ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING Ana Isa Figueira ( Sines Municipality — Department of Education ) & António M. Duarte ( Faculty of Psychology – University of Lisbon )
Portugal
I Congresso Internacional Envolvimento dos alunos na escola Instituto de Educação da Universidade de Lisboa- 2013
(
[email protected] ) (
[email protected]) ABSTRACT
Conceptions of where/when/with whom learning occur (contextual dimension — C)
Study goals: Characterize elementary school students 'conceptions of learning ( i.e. meaning, process, context, factors, function & problems of learning )
Conception C 1 - School C 2 - Home
Sample: Elementary school students
Data gathering: Interview
Data analysis: Content analysis
C 3- Any place
Main Results: Students ’ c onceptions of learning match the major general learning conceptions found in phenomeno-
C 4 - Times of the day
graphic research. Besides that, a new conception of learning arise in the functional dimension of learning: the social and
C 5 - Period of life
religious enculturation function of learning.
C 6 - With support
Definition Learning takes place in the context of school. Learning takes place in the context of one’s home. Learning takes place in any spatial context. Learning takes place at certain times of the day. Learning takes place during certain periods of life. Learning occurs with the external support of others
Illustrative answer excerpt "(One can learn) in school, (...) in the library. "15 "( One can learn) at home and in other people's home." 16 "(...) we can learn everywhere." 14 "(One can learn) from nine to five-thirty" 14 "(One can learn) when has a higher age (...) one can also be a teenager.” 13
C 6.1 – With Educational and school agents
Introduction
C6.1.1 With teachers
Students ’ approaches to learning ( and correspondent quality levels of learning ) are significantly affected, among other fac-
C6.1.2 With other educational agents
tors, by their conceptions of learning ( Biggs, 1999 )
Conceptions of learning , as studied by Phenomenography, refer to people representation of the learning phenomena ( M arton
to reproduce or applying it. A qualitative conception of learning implies that learning is comprehension and interpretation of meaning. Each of these main conceptions differentiates then in more particular ones ( Marton, Dall'Alba & Beaty, 1993 )
There seems to be an association between conceptions of learning and approaches to learning, which refer to students ’ motivation and learning strategies. A surface approach to learning involves dealing with learning situations with minimum effort, responding just to compulsory demands in terms of rote memorisation of details ( Biggs, 1999 ) . In contrast, a deep approach to learning implies dealing with academic tasks due to intrinsic enjoyment on learning and through an investment on comprehension ( B iggs, 1999 ) . The quantitative conception tends to correlate with a surface approach to learning and the qualitative conception
Learning occurs with the support of family members.
C6.2.1 – With the mother, the father or both parents
Learning occurs with the support of the parents
C6.2.2 With others members of the family such as cousins or grandparents
Learning occurs with the support of others members of the family, excluding parents.
C 6.3 - Colleagues
Learning occurs with the support of the colleagues.
C 6.4 – Other persons
Learning occurs with the support of others persons, excluding the mentioned above, such as friends and acquaintances. Learning takes place autonomously, without external support
would correlate with a deep approach to learning also associated to with higher quality learning products ( e.g. Entwistle, 1990 ) .
Several studies explore student ’ s conceptions of learning in different areas such as art studies ( Freire & Duarte,
C 7- Autonomously
2012 ) ,computer based learning ( Rebelo & Duarte, 2012) o r oral presentations ( Joughin, 2007 ) . Although these studies have university students as a common target, it is also important to know and explore elementary student ’ s conceptions of learning.
Goals This study aimed to explore elementary school students ’ conception of learning.
Learning occurs with the support of other educational agents such as principals, coaches, educational assistants.
C 6.2 – With Family
1981 ) . Research identified two opposing conceptions of learning: reproductive, or quantitative, and comprehensive or qualitative ( M arton & Säljö, 1976 ) .A quantitative conception of learning views learning as a process of accumulating information in order
Learning occurs with the support o f the teachers.
Sample: 16 students ( 1 – 4 years.
year of studies ) with 38% of female and 63% of male with an average age of 9
"Our parents, who were also students may also teach us some things that we learn in school." 13
"We can learn with our grandparents." 2 " With the older cousins." 13
"We can learn with students who know more than us and are ahead in school." 16
"The boss of my father taught me things, taught me how to deal with machines, taught me how to handle them.” 9
"Riding a bike, we learn ourselves and sometimes we learn to do things just us alone." 14
Conception
Definition
Illustrative answer excerpt
F 1- Psychophysiologic factors
Learning is influenced by psychophysiological conditions.
"(It's harder to learn) when our hearing is weak." 1
Affective factors F 2- Intrinsic motivation
Learning is influenced by intrinsic motivation to learn (ie her/his interest and preferences) Learning is influenced by the structure of personal knowledge previously acquired.
"(It is easier to learn) when the teacher is teaching us things we like." 3
Cognitive factors F3- Knowledge
Learning is influenced by attention / concentration in information.
F4- Concentration th
"( We learn) with the coaches of the clubs " 14 "(Learns) with educational assistants, they teach things." 3
Conceptions of the factors of learning (factorial dimension — F)
Method st
“(We learn) with the teachers (...)” 16
F5- Memory
Learning is influenced by the process of memorizing information.
F 6- Comprehension
Learning is influenced by the process of understanding information
"(It is easier to learn) when we already know everything." 14
"(It is easier to learn) when we pay attention (...) when we don’t get distracted." 14
"(It's harder to learn) Mathematics (...) we have to remember all the strategies" 6 When is it easy? When we know what the teacher is saying (...) "5
Data gathering: semi-structured interview oriented to six dimensions of conception of learning: 1 ) “ R eferential ” – notion of learning nature ( e.g. “ On your view what is learning? ” ) ; 2 ) “ Procedural ” – notion of learning process ( e.g. “ What is your notion on how we learn?” ; 3 ) “ C ontextual ” - notion of learning context ( e .g. “ O n your view where/when/with whom learning happens? ” ) ; 4 ) “ Factorial ” – notion of learning factors ( e.g. “ W hich are the factors of learning? ” ) ; 5 ) “ Functional ” – notion of learning functions ( e.g. “ Which are the functions of learning? ” ) ; 6 ) “ Problems ” – notion of learning problems ( e .g. “ Which are the problems of learning? ” ) .
F7- Developmental factors
Learning is influenced by the lifetime period when it occurs.
"(...) So we forget things when we are old, so it the worst time to learn." 11
F8- Opportunity
Learning is influenced by the opportunity given by socioeconomic level. Learning is influenced by the degree that is continuous (ie with or without interruptions) Learning is influenced by the time of day when it occurs
"(...) There are adults that once were poor and could not learn well and had to give up, I think some parents forced them to work in the countryside (...)" 9 "When a person starts studying and after a long period without training (...) without going to school and when returns to study things seem harder (…) because they not remember" 9
F11- Resources
Learning is influenced by the use of learning resources.
Data analysis: content analysis using an intermediate approach between the "inductive" and the "deductive" approach ( M iles and Huberman, 1994 ) that involved three main moments: 1 ) selecting a criterion of segmentation of units to categorise; 2 ) developing a system of categories of analysis; 3 ) testing confidence of detected categories, by comparison between judges. For segmentation of units to categorise, a "thematic" criterion was used ( Flores 1994 ) . This means that, deductively, each answer segment addressed to any dimension considered ( i.e. referential ( R ) , procedural ( P ) , contextual ( C ) , factorial ( F ) , functional ( Fu ) or problems ( Pr ) ) was deemed a unit to categorise, through its concurrence with one of the categories of the corresponding dimension ( of the system in development ) .
F11.1- Materials
Learning is influenced by the use of support resources for learning (i.e ICT).
"(...) I sometimes I make arrangements of things to learn, on the computer (...) sometimes I go to web sites that were recommended on television (...) and I'm learning. There is also a method of learning." 9
11.2 - Social
Learning is influenced by the use of social resources to support learning (i.e help from others) Learning is influenced by the conditions of the classroom.
"(It is easier to learn) when we have help from others besides the teacher, like the family, friends of my father, my mother's friends." 9
Learning is influenced by the characteristics of teaching
"(It's hard to learn) In mathematics (...) problems, divisions. Some are very difficult." 10
Learning is influenced by the degree of difficulty of the curriculum content
(It is difficult to learn) some matters which are many, especially in the study of the environment (...)bones, muscles. "6 (...) "Sometimes we do not realize some things and the teacher has to explain again in order to keep in mind the things that the teacher tells us (...)" 11
For the inductive development of a system of categories of analysis each unit was categorized with the specific idea
F9- Continuity F10- Time of the day
F12 Classroom
F13 Instruction
F 13.2 Quantity
Learning is influenced by the amount of curriculum content
F 13.3 Redundancy F 13.4 Explanation
categories of description of the conceptions of learning , later used in a second analysis by two judges. During a
F 13.5 Playful
Learning is influenced by redundancy involved in the presentation of curriculum content by the teacher (ie the degree to which repeated the same information) Learning is influenced by adequacyof teacher’s explanations. Learning is influenced by the degree of use of ludic activities.
“ t raining phase ” judges discussed and experimented the second system of categories. Then judges independently categorised all of the answers and a first agreement between judges was calculated. Agreement between judges ranges from 65,11% ( in the problems dimension ) to 85,4% ( in the contextual dimension ) with an average of suggested by Bakeman and Gottman ( 1986 ) : PA = ( F A / ( FA + FD ) ) 1 00, where PA means percentage of agreement, FA Frequency of agreements and FD Frequency of disagreements.
Categoria FU 1 - To acquire knowledge
Definição Learning as a mean to acquire knowledge.
FU 2 - Know-how
Learning as a means to carry out actions. Learning as a means to develop intelligence Learning as a means to acquire ways of acting in society Learning as a mean to acquire ways to practice religion Learning as a mean of increasing self-esteem and obtaining social recognition Learning as a means to establish interpersonal relationships. Learning as a mean of transmitting knowledge to others. Learning as a means to get school grades / academic success Learning as a mean to ensure a profession and subsequent personal financing
FU 4 Social enculturation FU 5 Religious enculturation FU 6 –Self- esteem and social recognition
Conception
Definition
Illustrative answer excerpt
FU 7 - Relationship
R1 - Vague
Synonymous of “learning", without qualification or elaboration.
"(Learning is) good for us." (15)
FU 8 - Knowledge transmission
R2- Knowledge increase
Learning is an increase of personal knowledge.
"Learning is (...) learn new things" (14)
FU 9 - Certification
R3 – Memorisation
Learning is memoriziation.
"Learning is when a person tells us things and we memorize." (15)
R 4– Application
"Learning is making things ..." (12) Learning is knowledge application.
R5 – Explanation
R 8 -Personal change
Learning is being able to explain.
"Explain what things are, for example, asks what is a table and I say it is an object made of wood" (7)
Learning is to move to a state in which one has more intelligence.
FU 10 - Professionalization
Illustrative answer excerpt
P1- Vague
Excerpts that does not explain the learning process.
“Studying…” 10
P2- To be teached
Learning by being teached.
"There must be a teacher to teach us things." 6
P3 –Listening / Absorbing
Learning by listening and assimilating provided information.
“Being quiet, not talking to colleagues and listen to the teacher" 10
P4- Reproducing
Learning by copying or reproducing information from the teacher.
"You can learn (...) by copying." 4
P5– Memorizing
Learning by memorizing information.
"(People) learn things by memorizing what the teacher says." 11
P6- Observing
Learning by observing behaviors.
"(...) We can see other people doing and we are learning at the same time. "13
P7- Applying
Learning by applying / practicing knowledge / skills (writing, reading or problem solving). Learning by making mistakes and correcting. Learning by understanding the subjects.
"You can learn by reading, copying, writing. By doing math, solving problems, making the numbers. "4
P11 - Endeavoring
Learning through the effort / personal motivation.
"Sometimes the teacher is mad with us but we have to respect that because she do it for us to learn and strive more and that's how we learn." 11
P10- Institutional
Learning by passing the school year, through the tests and evaluation activities.
"(...) After doing tests, then we know things and we move for different school years." 6
P8 –Trying and correcting P9 - Understanding
"To became smarter, more intelligent." 4 "(We Learn) to be well behaved." 13 "(Learns) to go to church to pray. For example, when we have difficulties or problems, we can go to church and then talk with Jesus, maybe he can help us. "6 "(...) There are some people who feel more important, other people will recognize your knowledge, we are happy (...)" 9 "( We Learn to) try to do the maximum possible friends that don’t make noise, that are friends." 13 “(…) we should learn because when we get older if we have children we can teach them.” 13 "Learning is studying (...) for example, have a test one day and the other I have to study, if I don’t learn to study, I can’t get good grade on the test." (5) "For when are adult if you have a job, you can learn things from the job and earn more money (...) to buy food, to buy a house" 16
Definition Motor or sensory deficits
PR2- Ability PR3- Emotions
Deficits in aptitude for learning Negative and inhibitory emotions for learning.
PR3.1 - Fear
- Anticipatory fear of failing in learning tasks
“He (...)sometimes makes some errors in written tasks (...) I think he is afraid of making mistakes and became embarrassed. "9
PR3.2 - Anxiety
Anxiety towards situations of evaluation
"When we get nervous on tests." 1
PR 4- Concentration
Being distracted in the classroom
"They could be talking, in the classroom they can be distracted."10
PR5 - Memorization
Difficulties in retaining information
PR6- Comprehension
Difficulties in understanding learning contents Difficulties in applying knowledge to solve problems Problems or difficult situations in the student's family. Adjustment difficulties of foreign students (due to the difference between current conditions and those they were used to)
"He sometimes asks me the big letters of the alphabet because he sometimes can’t remember how it's done." 11 "(A problem may be) has not entered all very well in our head." 1 "Not knowing very well." 8 "When they do not understand." 1 "One can not solve the problem or, for example not solve a worksheet of Portuguese and can not answer the question. Not knowing. "4 "Family problems could also exist, for example, a grandparent of a student dies and he have no motivation ... so learning can be difficult." 5 "The language is different, sometimes the ways of learning are also different (...) I have noticed, this boy (...) has some trouble of its own." 9
PR7- Aplication PR8 - Family PR9 - Culture
PR10- Classroom
Classroom environment not being an adequate environment for learning.
Illustrative answer excerpt "They may be blind ... or can’t hear very well. They may have something broken, an arm, a leg, "16 "Because maybe they not hear(...)" 2 "Not being good at math problems in environmental studies in the English language." 11
"(Students) who are making noise affect the work of others." 13
“We also learn when we miss something in school, we correct it and we learn.” 4 "(...) The teacher explains to us if we don’t understand we ask again (...)" 9
REFERENCES Bakeman, R. & Gottman, J. (1986). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. London: Cambridge University Press. Biggs, J.B. (1999). Teaching for quality learning at university. Buckingham: Open University Press. Cantwell, R. & Millard (1994). The relationship between approach to learning and learning strategies in learning music. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 45-63. Entwistle, N. (1990). Handbook of educational ideas and practices. London and New York: Routledge. Freire L. G. & Duarte, A. M. (2012). Concepções de e Auto-Regulação da Aprendizagem do Desenho Artístico em Estudantes Universitários Brasileiros. Paper presented In the II Seminar of Investigation in Psychology. Faculty of Psychology. Lisbon. Joughin, G. (2007). Student conceptions of oral presentations. Studies in Higher Education, 32, 323-336. Marton, F. & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G. & Beaty, E. (1993). Conceptions of learning. International Journal of educational Research, 19, 3, 277-300. Marton, F. & Säljö, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning - I.Outcome and process. Brittish Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11. Rebelo, I. & Duarte, A. M. (2012). Concepções de aprendizagem com o computador. Psicologia , 26, 87-111.
Exemplo "Learning is for us (...) when we grow old, is a subject that we should know, Portuguese, Portugal's history, things like that." 11 "(...) we become more educated." 9 "To know things (...) because if we do not know anything, can’t do anything" 14
Conception PR 1 - Deficit
Conceptions of how we learn (procedural dimension — P) Definition
"(It is easy to learn) also in music (...) there are games in dramatic expression subject (...)" 6
Conceptions of learning problems (problems dimension — P)
"(Learning is) become more intelligent" (16)
Conception
"(It is easier to learn) when they explain well why." 14
Conceptions of functions of learning (functional dimension — Fu)
FU 3 - Intelligence
RESULTS Conceptions of what is learning (referential dimension — R)
"It's easier to learn, when in the classroom there isn´t a lot of noise (...)." 13
F 13.1 Dificulty
considered to be contained in it. On the basis of the results of this first analysis, it was possible to develop a system of
77,9% of agreement in the six dimensions.The calculation of the inter-judge agreement was based on the formula
"(It is harder to learn) at night (...)" 12
CONCLUSION
Results showed a matching of some of the learning conceptions traditionally revealed by phenomenographic research ( e.g. learning as accumulation of information, learning as understanding or learning as a way of obtaining good marks ) . In addition, the study showed, in a population rarely studied, variants of a new conception of learning, namely the idea of a cultural function of learning as a way to acquire cultural and moral habits and a way to practice religion.
Besides, it emerged new variants of already known conceptions of learning ( i.e. learning occurs through: exploratory practice; learning to learn; motivation ) and an apparently new conception ( i.e. learning as understanding and application ) .
