privileges is the university itself. These privileges bespoke the close relationship between student leaders and university management in public universities. This strongly suggests that part of the motivation in student leadership is derived from the rewards offered by the university, whether explicit or implicit. A few student leaders mentioned that visibility with officials in their respective universities also provided highlights in their leadership experience. For some, just the opportunity to work with and interact with officials at the higher levels of university management was a special privilege. Some of the remarks were as follows: “One time, we [student representative council] wanted to invite the Prime Minister to give a talk. I really learned a lot from the Student Affairs official. I really am thankful for this opportunity to become a student leader, because otherwise I would not have the opportunity to interact with them. I never imagined that one day I would sit in the canteen with the Head of Student Affairs, but he did, he rang me and told me that he wanted to discuss our entrepreneur project. From there on we meet quite often, and I listened firsthand to the vision he has, and I can say that I fully support his vision, and I try to implement it.” These encounters illustrate how the opportunity of working with the university management and being afforded special opportunities to interact with university officials on a one-to-one basis were sources of motivation for the student leaders.

Motivation from the desire to fill in the leadership gap


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When asked what motivated a particular participant to become a leader, he responded that there were too few people who were willing to fill in the leadership seat in his university. The sense that ‘somebody has to take up the challenge’ and take on the responsibility of leadership was another motivating factor that emerged from our interview data. Specifically, he said: “I think the first thing that motivates me to be a leader is basically to fulfill the need for someone to rise up to be a leader among a group of people. Very often I see that groups take a long time to decide on a leader because basically everyone in the group doesn’t want to be the leader because they don’t want to take the responsibility. So what actually motivates me is actually the need for someone just to take that responsibility and get things done.” Although this appears to be nothing more than a pragmatic response to a leadership situation, this same student later remarked that he could not bear to have to follow a leader who was immature or incompetent, and that rather than bear his disapproval in silence, he preferred to take on the leadership role himself. Thus, the student was pre-empting others whom he considered to be less capable to lead. Though perhaps not a very flattering depiction of his fellow students, the incident reflected a high level of selfconfidence and capability from the student; qualities that are important for leadership (Rost,1991, 1993). His source of motivation could be said to be individualistic, but to him, it served the purpose of ensuring that things were being accomplished for the greater student community.

Discussion The results of this study indicate that student leaders in Malaysian campus had rich experience in their leadership. They developed an understanding of leadership from a relational and systemic perspective. They understood that leadership had political nuances which they could not ignore but must learn to manage. They developed wider critical perspectives of change, but they were also concerned with achieving the performance status quo set by the university. In order to do this, they learned they had to set realistic goals and clear direction for work, even whilst they were continuing to develop wider perspectives of change. The findings have shown that the sources of motivation to lead amongst student leaders include: the desire to create change; as an early preparation for future career; development of self-potential; appreciation of leadership-

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defining moments; the need to reciprocate trust given by supporters; the need to acquire power, status, and influence, and special privileges; and the desire to fill in leadership gaps. We grouped these sources of motivation and discovered the following categories of motivational source: ‘intentional—utilitarian’ type of motivation (as in: career preparation, seeking privileges, wanting to be at the top, wanting authoritative power to make change happen; wanting to take charge); ‘intentional- obligation’ type of motivation (as in: obligation to return the trust of others, wanting to serve the community); ‘cumulative experiential’ type of motivation (as in: positive learning points; experience of engaging with top people) and ‘continual development’ type of motivation (as in: development of self-potential). Intentional-utilitarian source of motivation is mainly described by an active desire to seek some purpose through one’s leadership; intentional-obligation is characterized by the motivation to “pay back” the support and trust that has been invested by others in oneself; while cumulative-experiential is the source of motivation emerging from the positive experiences in leadership. Many of these experiences are spontaneous, unpredicted, and unsolicited but nevertheless they charge the ‘batteries’ to sustain one’s enthusiasm in the leadership role. All of these sources of motivation appear to be highly personal and because they are so, student leaders need to be guided in reflecting on these types of sources to enable them to become more aware and more critical of their leadership motivational source. As noted by Whitehead (2009) and Komives et al, (1998), critical reflection of experiences is a useful method to develop leadership awareness. The personal sources of motivation in leadership were also intentional as well as cumulative in nature. This means that student leaders were motivated in the beginning by certain goals (Astin and Astin 2000; Galbraith 1977), but along the way, the positive and learning experiences became a rewarding reinforcing loop which made these leaders believe in the ‘worthwhile-ness’ of leadership. From this perspective, the findings support similar claims from researchers such as Bandura (1997), Stage (1996), and Endress (2000) that cumulative and growing competence contribute to better perception of selfefficacy and hence higher confidence in one’ s ability to perform one’s role. With reference to Barbuto’s (2001) model of motivation, it appeared to the researchers that the student leaders were motivated by all five sources of motivation, regardless of whether their motivation was intentional-utilitarian or intentional-obligation. The motivation that came from intrinsic enjoyment was cumulative over time. The student leaders learned to appreciate their


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leadership experience and they enjoyed the learning moments. They set internal standards and expectations on themselves, and seriously endeavored to fulfill their role. They regarded their development in leadership as a concurrent development of their internal self concept. Hence, they grew as ‘persons’ They took their leadership as a ‘learning’ role, and they continued to try improve in their leadership. Many similar research have proven that “Leaders are great learners” (Kouzes and Posner (2007), Bennis (2009), Posner (2009)). As these student leaders developed more and more critical perspectives, they were able to relate to leadership as a means by which they can champion a cause to transform people. Leadership thus became an internalized goal. On the other hand, the evidence to support external self-concept motivational source was scarce. In fact, external self concept motivation came mostly from the pressure of fulfilling role demands as set by the university. These student leaders expressed a certain amount of anxiety to complete a stipulated amount of programs per year since the number is a reflection of their leadership ability. They did not express similar pressure to reach up to standards or expectations from their peers or colleagues. Interestingly, although these student leaders expressed interest in transforming their peers and colleagues, their conceptualization of how this might be achieved is vague. The agenda of change was generally vague and appeared rather formless. It would also appear as if these student leaders were not fully cognizant of how their leadership role would assist them in fulfilling those aspirations. Universities therefore need to develop more strategic programs to develop better self awareness and self knowledge amongst student leaders and undergraduates in general to enable them to become effective transformers of change. One way is to encourage student development within the larger context of the community, ranging from the university campus community, to the communities in the bordering township, and to the communities within the region. By doing this, undergraduate students will be given the opportunity to develop authentic leadership as they learn to interact with wider groups of people, seek out specific forms of change or transformation to achieve, establish mutually beneficial targets and goals, and learn to collaborate with one another. Through their involved leadership, we may also hope to elevate the sources of motivation in student leadership to a higher plane of goal internalization and altruistic motivation.

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Another important finding of this study was the strong appeal of positional power to many student leaders, in spite of their declarative preference for team work. Positional power was deemed necessary by many of these student leaders to enable them to have the authority to instruct others to carry out tasks and implement change. This seems to suggest that teamwork was perceived as the preferred way of how things should be done on campus; but authoritative power is still perceived as the means by which any job gets done. Based on this evidence, we propose that student leaders need to be helped to explore other forms of power bases (other than authoritative power) as a means by which they can manage quality in people relationships and task completion. Outstanding achievements are achieved only by those who are able to affectively and cognitively influence others to rise to higher levels of commitment and work outputs (Bass 1985).

Conclusion We started by asking a basic question “How much has public universities in Malaysia progressed towards achieving the aspiration of holistic development of the university student, so as to ensure he or she has the necessary leadership skills and self-development skills?” Our findings show that the leadership experiences of student leaders, as a selected sample of undergraduates, were indeed rewarding and constructive but at levels that are both personal and situational. They lack exposure to broader contexts. These student leaders have also much to learn to develop themselves from people who mostly ‘critically think about change needed’, to now become active and powerful agents capable of instituting change within the community. In doing so, they need to be guided by competent facilitators whose role is to help these student leaders to reflect upon their leadership and to develop higher perspectives of the sources of motivation in their leadership. We conclude therefore that there is still much that public universities in Malaysia need to do to develop leadership, self awareness and self development amongst their undergraduates. REFERENCES


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11 Role of Transformational Leadership and Organizational Commitment, and their Variability in Different School Settings P.T. RAVEENDRAN Kannur University Kerala State, India

JOJI ALEX. N Rajagiri School of Management, Kochi Kerala State, India .Pin:682 039

Abstract This study, which is conducted among a cross section of school teachers working in the state of Kerala (India) in three different categories of schools identified as proactive schools, normal schools and challenged schools, examines the organizational commitment of teachers triggered and influenced by the leadership style (in terms of either transactional or transformational

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style) of school headmasters. What is aimed through the study is to determine the role of transformational leadership of head masters and its impact on the organizational commitment of teachers in nurturing and shaping the destiny of a school. Normative survey method was used for the study. The sample composed of 206 teachers randomly selected from eleven schools falling under the above three categories from among the three types of schools in the state, namely: 1) Government schools; 2) Private aided schools; and, 3) Private unaided self financing schools. Results of Discriminant Analysis (DA) have shown that transformational leadership style of school head masters helped in building organizational commitment of subordinate teachers according to the demands of the specific school context.

Introduction This study explores the leadership style of school headmasters as perceived by the subordinate teachers and its influence on the organizational commitment of a cross section of school teachers belonging to different types of schools in the State of Kerala in India. Several studies have reported evidence suggesting a relationship between leadership style and organizational commitment (Agarwal et.al.1999; Mathieu & Zajac 1990; McNesse-Smith 1999; Rai & Sinha 2000; Yousef 2000). It is widely accepted that organizational commitment of teachers incorporates an attitudinal dimension which is shaped, not by any one factor alone, but by a multitude of factors or conditions. Amongst such possible factors, the leadership style of head teacher or head master has a major role to play in directly impacting the commitment of subordinate teachers (Campisano 1992). Another major factor assumed to significantly influence teacher commitment is the quality of the school climate (Davis 1997; McDaniel 1992; Pacifico 1994). The purpose of this study is to find out whether the leadership style and the organizational commitment of subordinate teachers as impacted by the leadership style are having any decisive role in determining the effectiveness and status of a school.

Theoretical Framework Of The Study In the following section, an attempt is made to briefly present the theoretical framework which has formed the basis for the present study.

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Leadership Leadership is usually defined as the process of influencing people to achieve organizational objectives. Successful leaders tend to create a climate within the work environment where they are able to assist employees to set and achieve individual, team and ultimately organizational objectives (Upasana 2009). Leadership in the school context is shaped in the way school headmasters exhibit their leadership style/ leadership behavior with the intention of creating a school climate that is characterized by staff productivity, student productivity, creative thought (Ubben & Hughes 1987). Leadership is the ability to get all the members of the organization to perform tasks required to achieve the organizational goals and objectives (Bennis & Nanus 1985). Leadership is often referred to as influence process (Cuban 1998). Effective leadership is aligning people with the same vision and moving forward in the same direction (Yu 2009). Good leadership is essential for any organization to function effectively and efficiently. This is very much true in the case of schools. Exemplary school leadership creates a sense of excitement about teaching and learning within the school and the surrounding locality by focusing on dreams and expectations of students, members of the faculty, parents and the surrounding community. In such schools which are considered good, there is the presence of a professionally alert and dynamic principal, determined enough to provide the kind of educational program he/ she deems necessary (Goldhaninier 1971). There is truth in the statement, that it is difficult to see a good school with a poor principal or a poor school with a good principal (Hechinger 1981). It is the leadership of the school that distinguishes an excellent school from a mediocre or a bad school (Ubben and Hughes 1987).

Transactional versus transformational leaders There are different classifications of leadership depending upon the style, strategy or technique adopted by the leader designate. One such classification is transactional leadership versus transformational leadership. A stream of research has focused on differentiating transactional leadership from transformational leadership and thus understanding as to who would qualify to be a transformational leader rather than a transactional leader (Bass, 1985; Bass, et.al 2003; Bycio et.al. 1995; Judge and Piccolo 2004). It is believed

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that transactional leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by classifying role and task requirements. Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self interest for the good of the organization and are capable of having a profound and extra-ordinary effect on their followers. They pay attention to the concerns and developmental needs of individual followers; they change followers’ awareness of issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to excite, arouse and inspire followers to put in extra effort to achieve group goals (Robbins & Judge 2009). The characteristics exhibited by transactional leaders as against transformational leaders are not the same always. Transactional leaders contract exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance and recognizes accomplishments. They watch and search for deviations from rules and standards and take corrective action. They usually intervene only if standards are not met. Transformational leaders, on the other hand, provide vision and sense of mission, instills pride and gains respect and trust from their followers. They provide inspirational motivation by communicating high expectations, use symbols to focus efforts and are able to express important purposes in simple ways. Transformational leaders are able to provide intellectual stimulation. They promote intelligence and rationality in problem solving contexts. They are very adept at handling people by showing individualized consideration. They treat each employee individually, coach and advise them (Bass 1990).

Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment is defined as ‘the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization (Mowday, Porter, & Steers 1982, p. 27). Prior research suggests that work experiences, personal and organizational factors serve as antecedents to organizational commitment (Allen & Meyer 1990, 1996; Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance 1999; Meyer & Allen 1997). One such personal and organizational factor that is considered a key determinant of organizational commitment is leadership (Mowday et al. 1982). As already stated, there is evidence suggesting a relationship between leadership and organizational commitment. Leadership accounts for a significant amount of the variance in commitment, though the empirical

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evidence on the nature of relationship needs to be examined and validated in different contexts (Glisson 1989). Commitment embodies a sense of being bound emotionally and intellectually to some course of action, which could encompass a person’s relationship with another individual, group or organization (Huntington 1986). Commitment is also understood as loyalty, identification and involvement with some appropriate object (Buchanan 1974). In an organizational setting, such loyalty involves feelings of attachment which develop as individuals share values in common with other members of the group. This identification expressed through the adoption of organizational goals occurs when individuals take pride in the organization, participate with intense interest in its activities and speak positively about their connection with the organization (Etzioni 1975). A number of studies have examined the relationship between the leadership style of school head masters or principals and subordinate teachers’ commitment to the school. Findings show that in order to build strong teacher commitment, headmasters must provide strong, directive leadership in setting and developing school goals, creating a unity of purpose, facilitating communication, and managing instruction (Cruz 1995). Similarly, high correlations have been reported between the principal’s leadership behaviors of buffering, caring, involving, and praising, and faculty trust in the principal and commitment to the school (Depasquale 1996; Meade 1994; Yakmalian 1995). Other studies have highlighted a positive correlation of teachers’ perceptions of the principal’s leadership behavior with teacher morale (Houseknecht 1990) and commitment to the school (Marschilok 1993) and to the teaching profession (Everett 1991). Overall, these studies strongly suggest that there may be important relationships between a principal’s leadership style and teachers’ organizational commitment. There is considerable research now available suggesting that transformational leadership is positively associated with organizational commitment in a variety of organizational settings and cultures (Bono and Judge 2003; Dumdum et al. 2002; Koh, Steers, and Terborg 1995; Lowe et al. 1996; Walumbwa and Lawler 2003). Certain studies suggest that transformational leaders are able to influence followers’ organizational commitment by promoting higher levels of intrinsic value associated with goal accomplishment, emphasizing the linkages between follower effort and goal achievement, and by creating a higher level of personal commitment on the part of the leader and followers to a common vision, mission, and organizational


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goals (Shamir, House, & Arthur 1993; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, & Popper 1998). Transformational leaders influence followers’ organizational commitment by encouraging followers to think critically by using novel approaches, involving followers in decision-making processes, inspiring loyalty, while recognizing and appreciating the different needs of each follower to develop his or her personal potential (Avolio 1999; Bass & Avolio 1994; Yammarino, Spangler, & Bass 1993). By encouraging followers to seek new ways to approach problems and challenges, and identifying with followers’ needs, transformational leaders are able to motivate their followers to get more involved in their work, resulting in higher levels of organizational commitment (Walumbwa & Lawler 2003). This view was supported by prior research that showed organizational commitment was higher for employees whose leaders encouraged participation in decisionmaking (Jermier and Berkes 1979; Rhodes and Steers 1981), emphasized consideration (Bycio, Hackett, and Allen 1995), and were supportive and concerned for their followers’ development (Allen & Meyer 1990, 1996). Having outlined the theoretical framework which has become the basis for the study, the rationale and significance of this study is elaborated as follows.

Rationale and Significance of the Study This study which is conducted among a cross section of school teachers working in different types of schools (classified as challenged, proactive and normal) in the state of Kerala in India presupposes that the organizational commitment of teachers triggered and influenced by the leadership (in terms of the preponderance of either transactional or transformational style) of head masters would have a decisive role in categorizing the very destiny of schools in terms of their existence, functioning and overall acceptance of the school in terms of their effectiveness by the society at large. Kerala has mainly three types of schools in its educational system: 1) public schools owned and managed by the state governments; 2) aided private schools owned and managed by private individuals/trusts/committees/charitable institutions (wherein appointment of teachers is done by the managing committee or trustees, excepting which, all other service terms and conditions of employees including remuneration is governed by the service rules enacted by the central/ state government); and, 3) unaided/self financing private schools (where in appointment of teachers, their remuneration, promotion, appraisal and termination are all governed by a

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set of rules and regulations framed and followed by the private owners/trusts/ committees of the respective schools without any governmental interference). It is generally agreed that in terms of leadership, organizational structure, diversity of goals and resources, job attitudes, behavioral intentions and organizational commitment, there are noticeable differences between public schools on the one hand and private schools (aided schools and self financing schools) on the other. Even among government schools, certain schools are good or effective and certain others are not. Same argument is applicable in the case of private schools (aided as well as self financing). It is difficult to identify and list all such factors which could make a school effective or not effective or least effective. However, some of the previous studies (Tsui 1996; Scheerens 2000; Lockheed 1998) reported that the important factors which would determine the school’s effectiveness are, leadership behavior, administrative functioning, teacher morale, level of trust, culture, climate, parental involvement, community support, students’ academic performance loyalty and satisfaction of teachers, and teachers’ efficiency and commitment. The present study attempts to explore the influence exerted by headmasters through their leadership style (transactional/transformational) on the organizational commitment of subordinate teachers which together eventually has resulted in determining the status of schools categorized as: 1) Proactive Schools, 2) Normal Schools, and, 3) Challenged Schools. This categorization has been done by the researcher specifically for this study based on certain well considered factors as explained below. A proactive school is one which has an agreed vision and goals, purposeful teaching and high expectations for student learning. Proactive schools have stimulating and secure learning environments. Proactive schools provide ongoing learning opportunities for teachers to develop the skills, knowledge and dispositions necessary to reach to higher professional standards. These schools attract students based on their academic and extra-curricular initiatives. Normal schools are such schools which never faced any immediate external challenges like shortage of students. These schools are mostly government schools or private aided schools. The people at the helm of affairs of these schools are not proactive. The collective ambitions of normal schools are low. Challenged schools are those schools confronted with real challenges posed by the external environment on the normal functioning of the schools mainly due to falling demand for school admission, increasing faculty turnover, financial crunch, paucity of sufficient physical infrastructure and poor image among people in


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the surrounding vicinity. All these were causing a debilitating effect on these schools and hence the school’s existence itself was challenged demanding a forceful closing down.

Hypothesis of the Study Based on the theoretical discussions made in the light of the already cited work and argument, one would expect that proactive schools (most effective or effective schools) are able to maintain their present position of distinction because of effective leadership and the resultant subordinate teachers’ commitment towards their school apart from many other contributing factors. This argument would only carry weight, if one can substantiate that the plight of normal or challenged schools has been caused because of the ineffective or lack of leadership and its influence on organizational commitment. Again, if at all, leadership has any role to play to qualify a school as proactive or normal or challenged, which style of leadership style does it belong to? Is it transactional leadership or transformational leadership? It is interesting to investigate the above aspects and therefore the following hypothesis has been set. Hypothesis (H0): Leadership Style and Organizational Commitment have no significant differences across the different schools categorized as proactive schools, normal schools and challenged schools. Methodology Sampling and measurement tools In this study, discriminant analysis procedures were used to determine whether the three categories of schools could be distinguished and classified on the basis of the theoretical variables under consideration. The two proactive schools were identified based on general feedback from the local community (different stakeholders) and also the feedback and opinion of parents and alumni. The six normal schools were identified based on convenience. These normal schools were in operation for at least 25 years or the administrators running these schools had the experience in operating schools for at least 25 years. The three challenged schools were identified on the basis of recent newspaper reports during the last one year (2010). The total teachers who rated their respective principals across 11 schools were 206 and they had a minimum work experience of at least one year. The mode of teaching in these schools is English/local vernacular. In the proactive schools the sample size of respondent teachers was 32, in the normal schools, it was 145 and in

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the challenged schools, it was 29. Normative survey method was used for the study. The Organizational Commitment (OC) of school teachers was measured using a self-report form developed by Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) with 15 items. A 5 point scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) was used to determine the responses and those with a score of 5 have high OC. The transactional/transformational leadership scale with 10 items developed by Bass M. Bernard (1990, 1995, and 1997) with a 5 point scale from disagree (1) to agree (5) was used to determine the responses. High TTL (near to 50) indicates transformational leadership and low score (near to 10) indicates transactional leadership. The teachers in their respective schools who answered the self-report form on OC had to rate their school principal on his/her leadership trait. The principal is eligible to be rated by his sub-ordinate teachers provided he/she has been in office for a period of at least six months.

Discriminant Analysis and Results In a single discriminant analysis procedure using 206 samples categorized into three schools, two significant canonical discriminant functions were yielded. An evaluation of the first function (to categorize normal schools from proactive schools) gave the following information (Eigen value 0.517; canonical correlation 0.584; Wilks lambda 0.569; chi-sq 114.06, p