Educational Research
Educational Research Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches Fifth Edition
R. Burke Johnson University of South Alabama Larry Christensen University of South Alabama
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Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches / R. Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen. — Fifth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4522-4440-2 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Education—Research. I. Title. LB1028.J59 2014 370.72—dc23 2013030678
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13 14 15 16 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Brief Contents
Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxvii
Part I: Introduction 1. Introduction to Educational Research
1 2
2. Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
29
3. Action Research for Lifelong Learning
59
Part II: Planning the Research Study
81
4. How to Review the Literature and Develop Research Questions
82
5. How to Write a Research Proposal
111
6. Research Ethics
124
Part III: Foundations of Research
157
7. Standardized Measurement and Assessment
158
8. How to Construct a Questionnaire
190
9. Six Major Methods of Data Collection
223
10. Sampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
247
11. Validity of Research Results in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research 277
Part IV: Selecting a Research Method Section A: Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches 12. Experimental Research: Weak and Strong Designs
317 318 318
13. Experimental Research: Quasi and Single-Case Designs
355
14. Nonexperimental Quantitative Research
384
Section B: Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches Plus Historical Research
417
15. Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research
417
D. Jean Clandinin and R. Burke Johnson 16. Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory
442
17. Historical Research
466
Section C: Mixed Methods Research: Many Approaches 18. Mixed Research
485 485
Part V: Analyzing the Data
515
19. Descriptive Statistics
516
20. Inferential Statistics
548
21. Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research
586
Part VI: Writing the Research Report
619
22. How to Prepare a Research Report and Use APA Style Guidelines
620
Appendix: Citations for Journal Articles Noted in the Margins
651
Glossary 657 References 677 Author Index
690
Subject Index
695
About the Authors
712
Detailed Contents
Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxvii
Part I: Introduction
1
1
Introduction to Educational Research
2
Why Study Educational Research? 4 Areas of Educational Research 5 Examples of Educational Research 8 General Kinds of Research 9 Basic and Applied Research 9 Evaluation Research 10 Action Research 11 Orientational Research 11 Sources of Knowledge 12 Experience 12 Reasoning 13 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation 14 Dynamics of Science 14 Basic Assumptions of Science 15 Scientific Methods 17 Theory 19 The Principle of Evidence 20 Objectives of Educational Research 22 Overview of Book 25 Summary 26 Key Terms 26 Discussion Questions 26 Research Exercises 27 Relevant Internet Sites 27 Recommended Reading 28
2
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
29
Characteristics of the Three Research Paradigms 33 Quantitative Research Methods: Experimental and Nonexperimental Research 38 Variables 39
Experimental Research 42 Nonexperimental Research 43 Qualitative Research Methods 49 Phenomenology 49 Ethnography 49 Narrative Inquiry 50 Case Study Research 50 Grounded Theory 51 Historical Research 51 Mixed Research (or Mixed Methods Research) 52 The Advantages of Mixed Research 53 Our Research Typology 53 Summary 55 Key Terms 55 Discussion Questions 56 Research Exercises 56 Relevant Internet Sites 57 Recommended Reading 57
3
Action Research for Lifelong Learning
59
Defining Action Research 60 Origins of Action Research 61 Basic Scientific Research Versus Action Research 64 Types of Action Research 66 The Cycle of Action Research 71 Strengths and Weaknesses of Action Research 74 Action Research Journaling 75 Action Research in the Remaining Chapters of this Book 77 Summary 77 Key Terms 78 Discussion Questions 78 Research Exercises 78 Relevant Internet Sites 78 Recommended Reading 79 Note 79
Part II: Planning the Research Study
4
How to Review the Literature and Develop Research Questions Sources of Research Ideas 84 Everyday Life 84 Practical Issues 84 Past Research 85 Theory 86
81 82
Ideas That Can’t Be Resolved Through Empirical Research 86 Review of the Literature 88 Literature Review for Quantitative Research Studies 88 Literature Review for Qualitative Research Studies 88 Sources of Information 90 Conducting the Literature Search 91 Using Databases 91 Using the Public Internet 91 Feasibility of the Study 95 Statement of the Research Problem 95 Stating a Quantitative Research Problem 96 Stating a Qualitative Research Problem 96 Statement of the Purpose of the Study 97 Statement of Purpose in a Quantitative Study 97 Statement of Purpose in a Qualitative Study 98 Statement of Research Questions 98 Statement of a Quantitative Research Question 99 Statement of a Qualitative Research Question 99 Formulating Hypotheses 101 Consumer Use of the Literature 103 Action Research Reflection 106 Summary 107 Key Terms 108 Discussion Questions 108 Research Exercises 108 Relevant Internet Sites 109 Recommended Reading 110
5
How to Write a Research Proposal Framework of the Research Proposal 113 Strategies for Writing Each Section of the Research Proposal 113 Introduction 113 Method 115 Research Participants 116 Design 116 Apparatus and/or Instruments 117 Procedure 118 Data Analysis 119 Abstract 120 Action Research Reflection 121 Summary 121 Key Terms 122 Discussion Questions 122 Research Exercise 122 Relevant Internet Sites 122 Recommended Reading 123
111
6
Research Ethics
124
What Are Research Ethics? 126 Ethical Concerns 127 Relationship Between Society and Science 127 Professional Issues 128 Treatment of Research Participants 130 Ethical Guidelines for Research With Humans 132 Informed Consent 133 Informed Consent and Minors as Research Participants 136 Passive Versus Active Consent 137 Additional Consent 139 Deception 139 Freedom to Withdraw 140 Protection From Mental and Physical Harm 140 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy 141 Institutional Review Board 142 Ethical Issues in Electronic Research 147 Informed Consent and Internet Research 148 Privacy and Internet Research 148 Debriefing and Internet Research 149 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report 149 Authorship 150 Writing the Research Report 150 Action Research Reflection 151 Summary 152 Key Terms 153 Discussion Questions 153 Research Exercises 154 Relevant Internet Sites 154 Recommended Reading 155
Part III: Foundations of Research
7
Standardized Measurement and Assessment Defining Measurement 160 Scales of Measurement 160 Nominal Scale 161 Ordinal Scale 161 Interval Scale 162 Ratio Scale 163 Assumptions Underlying Testing and Assessment 164 Identifying a Good Test or Assessment Procedure 165 Overview of Reliability and Validity 165 Reliability 166 Validity 172 Using Reliability and Validity Information 178
157 158
Educational and Psychological Tests 178 Intelligence Tests 179 Personality Tests 179 Educational Assessment Tests 181 Sources of Information About Tests 183 Action Research Reflection 185 Summary 185 Key Terms 186 Discussion Questions 186 Research Exercises 186 Exercise Sheet 187 Relevant Internet Sites 188 Recommended Reading 189 Notes 189
8
How to Construct a Questionnaire What Is a Questionnaire? 191 Principles of Questionnaire Construction 194 Principle 1. Make sure the questionnaire items match your research objectives. 194 Principle 2. Understand your research participants. 194 Principle 3. Use natural and familiar language. 194 Principle 4. Write items that are clear, precise, and relatively short. 195 Principle 5. Do not use “leading” or “loaded” questions. 196 Principle 6. Avoid double-barreled questions. 197 Principle 7. Avoid double negatives. 197 Principle 8. Determine whether an open-ended or a closed-ended question is needed. 198 Principle 9. Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response categories for closed-ended questions. 200 Principle 10. Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended questionnaire items. 201 Principle 11. Use multiple items to measure abstract constructs. 207 Principle 12. Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs. 208 Principle 13. Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of the items to prevent response sets in multi-item scales. 209 Principle 14. Develop a questionnaire that is properly organized and easy for the participant to use. 209 Principle 15. Always pilot test your questionnaire. 212 Putting It All Together 214 Action Research Reflection 220 Summary 220 Key Terms 220 Research Exercises 221 Relevant Internet Sites 221 Recommended Reading 222 Notes 222
190
9
Six Major Methods of Data Collection
223
Tests 227 Questionnaires 227 Interviews 228 Quantitative Interviews 229 Qualitative Interviews 233 Focus Groups 234 Observation 236 Quantitative Observation 237 Qualitative Observation 238 Visual Data 241 Constructed and Secondary or Existing Data 243 Action Research Reflection 244 Summary 244 Key Terms 245 Discussion Questions 245 Research Exercises 246 Relevant Internet Site 246 Recommended Reading 246
ampling in Quantitative, Qualitative, and 10 SMixed Research Terminology Used in Sampling 250 Random Sampling Techniques 251 Simple Random Sampling 251 Systematic Sampling 255 Stratified Random Sampling 258 Cluster Random Sampling 261 Nonrandom Sampling Techniques 263 Convenience Sampling 263 Quota Sampling 264 Purposive Sampling 264 Snowball Sampling 265 Random Selection and Random Assignment 265 Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used 266 Sampling in Qualitative Research 269 Sampling in Mixed Research 271 Action Research Reflection 273 Summary 273 Key Terms 274 Discussion Questions 274 Research Exercises 275 Relevant Internet Sites 275 Recommended Reading 276 Notes 276
247
11 Validity of Research Results in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research
277
Validity Issues in the Design of Quantitative Research 279 Internal Validity (or Causal Validity) 281 Two Major Types of Causal Relationships 281 Criteria for Inferring Causation 282 Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Group Designs 284 Threats to Internal Validity in Multigroup Designs 288 External Validity (or Generalizing Validity) 291 Population Validity 291 Ecological Validity 294 Temporal Validity 294 Treatment Variation Validity 294 Outcome Validity 295 Construct Validity 295 Operationalism 296 Treatment Diffusion 297 Statistical Conclusion Validity 298 Research Validity (or “Trustworthiness”) in Qualitative Research 299 Descriptive Validity 300 Interpretive Validity 300 Theoretical Validity 302 Internal Validity 303 External Validity 305 Research Validity (or “Legitimation”) in Mixed Research 309 Action Research Reflection 312 Summary 312 Key Terms 314 Discussion Questions 314 Research Exercises 315 Relevant Internet Sites 315 Recommended Reading 316 Notes 316
Part IV: Selecting a Research Method
317
Section A: Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches
318
12 Experimental Research: Weak and Strong Designs
318
The Experiment 320 Experimental Research Settings 320 Field Experiment 321 Laboratory Experiment 321 Internet Experiment 321
Independent Variable Manipulation 322 Ways to Manipulate an Independent Variable 322 Control of Confounding Variables 323 Random Assignment 324 Matching 326 Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant 328 Building the Extraneous Variable Into the Research Design 329 Analysis of Covariance 329 Counterbalancing 330 Experimental Research Designs 332 Weak Experimental Research Designs 332 Strong Experimental Research Designs 337 Factorial Designs 342 Repeated-Measures Designs 348 Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model 350 Action Research Reflection 351 Summary 351 Key Terms 352 Discussion Questions 353 Research Exercises 353 Relevant Internet Sites 354 Recommended Reading 354 Notes 354
13 Experimental Research: Quasi and Single-Case Designs
355
Quasi-Experimental Research Designs 357 Nonequivalent Comparison-Group Design 358 Interrupted Time-Series Design 363 Regression-Discontinuity Design 367 Single-Case Experimental Designs 370 A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs 371 Multiple-Baseline Design 374 Changing-Criterion Design 377 Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs 379 Action Research Reflection 379 Summary 380 Key Terms 380 Discussion Questions 380 Research Exercises 381 Relevant Internet Sites 382 Recommended Reading 382 Note 383
14 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research Steps in Nonexperimental Research 387 Independent Variables in Nonexperimental Research 387
384
Simple Cases of Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 388 Three Required Conditions for Cause-and-Effect Relationships 390 Applying the Three Required Conditions for Causation in Nonexperimental Research 392 Techniques of Control in Nonexperimental Research (i.e., How to Design Strong Nonexperimental Research) 396 Matching 396 Holding the Extraneous Variable Constant 398 Statistical Control 398 Interlude (The Study of Causal Relationships in Epidemiology) 400 Classifying Nonexperimental Research by Time and Research Objective 401 The Time Dimension in Nonexperimental Research 402 Cross-Sectional Research 403 Longitudinal Research 404 Retrospective Research 406 The Research Objective Dimension in Nonexperimental Research 407 Descriptive Nonexperimental Research 407 Predictive Nonexperimental Research 408 Explanatory Nonexperimental Research 409 Action Research Reflection 413 Summary 413 Key Terms 414 Discussion Questions 414 Research Exercises 415 Relevant Internet Sites 416 Recommended Reading 416 Notes 416
Section B: Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches Plus Historical Research
417
15 Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research
417
Narrative Inquiry 425 I. Introduction: The Importance of Coming to Terms and Definitions 425 II. Designing a Narrative Study 426 1. Four Key Terms to Structure a Narrative Inquiry 427 2. Inquiry Starting Points 427 3. Attending to Justifications at the Inquiry Outset and Throughout the Inquiry 428 4. Research Puzzles Rather Than Research Questions 429 5. Entering Into the Midst 429 6. From Field to Field Texts 430 7. From Field Texts to Interim and Final Research Texts 431
8. Relational Ethics at the Heart of Narrative Inquiry—Relational Responsibilities 432 III. Narrative Inquiry: So Much More Than Telling Stories 433 Case Study Research 434 What Is a Case? 434 Types of Case Study Research Designs 435 Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing 437 Action Research Reflection 438 Summary 439 Key Terms 439 Discussion Questions 440 Research Exercises 440 Exercise Sheet 440 Relevant Internet Sites 441 Recommended Reading 441 Note 441
16 Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory
442
Phenomenology 444 Examples of Phenomenology 445 Types of Phenomenology 445 Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing 447 Ethnography 449 The Idea of Culture 450 Examples of Ethnographic Research 451 Types of Ethnographic Research 452 Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing 453 Grounded Theory 456 Characteristics of a Grounded Theory 457 Example of a Grounded Theory 458 Data Collection, Analysis, and Report Writing 458 Action Research Reflection 462 Summary 463 Key Terms 463 Discussion Questions 463 Research Exercises 463 Exercise Sheet 464 Relevant Internet Sites 465 Recommended Reading 465 Note 465
17 Historical Research What Is Historical Research? 468 Significance of Historical Research 468 Historical Research Methodology 470 Identification of the Research Topic and Formulation of the Research Problem or Question 471
466
Data Collection or Literature Review 472 Documents and Other Written Records 473 Photographs 473 Relics 473 Oral Histories 473 How to Locate Historical Information 474 Primary Versus Secondary Sources 475 Evaluation of Historical Sources 476 External Criticism 476 Internal Criticism 477 Data Synthesis and Report Preparation 479 Action Research Reflection 481 Summary 481 Key Terms 482 Discussion Questions 482 Research Exercises 483 Relevant Internet Sites 483 Recommended Reading 484
Section C: Mixed Methods Research: Many Approaches
485
18 Mixed Research
485
The Research Continuum 495 Types of Mixed Research Designs 496 Examples of Qualitatively Driven, Quantitatively Driven, and Equal-Emphasis or Interactive Studies 498 Stages of the Mixed Research Process 500 Step 1. Determine Whether a Mixed Design Is Appropriate 501 Step 2. Determine the Rationale for Using a Mixed Design 502 Step 3. Select or Construct the Mixed Research Design and Mixed Sampling Design 503 Step 4. Collect Data 504 Step 5. Analyze the Data 504 Step 6. Continually Validate the Data 505 Step 7. Continually Interpret the Data and Findings 505 Step 8. Write the Research Report 506 Limitations of Mixed Research 507 Action Research Reflection 508 Summary 511 Key Terms 512 Discussion Questions 512 Research Exercises 512 Relevant Internet Sites 513 Recommended Reading 514
Part V: Analyzing the Data
19 Descriptive Statistics
515 516
Descriptive Statistics 518 Frequency Distributions 520 Graphic Representations of Data 521 Bar Graphs 521 Histograms 522 Line Graphs 523 Scatter Plots 523 Measures of Central Tendency 525 Mode 525 Median 525 Mean 526 A Comparison of the Mean, Median, and Mode 527 Measures of Variability 530 Range 530 Variance and Standard Deviation 531 Standard Deviation and the Normal Distribution 532 Measures of Relative Standing 533 Percentile Ranks 534 z Scores 536 Examining Relationships Among Variables 537 Contingency Tables 538 Regression Analysis 540 Action Research Reflection 544 Summary 544 Key Terms 545 Discussion Questions 545 Research Exercises 545 Relevant Internet Sites 546 Recommended Reading 547 Notes 547
20 Inferential Statistics Sampling Distributions 551 Sampling Distribution of the Mean 553 Estimation 555 Point Estimation 555 Interval Estimation 556 Hypothesis Testing 558 Null and Alternative Hypotheses 560 Directional Alternative Hypotheses 562 Examining the Probability Value and Making a Decision 563
548
The Hypothesis-Testing Decision Matrix 568 Controlling the Risk of Errors 570 Hypothesis Testing in Practice 572 t Test for Independent Samples 573 One-Way Analysis of Variance 574 Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance 575 t Test for Correlation Coefficients 576 t Test for Regression Coefficients 577 Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables 578 Other Significance Tests 580 Action Research Reflection 581 Summary 581 Key Terms 582 Discussion Questions 582 Research Exercises 583 Exercise Sheet 584 Relevant Internet Sites 584 Recommended Reading 584 Notes 585
21 Data Analysis in Qualitative and Mixed Research Interim Analysis 588 Memoing 588 Analysis of Visual Data 589 Data Entry and Storage 591 Segmenting, Coding, and Developing Category Systems 592 Inductive and A Priori Codes 596 Co-Occurring and Facesheet Codes 598 Enumeration 598 Creating Hierarchical Category Systems 600 Identifying Relationships Among Categories 603 Drawing Diagrams 606 Corroborating and Validating Results 608 Computer Programs for Qualitative Data Analysis 608 Data Analysis in Mixed Research 610 Mixed Analysis Matrix 611 Analytical Procedures in Mixed Data Analysis 613 Action Research Reflection 614 Summary 614 Key Terms 615 Discussion Questions 615 Research Exercise 615 Exercise Sheet 616 Relevant Internet Sites 617 Recommended Reading 617 Notes 618
586
Part VI: Writing the Research Report
619
to Prepare a Research Report and 22 HUseowAPA Style Guidelines
620
General Principles Related to Writing the Research Report (I) 622 Language (I.1) 622 Editorial Style (I.2) 624 Reference List (I.3) 628 Typing (I.4) 629 Writing an APA-Style Quantitative Research Report (II) 629 Title Page (II.1) 629 Abstract (II.2) 630 Introduction (II.3) 630 Method (II.4) 631 Results (II.5) 632 Discussion (II.6) 632 References (II.7) 633 Footnotes (II.8) 633 Tables (II.9) 633 Figures (II.10) 634 Example of an APA-Style Manuscript 635 Writing Qualitative Research Reports 645 Writing Mixed Research Reports 648 Action Research Reflection 649 Summary 649 Key Term 650 Discussion Questions 650 Research Exercises 650 Relevant Internet Sites 650 Recommended Reading 650
Appendix: Citations for Journal Articles Noted in the Margins
651
Glossary 657 References 677 Author Index
690
Subject Index
695
About the Authors
712
Preface
W
elcome to the fifth edition of Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. This text is written for the introductory research methods course that is required in most colleges in the United States. We assume no prior knowledge of research methods on the part of our readers. Our book can be used as a first text for undergraduate- or graduate-level courses. Instructors should be able to cover the material in one semester. Instructors also can choose to emphasize some material over the other.
Purpose We had several purposes in writing this textbook. The first was a desire to write an introductory research methods book that was accurate and up-to-date. We come from interdisciplinary backgrounds and have attempted to incorporate our respective insights into this book. Dr. Johnson is an educational research methodologist and program evaluator, with additional graduate training in psychology, public policy, and sociology; Dr. Christensen is a psychological research methodologist and the author of a highly successful book entitled Experimental Methodology (now in its 12th edition under the title Research Methods, Design, and Analysis). We have kept up with the changes taking place in the field of research methods in our disciplines, and we continue to incorporate the latest information in this textbook, including references that allow interested readers to further examine original sources. Second, we have tried to write a research methods textbook that takes an evenhanded approach to the different types of educational research. Whereas many texts emphasize one method at the expense of others, we believe that all major approaches to research discussed in this text have merit when they are employed carefully and properly. We show the strengths and appropriateness of each method and demonstrate how the experts in each area conduct high-quality research and how they view their approach to research. Third, we have tried to make our textbook highly readable and to make learning about research fun. Believe it or not, learning about research methods can be exciting. We are excited about research methods, and we share our enthusiasm with you without losing the necessary rigor. Finally, we have tried to enable readers to become critical consumers of research and users of research. We suspect that most readers of this text will be called on at some point in their careers to summarize research literature, write a research proposal, construct a questionnaire, or test an idea empirically. Educational Research, fifth edition, will help prepare you for these activities and will help you become adept at reading, understanding, critiquing, and building on published empirical research articles. xxi
x x i i E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h
Organization of the Book We have organized the fifth edition of Educational Research to follow the major components or steps involved in the research process.
Part I. Introduction In this section we introduce you to the field of educational research. We begin by defining science in an inclusive way and explaining the general research process. We discuss inductive and deductive reasoning, and we describe the exploratory (knowledge-generation) and confirmatory (knowledge-testing) components of the research wheel. We outline some general areas of research, such as basic research, applied research, action research, evaluation research, and orientational research. We examine the three major research paradigms: (1) quantitative research, (2) qualitative research, and (3) mixed research. Last, we include a new chapter on action research to engage students in thinking about and applying the ideas discussed in this book. Each of the remaining 19 chapters ends with a section entitled “Action Research Reflection”—the purpose of this section is to help students reflect on the chapter material and relate it to their lives and places of work.
Part II. Planning the Research Study In this section we carefully explain how to come up with a research idea, conduct a review of the research literature, write research questions and hypotheses, and organize and write a research proposal. We also explain the importance of ethics in educational research and how to write an informed consent form. Upon completion of this section, students will be ready to begin writing a research proposal.
Part III. Foundations of Research In Part III we cover concepts that researchers must master before fully understanding or conducting a research study. We begin with an introduction to measurement. Without reliable and valid measurement, nothing else really matters because poor data quality cannot be fixed. Next we discuss the six major methods of data collection: tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations, and constructed and secondary or existing data. We then explain the procedures for selecting samples of people to participate in a research study. Finally, we discuss the importance of research validity (or trustworthiness or legitimation) in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research, showing the primary threats to good research and providing specific techniques used to prevent mistakes.
Part IV. Selecting a Research Method In Part IV we provide extensive discussion of the major methods of research or “research methods” and demonstrate how to match the appropriate research design with various research questions. We divide Part IV into three sections. In Section A we explain the five major approaches to quantitative research—strong experimental research, quasi-experimental research, weak experimental research, single-case research, and nonexperimental quantitative
Prefac e
research. In Section B we explain the five major approaches to qualitative research—narrative inquiry, case study research, phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory. In this section, we also explain historical research. In Section C we explain mixed methods research, which includes many approaches and possibilities.
Part V. Analyzing the Data In this section we provide two chapters on quantitative data analysis (descriptive and inferential statistics) and one chapter on how to analyze qualitative and mixed research data.
Part VI. Writing the Research Report In this final part, we explain how to prepare research manuscripts in a format that can be submitted to an academic journal for publication. We explain how to use the guidelines from the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010), the guidelines required by the vast majority of journals in education and psychology.
Features of the Text We have included several features in the fifth edition of Educational Research to make the task of learning about research easier for students. In addition to opening vignettes that connect research with current events, each chapter begins with a list of objectives to get students thinking about what they are going to learn. Within the chapters, several learning aids assist with reviewing key concepts. These include margin definitions of all the key terms, multiple examples of concepts from published research studies, review questions at the end of major sections, and margin icons to connect the reader to journal articles and tools and tips provided at the book’s companion website. Each chapter ends with a full chapter summary, a list of the key terms used in the chapter, discussion questions, research exercises, relevant Internet sites, and recommended reading.
New to the Fifth Edition We have made multiple changes in the fifth edition to better reflect the latest advances in educational research and to improve the student learning experience. The following are of particular note: •• Added a new chapter early in the book (Chapter 3) entitled “Action Research for Lifelong Learning.” The purpose of this chapter is to make learning about research relevant to students and emphasize how to think about conducting regular scientific research and action research (which is more locally focused). •• Added a section in Chapters 4 through 22 directly before the chapter summary entitled “Action Research Reflection.” This is designed to engage students in thinking about the material in each chapter and applying it in their lives and work.
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x x i v E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h •• In Chapter 6, updated the AERA ethical code to the most recent version (i.e., 2011) and added definitions of nonmaleficence and beneficence. •• In Chapter 9, the last of the six major methods of data collection is now labeled “Constructed and Secondary or Existing Data.” •• In Chapter 11, updated material on triangulation and added a validity strategy for qualitative research called “critical friend.” •• Divided “Part IV: Selecting a Research Method” into three sections. Section A is entitled “Quantitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches”; Section B is “Qualitative Research Methods: Five Major Approaches Plus Historical Research”; and Section C is “Mixed Methods Research: Many Approaches.” •• Added a chapter titled “Narrative Inquiry and Case Study Research.” Chapter 15 is cowritten by one of the leading narrative inquiry experts in the world, D. Jean Clandinin, along with R. Burke Johnson. •• In Chapter 18, added an explanation of how to construct a mixed design in addition to selecting one of the basic designs.
Ancillaries for Instructors and Students Additional ancillary materials further support and enhance the learning goals of the fifth edition of Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. These ancillary materials include the following:
Password-Protected Instructor Teaching Site www.sagepub.com/bjohnson5e/ This password-protected site offers instructors a variety of resources that supplement the book material, including the following: •• An electronic test bank, available to PCs through Respondus software, offers a large and diverse set of test questions and answers for each chapter of the book (the total number is more than 1,500!). Multiple-choice and true/false questions are included for every chapter to aid instructors in assessing students’ progress and understanding. •• PowerPoint presentations are designed to assist with lecture and review, highlighting essential content, features, and artwork from the book. •• Carefully selected, web-based video resources feature relevant content for use in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics. •• Teaching tips are designed to help instructors conceptualize their overall teaching plan for each chapter. •• Lecture notes summarize key concepts on a chapter-by-chapter basis to assist in preparing for lecture and class discussion. •• Lively and stimulating ideas for class activities in and out of the classroom are provided. These are designed to reinforce active learning. •• Links to relevant web resources direct instructors to additional tools for further research on important chapter topics. •• Downloadable versions of the tables, figures, and worksheets are provided. •• The authors have provided suggested answers to the review questions that are found throughout each chapter. •• Sample syllabi for quarter, semester, and online courses are provided.
Preface
Open-Access Student Study Site www.sagepub.com/bjohnson5e/ This web-based student study site provides a variety of additional resources to enhance students’ understanding of the book’s content and take their learning one step further. The site includes the following: •• Lecture notes are here for students to print out and bring to class. •• Self-quizzes allow students to independently assess their progress in learning course material. •• eFlashcards are study tools that reinforce student understanding and learning of the key terms and concepts outlined in the chapters. •• Carefully selected, web-based video links feature relevant content for use in independent and classroom-based exploration of key topics. •• Links to relevant web resources direct students to additional tools for further research on important chapter topics. •• A downloadable PDF version of the full glossary is a convenient reference for students.
Book Icons Below are several icons you will find throughout the text, which will guide you to additional materials found on the student study site. Interactive and expandable concept maps for each chapter. These clickable, downward-branching maps present each chapter’s content in a hierarchical structure so that students can visualize the relationships among different concepts. Full-text SAGE research articles are presented for each chapter so that students can identify the key topics covered. Author-created tools and tips provide information on a variety of subjects and include helpful web resources, writing tips, and an SPSS data set.
Note to Students You are probably wondering how best to study research methods. Note that in addition to reading the book, you can now also listen to the book, for example, while you drive to work and school, jog, do laundry, or whatever. When studying, first and foremost, use the book’s companion website, which has been developed to help you learn the material. As you read the book, we suggest that you begin each chapter by reading the learning objectives and the chapter summary. This will give you an overview of the material. Then look at the chapter concept map included at the book’s companion website. Next, read the chapter carefully. After finishing the chapter, answer the study questions and make sure you understand each concept shown in the concept map. Also, read the lecture provided at the companion website, where we touch on most of the major points of each chapter; this will be quick reading after having read the chapter. To get practice doing research and to learn by doing, complete at least one of the research exercises at the end of each chapter and consider completing the
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x x v i E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h action research activities. As you prepare for tests, make sure that you know the definitions of all the key terms because these are the building blocks and the vocabulary of the research “language.” Don’t get lost in the details. Continue to use the concept maps to remind yourself of the big picture. Finally, read as many of the empirical research articles as you can, because one of the best ways to learn how to understand, design, and conduct educational research is to read many high-quality, published research articles in your research area. If you do these things, you can become an expert consumer and producer of research, as well as get an A in your class!
Note to Instructors To help keep the length and price of the textbook low for students, we have placed the many supporting empirical research articles on the companion website (rather than including them in the textbook). Your students can easily print out these articles. Also, you will find many helpful teaching tips and materials at the Instructor Teaching Site described above. You also will find the student companion website useful, especially the lectures and the concept maps. One effective in-class teaching strategy would be to connect to the concept maps (via the Internet) during class and discuss these in class. Another strategy is to have your students print out the lectures and then discuss the lectures in class. Yet another strategy is to use the PowerPoint presentations provided at the Instructor Teaching Site. This text also works very well online; the lectures on the companion website were developed by Burke Johnson specifically for his online research course. Our goal is to provide you with the most up-to-date and useful book and the best set of supplements available. Please contact us if you have any questions or suggestions.
Comments We hope that you (students and instructors) will send your comments to us so that we can continually improve our textbook and the companion website. You can contact us at the following email address:
[email protected] (Burke Johnson).
Acknowledgments
F
irst and foremost, Burke Johnson would like to thank his wife, Dr. Lisa A. Turner, for putting up with the long days and for being the first reviewer of everything he wrote. Second, we offer our sincere and special thanks to Diane McDaniel (associate director), Reid Hester (senior editor), Terri Accomazzo (associate editor), Sarita Sarak (editorial assistant), and Rachael Leblond (digital content editor). Thanks also go to our outstanding copy editor, Paula L. Fleming, and our production editor, Laura Barrett, who meticulously worked with us to get the manuscript into its “perfect” final form. In short, we thank the entire SAGE team for their professionalism, friendliness, emphasis on high-quality work, and openness to innovation—everyone at SAGE was always ready to provide ideas and help when it was needed. We repeat our previous thanks to John Hitchcock, of Ohio University, for contributing a table to the last edition (and continued in the present edition) on Applying Qualitative Research Validity Strategies (Table 11.3). We also repeat our thanks to our colleagues for working with Burke on several sections in past editions, including Tony Onwuegbuzie (Sam Houston State University), who was the original coauthor of the chapter on mixed methods research; Jack Dempsey (University of South Alabama); and Teresa Wagner (Case Western Reserve University). Most importantly, we thank our students for their very important thoughts on how to improve the book from their perspectives. Finally, we offer our gratitude and thanks to our expert reviewers for their many insights and useful comments. Our reviewers are as follows:
First edition reviewers: Amy Gillet, University of Wisconsin–Stout Bill Gilley, University of South Alabama Bryan Griffin, Georgia Southern University Beverly A. Joyce, Dowling College Robert W. Lissitz, University of Maryland at College Park Joe Newman, University of South Alabama
Joan Quilling, University of Missouri– Columbia Thomas A. Romberg, University of Wisconsin Bikas Sinha, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, India Paul Westmeyer, The University of Texas at San Antonio
Doris L. Prater, University of Houston–Clear Lake
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Second edition reviewers: Kathy Green, University of Denver Tony Onwuegbuzie, University of South Florida Shaireen Rasheed, Long Island University
Vemelle Tyler, University of South Carolina– Aiken Daniel Weigel, Southern Oklahoma State University
Third edition reviewers: Don Dillman, Washington State University
John Hanes, Regent University
Jim Van Haneghan, University of South Alabama
John A. Huss, Northern Kentucky University
Jason D. Baker, Regent University Ronald S. Beebe, Cleveland State University Dorinda J. Gallant, The Ohio State University
David R. Kovach, The University of Toledo Vincent Rinaldo, Niagara University Sandra L. Stein, Rider University Wilford A. Weber, University of Houston
Fourth edition reviewers: Jeff Lorentz, University of Houston–Clear Lake Rebecca S. Lake, National Louis University
David R. Kovach, University of Toledo Jamie Branam Kridler, East Tennessee State University
E. Lea Witta, University of Central Florida
Fifth edition reviewers: Diane Bagwell, University of West Florida Denetta Dowler, West Virginia University Cynthia L. Jew, California Lutheran University Shlomo S. Sawilowsky, Wayne State University Jennifer Veltsos, Minnesota State University Lihshing Leigh Wang, University of Cincinnati Timothy G. Ford, University of Louisiana– Monroe
Misty M. Ginicola, Southern Connecticut State University John Huss, Northern Kentucky University Sara C. Lawrence, Texas A&M University– Texarkana S. Kim MacGregor, Louisiana State University Patrice D. Petroff, Queens University of Charlotte Elizabeth Ann Rivet, Bay Path College
