Colleges of Art and Music (BMWV, 1998) and 5,608 students enrolled in ... According to the statistics for 1955±56, only 21,093 students were enrolled at.
European Journal of Education, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2000
Higher Education and Graduate Employment in Austria
PAUL KELLERMANN & GUNHILD SAGMEISTER
Structure and Development of Higher Education Post-secondary education is divided into two sectors: institutions with university status, and those with a lower formal rank. The first includes 18 universities (12 regular universities and 6 universities of the arts). The second includes teacher training colleges (for all teachers except high school teachers) and several Fachhochschulstudien, established in 1994±95. In 1997±98 there were 187,053 Austrian and 25,194 foreign students enrolled in the universities, 4,341 Austrian and 2,552 foreign students enrolled in the Colleges of Art and Music (BMWV, 1998) and 5,608 students enrolled in specialised courses for applied studies (Fachhochschulstudien). There were 8,689 students at the eight public and six private (run by the Catholic Church) teacher training colleges. The academies for vocational and religious education and other colleges had a total of nearly 10,000 students, some of whom were attending courses that did not require graduation from high school. In 1965, the University of Vienna celebrated its 600th anniversary. The University of Graz was founded more than 400 years ago. When the youngest university was established in Klagenfurt in 1970, the number of universities increased to 12. Since 1994±95, a growing number of specialist colleges (Fachhochschule) and the so-called Danube University, which is a post-graduate institution, have formed part of the higher education system. According to the statistics for 1955±56, only 21,093 students were enrolled at Austrian universities, one-fifth (4,319) of whom were women. Of these, 6,674 were studying at the University of Vienna. The overall number of students at all universities has increased more than tenfold in the last four decades and the number of women students has increased 25 times (OÈStZ, 1997, p. 52f.). Higher Education Reforms in the 1990s In 1993, Parliament passed the UniversitaÈts-Organisations-Gesetz 1993 (UOG '93). It replaced the law of 1975, which followed on from that of 1955. Its implementation took place in three stages. The first was the restructuring of seven of the twelve universities by the beginning of 1998. In 1993, the federal law on courses at the Fachhochschule was also passed. By 1996±97, which was the year of the first graduations from such courses, over 30 Fachhochschul courses had been introduced. In the summer of 1997, Parliament passed the UniversitaÈtsß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000. Published by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
158 European Journal of Education Studiengesetz (UniStG), a law which regulates the number, contents and structure of courses. It took several years to elaborate the regulations on the evaluation of the university and its system of instruction, which were announced in August 1997 by the Federal Ministry of Science. On October 1, 1997, the new law on employment for university scientific staff/personnel was implemented. Finally, on October 1, 1998, the Colleges of Art and Music were reorganised as `Universities' by law. These laws and regulations brought about great changes. The main aim of the UOG '93 was to increase efficiency. The universities were considered bureaucratic, inflexible and too expensive. They should have greater autonomy, their structure should be divided into strategic and operative agencies, and `deregulation' should be introduced. The new `rector' is elected for four years (and can be re-elected) and is not necessarily a professor. He is the head of the university and is above the head of non-academic administration (formerly accountable to the minister of science). In addition, several (one to four) vicerectors are accountable to the rector. The senate, as the highest strategic agency, works with its own chairman. A remarkable feature of the new autonomy is the fact that the senate is obliged to establish a constitution within the framework of the UOG '93 which must be approved by the Federal Ministry of Science. The second level in the hierarchy is filled by the deans. They are facing collegiate bodies of the faculties with their own chairmen. The new `study deans' are responsible for the financial and formal planning and coordinate the system of teaching and examinations (including evaluation). The `monocrats' are supported by the central information service and by newly established offices for controlling, marketing and evaluation. The decision-making competencies of the key bodies responsible for research and teaching, i.e. the institute and the curriculum committees, have not been radically changed, although the range of their tasks has increased. The UniStG replaced many laws and regulations and thus seemed to contribute to deregulation. But it just systematised and distributed new competences to the study commissions and `provosts' and simplified study requirements. It determines the number of hours in course schedules, their structure and the organisation of examinations. By 2002, all previous course schedules will have to be revised, taking into consideration the new regulations, including the involvement of groups of people outside the university. Quantitative Development Between 1970±71 and 1994±95 the number of first-semester students at Austrian universities grew from 7,733 to 19,250, an increase of some 150% (see Table I). While in 1970±71 more than two-thirds of students were male, currently women students are slightly in the majority. In the following years, the total decreased (1997±98: 16,684) with the introduction of the schools for professional education. While in 1970 the percentage of the age cohort (18±under 22 years) was 9% (male: 10.8%; female: 4.5%), in 1995±96 it was 23% (male: 20.9%, female: 25.3%). So there was not only a large increase in rates, but also a remarkable change in gender proportions. Since the mid±1980s, more women than male students started university study. The number of Austrian students studying at the 12 universities grew from 43,122 (about three quarters male) in 1970±71 to 187,053 in 1997±98 (nearly half ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000
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TABLE I. Number of New Entrant Students in Austria by Type of Institution (absolute numbers) Year 1970/71 1974/75 1979/80 1984/85 1989/90 1994/95 1997/98
Universities
Universities of the arts
Fachhochschulen
7,733 9,202 14,503 18,362 18,622 19,250 16,684
312 582 616 635 668 502 287
± ± ± ± ± 558 2,462
Sources: BMWVK 1996, BMWV 1998
of them women). If we include only Austrian students aged between 18 and 26, the figures were 32,281 for 1970±71, i.e. 4.1% of the age cohort (male quota: 5.7%, female: 2.4%). In 1995±96, there were 103,955 Austrian students from this age cohort, i.e. a quota of 13.8% (male: 13.6%, female: 14.1%). The greatest increase is in the humanities (about 10 times as many as in 1970), with almost similar rates in social and economic sciences. Technical studies were `only' chosen four times as often and natural sciences and medicine by three times as many students (BMWVK, 1996). In 1994±95, 558 students enrolled at the first new Fachhochschule, in 1995±96 the enrolment was 1,153, in 1996±97 it reached 2,137 and in 1997±98 2,462. Three quarters were men because of the emphasis on technical subjects. In 1970±71 about 4,700 students graduated from university with their first degree (one quarter women). The number grew to 10,549 (45% women) in 1994± 95. From the mid±1980s to the mid-90s, the figure increased by about 40%. Whereas the number of graduates in social and economic sciences doubled during this period, the number of graduates in medicine dropped by about one third (see Table II). Altogether, the quota of graduates among the corresponding age groups was one of the lowest in OECD member states (OECD, 1999, p. 68). Employment According to the census data, between 1951 and 1991 the percentage of higher education-trained persons among all Austrian employees (including the selfemployed) rose from 2.3% to 5.4% (Lassnigg, 1990, p. 13; BMWA, 1995, p. 1). During these 40 years, not only the `structural data' changed, but also the types of universities, the entry requirements to universities, the regulations for curricula and graduation, and last but not least, the patterns in the transition to employment. This was accompanied by structural and formal changes in values and expectations of the public towards academic qualifications and employment. Between 1971 and 1991, graduate employment almost doubled. Simultaneously, the non-university institutions contributed increasingly to the rise in the number of graduates of post-secondary education, which differed according to field of specialisation. An analysis of the links between the field of study and employment sector (Lassnigg, 1991) shows that between 40% and 75% of graduates concentrate on a ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000
160 European Journal of Education TABLE II. First Degree of Austrian Graduates by Field of Study and Gender (absolute numbers)
key employment sector. For example, more than two-thirds of those trained in languages were employed in education and research. The second most frequent employment sector, as a rule, only comprised about 20% (see Table III) In most fields, the degree of concentration did not change substantially from the early 1970s to the early 1990s. Only those graduating in humanities diversified substantially as far as the employment sector is concerned. The distribution of employment sectors was rather stable in some disciplines (e.g. law, language studies, engineering and electrical engineering). In other fields, some shifts could be noted (social and economic sciences, humanities, fine arts and natural sciences). The most significant change was in architecture and civil engineering, where the area of production as the dominating area in 1971 was replaced by business services. There was not a single employment sector growing in weight for many fields of study. Rather, increasing proportions of university-trained persons from some fields moved towards education and research and from other fields to business service. In contrast, production lost its importance in various fields. Unemployment In March 1981, 502 university-trained persons were registered as unemployed at the Austrian Labour Office, and in March 1995 there were 4,894 persons, i.e. approximately nine times as many. This increase was by no means confined to graduates from fields where the job prospects often seemed precarious, but also concerned graduates in engineering, business study and agriculture. ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000
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TABLE III. Major Employment Sectors of University-Trained Persons in Austria by Field of Study (in percentage) Law 1971 1981 1991 Public services** 45 45 43 Business services 26 24 26 Trade, banking, insurance 12 12 17 Production 9 9 6 Education and research 4 5 5 Remainder 4 5 2 Total % 100 100 100 Total numbers 15,423 18,291 24,365 Medicine Health and care Education and research Public services** Production Trade (Pharmacy) Remainder Total % Total number
Social and economic studies 1971 1981 1991 Trade, banking, insurance 32 29 36 Production 30 27 21 Business services 14 14 19 Education and research 11 12 11 Public services** 9 10 9 Remainder 4 8 3 Total % 100 100 100 Total numbers 8,213 14,943 28,098
1971 1981 1991 88 89 91 3 3 4 6 5 2 * * * * * * 3 3 2 100 100 100 15,316 19,438 29,342
Humanities 1971 Education and research 60 Public services** 17 Health and care 6 Trade, banking, insurance 4 Production 6 Arts, entertainment, sports 1 Business services * Remainder 6 Total % 100 Total numbers 1,030
1981 1991 53 45 13 14 11 13 5 8 8 8 3 5 * * 7 7 100 100 4,459 11,285
Languages
1971 1981 1991 62 75 68 9 6 6 * * * 7 5 8 9 6 6 3 2 3 5 3 5 5 3 2 100 100 100 2,971 10,071 17,143
Fine Arts 1971 Arts, entertainment, sports 30 Education and research 26 Business services 20 Production 9 Trade, banking, insurance 5 Public services** 6 Remainder 4 Total % 100 Total (100%) 6,480
1981 1991 34 34 35 33 10 13 8 7 5 7 4 4 4 2 100 100 8,503 10,877
Architecture Business services Production Public services, representation of interests Education and research Remainder
1971 27 41
1981 43 23
1991 48 21
19 6 7
19 9 6
16 8 7
Total % Total numbers
100 100 3,974 7,415
100 9,474
Natural sciences 1971 1981 1991 Education and research 46 58 53 Production 28 20 17 Trade, banking, insurance 6 7 9 Business services 6 3 8 Public services, representation of interests 10 7 8 Remainder 4 5 5 Total % 100 100 100 Total numbers 7,227 14,784 22,475
Engineering and electrical engineering Production 56 56 50 Education and research 13 16 16 Trade, banking, insurance 8 8 14 Business services 6 7 11 Public services, representation of interests 7 7 7 Remainder 10 6 2 Total % 100 100 100 Total numbers 4,552 6,786 10,926
Source: Lassnigg 1991 based on census result. * no employment or very low number, included in `Remainder'. ** incl. representation of interests
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162 European Journal of Education One has to bear in mind, though, that the registration of graduates seeking employment through the labour office does not cover all kinds of nonemployment. In the framework of the research project The University and its Graduates 4% of all graduates from both the University of Klagenfurt and the University of Salzburg stated that they were unemployed. Other responses were `continuing study' (10% Klagenfurt/11% Salzburg), `I am at home' (11%/6%), `military/civilian service' (1%/1%) and `practical training' (5%/7%) (Kellermann et al., 1994, part D, Table 5.1). The following responses to the question `Since your graduation, have you been unemployed temporarily or are you unemployed at present?' were given: `No, I have always been employed since my graduation' by 57% (Klagenfurt) and 62% (Salzburg); `Yes, I was temporarily unemployed' by 33% and 31%, and `Yes, I am unemployed at present' by 10% and 7% respectively (Kellermann et al., 1994, part D, Table 7.12.1.a and 2a). It is obvious that those who continue studying may not actually have been employed, but do not have the feeling of being unemployed. The same is true for housewives and house husbands. However, after unsuccessful attempts to find a job, continuing to study may just have helped to overcome the `feeling' of being unemployed. Hence, determining an accurate rate of unemployment remains difficult. Transition and Early Employment In the framework of the research project The University and its Graduates mentioned above, efforts were made to show the complexity of the passage of graduates from the university to the `world beyond' (which includes formal employment, informal and temporary jobs). First, changes of employment sectors were identified within the first years after graduation. The proportion of graduates in pedagogy and teacher training who were employed outside the education system, i.e. in business or in the media/culture sector grew over time. In contrast, employment of business studies graduates hardly changed according to employment sector and occupational area. Second, graduates were grouped according to the degree of employment success. Hence, the following answers were taken into consideration: work during the period of study, employment immediately after graduation, period of job search, current occupation, occupational status, adequacy of qualifications, net income, full-time/part-time employment, contract period, as well as benefits for professional and personal requirement. The degree of success increases with the length of period after graduation to a lesser extent than one might have predicted (Kellermann et al., 1994). Impact of Higher Education on Graduate Employment and Work It is common to hear that there is a discrepancy between competences acquired in education and those required in `real life'. There are at least three possible origins to this. First, the educational system might be so far removed from the workplace that educators are unable to anticipate the competences graduates will need for a ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000
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productive life (under-qualification). Second, the workplace might not be organised in such a way that graduates' skills can be used efficiently (underutilisation). Third, the graduates might be `overqualified'. Since in a competitive capitalist economy the ruling ideology stems from the viewpoint of private enterprises, graduates themselves may also share this understanding and interpretation of the gap between attained and required skills and knowledge. In the study The University and its Graduates, graduates were asked whether the competences they had acquired during their course matched the requirements of their everyday work. Contrary to the prevailing view, graduates most frequently stated that their qualifications are broader than the job requirements. The second most frequent answer was that requirements and qualifications are completely different. Only one fifth said that the demands were broader than the qualifications, and about the same percentage said that qualifications and requirements matched. The longer the graduates were employed, the more frequently they stated their job requirements and their competences were completely different. One possible interpretation is that graduates become more critical over time. This does not mean that graduates consider their studies retrospectively as being of little value. 80% see them as useful for their personal development and 60% for their professional development. Asked, however, what competences they lacked, many pointed at those related to the social organisation of work: `leading others' (56%), `creative thinking' (53%), `problem solving' (48%) and `communication skills' (45%) were quoted most frequently (Kellermann et al, 1994, part D, Table 4.1a and 4.2a). Conclusion The employment of individual graduates or the risk of not finding adequate work greatly depends on whether the personal qualities, such as qualifications, appearance, self-representation and connections, are compatible with available working positions in terms of variety and number. Both individual abilities and social opportunities and their match are embedded in developments with regional, national and global dimensions. The assessment of prospective graduate employment needs to be related to the development of the educational system on the one hand and to the labour market situation on the other. Factors come into play such as longer and increased enrolment; greater participation of women in the formal educational system and the system of paid work; growth of the service sector, and global and regional arrangements for work and unemployment. In addition, scientific and technical developments intensify changes related to socially expanding and individually increasing internalised orientations (ideological syndrome of offensive capitalism, technical constructivism and democratic formalism) and the growing interdependencies in production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, as well as within the area of political organisations. The force behind and simultaneously the result of all these movements is the advanced and continuously advancing division of labour. Within these global developments, national policies seem to be changing their role. As regards organisations operating on a transnational basis, the nation states can hardly act as powerful authorities. Rather, they act as mutually replaceable ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2000
164 European Journal of Education factors in strategic concepts of multinational companies. However, nation states a match between citizens' problems of collective identification, on the one hand, and the latent and manifest claims and demands accompanying globalisation, on the other. This positioning of one's own system has a major role to play in the prospective development of both the system of higher education as well as academic employment in all national systems. REFERENCES B MWA (Bundesministerium fuÈ r wirtschaftliche Angelegenheiten) (1995) Berufsbildungsbericht 1995 (Wien). BMWVK (Bundesministerium fuÈr Wissenschaft, Verkehr und Kunst) (1996) Hochschulbericht 1996, Band 1 und 2 (Wien). BMWV (Bundesministerium fuÈr Wissenschaft und Verkehr) (1998) Statistical Guide 1998 (Wien). KELLERMANN, P., POÈLLAUER, W., SAGMEISTER, G. & SCHEURINGER, B. (1994) Zum VerhaÈltnis von Studium und Arbeit Ð Entwicklungen und Bewertungen von maÈnnlichen und weiblichen Absolventen der UniversitaÈten Klagenfurt und Salzburg (Klagenfurt). LASSNIGG, L. (1990) AkademikerbeschaÈftigung in den achtziger Jahren (Wien). LASSNIGG, L. (1990) LaÈngerfristige Entwicklungstendenzen der AkademikerbeschaÈftigung ± Befunde ± Probleme ± Perspektiven (Wien). OECD (1999) OECD in Figures Ð Statistics for the Member Countries (Paris, OECD). OÈ StZ (OÈ sterreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt) (1997) OÈ sterreichische Hochschulstatistik, Studienjahr 1996/97 (Wien).
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