common sc~eme of study; they learn a common core curriculum in the following. 6 ...... activities have roots in the Jordanian educational system as back as the early 1950s. ... This enhances and supports the reliability and the validity of the ...... observed that effectiveness and efficiency in PVE was clearly dependent on the.
EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY IN JORDANIAN PREVOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROVISION
by Ahmad Issa Twaisat (Tweissi)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
The University of Huddersfield
School of Education and Professional Development
Director of Research Study: Second Supervisor:
October, 1998
Dr. M J Breckin Dr. DB Brady
CONTENT CONTENT .......................................................................... II-V i\C~O~~EI>(;E~ENT ....................................................... VI-VII i\BSTRi\ CT ........................................................................ VIII -IX ~IST OF i\BBREVIi\TIONS ................................................... X LIST OF Ti\B~ES ................................................................ XI-XII CHi\PTER ONE
INTRODUCTION i\ND STUDY Bi\CK(;ROUNI>
1.1 Introduction
..1-2
1.2 Economy of Jordan
3-4
1.3 Educational System in Jordan
4-10
1.4 Financing Education
10-11
1.5 The First National Conference on Education Development
11-13
1.6 The Education Reform Plan And PVE in Jordan
13-14
1.7 Background to the Study Problem
15-17
1.8 Rationale of the Study
17-20
1.9 Aims and Questions of the Study
20-22
1.10 Significance of the Study
22-25
CHi\PTER T\VO
THE JORI>i\NIi\N PVE PROVISION
2.1 Introduction
26-31
2.2 Background to the Jordanian PVE Provision
31-32
2.3 The Application Stages of PVE
32-33
2.4 The Objectives of PVE in Jordan
33-35
2.5 Packages of PVE
35-38
2.6 PVE Department (PVED)
38-40
2.7 The Funding of PVE
40-41
an~
41-49
2.8 Needs
Elements of PVE teaching ~
2.9 PVE Links with Vocational Education
50-51
2.. 10 Obstacles and Impediments to PVE in Jordan
51-52
CHi\PTER THREE
~ITEAA TURE REVIE~
3.1 Introduction
53-54
3~2
54-58
PVE Geniuses and International Provisions
II
3.2.1 Within the Developed Countries
58-63
3.3 3.2.2 Within the Developing Countries
63-69
3.4 PVE Definition
70-74
3.5 PVE Effectiveness and Efficiency
74-78
3.6 Measuring The Effectiveness and Efficiency
78-87
3.7 Models for Measuring the Effectiveness and Efficiency
87-89
3.8 PVE Components
89-91
3.7.1 The Component of Teacher
92-100
3.7.2 The Component of student
100-104
3.7.3 The Component of Facilities and Physical resources
104-106
3.7.4 The Component of Curriculum
106-109
3.7.5 The Component of Educational Administration
109-114
3.8 Conclusions
114-115
CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
116
4.2 Methodology Rationale
117-118
4.3 The Research Model
118-119
4.4 Population of the Study Sample
119-122
4.5 Instruments
122
4.5.1 Questionnaire
123-126
4.5.2 Interview
126-127
4.5.3 Documentary
128-129
4.6 General Issues
in the Design of the research questionnaires
129
4.6.1 The Design Parameters
130
4.6.2 The Initial forms of the questionnaires
130
4.3 Pilot Study
131-134
4.4 Field Pilot Study
134-135
4.5 The Final Form of the Study's Instrument
135
4.6 The Field Work
136-138
4.7 The Approach to Analysis
138-139
4.11.8 Qualitative and Quantitative
III
139-143
4.11.9 Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Findings 4.12 Conclusions
CHAPTER FIVE:
143 ' 143-144
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
5.0 Introduction
145-146
5.1 Findings and discussions related to the component of the Teacher
147-172
5.2 Findings and discussions related to the component of the Physical resources
173-188
5.3 Findings and discussions related to the component of the Curriculuml89-200 5.4 Findings and discussions related to the component of the Student
201-214
5.5 Findings and discussions related to the component of the Educational Administration
215-229
5.6 Strategies And Improvement Measures
230
5.6.1 Findings from the questionnaires
231-233
5.6.2 Improvement measures related to the component of teacher233-242 5.6.3 Improvement Measures related to the component of Fund 242-244 5.6.4 Improvement Measures related to the component of Physical Facilities
244
5.6.5 PVE Class Periods
244
5.6.6 Local environment and PVE
245-246
5.6.7 Examination Issues
246-247
5.7 Summary to Chapter Five CHAPTER SIX
248-249
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
250-251
6.2 Conclusions Related to the component of Teacher
252-254
6.3 Conclusions Related to the component of Physical Facilities
254-255
6.4 Conclusions Related to the component of Curriculum
255-256
6.5 Conclusions Related to the component of Student
256-27
6.6 Conclusions Related to the component of Educational Administration258-259 6.7 Summary of the Conclusions
259
6.8 Measures to Improve the Effectiveness and the Efficiency of PVE
261
IV
6.9 Proposal for Course of Corrective Action
261-264
6.10 Area for Further Investigation
264-265
6.11 Study Limitations
265
6.12 Recommendations
266
REFERENCES
267-279
APPENDICS
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have helped the researcher in this study. The researcher would like to thank them for that help.
First and foremost, the researcher wishes to extend his grateful thanks to the British Council, the ODA of the UK, and the University of Mu'tah-Jordan for their financial support of my scholarship.
The researcher is particularly indebted to the director of study Dr. Michael Breckin and the study's second supervisor Dr. David Brady. Both have provided very helpful discussions and comments, both face to face and from a distance. They have been instrumental in making this research a reality, and thus have been full partners from start to finish.
The researcher wishes to record his appreciation for the help and the constructive cooperation he has received from the officials at the Ministry of Education and the UNRWA-Jordan, namely; Abed-Elkareem Jennadah; Ghaleb Tuffahah; Khamis Salamah; Mohammad Aqeel; Mousa Alwaly; Salman Hassanat; Sami Habash Faraj; and Zuka'a EI-Lahaam. The researcher also wishes to thank the PVE supervisors at the LEDs and the school heads for their cooperation during the fieldwork. They made available to me, where needed, the official records, statistics, and relevant reports. Many thanks are due to the members of the National Advisory Committee and the National Team of Authors of the PVE curriculum, for their constructive criticism of the initial drafts of the study instruments.
The researcher is very grateful to the staff and research students of the School of Education and Professional Development at The University of Huddersfield. Special thanks ru:e due to Dr. Grant Roberts for the extensive and very helpful comments on the survey instruments. Thanks are also due to Dr. Yves Benett and Mr Lew Owen for their advice and encouragement.
VI
The researcher's special thanks are due to many Jordanian researchers at the' Universities of the UK, who discussed the study's various issues with the researcher on several occasions. They all really deserve my special thanks for their cooperation and suggestions.
The researcher would also, like to express his special thanks for the unending and constant support he receives from his elder brother: Professor Dr. Adel
Twei~si,
Department of English Language, the Dean of Students Affairs' and Ex-Dean of The Faculty of Arts at the University of Mu'tah, Jordan. His substantive, lingual and technical comments were invaluable in the final stage of completing this thesis. He is really the most influential person in my life and the first and most effectual teacher of mine. With the same high spirit of gratitude the researcher would like to thank his younger brother Duraid Tweissi, who supported and encouraged me along the way. His keen interest and moral support have provided me with the needed motivation and encouragement to complete this study.
The researcher would, also, like to take this opportunityto thank others who helped in various ways; Dr. Ali AI-Dmour, University of Mu'tah in Jordan; Dr. Khamis AIBusa' adi, Oman; Mr Abbas Telfah(Assistant research), School of Education at the University of Jordan; Mohammed AI-Dahiyat; Samer Dahiyat and Abd Al-aziz Ali Hassan Egyptian scholar, Mansourah University, Egypt.
I reserve my last but not least acknowledgment to my wonderful wife Fayzeh Faleh
Farajat and my two lovely little daughters Sarah and Razan, for giving me the encouragement and the sympathetic support I needed when things were not going well. This was in addition to very understanding attitudes to the many hours I· spent locked away in my study. I do really admire their patience and encouragement.
The Researcher'
VII
Abstract Effectiveness and Efficiency in Jordanian PVE Provision Ahmad Issa Twaisat The general aim of this research is to examine both the human elements and the facilities associated with Jordanian Pre-Vocational Education(PVE) provision, namely, the design concept, the students, teachers, administrators, PVE workshops, and PVE curriculum. These five components were used to guide the study. The investigation focus on the contribution of these components to the effectiveness and efficiency of the system.
For the purpose of the research a variety of data collection methods were employed; a self-completion questionnaire, a semi-structured interview, and analysis
of
documentary material. The items/statements/questions, that have been included cover the key areas which were a subject of investigation and examination. The data collection methods were pre-tested and piloted before use in the field study. The data was collected in-country during the period between September 1996 and January 1997.
As with the pilot study, in each school visited, the questionnaires were
presented to students, teachers, school heads, and PVE supervisors.
The data collected has been treated both qualitatively and quantitatively. Statistical techniques, mainly Mean, Standard Deviation, and One-way ANOV A, were employed to. interpret the study findings, to mount the several comparisons required, and to determine the different relationships. The major findings of the study i~'dicated that policy-makers support the introduction of PVE, seeing it as an important vocational aspect within basic education. However, in general, the degree of effectiveness and efficiency of PVE delivery within Jordanian provision varied from region to region and from one school to another. The study findings highlight that the effectiveness and the efficiency of PVE, within the Jordanian provision, do not just depend upon the adequacy 'and the sufficiency of facilities and equipment, but, more importantly, on the relation between practice and policy intentions~ Furthermore, it can be seen that the findings underlying the study
VIn
provide some important lessons and strategies for the future of PVE in Jordan, and . also more widely for the countries of the developing world. Thus, this study provides an insight, and it is hoped a contribution to the development of PVE.
IX
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CPVE
Certificate of Prevocational Education.
CCs
Community Colleges.
DAT
Design And Technology.
ERP
Education Reform Plan.
FNCED
The First National Conference for Educational Development.
FEU
Further Education Unit.
GSEE
General Secondary Education Examination.
GDETD
General Directorate for Educational Training and Development.
GDVE
General Directorate for Vocational Education.
HKJ
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
HCTC
Higher College for Teacher Certification.
JD
Jordanian Dinar
LED
Local Education Directorate.
M.Ed.
Master of Education
MoE
Ministry of Education.
MoHE
Ministry of Higher Education.
NCHRD
National Center for Human Resources Development.
NSC
National Supervisory Committee for the Curriculum Design
ODA
Overseas Development Administration of the United Kingdom (now DFID)
PVE
Pre-Vocational Education.
PVED
Pre-Vocational Education Department.
SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TVEI
Technical and Vocational Education Initiative.
UNRWA
United Nations Relief and Works Agency.
VE
Vocational Education.
VED
Vocational Education Department.
VET
Vocational Education and Training.
VTC
Vocational Training Corporation.
WB
World Bank.
YOP
Youth Opportunities Program.
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 The growing of financial allocations for the PVE Within the budget of the MoE in the last four years ............................................................ 41 2-2 Distribution of PVE workshops by the space and availability .................. 42 2-3 Distribution of PVE teachers by academic Qualifications for the year 1997 ......................................... ~ ............... 45 5-1-1 Distribution of the PVE teachers qualification and Experience by the gender and region ............................................... ~ ... 148 5-1-2 The current situation of the PVE teachers' qualifications .................... 150 5-1-3 Perceptions of the PVE supervisors and schools' heads towards the efficiency of the PVE teacher.............................................................................. 152 5-1-4 Shortcomings of pre-service tr~ning as perceived by teachers ................ 156 5-1-5 The distribution (%) of PVE teachers' perception toward their need for further . . traIning .. ........... ~ ................................................................. . 160 In-service 5-1-6 The perceptions of PVE teachers toward the efficiency of in-service training .................................................................................... 162 5-1-7 Difficulties affecting the effectiveness of PVE teachers ............ 171
5-2-1 Distribution of PVE workshops by the space and availability .............. 176 5-2-2 The distribution of the available PVE workshop by space appropriateness 177 5-2-3 Participants' perceptions towards the efficiency of the available PVE workshops and facilities .................................................................... 179 5-2-4 The affect of the variable of school location on the efficiency of the PVE Workshops and facilities ....... _.......................................................... 181 5-2-5 The affect of the variable of school region on the efficiency of the PVE workshops and fa~ilities .................................................................. 183 5-2-6 Head -teachers perceptions toward the efficiency of the PVE facilities and Worksho ................................................................................... 185 5-3-1 Students' preferences for PVE packages(in rank order) ........................ 190
XI
· Table 5-3-2 Students' perceptions concerning the difficulty of PVE skills ................. 191 5-3-3 Students perceptions towards the efficiency of PVE in influencing their vocational orientation ......................................................................... 192 5-3-4 Teachers and supervisors perceptions towards the efficiency of PVE curriculum ................................................................................... 194 5-4-1 Students' perceptions toward the importance of the PVE .......•............... 202 5-4-2 The influence of the parents educational background on the students' perceptions toward recommending PVE for their friends and relatives ............... 212 5-4-3 The influence of the parents educational background on the students' perceptions toward their interest to enroll on the secondary VE ........................ 213 5-5-1 The highest qualifications of the PVE supervisors ........................... 218 5-5-2 Distribution of PVE educational supervisors ................................... 220 5-5-3 The PVE supervisors satisfaction perceptions toward the efficiency of the several educational administrative levels ............ ;........................................ 224 5-6-1 Participants suggestions to improve and develop the effectiveness and the efficiency of the PVE ....................................................................231 5-6-2 Participants agreement with the necessity of the employment criteria ....................................................................................... 245
XII
Chapter I Introduction
INTRODUCTION AND STUDY BACKGROUND Chapter One
1.1 Introduction This chapter provides firstly, brief background information on the geography, history and economy of Jordan, and, secondly, an introduction to the system of education
i~
..
the Country. More importantly, it aims to give a background to the study problem, its aims, research questions, rationale and significance.'
Geographically, Jordan lies in the heart of the Arab world, linking the East and the West, and Asia and Africa. The Country is bounded by Syria in the north, Iraq in the east, Saudi Arabia on the south-east and south, and Palestine and Israel on the west, (see appendix 1). Jordan is a small developing country, officially referred to as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan(HKJ). The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is made up of twelve govemerates (MuhaJazat). It came into being as international entity after World War 1, and was recognised as a constitutional state in 1923 under 'Prince Abdullah Ben AI-Hussein' who was proclaimed king of the HKJ after the c?untry gained its independence from Britain in 1946 (Fisher, 1987; MoE 1992; NIC, 1997).
The total area of the HKJ is 89,213 sq. Km. The population of Jordan amounted, in 1996, to 4.4 million with approximately a 3.6 percent rate of population growth 'among the highest in the world' (NIC, 1997).
The great majority of Jordanians are Muslims; Christianity constitutes about 4 percent of the population. ,.As the Arabic language is the nation's tongue and its means of
expressing its cultural identity, it has remained the official language in Jordan, although the English language is widely spoken, and taught as a second language in all schools.
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources, ... but 'for years it has played a critical role in the struggle for power in the Middle East. Jordan's significance results partly from its strategic location at the
cross-r~ads
of
what most Muslims, Christians, and Jews call the Holy Land. Moreover, since the earliest times, Jordan has been a region of human settlement where civilisation prospered. It has been home for several waves of Semitic Arab migrations.Thus, Jordan is famous for its historical relics. Landmarks of past civilisations built by its inhabitants are still in view. The remarkable rose-red city of Petra, built by the Nabatean Arabs in southern Jordan (town of Wadi Mousa), and the ancient Roman ruins in northern Jordan (city of Jerash), stand as a symbol of Arab staying power, \
determination and contribution to the region as a whole' (NIC, 1997).
. Overall, 'Jordanians are known for their hospitality, an outgrowth of their Bedouin heritage, and this trait has given the nation a new and growing st':ltus as a business center of the Middle East'. When visiting Jordan the visitor is directly aware of the inherent hospitality extended by the Jordanian people, which is best expressed by the Arabic phrase: "Ahlan Wa Sahlan" which means "I welcome you" (Haroon,1997; NIC,1997)~
2
·1.2
Economy Of Jordan
Lorfing and Govenda (1994:31) emphasises that "the ability of any country to provide education for all, depends on : its economic capacity to finance the provision of education services; strong political will; identification of universal basic education as a national priority, and an equitable distribution of the nation wealth".
As was mentioned earlier, Jordan is one of the small countries of the region, with limited natural resources. The per capita income is approximately about $1500/£900 (Brown, 1994). The economy of Jordan suffers from a narrow productive base and is highly susceptible to various internal and external influences. For instance, the waves of refugees the Kingdom has hosted from the various wars in the Middle East are a major recurrent problem to the Jordanian economy. All the refugees have been granted Jordanian citizenship and have refugee status for relief purposes. At the outset of the Gulf crises, for example, the policy makers, in Jordan, found themselves under pressure to find places in schools for not less than 70,000 additional students(Lorfing and Govenda, 1994). This was accompanied by a slump in external financial aid, due in part to the world-wide economic depression, and compounded by the problem of paying the heavy external debt.
Nevertheless, Jordan has prospered. There are industries such as phosphate mining, potash, petroleum refining, cement production, and tourism. Since 1992, Jordan has registered progressive improvement in its economy. In addition the peace treaty with Israel has opened a whole vista of opportunities for all economic sectors, which the government is wasting no time in seeking to develop (Fisher, 1987; Brown, 1994; Lorfing and Govenda, 1994; Masri,1994).
3
Having said that, it is worth noting that His Majesty King Hussein repeatedly recognises that "the greatest natural resource in Jordan is its citizens." Thus, it cannot be ignored that despite other progress the national economy of Jordan is heavily dependent on its human capital, comprising a skilled and educated work force. Accordingly, and to respond to the current and future development needs of the domestic and regional economies, the education system has been assigned the crucial task of developing human resources (Ahlawat and Billeh, 1996).
1.3
The Education System In Jordan
Overview The educational system is managed, administratively and financially, by the Ministry of Education (MoE). According to the Law of Education 1994, the Ministry is fully empowered to plan, administer, evaluate and develop educational policy, as well as managing the educational system. However, it is worth noting that only about 70 percent of the schools in Jordan are public schools. The remaining 30 percent are non public, administered by the private sector, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA), the armed forces and other voluntary organisations, all of which are under the supervision of the Ministry(MoE, 1992; MoE,1995b).
The general objectives of education in Jordan are to build up citizen belief in God, their affiliation to their country and nation, to endow them with human virtues and perfection, and to provide them with a full developed personality in its various aspects: physical, mental, spiritual, emotional and social (Abu Sheikah, 1994).
4
In 1921, the then East Jordan Emirate had a small number of primary schools that
provided three years of education and four elementary schools that provided six years of education. However, since 1946/1947, (after the country gained its independence), Jordan witnessed rapid progress in the field of education. Some key indicators of this development are;
(i) the total number of students rose from 10,729 in 1946/47 to 1,320,207 in 1996/1997; (ii) the number of teachers rose from 214 to 63,289 during the period 1947-1997;
(iii) the number of schools rose from 77 to 4,442 during the period 1947-1997; (iv) universities were non-existent until 1962 when the first university was opened; the number of universities rose from one in 1962 to 17 universities in 1997 with 6 government and 11 private universities; (v) the number of university students 'at home', that is in Jordan, rose from 167 in 1967 to 70,546 in 1995. In addition, more than 22,500 Jordanian students are currently (1998) completing their higher education abroad; (vi) the budget of the MoE went up from JD35248 (£30650) in 194611947 to JD 198,500,000 (£172,270,000) in 1996, and its share of the total government budget rose from 2.4% in 1946 to 11,3% in 1996 (MoE, 1997; MoHE,1997).
The educational infrastructure of the Kingdom has been effective in progressively increasing the !iteracy'rate to 85% and in accounting for the appearance of university and college graduates in the labour market(NIC,1997). More interestingly, according to AI-Fanik (1995)"Jordan now enjoys the highest rate of production of university
5
graduates after the United States of America and Sweden. Supporting this sense of progress and growth Ahlawat and Billeh( 1996:7) reported; "By 1991 the net primary enrolment rate had reached 97.17 percent (96.1 % for boys and 98.33% for girls). Gender disparity in education, at all levels, basic, secondary and tertiary has been virtually eliminated." These facts affirm that the people of Jordan have held and continue to hold education and learning in high esteem, and together with other less visible achievements can be recorded as success indicators of the Jordanian system.
Structure And Organisation Basically, the educational system of Jordan is comprised of four levels, administered by the MoE, and Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE): pre-school education, basic education, secondary education, and higher education (see appendix 2). These are: (i)
Pre-school education The duration of this stage is two years with children aged 4-6 years. According to the regulations, specified by the Education Act children at the age of four are allowed but not compelled to attend kindergartens. However, it is worth noting that this stage is not free of charge. Because it is a non'compulsory stage, the school institutions are run by the private and voluntary sectors.
(ii)
Basic education
All children who have attained the age of six are required to attend ten-years of basic schooling.
As a compulsory education stage for the age 6-16, children have a
common sc~eme of study; they learn a common core curriculum in the following
6
subjects: Arabic language, Islamic education, Maths, Sciences, Social education, English language, Prevocational education, Physical education, Art education, and Music education. Students at this stage, as subsequently in secondary education, are assessed yearly. They are evaluated at the end of the basic education according to their academic achievement through grades 8, 9 and 10, with a cumulative score comprised of 20 percent, 30 percent and 50 percent, respectively, of their total marks in these three grades. This system was designed for the purpose of rationalising student classification and determining entrance to the various streams of secondary education. This compulsory stage is free of charge in public schools.
(iii)
Secondary education All those who have completed the tenth grade are classified into one of two major programmes: the comprehensive secondary or the applied secondary. Students who achieved the highest grades (mostly above 65) are assigned places at the academic track within the comprehensive school, while those who achieve less grades(approximately50-65) will be assigned places at the vocational track within both the comprehensive school and the applied secondary education.
The comprehensive secondary education stream ends with a general secondary education examination(GSEE). This stream is further divided into a comprehensive 'academic track' and comprehensive 'vocational track'. Subjects studied during this stage consist of a common core curriculum and optional specialised academic or vocational subjects. According to this structure,
7
introduced by the Law of 1994, students within the vocational track who are aspiring to continue their higher education are required to study certain specified additional academic subjects. The intention of MoE is that this structure will attract better students to enroll in vocational education programmes. This stage concludes with the GSEE.
The applied secondary stream consists of specialised vocational courses with some supportive and some optional academic subjects. This stream aims at the preparation of skilled workers through practical training at centres and in formal apprenticeship programmes run by the Vocational Training Corporation (VTC) of the Ministry of Labour or by the MoE. The students within. this education stream are not required to sit for the GSEE (Ahlawat and Billeh, 1996; Abuhola, 1997; Haroun, 1997).
(iv)
Higher Education Entry to this stage is on the basis of performance in the GSEE. Courses are offered at both public and private universities and the community colleges(CC). These colleges are educational institutions that offer 2-3 year
~ourses
in more
than 100 specialisations. There are some 45 such colleges in Jordan.
Jordanian universities offer, in addition to first-degree courses that usually last for four years! PostGraduate Diploma and Masters' programmes. Courses are available in most disciplines. However, at only two of the seventeen universities
8
are doctoral degrees available, and then only in a limited number of disciplines (MoE, 1993; Masri, 1994).
The School Curriculum All schools in Jordan at all levels have to follow the same curricula. These curricula are designed and decided by the MoE. Whilst the compulsory subject "coverage of the curriculum is decided centrally, subject to the approval" of the MoE, private schools may teach additional subjects.
The PVE element in the curriculum is compulsory in the basic schools. It is intended to deliver major vocational concepts/packages with levels progressing in scope and sequence with the students' growth.
Fields of study are in agriculture, industry,
commerce and business, public health and safety, and home economics (MoE, 1990b).
The Teacher Given appropriate planning, it is obvious that the success or failure in achieving the objectives of any educational system ultimately rests in the hands of the teachers. Taking that into account, current Jordanian legislation requires all teachers, at both government and private schools, to hold university degrees or an equivalent qualification to teach in basic education, and a degree plus one year post-graduate teacher training to teach in secondary education(Ahlawat and Billeh, 1996). This requirement 'came into force in 1994. At that time the vast majority of basic education teachers had only a community college Diploma, and secondary education teachers a university first degree.. To meet the MoE specifications for qualifications, upgrading
9
was necessary. According to Hyasat(1997), nearly 30,000 teachers are taking or will take training courses to raise their qualifications. The Ministry in-service developmental training programmes have already enabled 9,148 teachers to obtain their BAI B.Sc. degrees and 6,000 to obtain their postgraduate diplomas and MAIM.Ed. degrees.
1.4
Financing Education
Jordan provides free education for basic and secondary students. Private schools, on the other hand, charge fees to cover their expenses.
Public education is funded mainly by the government through the MoE. Based on educational objectives (to build up citizen belief in God, their affiliation to their country and nation, to endow them with human virtues and perfection, and to provide them with a full developed personality), the government allocates the funds needed for education in the national recurrent budget(Abu Sheikah, 1994). It is worth noting that there has been a steady increase in the funds allocated to education, (shown in appendix 3). Whilst the government is the principal source of funding to education the MoE also has access to:
(i) nominal contributions by students in MoE schools. These contributions (symbolic fees) vary, according to the education stage, between Jordanian Dinar JD. 4.15-10 (£3.7-9) per student annually. For instance, students of basic education are required to pay JD 4.15 while secondary education students are required to pay JD 10;
10
(ii) local and foreign loans, which are frequently utilised for funding of capital
expenditure, especially for funding the construction and equipment of new schools; (iii) local and foreign grants, which are frequently available in the form of technical assistance or funds for specific educational projects.
1.5
The First National Conference on Education Development (FNCED) 1987
Since the early 1980s, the decision makers have realised that economic and industrial growth in Jordan is positively associated with the quality of the national educational system. Thus, the provision of quality education and appropriate training has always been a high priority. However, through the 1980s there was a growing national consensus that the education system required a major reassessment to ensure provision of an educated and technically skilled work force, able to develop the domestic economy (Ahlawat and Billeh, 1996).
To respond to these challenges, the FNCED which was considered as the most important landmark in the educational history of Jordan, was held in September 1987. This conference played a pivotal role in enhancing and enriching the educational process, through establishing clear goals and commencing a process of implementation. The recommendations of FNCED may be suminarised in the following eight areas. Recommendations were adopted
as a reform plan for
education system in Jordan and were designed in conformity with three main criteria, namely, feasibility, flexibility, and affordability. After represented and approved the plan was given alife cycle often years 1989-1998 (MoE, 1988; MoE, 1992).
11
The Educational Policy; this introduced a democratising policy into the educational system, improving the content of education, strengthening the role of society in education, and modernising the philosophy, aims, and objectives.
The Educational Structure; this led to a restructuring of the duration of the different stages of the school provision to create the present pattern as decided above, namely:
(i) Pre-school education for two years (age 4-6). (ii) Basic education for ten years (age 6-16). (iii) Secondary education for two years (age 16-18).
The Curricula and Textbooks; this established a focus on improving problem solving skills and encouraging critical thinking and analysis.
The Technology of Education; this provided for support of the new curricula by enhanced technology, such as the use of computer, educational television programmes, better laboratories, workshops, and libraries.
The Improvement of the Effectiveness of Teachers; this established guidelines for. better training and qualifications for teachers through the revision of teacher training programmes and assQciated academic standards.
The Educational Administration; as for teachers this aimed at providing better skilled and trained acinunistrators.
12
School Buildings; this focused on the provision of new school buildings to meet the projected annual increase in enrolments and improve standards.
The Role of the Universities; linked with improving the effectiveness of teachers, this encouraged a new active role in general education, especially in certification and training for the in-service sector (MoE, 1991).
1.6
The Education Reform Plan (ERP) and Prevocational Education in
Jordan Human resource development has been the focal point of successive development plans in Jordan. Due to lack of natural physical resources, it has become the country's long-standing policy to rely on the returns from human capital. Consequently, the provision of quality education and appropriate training has always been ranked at the top of the country's needs and priorities. As has been indicated one of the most important objectives of the educational reform plan currently in force is the up-grading of academic qualifications and the raising of the level of certification of in-service teachers. The FNCED has stated certain key principles underpinning this and has made a num~er of recommendations.
According to the UNDP(1995), the operational effect of the ERP on PVE has included; (i) the designing of modified PVE curricula and the publishing of new PVE textbooks. The main objectives of this new curriculum were stated as being to develop critical thinking, problem-solving ability, and collaborative and co-operative work
13
among students, and to build positive attitudes of students towards vocational education. (ii) implementing the PVE curriculum at grades 1-10, which reflects the deep concern of the policy makers in Jordan towards the early vocational orientation for youngsters, and an early formation of positive attitudes towards manual work; (iii) reducing the formal secondary cycle from three to two years. This coupled with the extension of compulsory basic education, was intended to provide a more developed knowledge and skill foundation in basic education graduates. Also because of the absence of the third year of VE, it is expected that the extension of basic education will result in enhancing the significance of PVE teaching as vocational component; (iv) upgrading the qualification of PVE and secondary TVET teachers. Reflecting upon this dimension, the tenth recommendation (Chapter 2, Teacher Training), of the FNCED, focuses on; • upgrading the academic knowledge of the existing community college graduate teachers to bachelor equivalence, through a certification programme; - providing ongoing in-service training to enable teachers to make effective use of new materials, diversified instructional methods, and to acquire the skills needed to Use the new curricula; - providing existing university "graduate teachers with one year of pedagogical university based programmes(MoE,1988).
14
1.7
Background to the Study Problem
Jordan has a long-standing policy of human resource development delivered through quality education and an appropriate training system; it has served the interests of the country well over the past two decade (Tuffahah, 1990). Focusing on human resources as an essential strategy for development, the 1987 FNCED re-examined the quality of general education (MoE, 1992). In the 5th chapter of the 7th recommendation of the FNCE, it was emphasised that Prevocational Education (PVE) which had existed in schools in some form since 1980, should be unified for all the grades of basic education. The justification behind this recommendation was to expose students to real life skills, by providing them with an appropriate orientation, and through this to encourage students to be effective and productive citizens (MoE,1988). Thus, PVE was formally introduced into the general education system in an attempt to respond to the unfolding needs of the individual and of society. This move was defined as an educational innovation and a step towards a more appropriate curriculum and content. The question is how far has that step been successful. After 17 years during which PVE has been introduced into the educational system, first in a limited number of schools and later to all the basic schools in Jordan, the question remain how well has the programme been delivered. Therefore, the following statement will highlight the
research problem: " This study will attempt to determine whether the PVE has reached a standard which truly justifies its inclusion as a component of the school process."
Ahlawat and Billeh(1996) expect that the significance of PVE, to students, is related to the following;
15
(i) the introduction of PVE in basic education classes will change perceptions and attitudes towards manual work favourably and lay a foundation for secondary vocational education by linking practical work with education; (ii) that exposing students to prevocational subjects may motivate them to study technical subjects.
All the above mentioned priorities and goals formed part of the essence of the vision for the Jordanian educational system. These ambitions, ultimately, aim at preparing students for a productive future life. Indeed, the extent to which any educational system succeeds in improving cognitive, affective, social and practical skills of pupils will be reflected in the development of the society as a whole.
In Summary, therefore, PVE in the Jordanian system aims, firstly, at exposing students to real life skills, and, secondly, at introducing them to the world of vocations. In addition, it is hoped that this may encourage students to appreciate better manual work . and skilled work, and to provide them with the opportunity to use practical skills for Improving the home environment (Tuffahah, 1990). As its title suggests however, PVE . mUst be seen and judged as an initial intr9ductory and orientation framework and not as employable skills training.
While the PVE
curric~lum content is decided by the Ministry of Education and this
Content is app·lied. throughout the country, the way that this curriculum is implemented
v .
anes from one school to another and from one teacher to another. This can be related to
the level of competency '~nd qualification of individual teachers, also to the availability of
16
PYE facilities in every individual school and to the effective and efficient utilisation of those resources. These, and perhaps other factors, may affect and determine the success and direction of PYE implementation.
1.8
Rationale of the study
Basic education has the specific role of preparing students for the future; it ends with the tenth grade which is the last compulsory grade. Pre-Vocational Education, as a main subject in basic education, has been developed to enhance the effectiveness of the whole educational system. In this regard it is interesting to report that PYE plays, with other subjects within basic education, a crucial role in preparing a generally well educated citizen for effective participation in the comprehensive development of the country. Having said that, it can be claimed that PYE was developed to enhance the effectiveness of whole education system, that is through improving students' appreciation and responsiveness to the world of work. Thus as with other subjects PYE should be continuously improved and developed.
When introduced into the educational system in 1979, PVE was presented to schools as a set of general guidelines. According to these guidelines individual schools were asked to focus on aspects of PVE which were of particular interest to their students. However, neither the context nor the content of these guidelines were explained in detail (MoE,1993).
After the establishment of the Pre-Vocational Education Department (PVED) in 1987, within the General Directorate of Vocational Education(GDYE), PVE issues became
17
more thorough and organised than before. Actually there were coordination and management problems between the different departments, and each department throw the responsibility of planning and monitoring the implementation of PVE on other departments of the MoE. (MoE, 1991 b; MoE,1993).
Responding to the recommendations of the FNCED, all basic education schools across the country have introduced the curriculum provided by the MoE. Thus, de facto, the existence of this curriculum has become part of an overall national policy. Despite this, What had in fact emerged from the FNCED was a series of attempts to prompt greater articulation of PVE at local and central levels. According to the instructions of the PVED at the MoE, individual schools are encouraged to work out their own PVE sUbject units under the general guidance of the curriculum framework and aided by advice from the Local Education Directorates (LED). This should give great advantage to the PVE curriculum in terms of quality over many other subjects in the basic edUcation structure (MoE, 1991 b).
Because of its very practical nature, PVE introduces certain difficulties which complicate the task of its effective deliyery. One of the causes of these difficulties is the
·d WI e range of learning areas associated with the subject (Marshall, 1990;
Uzodinma,1991). It has been app'arent to the researcher, during his association as a PVE educational
sup~rvisor,
that there is considerable doubt among PVE teachers
concerning the capability of the educational system to address the requirement of PVE delivery. These doubts are frequently shared by school heads. For instance, because of the absen
ce
0
f
., some ~ssential elements, many teachers find the teaching of PVE
18
difficult, and they become de-motivated. Conversely, other teachers find themselves illequipped to use the resources which are available. More specifically, on the basis of this and previous studies, the most frequently identified impediments to PVE delivery, in Jordan, are related to one or more of the following; (i) inadequate funding (an overall issue); (ii) limitations of teachers - both in respect to numbers and qualifications; (iii) the inadequacy of workshops, which lack equipment and facilities; and (iv) the attitudes and the responsiveness of students, teachers, and administrators towards the importance of the subject (Masri, 1993; Twaisat,1995).
Reflecting on the above problems, it seems that qualitative and quantitative reassessment is required to change attitudes, to improve the capability of teachers, and to upgrade the syllabus and workshops. This requires a comprehensive evaluation of the current effectiveness of the PVE framework and of the effectiveness and efficiency of its delivery. However, no single study has yet been conducted which focuses on these problems in Jordan. A recent bibliography of research conducted between 1970 and 1990 on basic education in Jordan has been published by the National Centre for Human Resources Development (NCHRD). This highlights the omission with respect . to PVE, and since it has been a feature Qf the educational system since 1980 reflection and evaluation is clearly due. Therefore, this thesis is an evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of the Jordanian PVE provision.(Abu Helu et ai, 1991).
In the light of the above discussion this research seeks to make good the omission by examining both the human elements and the supporting facilities associated with PVE provision. (i) Comparisons will be made between the stated objectives of the system
19
and the actual performance and outcomes. (ii) The research will also study the effectiveness of PVE within basic education in Jordan. It is based upon the premise that "if PVE within basic education in Jordan aims at introducing students to the world of work and stimulating their interest in vocational courses, then the implementation of this subject will be of a high standard, and should bring no trouble to the school."(MoE,1988; MoE,1991a).
Although the focus of this research is into one area of basic education, the research has attempted to ensure that this study embraces the whole pattern of PVE within the curriculum. This is enhanced by the intention to measure general effectiveness and efficiency of the subject "to be discussed later in the thesis" (as they are).
1.9
Aims of the Research
Taking into account the absence of previous studies, mentioned in the introduction above, the present research will commence with a broad overview of PVE and then progress to focus in depth on key issues.
Accordingly the research aims at: (i) Establishing in broad terms the effectiveness of PVE provision provided by the
MoE in Jordan. (ii) Analysing the contribution of the different components of PVE and the effectiveness of that contribution (the identified components are administrators, curriculum, workshop and associated facilities, students, and teachers). (iii) Assessing the current levels of efficiency in the PVE provision. ( following comparisons of performance against stated expectations)
20
(iv) Analysing the policy-measures available and their capacity to improve effectiveness and efficiency of PVE.
In order to fulfill its aims the research will address a number of key questions. Among these will be: (i) An examination of the adequacy of the existing qualifications of PVE teachers;
(ii) Whether existing workshop and associated facilities are adequate (in quality) and sufficient (in quantity) for the intended programme; (iii) The extent to which schools utilise their resources efficiently; (iv) How far PVE teaching influences students' choices regarding their future careers; (v) Whether the PVE curriculum is properly designed for its purpose; (vi) To what extent PVE curriculum is flexible enough to accommodate the variations of school and work environments; (vii) How far the outcomes of PVE vary from one school to another, (taking into consideration issues of gender, social and economic variables, and standards); (viii) In what ways the administration of PVE at national and institutional level affects performance and efficiency; (ix) To what extent the administration of PVE at national and institutional level affects performance and efficiency; (x) Whether any
s~atistically
significant differences exist related to geographical
variables, -such as region (north, central, and south) and Location (Urban or Rural), concerning the effectiveness and efficiency of PVE; (xi) How far the funding allocated to PVE is compatible with the real needs;
21
(xii) In what ways do students, teachers, head teachers, and educational supervisors, perceive the importance of PVE (What kind of attitudes do they have); (xiii) What strategies exist which may be employed to raise the efficiency of PVE within basic education in Jordan.
To assist the discussions which follow, it is essential at this stage to highlight some of the main features of the Jordanian PVE provision. The key features within the provision are: (i) A common PVE curriculum structure: all students follow a set of core units which
are in agriculture, industry, business and commerce, public health and safety, and home economics. (ii) A common PVE resource package, where each school receives the package of equipment which suits its level (a resource list model for junior basic school, and a resource list model for senior basic school).
1.10
Significance of the Study
Unless we are prepared to analyse seriously what exists and the signals from all those involved in the implementation of our vocational initiatives, PVE is likely to continue to be delivered with poor standard of effectiveness and efficiency.· Therefore, to ensure the highest possible standard 'we should at least work as if we were all in the same army'(Bolton et aI, 1985).
The success of PVE depends not only upon the provision of physical facilities and qualified teachers, but also as much upon the effective utilisation of these assets. It
22
also depends on the attitudes and perceptions of all those involved in its implementation. Therefore, the investigation of the views of students, teachers, and administrators toward the different aspects of PVE has been a central part of the research. If the perceptions and expectations of those groups are not compatible with . the expectations of the policy makers and the declared objectives of PVE, then proper improvement strategies must be introduced.
The approach used within this research is intended to provide a guide to all those interested in exploring the effectiveness and the efficiency of PVE. It is not intended that the conclusions reached should be viewed exclusively in the context of Jordan alone. As PVE is a comparatively recent arrival on the curriculum scene in developing countries, it is hoped that lessons can be learned from the Jordanian experience which will be of great importance for the benefit of these developing countries, and for the benefit of all developed world as well.
Nevertheless the direct significance of the results of this research are expected to provide the MoE, Local Education Directorates (LEDs), and the basic schools in Jordan with a useable instrument which can be consulted for the purpose of continuous evaluation (see for example questionnaire lOa).
Since the ultimate aim of most research is to contribute to knowledge and to comprehensive'development and improvement, the results from the study are expected to contribute to the understanding of and performances of the whole educational system in- Jordan by providing analyses of its strengths and weaknesses.
23
Thus, the main importance of this research is related to its ability to provide the decision makers at the MoE with information on areas that require improvement and which need to be supported. In addition to that it will provide a diagnostic tool for the continuous evaluation of PVE.
There are several reasons why this research is particularly significant, these are: (i) Much educational research focuses on change from the perspective of planners and managers, rather than from the perspective of the teacher who has to deliver and handle change, or from the point of view of the students who have change imposed in them. This research will attempt to address this problem by focusing on 'field' experiences. (ii) The MoE, has relatively recently embarked on major changes to the PVE curriculum. This makes this the opportune moment for such research. (iii) There has been a lack of research into the effectiveness and efficiency in Jordanian PVE provision, and indeed into PVE in general. (iv) The scope of the findings will have relevance to schools other than the basic schools of the MoE, namely, to the private sector.
The relative effectiveness and efficiency of different constituent components of the PVE provision are intended to highlight the relative strengths and weaknesses of implementation. Effectiveness to be 'the extent to which PVE objectives are achieved', while efficiency to be 'the capacity of the system to produce the greater outputs with the lesser available inputs'(Leslie, 19977:Miller, 1969; and Nuttall et aI., 1989).
24
The above mentioned indicators can be employed in guiding policy makers towards improving existing policy measures and practices, and enhancing their capacity to improve curriculum implementation. In the next chapter the background to PVE and its purpose within the Jordanian provision will be further discussed to give a perspective and context for this study.
25
PRE·VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN JORDAN Chapter Two
2.1
Introduction
Without background knowledge of PVE and the purpose it serves, the reader of this. thesis will find it difficult to relate to the different issues of the system in general and the Jordanian provision in particular. To provide this essential background is the purpose of this chapter.
Although the literature review will encompass a more detailed analysis of the genesis and definition of PVE, the research requires a brief overview of what is meant by a PVE system at this initial stage.
Generally speaking, it is clear that most educational literature, encourages respect for, at least, the ethics of manual work and dictates its presence in the curricula. In particular, some religious literature motivates children to acquire useful skills for their daily life (Khan, 1981: Hamid,1996). Over recent decades most of the international educational organisations have emphasised the importance of vocational aspects in basic education. For instance, UNESCO perceives general education as incomplete without at least an initiation into vocational issues'. (UNESCO, 1974). This can only be interpreted as an agent for providing pupils, at an early age, with the opportunity to understand vocational work and recognise its importance in theory and perhaps also to some extent, in practise (Mkhonta, 1994; Smilansky, 1979; DE,1968). The broad concept of PVE, therefore, reflects the clear intentions o,f. emphasising practical activities relating to life and society and thus
26
'training' productive members of the society. But these are obvious limits dictated by the school environment. The PVE curriculum stresses not so much the immediate preparation for work but rather inculcates an orientation towards the world of work. Many researchers have emphasised the importance of PVE as. providing a vocational aspect intended within basic education. For instance, Shami (1982) claimed that students at the stage of basic education (6-16 years) like to work with their hands and that they feel pleasure when they make things themselves thus PVE may directly complement basic academic education by helping students to understand their potential and their capabilities at an early age.
However, it must be recognised that the term
PVE means different things to
different people. Lazerson (1981) suggested that PVE schemes are only relevant to school-based programmes. In support, FESC(1989) claimed that in the German system PVE takes its place in the primary education, and thus its role is to provide the students with the opportunity to recognise the usefulness of the work experience, but that is has no direct relationship with employable skills (for more details see section 3.3 chapter 3). These and another arguments create the idea that PVE is not a special programme or course for school Ie avers or unemployed youth, but a fully integrated school-based subject. This understanding of PVE effectively declares that it cannot be extended directly to employable skills training. As its title suggests PVE provides an initial introductory and orientation framework.
However, although it may be accepted that the objectives of PVE are different from the objectives of the VE, many policy makers have laid emphasis on PVE as a
27
means of underpinning secondary VE. This is the case in Jordan where the MoE planned to enroll 50 percent of males and 35 percent of females in VE by the year 2000. Recruitment up to 1997, however, suggested that these targets could not be met. This perhaps explains why policy makers have laid so much emphasis on PVE in basic education. Moreover, since the MoE reduced the period of formal secondary education from three to two years and extended compulsory basic education from nine to ten years, both changes introduced under the Act of 1994, it was thought necessary to provide a more solid vocational knowledge and skill foundation for basic education graduates. By these means, the MoE expected significantly to raise the profile of the vocational component within basic education leading to direct employment outcomes. This evidence supports the impression that policy makers in Jordan laid emphasis on PVE in basic education as a direct and immediate preliminary introduction to the world of work. (MoE,1990b; Obeid, 1997 ). Lewin and Stuart( 1991) argue in this direction also in observing that students who leave school at the end of the basic education cycle cannot be deemed 'drop-outs' because they have been prepared to be useful citizens.
Despite its increased use as a popular phrase, divergence in meaning for PVE increased. Thus Atkins(1984) simply declared that while not attempting to provide specific vocational training, PVE provisions were intended 'to motivate young people to learn through the use of an occupational focus and work-related content matter'. In line with this argument, many scholars affirmed that some (but not all) of the aims of PVE are common for a range of different outcomes. For instance
28
FECRD (1981), Reece (1989) and Wallack (1985) revealed that different aspects of PVE had been designed to achieve one or more of the following;
(i) to give to young students basic vocational skills, experience and knowledge; (ii) to help students to assess their potential, to think realistically about job prospects; (iii) to develop students' understanding and attitudes toward manual work, so they may apparently understand their future roles; (iv) to encourage students to be responsible for their own progress and development.
Thus it can be seen that, whilst there are many of a common objectives associated with PVE, the relationship between these objectives, their prioritisation, and even their nature may be significantly different.
In the case of Jordan the compulsory inclusion of PVE in basic education, beside traditional academic subjects, is intended first and foremost to equip students with a broader perspective and more informed choice of the appropriate stream of secondary education (Nwagwu,1998). This choice to be exercised as far as possible alongside and in conjunction with their academic results in examination. Elsewhere in his study Nwagwu (1998: 121) stated that: "To, assist students in making realistic academic and vocational choices, they must be properly counseled - and guided from their early years in the secondary school."
29
Supporting this point of view, Ahlawat and Billeh( 1996) expect that the significance of PVE, to the secondary VE, is related to the fact that the introduction of PVE in the basic education classes would lay a foundation for secondary vocational education by linking practical work with education.
Thus it can be concluded that the broad general aim of PVE in Jordan is to prepare young people for useful living in society and for improved progression to higher levels of education. Therefore, to remain relevant and functional PVE must serve the needs of both students and society. It can be claimed that the introduction of PVE to an educational system does not necessarily mean that the educational system is inadequate in the traditional sense, but rather, it reflects attempts to; (i) increase the relevance of the basic education; (ii) enhance the link between the school life and the everyday life of the students; (iii) enable the students to acquire some basic and practical skills in the varied vocational works(agriculture, industry, commerce .. etc.).
All PVE systems world-wide share some of these goals and characteristics but may 'rank order' the outcomes differently and evaluates success' or failure differently. Considering PVE from a different perspective, the application of skills gained may help to enhance the student's knowledge in other academic subjects. Lewin and Stuart( 1991) . highlighted
this
dimension
in
their
observations
on
the
interrelationship between PVE and other subjects within basic education. They cited as an example the fact that students are required to measure everything they produce -,
during their practical PVE sessions. This practice in itself helps students to
30
understand, for example, Maths much better, and thus PVE skills can be considered as an extension in this example of Maths' skills. These and related issues are examined more deeply in the literature review chapter.
2.2
Background to the Jordanian Provision
The educational system in Jordan plays the leading role in preparing the individual in a balanced and complete manner. To achieve this completeness, in· the light of technological change, an irresistible need for PVE in education has arisen. Following from this MoE has been committed to exposing students to real life skills, thus the decision makers in Jordan decided to introduce practical subjects such as agriculture, commercial, industrial and home economics into the basic education curriculum. But it proved impossible to teach PVE with this range of specialisation, and in fact most if not all the schools were ill-equipped and inadequately prepared to cope with the requirements of teaching of this subject even at entry level. So in 1980 the MoE instead introduced PVE as an optional subject taught only at a limited number of schools; in other words the period up to 1987 was to be an experimental one(Salamah, 1994).
In 1985, the MoE embarked on what was described as an 'extensive revision· of all
aspects of the educational process'. These efforts were supported by the political leadership in Jordan, and resulted in the call for the FNCED in August 1987. The recommendations of FNCED underlined the importance of applying PVE to all schools and all basic education grades. It was emphasised particularly in the 5th
.. chapter of the 7th recommendation that PVE should be generalised for all grades of
31
basic education. Thus, as a training package in different vocations, it covers 660 class periods in the ten grades of basic education (MoE, 1992; Lorfing and Govenda, 1994).
Lorfing and Govenda,(1994), reported that one of the innovations within basic education in Jordan was the introduction of PVE into the curriculum. It was an acknowledgment of a philosophy which 'considers education as an integral part of socio-economic development' .
2.3
The Application Stages of PVE
The Educational Act 27 1988 established PVE as a compulsory subject within basic education in Jordan. As part of the education reform process, the Education Act, 3 1994, delineated a new curriculum and generalised it to all the basic schools in the country (MoE, 1995b). This delineation is organized in three stages:
(i) Introducing the subject to all schools on the basis of one class period per week
for grades 1-4. New publications were prepared as guide books for teachers and workbooks for students. These teaching materials have thus far been used for the first grade only and implemented in the academic year 1992/1993.
(i) Generalising the teaching of the subject to all schools on the basis of two class
periods per week for grades 5-7. The syllabus for these grades includes units related to the PVE different packages, i.e. agriculture, industry, etc. The guide books and
32
students' workbooks, of grade five, were prepared and implemented in the academic year 1993/1994.
(iii) Extending the teaching of the subject to all schools on the basis of four class
periods per week for grades 8-10. The implementation of this stage has been postponed and somewhat modified because of the demand on teachers and lack of funds. The current situation is that all females' schools are applying the new syllabus on the basis of only two class periods per week, and the same applies in some selected males' schools. At this stage each school is required to choose at least two packages from a range of packages provided in the curriculum guide lines. The choice of this selection of packages should be based on the local labour environment and the type of equipment and facilities available in the school (MoE, 1995). Each school is therefore expected to implement two separate PVE packages during the last three years of basic education.
2.4
The Objectives of PVE in Jordan
The objectives of PVE emerge from, and under the new educational policy form, the general objectives of the educational system. These objectives address the abilities and attitudes of student on one hand, and recognise the environmental employment circumstances on the other. The broad goals of PVE have already been identified, but a deeper analysis within the Jordanian provision highlights the following as key objectives-: (i) Inculcating in the students a positive attitude towards manual work by breaking down the psychological barriers., such as encouraging girls for looking beyond the
33
traditional feminine working roles (providing girls with the opportunity to practice some industrial skills), and this is deemed to require some extent of practical application. (ii) Acquiring, or more precisely facilitating the acquisition of practical and applicable skills with useful economic and social dimensions. (iii) Providing a basis from which a young person can make an informed and realistic decision with respect to his/her immediate future. (iv) Exposing students as early as possible to the world of work and vocations and to enrich their interest in work from early childhood. (v) Reinforcing the vocational experiences acquired by students through practice, application, and field visits to job and production sites. (vi) Developing students' practical and applicable consciousness, and developing their abilities to find solutions for the problems they face. (vii) Helping students to perceive the values of vocational work, in order to use and adapt these values. That means to help students to realise the major objectives of vocational training' thereby creating 'a more lively perception of the values (viii) Helping students to acquire some basic and practical skills and knowledge that may enable them to confront the requirements of life and how to deal with the modem technology. (ix) Providing students with the opportunity to practice vocational skills, those skills that may enable them to spend their leisure time pursuing useful works and activities. ~
34
(x) Developing students' understanding of their local environment and society, so they may comprehend the role they have to playas an effective member of his/her own society. (xi) Providing students with the opportunity to use practical skills for improving the home and home environment (MoE,1990b; MoE, 1993; Lorfing and Govenda,1994; Twaisat, 1995).
It can be concluded from the above mentioned objectives that 'PVE plays a role similar to other academic subjects taken within the basic education that of preparing generally educated person for participation in the broader spectrum of life activities' (WB,1994:12). More precisely, it is hoped through these objectives that PVE will contribute to the general education of students, that is through 'improving their appreciation and responsiveness to the world of work'(WB,1994). It also can be assumed, through achieving all or perhaps some of these objectives, that the implementation of PVE will provide students with the opportunity to learn some basic skills that will be of great benefit for their daily life.
2.5
The Packaging of PVE ..
Putting the objectives into practice is difficult, not least because they represent a change in the educational culture. To overcome these difficulties outlining strategies have been established. Foremost and fundamental among these strategies is the presentation of a framework PVE syllabus. It has been decided by the MoE that the syllabus for all grades will consist of five main packages. These packages mentioned above have been identified as follows:
35
(i) Agriculture package, which includes sub-package units such as; seed planting, animal care, animal and plant production, etc. (ii) Industry package, which includes sub-package units such as; general electrical works, wood and carpentry works, painting, metal work, technical drawing etc. (iii) Commercial and business package, which includes sub-package units such as; setting agendas, principles of accounts, finance, timetable, typing etc. (iv) Home science package, which includes sub-package units such as; textiles and sewing, dressmaking, cookery, home economics, etc. (v) Health and general safety package, which includes sub-package units such as; first-aid, child care, safe water and food, traffic safety, nutrition, etc. (MoE, 1990b)
These sub-package units, which as can be seen are of a fairly general and preparatory nature, are allotted 22 class-periods per week (with 45 minutes per period). In addition, all students study the Arabic language, the English language, Islamic education, Social education, Maths, Physical education, Computing, Science, Art and Music education (see appendices 20 and 21). As they develop, these packages encourage practical application with students learning to apply what ~
they have acquired in the classroom. For instance in agriculture(which of course is an ideal subject in this respect), students raises crops and take care of them until they are ready for consumption.
36
Lorfing and Govenda (1994: 106-107) reported the following as the main features of the PVE curriculum in Jordan;
"(i) The curriculum is common to both girls and boys at the different grades. This gives boys the opportunity to study home economics, and girls to practice agriculture, industries and other activities. Consequently, the curriculum five fields are equally available" to both genders. (ii) The direct linkage between the curriculum and the students' everyday life, which demands more variation in the curriculum to achieve this unity. (iii) Flexibility in curriculum implementation, which has created several options for the students and the teacher to choose the most suitable curriculum for their capabilities and environment. This gives the teacher more freedom in creating new activities. (iv) Textbook are prepared in a flexible manner to give freedom to both students and teacher and to offer many alternative activities for the teacher to select the most suitable for his class conditions".
The documents of the MoE reinforce that the curriculum has been designed to be flexible,. coherent, integrated, and sequenced. These intentions are highlighted in the following features:
(i) The study plan begins with one period per week for the
fi~st
four basic grades,
then two periods per week for the second group of grades 5-7 and finally ,ends with four class periods per week for the last three basic grades(8-10). (ii) The purpose of the curriculum begins with focus upon creating a 'professional
sense' (which to help students to develop an awareness of the importance of the VE). on the part of the students (the first four basic grades), it then progresses to provide students with basic skills, and finally directs attention towards providing
37
students with opportunities to realise their own abilities and prepare them to choose the most suitable secondary education stream. (iii) The number of sub-package units is unlimited for the last three grades (8-10); thus schools are free to choose from these instructional sub-package units those which may best match their environment - for more information about the subpackage units see page 34 and 35 of this thesis. (Lorfing and Govenda,1994).
2.6 The Pre-Vocational Education Department (PVED) The available documents and statistics, for the period between 1980 to 1987, show some coordination and management problems between the involved departments at the level of the MoE toward the implementation of PVE. Each department throw the responsibility of planning and monitoring the implementation of PVE on other departments.
Thus one of the fruits of the FNECD that the 7th recommendation emphasis the urgent need to establish the PVED within the General Directorate of Vocational Education (GDVE) (see appendix 4). It was established to reformulate the aims and objectives and provide an outline content which embodied five packages (agriculture, industry, commerce and business, home-economics, and health' and public safety).
Pre-vocational education department is a steering department at the level of the MoE. The members of this department overlook the development of the different regional e,ducational directorates. At the end of each visit, a great deal of advice is
38
given to the educational supervisor at the directorate visited. The visitors' team looks at the way that different directorates are delivering the curriculum and the level of utilising the available resources. These visits may lead to the design of new training packages, and may lead the decision makers to address the particular needs of PVE(MoE,1993; Twaisat,1995). These are considered to be the decentralised responsibilities. The central responsibilities of the PVED can be summarised as follows: (i) Preparing the annual plan for the department. (ii) Preparing any educational legislative proposals which may be required for the implementation of PVE, and updating the existing legislation. (iii) Preparing operational plans needed to execute policy relevant to PVE such as curriculum development plan; capital and recurrent budget plans, and the planning related to teachers training and in-service courses. (iv) Preparing and planning an necessary research or studies and formulating appropriate recommendations. (v) Specifying levels of detail, such as the educational requirements for PVE workshops. (vi) Participating in the planning. and performing of vocational orientation campaign for students of grade 10. This may provide the policy maker with the opportunity to investigate causes for lack interest in VE and what form of responsibility that can be related to PVE (MoE, 1993; Twaisat,1995).
39
Thus PVED can be considered as a separate administrative department based at the within the MoE. Associated with this development the post of PVE educational supervisor has been created in the district LEDs.
2.7
The Funding of PVE
As it has been outlined above, education in general is administratively and financially directed by the MoE. According to the Education Act
3~
1994, the
decision has been taken to generalise PVE through all schools, which involves extra expense, since obviously it requires qualified staff, workshops and facilities, and materials(MoE, 1995b). Hallak (1990) emphasised that such development may be problematic as low income makes it difficult for a developing country to provide more traditional formal education of adequate quality. Nevertheless, the MoE has diversified its funding and allocated an annual budget to meet the new costs. According to MoE (1995b), the sources of PVE funding are: (i) the budget of the MoE itself; (ii) the World Bank; (iii) relevant educational projects financed by the Japanese Bank; (iv) financial assistance from different countries such as the USA, UK and Germany. However, it is worth noting that the different donors had their own influence on the effectiveness of PVE implementation. For instance some of the donors granted the loan under the condition that it will be used to develop the workshops and the associated facilities, which in turn can be regarded as a contribution tothe effective delivery of PVE.
40
However, national funding has inevitably provided the same support for the programme. In the last four years the financial allocations for PVE within the budget of the MoE grow up as shown below in table (2-1).
Table 2-1 Financial Allocations for PVE
1994/1995
Capital Allocations for PVE JD 228000
Recurrent Allocations for PVE JD 42000
1995/1996
JD 239400
JD 44100
1996/1997
JD 250800
JD46300
1997/1998
JD 262200
JD 48400
Academic Year
Source MoE(1997). The changing value of the Jordanian Dinar against the English Sterling Pound is equal to £0.8621
2.8
Needs And Elements of PVE Teaching
It has been established by Sifuna (1992) that better facilities and materials will contribute to better performance and achievements within schools. For PVE these facilities would necessarily include workshops, home science rooms and school gardens. In addition, there is the need for textbooks and for appropriately qualified teachers. Bennet (1984) said mainly of the human resource element that all partners in such a scheme (and he
iden~tified
students, teachers and the curriculum) should
interact in the operation of PVE. These are clearly the essential elements in moving towards the successful and sustained introduction of PVE in basic education. These key elements will now be considered in greater detail
41
The Workshop The school building and the equipment available is one of the crucial components needed to create the right environment for the teaching of PVE. Nevertheless any school needs to consider its educational requirements in relation to the needs of the students on the one hand and the availability of resources on the other. It is not possible certainly in a country like Jordan for schools to made informal choices without clear understanding of the resources implications (Wallace, 1985; Hallak, 1990; Uzodinma, 1991).
Bearing in mind the points made above about the necessity of establishing the appropriate workshops, they should not nevertheless be seen as showrooms for the newest equipment. Instead schools should undertake needs analysis by study with the tools and machines that they already have (WB, 1994). According to the MoE (1995a), the total number of basic schools, of the MoE, in Jordan is 2101. Among these schools, as shown in table 2-2, only 436 are provided with appropriate workshops, 226 with acceptable workshops and 274 schools with a minimum levels of facilities and equipment. A total of only 936 schools are suitably equipped to teach PVE, whilst the remaining ·1165 schools are without the necessary facilities.
Table 2-2 IS
rl
. Schools without Workshops M F NORTH 290 180 CENTRAL 278 168 SOUTH 102 147 TOTAL 670 495 Source MoE 1996 Location
-
U 1000fW ork sh ops
Total number M F 138 166 171 274 99 88 397 539
Workshop less than 50 Sq.m F M 48 50 40 69 30 37 125 149
42
b~y covered area Workshop 50-100 Sq.m M F 24 41 41 84 12 24 77 149
Workshop 100 - 200 Sq.m M F 66 75 90 121 39 45 195 241
The ideal workshop is one with a total area ranging between 120-200 sq.metres (360-600 sq.ft) and properly equipped (see appendix 5). Acceptable workshops are considered to be those with a total area of at least 48 sq.metres (132 sq.ft). However, the size of workshop is considered perfectly adequate to teaching up·t6 grades 1-7. The last category of workshops are of size of one or two cOlnbined classrooms with an area between 20-40 sq .metres or 60-120 sq.ft. These categorisations are based upon the specifications provided by the Ministry (MoE, 1992; MoE, 1993; MoE, 1995a; MoE, 1995b).
The MoE estimates the cost of establishing an ideal workshop at about JD 30,000 (£27,000). This includes: JD 20,000 (£18,000) for the cost of the building, and JD 10,000 (£9,000) for the cost of PVE equipment and facilities (MoE, 1995).
The Teoacher Crucial to success is the ability of the teacher. However, a number of studies have argued that PVE requires the teacher to shoulder tasks of a different nature to those required by academic subjects (Farley, 1983; Atkins, 1984; Dove,1986; Fell, 1986). So, to implement PVE successfully, teachers need to master specific skills· and, possibly, to adopt different teaching styles. This argument is supported by the following
obse~vations:
(i) Each individual PVE package appears to have its own special demands. (ii) Most of the teachers are trained in only one of the PVE areas, which may lead
them to teach o~ly across their own areas of specialisation.
43
(iii) PVE requires the teachers to be closely involved in selecting course content, particularly at grades 8-10. (iv) The teacher of PVE should be able to bend the students' minds toward the ideas of what happens outside the classroom, to link what they learn with daily life. (v) Since PVE includes primarily practical skills, teachers themselves should have appropriate experience in the exercise of these skills (Farley, 1983; Atkins, 1984; FEU, 1987; Uzodinma, 1991; Leach, 1993; WB, 1994).
The above points and issues raise the whole question of teacher development and training; it is considered to be that the PVE teacher is playing a vital role in implementing educational policy. It is important for PVE teachers as for those in other areas of education to work under good conditions and to have proper materials and equipment. Efforts should be made in some cases to improve and in others to maintain the everyday conditions under which teachers operate, because of their importance to the morale, motivation and confidence of PVE teachers working in this new sector. The development of teachers, their training and morale are vital to the successful implementation of PVE (Farley, 1983).
In Jordan, PVE teachers are provided with both pre-service and in-service training
programmes. Although the Education Law of 1994 recommended that each school should use specialised teacher for PVE, only a limited number were able to achieve this. Statistics of the MoE for the academic year of 1994/1995, indicate a total of 2233 teachers (1265 females and 968 males). They provided, of course, the traditional SUbjects, but also covered PVE; and the related subjects of home
44
sciences, agriculture, industry, including, electrical work, carpentry, metal work, and central heating (MoE, 1995b).
There are three levels of qualification for PVE teachers, achieved respectiyely through two, three, or four years of pre-service training. The two-year course provides PVE specialist teacher with community college diploma. The three years course provides VE specialist teacher with polytechnic diploma, and the· four years course provides VE specialists with the qualification of Bachelors degree in one of the VE different areas. However, the legislation of the MoE in Jordan have not reported any industrial or other work experience as an essential prerequisite for those who will teach PVE (MoE, 1993).
Table 2-3 reflects the distribution of PVE teachers to their specialisation and qualifications. It shows that the majority of the teachers who are teaching PVE (over 79%) are specialised in PVE, but this predominance of specialised teachers is not the warranty of good standards of PVE subject teachers, it rarely does so Table 2-3 Distribution ofPVE Teachers.by Academic Qualifications for the Year 1997 PVE Qualification Number in NonPVE Tawjeehy Category of Regions PVEDip Qualification De ree Qualification Location M~ F F F F M M M F M 42% 38 % 45% 43 % 40% 39% 60% 18 % 6% NORTH 33 % 107 40 82 263 385 35 11 4 411 482 29% 74% 5% 17 % CENTRAL 40% 46% 33% 31 % 44% 47% 45 077 60 293 470 17 33 2 577 392· SOUTH~ 10% 4% 17 % 16% 22% 26% 16% 14% 8% 50% 145 05 206 52 50 103 27 165 06 6 236 192 659 1000 TOTAL 968 1265 58 61 15 12 Source MoE( 1997)
45
because, as it has been discussed before, the PVE syllabus requires hard work to operate successfully. Furthermore, there is still 428 teachers are deemed to be unqualified to handle the subject.
The Education Act, 1988 specified that holding a university degree should be the minimum requirement for the teaching profession. For basic education (Grades I10), pre-service four-year degree courses that comprise pedagogical education are available in the public universities. Consistent with the provisions of the Act (1988), a ten-year certification programme was introduced in 1989 to upgrade the qualifications of more than 20,000 in-service teachers, holders of community college diplomas, to a university degree level (MoE, 1992; MoE, 1995). (see appendix 6). This opportunity is available only for specialists in academic subjects, however, with no comparable programme available for in-service PVE teachers who are holders of college diplomas. Ministry of Education documents do show that in 1993 the Higher College for Teacher Certification (HCTC) upgraded the qualifications of 30 in-service PVE teachers to the level of first university degree. But this programme was discontinued owing to; (i) a lack of specialised teacher ~ducators in the field of PVE; . (ii) a lack of clarity regarding the programme content, resources, skills levels ...etc.; (iii) the high costs of the certification (MoE, 1995a) . There is therefore a shortage of specialists in PVE, and the specialists are not sufficiently familiar with many of the skills involved. Furthermore there is no definite plan for the certification of PVE teachers. There is only the MoE now providing in-service training to enable teachers to make effective use of new
46
materials, of diversified instructional methods, and to operate the new syllabus. But this type of in-service training programme lacks time and lacks funds. More consideration must be given to both pre-service and in-service programmes as a means of strengthening the abilities and motivation of teachers (WB, 1990; MoE, 1993).
The Curriculum
The curriculum should be organized so as to encourage a natural 'transition' between what is taught and what is put into practice in such a way that students will find application easy. One of the objectives of the syllabus is to secure a sound understanding of up-to-date skills to answer the demands of new technology (Roomer, 1950; Wellington, 1986). The problem of meeting the objectives within a single syllabus model is the wide range of knowledge and related abilities which must be included.
The early PVE syllabus was modified after the FENCE, to incorporate large range of vocational skills. However, these skills are more indicative than descriptive in nature. The current instructional materials development system reflects this and utilises authorship teams to write instructional material. The Directorate of Curriculum and Educational Technology is ultimately responsible for the development of this instructional material (MoE, 1993). The content packages now in use have been discussed in broad terms earlier in this chapter. This content is certainly related to specific vocational areas in such a way that students will learn about
th~m
but- not necessarily acquire professional skills in them. This is despite
47
the policy objectives that the syllabus should relate to actual work situations in the immediate environment of the students (MoE, 1993). One of the innovations in the revised PVE syllabus is that female pupils are supposed to learn woodwork and electrical basic skills, while male pupils. are supposed to learn to cook and sew. In other words, the syllabus has been unified, and gender distinction eliminated (MoE, 1995). (For more information on the actual PVE syllabus content see page34-35 of this chapter.
The PVE Supervisor
In the Jordanian system the post of educational supervisor corresponds to that of a district inspector or advisor. The educational supervisor is charged with inspecting the schools of his district and reporting on all elements of the educational process including those related to the application of the PVE syllabus.
These supervisors carry out monitoring visits at least once every term, to assess the progress of each school in general, and to reinforce good practices and eliminate bad ones. The instructions of the MoE regarding this supervisory post are very clear. It is emphasised that the educational supervisors are required to follow up and oversee the implementation of the teachers' plans and evaluate the performance of· both teachers and students and the extent to which school heads have fulfilled their commitment to their responsibilities towards the implementation of PVE objectives. Moreover, and through these visits, the additional training needs of each group of teachers can be identified, and the appropriate course of corrective action for any problem will be proposed (MoE,1991; MoE,1993; MoE, 1995).
48
School Administration Administrators also play a significant role in the success or of otherwise PVE. In cooperation with teachers the administration decides the PVE packages that will be offered for grades 8-10 (at each school), taking into account the type and extent of the available facilities and the problems to be overcome in introducing selected subject areas. But to fulfil this role, the administration must understand PVE and gain the cooperation of both school staff and parents by discussing with them the subject and its objectives (FEU, 1987; Tuffahah, 1990).
The Student The pupil is the focal point for all the efforts and the endeavours of the other elements in the educational process. A wide range of considerations are important when relating the student to the system. In particular, pupils must be led to discard negative attitudes towards manual work. And this must occur at an early stage if the PVE system is to realise its wider objectives. Another difficult issue which stands out in the content of the design of the system is that of assessment. In the PVE programme every aspect of pupil performance-cognitive, effective and psychomotor must be assessed and recorded, because all are significant (FEU, 1987). At present in Jordan there are no reliable criteria for such broad-based evaluations. Most of teachers conduct the theoretical exams with which they are familiar while the practical exams are largely neglected.
49
2.9
PVE Links With Vocational Education
Hallak (1990: 113) said "The performance of secondary education will obviously improve with better graduates from the primary schools, who will then go on to improve the higher education, and thus the whole system benefits". Pre-Vocational Education plays a role similar to that of other subjects taken within basic education, particularly in preparing an educated person for active participation in his/her daily life (WB, 1994). In this sense PVE seems to be more linked to basic education than to actual vocational education. Also PVE is delivered at the level of basic education while VE is related to secondary or further education. Much of the growth of PVE in the educational systems all over the world, emphasises the feeling that the general education of young people should stress the importance of basic skills (understanding, acquisition and sometimes both) to their personal and social development. They have social and some occupational relevance without necessarily relating closely to a specific job (Triggs, 1989a).
Despite these views, because of its nature the introduction of PVE into basic education must have serious implications for vocational choice: (i) the PVE curriculum draws students' attention to the vocatIonal implications of career choices; (ii) deliberately or otherwise PVE encourages students after grade 10 to make
decisions regarding their career choices explicit. (iii) PVE -provides a basis for major decisions by students. (iv) practical elements provide students with opportunities to 'try out', reflect, review and -learn within a planned framework. These aspects of PVE must·
50
provide some very direct links with VE, and indeed with subsequent employment basis.
Well planned and delivered PVE should therefore provide intelligent and confident young graduates (from basic education), who can choose
t~eir
future occupation
more wisely than the graduate who is without this preparation. Conversely, badly planned and delivered PVE may lead to disillusionment with manual ·work, poor decision making and ultimately bad career choices.
In the light of the above it can be concluded that successful vocational programmes build upon sound general education, whether or not PVE is included. But, perhaps more importantly for the present research, the PVE syllabus pre-disposes pupils towards to one or more VE specialisation. This will occur regardless of the contribution which PVE may make to basic education in other ways.
2.10
Obstacles and Impediments to PVE In Jordan
As it has been discussed and summarised by Masri (1993), the impediments to PVE are invariably related to one of the following: (i) difficulties in· attitudes and values; (ii) human resources difficulties; (iii) economic difficulties; and (iv) administrative difficulties. More closely defined the major obstacles faced by PVE in Jordan at present are: (i) The lack of physical resources facilities and materials. (ii) The lack of qualified teachers and qualified educational supervisors. (iii) The inappropriateness of the existing teacher training programmes.
51
(iv) The lack of operational funding. (v) Shortcomings of the syllabus and of the teachers' guide books and pupils' textbooks. (vi) The negative attitudes and perceptions of many of those involved in the implementation (including administrators, teachers, and students).
52
LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter Three
3.1
Introduction
Research into PVE in Jordan is a new area of study. Understandably, therefore, a review shows that very few studies have been conducted, and little or no previous knowledge has been generated.
Consequently, this chapter provides an overview of literature used in the study. To ensure adequate coverage of the research questions, three areas of literature were selected for a review: (i) PVE genesis and international provisions. The central theme in this section is related to how literature defines PVE. This facilitates discussion of common elements and better comparison of differences. Also it will give some description of the introduction of PVE into some of the education system in developing and developed countries as well, with special reference to the Jordanian provision. Moreover, this section will inform the researcher how the PVE approach varies from country to country, and what are the lessons that can be learnt from the experiences of these countries in the PVE provision . .. (ii) PVE effectiveness and efficiency. In this regard, the literature review will develop and broaden concepts of the most favourable pre-conditions for effective and efficient delivery of PVE (WB,1991). Conversely, it is also intended that this sect,ion will highlight the main constraints that hamper that effectiveness and efficiency, both in respect of education in general and PVE in particular.
53
(iii) PVE components: curriculum, educational administration, facilities, student, and teacher. This section is concerned with measuring effectiveness as a function of these key factors. It seeks to provide a description of the importance of each of them, and examines how they will affect, and can be effected by other components (Hunting et aI., 1986).
The following resources were particularly influential in studying this literature review: (i) The 'ERIC' database.
(ii) Curriculum materials and publications related to PVE in Jordan. (iii) The UNESCO publications. (iv) Various VE journals and books, and other general related materials. (v) Dissertation Abstract International.
3.2
PVE: Genesis and International Provisions
The present emphasis on a work-focused content in education has its historical and ideological roots in earlier attempts to link education and work.
Most of the educational literature' in Islam directs children to acquire some useful skills for their daily life. Hamid (1996:77) reported that "children need to develop skills and to be creative and inventive". He pursues the idea that Islam encourages children to spend'their leisure time usefully and profitably. This is supported by what, according to Khan (1981), The Prophet said "Nobody has ever eaten a better meal than that which one has earned by working with one's own hands". More clearly,
54
narrated Abu-Hurrira Allah Apostle said, "the prophet David used not to eat except from the earning of his manual labour". The fact that emerges from these two statements requires us to respect manual work and to enhance its profile in the curriculum.
Historically, the connection between education and work was recognised very early in the 18th century (Lawson,1993). However, vocational training in its modern form can be considered as a product of the Industrial Revolution and the specialization of labour that the factory system entailed. With the evolution of industrialisation, several countries-especially European countries such as Germany- introduced vocational training into their elementary and secondary schools. Opposition to such training persisted in Great Britain until after World War I (Compton, 1997).
Moreover,
according to Lawson (1993), it was argued that there is a need to teach youngsters the basic skills needed by industry.
Consistent with these views and to mobilize collective efforts and in the early seventies of this century PVE received a big impetus in 1974 when, UNESCO, in the discussion of the recommendations of the general conference of UNESCO at its eighteenth session -1974- had adopted a revised recommendation concerning the technical and vocational education as an essential component of the general education. A
review of the conference documents shows that the revised recommendation
perceive~
the general education as incomplete without an initiation into technology
(specifically vocational aspects). It is more obviously expressed on the following statement from the conference:
55
"An initiation to technology and to the world of work should be an essential component of general education without which this education is incomplete. An understanding of the technological facet of modem culture in both its positive and negative attributes, and an appreciation of work requiring practical skills should thereby be acquired. This initiation should further be a major concern in educational reform and change with a view to greater democratization of education. It should be a required element in the curriculum, beginning in primary education and continuing through the early years of secondary education. Opportunities for general technical and vocational initiation should continue to be available to those who wish to avail themselves of it within the educational system and outside it in places of work or community centers. The technical and vocational initiation in the general education of youth should fulfill the educational requirements of all ranges of interest and ability(UNESCO, 1974: 11-13)."
Based upon this recommendation, it appears that it is widely acknowledged that educating students in vocations and technology helps them to understand their potential and their capabilities at an early age. It follows that is desirable for educational systems to incorporate this in the curricula of basic education.
Moreover, the recommendation hoped that this introduction of the vocational aspects to the basic education will achieve three main outcomes: (i) "to enlarge e~ucational horizons by serving as an
introduction to the world of work and the world of technology and its products through the exploration of materials, tools, techniques and the process of production, distribution and management as a whole, and to broaden the learning process through practical experience; (Ii). to orient those with the interest and ability towards technical and vocational education as preparation for an occupational field or towards training outside the formal education system;
(iii) to promote in those who will leave formal education at whatever level but with no specific occupational aims or
56
skills, attitudes of mind and ways of thought likely to enhance their aptitudes and potential, to facilitate the choice of an occupation and access to a first job, and to permit them to continue their vocational training and personal education" (UNESCO,1974:11-13)
Reflecting upon the above, it can be seen again that the first importance of general technical and vocational content, within general education, is related to the following;"' (i) its role in the orientation and balanced development of youth; (ii) its function in introducing students to a wide range of vocational fields; (iii) its development of a certain level of practical skills (such as tool and equipment use, repair, maintenance and safety procedures); (iv) its specific purpose in promoting an appreciation of manual work among the students; and (v) its capacity to build student abilities and confidence to deal with modem technology and technological change more positively.
Accordingly, and linked with a greater democratisation in education and social development, several education systems considered adopting the principles behind this recommendation. That is coupled with the rationale to allow the youngsters to get the benefits of such educational
innov~~ion.
In line with that, Kanu (1986) deem that the
novelty of PVE is that it is an approach to ensure the acquisition of skills, attitudes and behaviours that may enable students to continue to learn and so to equip them for any changes in
t~eir
life circumstances. Within the same context, King and Singh
(1991:58) reported that: "In nineteen out of twenty five countries reviewed by the world bank, some efforts at making the curriculum more relevant were included. The most common device
57
was to include domestic or rural arts and agricultural and prevocational skills in the curriculum."
3.2.1 In a survey of the literature related to the genesis of PVE, it was reported that there are developed countries that have the experience of introducing PVE into their educational systems (Marshall, 1991; Bynner,1990; FESC,1989; McNamara, 1989; FEU,1984; and DES,1981). In fact, therefore, PVE as a concept was introduced into the developed world earlier than 1974 (the conference of the UNESCO which addressed the necessity of introducing the PVE into the general education). This leads to the conclusion that PVE is in one sense a newly created concept but in another it has existed for sometime, and it is suggests that the 'newness' of PVE lies principally in providing it with
a unifying curriculum structure. For instance, Bynner and
Evans( 1990) report that the place of vocational preparation has been a matter for a wide range of debates since the mid nineteenth century. Perhaps for this reason it is easy to recognise that the term
PVE means different things to different people
(Mkhonta,1994; Smilansky, 1979; DE,1968).
With such a background it is obviously of great importance to consider the experiences of the developed countries. Therefore, the following will examine PVE provision in the industrialised world.
In Germany, as Marshall( 1991) reported, policy makers strove to provide their youth with a ~ide range of skills to ensure meeting the challenges of the future. Accordingly, in 1964, a consultative committee of educational experts adopted a recommendation to introduce PVE into their educational system to promote a greater
58
understanding of 'real life'. Within the German system, Arbeitslehre, another name for PVE, is divided into three sections dealing with: (i) general orientation to vocational skills; (ii) developing a positive attitude towards work; and (iii) facilitating the task of choosing an occupation; but not providing vocational training itself (FESC, 1989). That is again in line with what was ascertained by Marshall(1991) namely that, in Germany, PVE was not conceived as a training program for employment, but rather as a form of general education.
In the USA, since 1970, PVE was implemented from kindergarten levels through to high school. According to FESC( 1989:58) PVE within the USA provision aims to "inform, guide and prepare students for the world of work." FESC highlights that, as a result of these aims, students are expected to develop in various ways; (i) self awareness, and understanding of their interests and abilities; (ii) positive attitudes towards manual work; (iii) positive understanding of the relationship between work and other roles in life.
Again, as in the German provision, FESC claims that PVE takes the form of a primary full-time context of learning, and it provides the students with the opportunity to recognise, the usefulness of the work experience, but that it cannot be extended as a approach for adult workers. In this respect, it is worth noting that there are PVE schemes which were established in USA intended to solve the problem of youth
59
unemployment; for example Youth Opportunities Program (YOP). But Lazerson (1981) concludes that such schemes are unsatisfactory solutions, and should be absorbed within school-based programmes. These arguments, from the perspective of the present research, enhance the view that PVE is a school-based subject rather than a programme or course for school Ie avers or unemployed youth. In other words PVE aims cannot be extended to employable skills.
In the UK, FEU(1984); Holt (1993); Wellington (1986) and McNamara (1989) are agreed that the so-called Ruskin College speech in 1976, given by prime minister J ames Callaghan, should be considered as the starting point in a continuing debate about enhancing links between education and industry. The same confirmation was asserted by the studies of McNamara (1989) and DES (1981), which reported that Callaghan castigated schools for their failure to prepare young people adequately, specifically by neglecting to provide links between schools and industry. Geoff (1991) indicates that in the UK the FEU (in 1979) produced its own model of PVE in a document entitled 'A Basis for Choice'. This described the general shape of PVE and the criteria to which it should conform. This was followed by a number of major PVE initiatives i.e. Technical and Vocational Education Initiative(TVEI), the Certificate of Prevocational Education (CPVE), and the concept of Design And Technology (DAT).
Bolton et al. (1985) suggested that CPVE was a kind of PVE programme which provided.a bridge'between the end of schooling and employment. Wyatt (1993) and Geoff (1991), confirmed that TVEI in Britain, announced in 1982 and launched in 1983, was designed to equip students between 14-18 years old for a rapidly changing
60
society. In other parts of his study, Wyatt claimed that another characteristic of TVEI encouraged integration of subjects within certain areas; to enable combining subjects within Sciences, Craft, Design technology and Business. In line with this and perhaps an aspect of it, Hyland (1990) and Cattell (1987) report that TVEI aims to equip students to meet the demands of technological change by providing them with the opportunity of learning by doing. The rationale behind this scheme is preparation for life, of which the real working world is a part, suggested Cattell. Perhaps most succinctly Dale (1985) reported that the general objective of TVEI was to 'widen and enrich the curriculum in such away that will help youngster to be prepared for the world of work, and to develop skills and interest that will help them to contribute more effectively and efficiently to the life of the community' .
However, within the British provision, PVE was originally for the 'lower achievers' and its aims have been characterised with the following features: (i) forming vocational interests by planned testing across abroad areas; (ii) developing competencies applicable to jobs and adult life; and (iii) extending general education (FESC, 1989:57)
An important implementation lesson from the UK, was that in the TVEI scheme, a central team of ten teachers was appointed as senior teachers (McCabe, 1986). The responsibility of this team wa~ the preparation of lesson plans and teaching materials; in-service training for teachers; and supportive and supplementary teaching as needed in the schools. According to McCabe( 1986), this strategy contributed to very substantial achievements. Among these achievements were: "great deal of change in curriculum content, rapid development of teachers skills as a result of in-service
61
traInIng and support teaching, and evident satisfaction among a good proportion of the TVEI students."
Although this section is not concerned with detailed interpretation of the literature, it is worth noting that a main difference between the Jordanian PVE provision and the British experience is in the age of students involved. The age was 14-18 years in the British system and is 6-16 in the Jordanian PVE provision. In the UK, the literature appears to be unanimous in expressing the view that PVE is for the school leaver and not for those who are planning to continue in education. In addition, the UK strategy has sometimes been to deal with PVE as a separate course, whereas within the Jordanian context it is part of the regular basic education curriculum.
In some respects, the closest equivalent curriculum within the British experience to Jordanian PVE is Design and Technology. Design and Technology (DAT) was a subject which encouraged the breaking of existing boundaries for subjects in the curriculum. -NCC(1993) revealed that DAT is to enable students to become aware of the ways of technology and of technological change, and to realise their capabilities so as to enable them to cope with the challenges of the 21st century. DAT in the UK has to be taken by all students from year 5 to year 16, and DES( 1988) provided a rationale and specifications for this by explaining that what the students learnt in DAT could not be learnt in any other way. In another part of the same study DES revealed that DAT provides students with "rich opportunities for the development of a broad range of cOll11l?-unication skills involving widely differing evidences" (DES, 1988:5). Generally speaking, DAT is a practical subject based on knowledge and understanding from a wide range of subjects. As a subject DAT is designed to ensure that upon
62
leaving school, students will be able to make sense of, and assimilate, technical knowledge.
3.2.2 In the following section, the research will examine approaches to PVE in the developing countries with special reference to the Arab world. Prevocational education became an important component in curriculum reform in developing countries, in general, and in the middle east region, in particular. In 1988 Lauglo (1988) concluded that a number of developing countries had introduced PVE into their general education in order to provide a more balanced education. This approach, in which practical subjects are introduced into an otherwise completely academic programme, has been supported by international agencies.
The following are examples of PVE provision within the Arab world (and other developing countries).
In Nigeria, Lewin and Stuart(1991 :222) reported that 'introductory technology' introduced in the junior secondary schools was a form of PVE. It comprises a wide range of knowledge elements such as: 'woodwork, metal work, technical drawing, and some agricultural skills'. It is implemented on the basis of 8 class periods per week. According to Lewin and Stuart( 1991 :231) the objectives of introductory technology were the following: ,,' (i) to provide PVE orientation for further training in
technology; (ii) to provide basic technological literacy for everyday living; (iii) to stimulate creativity."
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In Kenya, as in several other African countries (such as Zambia and Tanzania), educational policy in recent decades has favoured introducing practical subjects to develop the skills and attitudes of students at the level of basic education. Here policy makers felt the need to introduce PVE into the basic education curriculum as early as 1966. Later in 1976 the National Committee of Education stressed need for the introduction of further vocational subjects within primary education, for example agriculture. In 1981 these vocational subjects were stopped in preparation for a new approach. Specific vocational objectives were identified and an integrated PVE curriculum was designed and launched in 1985(Lillis, 1989; Sifuna, 1992; Dye, 1990).
In Sri Lanka, in 1972, the educational system witnessed a vast reform. One of the most important elements of this was the introduction of PVE into the general education curriculum, but at secondary level. According to Diyasena (1976) PVE in Sri Lanka is designed to correct vocational 'bias' by practical vocationalisation of the secondary curriculum.
In Egypt, one of the main features in progressive improvement of basic education is the introduction of practical education or practical training, PVE under a different name. Within the Egyptian provision, PVE is variably described as 'practical work' 'technology education', and sometimes, in Egyptian documents, as 'practical fields'. It is prov~ded as
apart of the study plan for grades 1-8 (6-14 years), and on the base
of 1-6 class period(s) per a week (Loding and Govenda, 1994; Fadeel, 1993).
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According to Loding and Govenda(1994) and Fadeel(1993), the Egyptian provision has passed through three main stages;
(i) a trial stage, from 1978, where they, interchangeably, used the name of practical and technological fields; (ii) the stage of generalisation (1981); (iii) a growth of development stage from 1988, where it was agreed to call it technology education.
Technology education is a multi-skills curriculum which
equips students in basic education to use their hands and form positive attitudes towards manual work and its links with the local environment (Fadeel, 1993). However, according to the recommendations of the National Conference for the Development of the Basic Education Curricula, which was held in 1993, 'technology education' was again renamed, this time as 'the curriculum of the manual skills.' It is more interesting to report that 30 percent of the first three grades of basic
education in Egypt are work oriented.
Consistent with the above, the survey of the literature has indicated that PVE could be found under a variety of different names. Prominent amongst here are: (i)
Introductory Technology (Lewin and Stuart,1991).
(ii)
Manual Skills (Fadeel, 1993).
(iii)
Practical Arts (UNESCO; 1984).
(iv)
Practical Education(Lorfing and Govenda, 1994; Fadeel, 1993).
(v)
Practical Fields (Lorfing and Govenda, 1994; Fadee1, 1993).
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(vi)
Practical Skills (Fadeel,1993).
(vii)
Practical Training (Lorfing and Govenda, 1994; Fadeel, 1993).
(viii)
Pre-vocational Education (Ainley, 1990; Cattell, 1987; Diyasena, 1976; Lewin and Stuart, 1991; Lorfing and Govenda,1994; Marshall, 1991; MoE,1992; Shami,1982; Sifuna, 1992; and UNESCO, 1984).
(ix)
Rural Education (Lorfing and Govenda, 1994).
(x) Technology Education(Lorfing and Govenda, 1994; Fadee1, 1993). (xi) Vocational Education (Ainley, 1990 and Fadeel,1993). (xii) Vocational Orientation (Shami,1982). (xiii) Vocational Preparation. (Lorfing and Govenda,1994; Bynner and Evans 1990);
In Syria, rural education provision is another important feature of curriculum reform. Here PVE is described as 'educational innovation'. Lorfing and Govenda(1994) reported that, as the name indicates, rural education is specifically designed to suit rural areas. The justification is to make the rural area schools more effective through direct interaction with the surrounding environment. The Syrian provision is not only restricted to the rural areas but also to the lower grades of basic classes and only includes agriculture and rural industrial skills.
In Jordan, before addressing the different issues of PVE in general, it is perhaps necessary to look back on how and when PVE became part of basic education. Until 18 years ~go, few basic schools had any PVE in their timetables, although some PVE activities have roots in the Jordanian educational system as back as the early 1950s. Very slow development was accelerated in 1987 when FNCED encouraged the
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generalisation of PVE within the curricula. It is of interest to note that most of the schools included in the sample of the underlying study were teaching these packages/activities as separate and compulsory subjects at preparatory stage (grades 79) years 13-15. However, home-economics and business subjects were the only available options for female pupils while agriculture, commercial, industry subjects were available in male schools.
But due to technological evolution and due to the need to broaden the knowledge of youngsters, the idea of integrating vocational aspects with wider educational skills was among the main issues discussed in the FNCED (1987). The resulting recommendations of the FNCED highlighted the importance of the PVE curriculum as a significant part of basic (compulsory) education.
As has been outlined above PVE now constitutes 660 class periods, and it is provided on the basis of one class period per week for grades 1-4, two period class for grades 5-7, and four period classes for grades 8-10. This innovation reflects the deep concern of decision makers to impart basic education that meets social needs and contributes to the personal development of the individual student. (Neff et aI.,1992; Lorfing and Govenda,1994; MoE, 1994). PVE experience is more relevant to life and work therefore; it aims to develop skills and attitudes that will be useful for students and their society.
It is expected that PVE will play a leading role in preparing young Jordanians to
discover their abilities and interests at an early age, and to play a leading role in
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introducing the youngsters to the world of work (MoE. 1994; Twaisat,1995). The aforementioned expectations are well illuminated in the policy statement of the MoE that "the implementation of the PVE subject in basic schools would render students aware of their inclinations and capabilities early in life" (MoE,1994:8). The approaches analysed above illustrate that PVE provisions regardless of whether in a developed or developing country, are almost universally considered as an integral part of basic education. At a more detailed level distinct dissimilarities exist between countries even within the same region and notwithstanding a quite lengthy history of development in some cases. This points to the fact that PVE is of a different nature to the traditional subjects of the academic curriculum.
Reasonably consistent through PVE provision are the intent, structure, and objectives which are designed to make the student a better citizen in the community, to develop personal interests and practical skills, and to cope with occupational changes. Shami (1982), reported that differences of views about the place of PVE as a part of general education, followed from detailed differences concerning subject content and the level of practical skill to be attained. Taking this view rather further, Triggs (1987) concluded that different kinds of PVE are in operation and that there is a little or no real detailed agreement to suggest that PVE is thought in any coherent way. Triggs added that it could be the case that PVE has established itself among the other subjects as somet~ing clearly distinct from other academic subjects' .
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Much of the variation reflected in the literature has its origin within international provisions launched after the 1974 conference of UNESCO.
This shows the extent to which international educational agencies have influence over the educational systems of different countries, even. if subsequent development may take different forms. This enhances and supports the reliability and the validity of the recommendations of the UNESCO studies. It certainty appears from the coincidences of timing that the adoption of PVE by many countries was not only in response to economic, social, and political pressures as claimed by Lauglo( 1988). It was also, and perhaps to a great extent, a response to a call from a respected international agency to introduce the PVE into the basic education curriculum. This call was obvious in the UNESCO documents where it is emphasised that: "PVE should be an essential component of general education without which this education is incomplete" (UNESCO, 1974 : 11-13).
Taking into account the specificities of each country, in Jordan the FNCED seems have succeeded in enhancing the existence of PVE as an integral part of basic education. Moreover, it can be reported that the adoption of PVE by the MoE in Jordan was in response to economic and social needs supported by the call of the UNESCO to include PVE as 'an essential component of general education; It indicates, according to Haddad (1994), that 'educational policy makers in Jordan were fully attuned to the international mood.
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3.3 PVE Definition To establish the parameters of the study and provide support for this research, a review of the literature extended to the identification of the most common definitions of PVE. According to Ainley and Fordham( 1979:7), the term PVE "has been used in a generic sense to include a wide range of programmes rather than one specific course of study." In their study, Lewin and Stuart (1991:188) were able to identify, within to the Gambian Ministry of Education, two types of PVE; (i) PVE in non-technical fields, and (ii) PVE in technical fields. They have defined the non-technical field as: "subjects which improve or reflect the students' intellectual ability by learning more pre-vocational subjects such as; agriculture, commerce, business, principles of accounts and home management." And in the technical fields as: "those vocational subjects which are taught at the level of secondary technical schools."
Godwin (1990:95) defines Pre-vocational as: "a curious term, generally used to describe school subjects which derive from vocational practice, or which are held to possess some significant vocational relevance." ,.
Citing King (1985) and the Lesotho Govt.(1983), Godwin affirms that "the term PVE has been severely criticised in terms of semantics and practicalities." In his own interpretation~ Godwin
claimed that the reason behind this criticism is related to the
uncertainty as to what is meant by term of PVE.
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In a descriptive manner FESC (1989:57) defines PVE as; "Educational provision for young prior to their entry into the labour market or into vocational education" and affirms that, while PVE provides access to the world of work experience, it also provides the opportunity for 'tasting a range of jobs for purposes of informing choice and extending general education.'
UNESCO (1984: 24) reports that PVE has been used to represent 'occupational orientation and practical skill training, generally at lower secondary level.' However, elsewhere in the same document UNESCO( 1984) warns that the use of PVE as a term to represent the vocational components of the general education should be avoided. UNESCO's justification refers to the claim that it (PVE) 'does not correspond to the objectives or content of the technical and vocational aspects of general education.' Again it considers that vocational aspects of general education can be defined as; "those components of the general education curriculum which introduce students to the elements of technology, in order to acquaint them with the role of technology in contemporary life and permit them to develop basic practical skills in the manipulation of simple tools and materials" (UNESCO, 1984:23-24).
However, it was affirmed that this
~ype
of vocational preparation, does not extend to
preparing youngsters for a specific occupation, rather it is designed for information ,-
and guidance purposes for rational 'choices in further education or employment.
Consistent with UNESCO(1984), a number of the researchers here described PVE as an orientation and guidance programme designed to help students to discover their
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vocational abilities. Within this understanding of PVE objectives, Moore(1986) offers the following definition: "An orientation programme covering a variety of different occupational areas, occupational information, exploration and guidance designed to assist each individual's awareness of hislher abilities, interests and aptitudes to select one or more career choices."
Within the Jordanian provision according to the MoE (1992) and Lorfing and Govenda (1994) the definition of PVE is that:
Pre-Vocational Education is a compulsory subject as part of general education in the form of training packages such as; agriculture, industry, commerce and business, public health and safety, and home economics, through which students may have the opportunity to acquire knowledge and develop skills necessary for their daily life, and to identify their abilities and interests at an early age. It is designed to cover 660 class periods in the ten grades of basic education to assist students to develop a positive attitudes toward manual work in general and vocational education in particular.
In most cases, therefore, the term PVE is used to describe the introduction of vocational aspects and variable
le,:~ls
of skill training into general education. And
obviously (it seems) that the term of PVE is more related to the needs of youngsters, but the above definitions also allow that it is appropriate for a wide age range within this group. This claim is consistent with what was reported by DE(1968:2), that PVE could appear jn the school programme as a separate course, as group or individual counselling, as an exploratory vocational programme, or "it could be a combination of the above".
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To sum up the review of literature it is apparent that although the studies examined here used different names, PVE is an issue in many of the educational systems of the developed and developing countries. Certainly it has the status of an international issue. And common elements and common frames of reference can be identified. Equally, however, there are important differences, particularly treating PVE as general vocational initiation, and PVE as a vocational aspect of general education. Moreover, while the terms PVE and VE are used sometimes interchangeably within the literature, it becomes imperative to distinguish between these two apparently similar terms (Ainley,1990). Vocational education refers to the preparation of students for an occupational field and for employment, while PVE refers to the purpose of permitting students to develop basic skills through the use of simple tools and materials, and guiding them towards informal educational and occupational choices. Obviously, Ainley (1990:78) observed "vocational education has a more specific meaning of training for a particular employment, while pre-vocational education has the wider sense of education for a range of occupations". Thus VE is specialised in nature and very practically oriented. The real difference between vocational education and training PVE within a school system lies in the intended outcome.
It can be concluded that as a. term PVE is more logistical to describe the vocational
contents of general education, on the one hand, and in the means of the semantics it is . more ind~cative than the other terms used (UNESCO, 1984).
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From the literature it is clear that the introduction of PVE reflects a growing recognition of the importance of vocational aspects as a part of general education, and there exists as international intention to shift from completely academic basic education to one with certain practical work activities.
3.4 PVE Effectiveness And Efficiency It is useful to recognise that the issue of measuring the effectiveness and the efficiency
of the educational system has become an issue of interest to researchers in Jordan, particularly following the FNCED. Haddad (1993) noted that this interest, particularly in the effectiveness of education both in developed and developing countries, had played an important role in identifying the variables associated with better educational outcomes.
In Jordan it was the FNCED which really stimulated this interest in the reassessment of education. Bearing this in mind, it must be recognised that it, may be still too early to reach a final judgements about the PVE experience. However, it is equally true that it is, precisely at this time, formative rather than summative evaluation is of value. A formative evaluation is one which occurs during a programme in order to make amendments and improvements where required. A summative evaluation on the other hand usually "occurs at the c
