Emotion, Cognition, and Imagery in: Listening ...

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MONOGRAPHIC SERIES Tempus project InMusWB

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INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO MUSIC: LISTENING, PERFORMING, COMPOSING

Faculty of Music University of Arts in Belgrade

2 Faculty of Music University of Arts in Belgrade Tijana Popović Mladjenović, Blanka Bogunović, and Ivana Perković INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO MUSIC: LISTENING, PERFORMING, COMPOSING Reviewers Leon Stefanija, PhD Ksenija Radoš, PhD Editor-in-Chief of the Faculty of Music Publications Gordana Karan, PhD For Publisher Dubravka Jovičić, PhD Dean of the Faculty of Music Proofreader Kevin McCoy Prepress Dušan Ćasić Cover Design Ivana Petković Published by Faculty of Music in Belgrade Printed by Ton plus, Belgrade Circulation 300 This book was carried out as a part of the scientific projects Identities of Serbian Music in the World Cultural Context (No. 177019) and Identification, measurement and development of the cognitive and emotional competencies important for a Europe-oriented society (No. 179018), both supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, as well as part of the Tempus project InMusWB Introducing Interdisciplinarity in Music Studies in the Western Balkans in Line with the European Perspective (517098-TEMPUS-1-2011-1-RS-TEMPUS-JPCR)

ISBN 978–86–88619–41–7

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Tijana Popović Mladjenović, Blanka Bogunović, and Ivana Perković

Interdisciplinary Approach to Music: Listening, Performing, Composing

FACULTY OF MUSIC BELGRADE

2014

EMOTION, COGNITION, AND IMAGERY

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Emotion, Cognition, and Imagery in: Listening, Performing, Composing Blanka Bogunović and Tijana Popović Mladjenović

Emotion, Cognition, and Imagery

Introduction The concept of the book is founded on the three basic and, at the same time, very broad music activities – listening, performing, and composing music. Though the nature of these three activities is distinct, they are firmly embedded and intertwined into the communication chain of every music experience. As such, this fact stimulated many questions, such as: What kinds of processes are unfolding in music time? What are the levels and quality of experience? What is the connection between musical structure and gravity centres and emotion and expression? What is the role of cognitive processes in listening, performing, and conceptualizing music? Where are the sources of musical creativity? What is an influence of fantasy and narrative in response to music? How does the musical imagery affect the perception of musical performance? How does the visual imagery affect musical experience? What are the layers of music conceptualizing? What are the main factors of musical communication? What processes are going along on through communicational layers while listening or performing? How do wider systems of society and culture affect micro systems of individual creative and re-creative “inner space”? So, a great many rather serious questions arose soliciting answers. Therefore, with an intention to finding some answers, we conceptualized the book very broadly being concerned with the musical experience of different musical styles, epochs and composers, intending to gain an insight into processes and phenomena during listening, live performing and composing, and how they are intertwined with wider, open mezzo (socio-psychological background) and macro systems (culture and nature), with an intention to look closer to details, but having a “bigger picture” on our mind.

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All three phenomena were viewed through an interdisciplinary prospective (musicology and psychology) and are based on the empirical research methodology. Its intention was to contribute to a better understanding of what is happening during listening, performing and composing, and also gives an aspect of novelty in the Serbian scientific environment, as well as an incentive for further research. No matter of the diverse focus of each chapter and empirical research conveyed, there are some key concepts that represent the core of experience in any music activity and these are emotion, cognition and imagery, and their relatedness to music unfolding in time, musical structure and communication. These concepts were the “bounding line” of all our research endeavours and were investigated in the context of three musical activities. Why emotion, cognition and imagery? Because communicating emotion is the core of the music communicational chain, and consisted of composer, performer and listener. Cognition makes it possible, gives structure and pattern, and enables the conceptualization of music. Imagery, visual, auditive or kinaesthetic, created by imagination processes gives “something” more, a field of personal intimate projections and sublimate the essence of musical experience and message of music making. It enables communication by adding the “x factor” to the unique experience of the listener, performer and composer. For the research of emotion and cognition, as well creative imagery and its relatedness to music unfolding in time and musical structure, and also to environment, a musicological – psychological/psychological – musicological level of analysis may be especially suitable. Hence, we approached interdisciplinary, which is a necessity – because the phenomenon explored asks for a different prospect and knowledge, though that can be a limitation to cooperation, because each discipline has its own trajectory. In the field of interdisciplinary studies, psychology gave a significant contribution to common knowledge due to the broadness of its scope (from the neuropsychological to the social), its methodologies (which are empirical and create a meeting place for researchers from different traditions), and has a well established record in advancing the understanding of a range of musical phenomena (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). But musicology, in itself, is a multi- and interdisciplinary science regardless of its specifics or, more precisely, a synthetic science that combines the widest possible spectrum of special studies, whereby not one science can remain in its pure state due to constant and inevitable permeations, transmissions and fusions, thus abolishing the conventional division into natural sciences and humanities (Gostuški: “Les sciences musicales en tant que modèle de mèthode interdisciplinaire de recherche”, 1973). In fact, during


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the past few decades, the music itself was increasingly turning into the medial1, intermediary2 and mediatory3 field of widely varied interests – social, economic, cultural-political, etc., and aspects of consideration and research – sociological, cultural, aesthetic, theoretical, psychological, physical, physiological, neurological, therapeutic, etc. (Popović Mladjenović, 2004). However, what is essential is that musicology, which is concerned with music, whether as historical musicology (which deals with its subject in continuity and over time), or as systematic musicology (which establishes and systematizes the facts regardless of their chronological order), has its status of an intermedium4, that is, one of its basic characteristics in the context of moving almost complete scientific apparatus at the moment when music is at the heart of the problem. In other words, its natural position of an intermedium enables musicology, thanks to its basic scientific tools, to be the only one in all crucial moments in any music research that could make a vertical cut through all strata of dealing with music (Popović Mladjenović, 2004). Concerning the methodology question there are several issues to be mentioned here. Namely, empirical qualitative methodology was mainly used in our research designs. The special aspect in the first research (Chapter 2) was that we chose to investigate emotional response related to musical structure and segmentation of music unfolding in time considering the musical piece as a whole (Mozart’s Phantasie in C minor, K. 475 for piano), which is not so often the case in empirical music studies. In the second research (Chapter 3) we decided to take a holistic approach and investigate the process and levels of the communication chain during live performance, with an uncommon choice of contemporary music work (Berio’s Sequenza VI for viola solo), again performing in its entirety. Video analysis of the performer’s movements related to expressive moments of segments/sections of Sequenza VI macro-formal plan was conveyed. When investigating compositional practices of recognized contemporary Serbian composers with diverse musical directions (Chapter 4), in a framework of nature versus culture dichotomy, we managed to get worthwhile, qualitative and extensive answers in a questionnaire study. In this chapter we offer the systematic integration of the main data gathered and presented throughout the previous chapters with an emphasis on the “bounding line” of four pieces of research – emotion, cognition and Medial: median. Intermediary: acting as an intermediate agent between two or more things. 3 Mediatory: pertaining to mediation. 4 Intermedium: pertaining to the matter that helps transforming one matter into the other, or the fusion of other two matters into one. 1 2

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music imagery. We were of the opinion that there is an overarching pattern of musical processes and experience that could be common for all three musical activities. Actually, we have in mind that the generic, panstylistic processes of musical thinking (“temporal” – successive and simultaneous, which are primarily characteristic of the micro-syntactic level of musical flow, and “non-temporal” – which also take place in time, but are more formal, logical and abstract, being derived from musical material and characterizing the macro-syntactic level of musical flow, in particular) rest on the operationalizations of (widely varied) relations and interactions in music, thus represent the basic processes that shape and/or process a given music unfolding in time. This means that an interdisciplinary musicological method and analytical interpretative approach to the shaping of music unfolding in time is the necessary path – the essence of musical understanding, which is common in music composition, performance and listening – in revealing how inner cognitive, emotional and imagery processes in music are externalized in a musical work (Popović Mladjenović, 2009). So, what is specific or novel in this chapter is that we took into consideration the three mentioned concepts together, which is not so common in psychology of music research, where emotion and cognition as intertwined processes are typically dealt with, or they are investigated either separately or individually. Nevertheless, one of the important questions was: is integration possible, considering the diversity of activities that we explored, the diverse music styles and authors, performers and composers with idiosyncratic music directions, as well as participants of different ages and musical backgrounds? The limitations of the integration of four research findings come from the fact that they cannot really be generalized because it is the matter of a small amount of psychological research studies and themes concerning the wide scope of the three musical activities. Hence, integration could be difficult and perhaps “tense”. What helps and enables the certain level of scientific objectivity and the complementary and comparative analysis reasonable and possible, is that all interdisciplinary research conveyed was holistic in approach, based on the qualitative empirical methodology paradigm and self-report questionnaire technique. Furthermore, all content and narrative analysis was accomplished by the same three researchers and participants came from the same social, cultural and (music) educational background and that we were dealing within the cultural system of Western art (classical or contemporary) music practices. We think that integration produces an impulse, an incentive to move barriers, to think about the holistic picture of the processes that happen


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parallelly and simultaneously or precede one another in the framework of the communicational chain of composer – performer – listener. Being aware of the limitations of the samples that are small and themes that have wide scope, we bravely took a step into the direction of integrating our findings into one, “big picture”, hoping to find some shared features. Our intention was to put systematically together the findings of the four pieces of research to make a comparative and complementary analysis of the concepts and processes involved in the three activities and to try to confirm/determine common items/patterns. That could give materials for defining the reflective model of intertwined emotional, cognitive and imaginary processes and concepts during listening, live performing and in compositional practices. So, diverse, a holistic prospective ambitiously was taken into consideration with an intention to put findings together. The chapters in the book were ordered chronologically, as our interdisciplinary collaboration was developing, but also moving toward activity that is the most complex and also the least explored, namely composing. In trying to integrate findings presented in each chapter we followed up this sequence of presentations in order to keep the structure of the book coherent (listening, live performing, composing), though the logical sequence of the communication chain is opposite. In order to make synthesized results transparent, we used figures which contain condensed findings organized according to the three main concepts that we chose: emotion, cognition and music imagery and the way they were integrated into processes of listening, performing and composing.

Emotion in listening, live performing, and composing At the beginning of this part of results integration, we remind our reader to the key concepts and theoretical backgrounds that were taken into consideration while analyzing empirical data. Music’s link with emotion is a commonplace of Western culture as old as the Stoic philosophers, as Martha Nussbaum’s study Upheavals of Thought: the Intelligence of Emotions (2001) has made clear. Yet the field was revitalised by the empirical psychology of Patrik Juslin and John Sloboda’s first seminal Music and Emotion (2001), and is benefitting again from the authors’ major new Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (2010). Emotion’s influence on music studies is a symptom, perhaps, of the broader “biologization” of the humanities, another aspect of which is our renewed interest in Darwinian evolutionary theory (Spitzer, 2010). However we are still waiting for the kind of unifying theoretical perspective which establishes a

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paradigm. We may lack a single, consensually agreed-on theory of emotion, but we at least have a set of fresh orientations. Psychological approaches to music and emotion – such as Juslin and Daniel Västfjäll’s article “Emotional Responses to Music” (2008) – focus on how it is produced by underlying mechanisms. Another departure from the old discourse is a preference for looking at emotions in the plural (including the basic emotions identified by Darwin) rather than at a monolithic “Emotion” with a capital E. New philosophical perspectives have been opened up particularly by Jenefer Robinson’s Deeper than Reason: Emotion and Its Role in Literature, Music, and Art (2005) and Charles Nussbaum’s The Musical Representation: Meaning, Ontology, and Emotion (2007), or Peter Kivy’s, e.g., Music Alone (chapter 8; 1990), “Experiencing the Musical Emotions” (in his New Essays on Musical Understanding, 2001), Antithetical Arts: On the Ancient Quarrel Between Literature and Music (2009), and Nick Zangwill’s, e.g., Metaphysics of Beauty (chapter 10; 2001), “Against Emotion: Hanslick was Right about Music” (2004), “Music, Metaphor, and Emotion” (2007). Conversant with recent work in empirical psychology, both of these authors attend to how emotion influences thought, deconstructing the venerable opposition between thought and feeling. Presupposing that emotion is a form of judgement, Robinson constructs a “process” model of “affective appraisal” interacting with reflective cognition, argues that some emotions, such as exhilaration and the startle reaction, do not have intentional content, and she claims that music can provoke such content-less emotions (visceral responses to music). Nussbaum shows how “off-line” emotions flow out of the listener’s negotiation with a work’s virtual pathways, situating musical emotion in the real world of Gibsonian affordances (Spitzer, 2010). According to Peter Kivy, absolute music cannot arouse the “garden-variety emotions”, because the garden-variety emotions are typically aroused by the forming of beliefs appropriate to the emotions, which take intentional objects, and then eventuate in some appropriate mode of behaviour, whereas absolute music simply does not have the resources to do this sort of thing (Kivy, 2009). As Kivy has urged, whatever the emotions we feel when we appreciate music are, they are not what he calls garden-variety emotions. They might be specifically aesthetic or musical emotion/specifically aesthetic feelings that do not coincide with the ordinary emotions that we often ascribe to music (such as anger and pride – Zangwill, 2007). Zangwill considers that the aesthetic metaphor thesis has the best explanation of the role of visceral responses to music and of the evaluative direction of emotion descriptions. Furthermore, it allows us an easy way round the paradox of negative emotion (à propos Jerrold Levinson’s essay “Music and Negative Emotion”, 1990) and yields a good explanation of our being moved by music with apparently negative characteristics (à propos


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Stephen Davies’s dilemma to the paradox of negative emotional responses to music in his book Musical Meaning and Expression, 1994). Zangwill argues that we must turn our back irrevocably on emotion theories of the nature of music, because the nature and value of music will elude us so long as we are mired in emotion: “Once we are liberated from emotion we can see music as a world quite unto itself, a world with features that we describe with emotion metaphors, which may give the music a value that we can experience with intense delight and even ecstasy” (Zangwill, 2007). About recent philosophical work on the connection between music and the emotions we found interesting opinions (Derek Matravers) in the Music Analysis Special Issue “Music and Emotion” (2010). This volume also includes the core analytical essays which range historically from Schütz and Bach through Scarlatti, Mozart, Schubert and Skryabin to John Williams (John Butt, Derek Matravers, Robert O. Gjerdingen, Michael Spitzer, Tuomas Eerola, Kenneth Smith, Giorgio Biancorosso, etc.). Another common thread is the problem of correlation. For Lawrence Zbikowski, an analogy between music and emotion is plausible because both involve processual change between different states (music is emotional because it affords “sonic analogues for dynamic processes”). Yet for Robert Hatten (who coins the term “composed expressive trajectory”), one-to-one mapping between what the music “is expressive of” (in Peter Kivy’s precise formulation) and what the listener feels seems to be out of the question, if it isn’t to leave the listener “a nervous wreck”. All analytical essays, in one way or another, highlight the role of temporality for emotional experience (the time of listening). Whilst most psychological approaches take snapshots of short melodies or excerpts, music analysts working with complete pieces naturally gravitate towards more diachronic and processual models of emotion. From the standpoint of the philosophy of time consciousness, John Butt analyses emotion in Schütz and Bach in relation to a developing, yet persisting sense of self. The analysis of Schubert’s Unfinished Symphony and Erlkönig foregrounds musical fear as a dynamic process (Spitzer, 2010), and so on. The authors of this book were bearing in mind this entire edifice about “the aesthetic metaphor thesis”, “the emotion metaphorical descriptions of music”, “the feelings involved in the immediate experiencing and creation of music”, in fact, “another sort of mental state with some but not all of the features of emotions”, as well as that emotions are brief but intense responses to potentially important events or changes in the external or internal environment that involve: cognitive appraisal, subjective feeling, physiological response, expression, action tendency and regulation (Juslin, 2009). Each emotional function is associated with biological processing systems

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and psychological components, namely thinking (appraisal), physical symptoms, behavioural tendencies, motor expression and subjective feelings (Kreutz, 2008). Thereby the conceptualization of the emotional response of the listeners could be approached in different ways: categorical (basic emotions), dimensional (valence, activity and potency), prototype (hierarchical order of emotional categories) and vitality affects (qualities related to intensity, shape, contour and movement), the last one being, maybe the best representatives of the dynamic expressiveness of music (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). In our analysis we found out that all four emotions conceptualization could be recognized in results and explained due to the different level of overall responses to music. We referred to the integrated theoretical framework (BRECVEM), which gave some background to understanding answers concerning factors that influence emotional responses to music. The expected affects, their intensity and speed, differ in concordance with psychological mechanisms taken into account. The authors introduced six psychological mechanisms that can evoke emotions in music listening, in addition to the cognitive appraisal, singularly or in combination. So, the seven mechanisms are referred to as BRECVEM which is an acronym for: Brain stem reflexes, Rhythmic entrainment, Evaluative conditioning, emotional Contagion5, Visual imagery, Episodic memory and Musical expectancy (BRECVEM). The intensity of the response influenced by any of the mechanisms is dependent also, on the complexity of the musical structure (Juslin, 2011; Juslin et al., 2010). As to the communicational aspect of emotional flow during live performance we were inclined to refer to the psychological multi-dimensional GERMS model that covers five facets of musical expression: Generative rules of conveying musical structure to listeners, Emotional expression, Random variability concerning motor system fluctuations due to unpredictability of the “living” character of music, Motion principles or dynamic patterns of movement/biological motion, and Stylistic unexpectedness that involves local deviations from performance conventions (Juslin, 2003). We unanimously agreed that the musical performance is the construction and articulation of musical meaning in which the cerebral, bodily, social and historical attributes of a performer all converge (Clarke, 2002). When overviewing the findings systematized in Figure 1, concerning emotion in listening, live performing and composing, we drew the following conclusions: 5 Contagion: in psychology – the spread of a behaviour pattern, attitude, or emotion from person to person or group to group through suggestion, propaganda, rumour, or imitation; the tendency to spread, as of a doctrine, influence, or emotional state; the spreading of an emotional or mental state among a number of people.

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Figure 1: Emotion in listening, live performing, and composing LISTENING

Emotional – cognitive appraisal is related to intensity, shape, contour and movement of melody.

Perception of emotional expression related to “structural expression” has a hierarchical order.

Emotional and expressional response • Distinctive emotions related to gravity center • Broad emotional experience • Music induces the specific emotional meaning • Music structure comprehension

Sources of emotional appraisal • Expressive’ musical structure • Knowing about style • Episodic memory – low emotional arousal • Mood • Personal features

LIVE PERFORMING

Emotions induced by emotional expression of music through emotional contagion

Generated by: • High level of psychophysical activation, engagement, focus, dedication • Personal expressivity of performer • Embodied communication

COMPOSING

State of cognitive and imaginative flow • Cognitive arousal induces emotions in a process of creation • Dedication, devotion, absorption with process of creation • Emotional flow leads to conceptual formalization • Emotional and creative layers are closely intertwined • Visual and auditory imagery is closely related to music conceptualization • Emotional – creative – compositional flow

Complex structure: • Features of musical structure represent basis for certain emotional reactions • Music motion – motion – emotion are isomorphic • When basic emotions induced – high induction speed

Communication in live performance • Emotional responses have more intensity • Non-referential embodied meaning/energy/ tension is transferred • Different moods are elicited • Personal identification with performer

Emotional drive: • Need for creation vs. creation as response to environment • Need to express, to generate, to communicate or to react critically on negative signals from environment • Positive emotional states – enjoyment, elation, bliss, joy, fulfillment

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1. Intensity, deepness and scope of emotional content is gradually getting a more prominent format when compared to starting from listening, to performing and then composing. The level of activation raises from emotion perception and a relatively passive response to it, to stronger reaction induced by emotional contagion due to the intensity of the live performed music, to deep dedication and absorption with the creative process followed by primarily congruent positive emotional states. Physical cues are the main triggers for emotional contagion during performing which leads to the induction of genuine emotional responses to music (Lundqvist et al., 2009). Emotional contagion represents a part of nonverbal communication and is primitive, automatic and unconscious behaviour (Hatfield et al., 1994). The higher energy level of the event causes more alertness, so the same emotional valence (positive or negative) would lead to a higher emotional contagion (Juslin, 2005). The emotional experience during conceptualizing music or composing is of the other kind, it is a trancelike mental state characterized by fully immersing in a feeling of energized focus, spontaneous joy, full involvement and enjoyment in a process of activity. The person is completely absorbed in what he/she does (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). 2. Hierarchical order of the emotional responses, from distinctive emotions to highly elaborated sentiments, is present in the listening situation (more perceived) and performing situation (more induced), while in composing, emotional states reflect wider environmental or “inner” events, visual and auditory imagery. 3. In all three kinds of musical behaviour – the emotional response of the listeners, the performer’s expressional interpretation and the composer's emotional flow – is closely related to musical structure, its expressional features and music conceptualization. Musical structure is undoubtedly an important component in a process of performance expression. Our results are in concordance with Berislav Popović’s theory of music form or meaning in music which, among many other discussed phenomena, supports the idea that pillars of musical structure/structural gravity centers and structural organization (Popović, 1998) have an extremely important role in the production of musical expressiveness connected to human expression, and musical motion related to human emotion. The assumption that we are relying on is that an analytical approach to the relationship between emotion and musical structure (Friberg, & Battel, 2002) could result in a greater understanding of the composer’s and performer’s ideas that they intended to convey to the listeners. Musical


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structure gives a coherent input, whilst musically and emotionally expressive aspects have the function to convey a particular interpretation of a musical structure (Clarke, 1988). So, the structural analysis of the music and a model of the appraisals component involved are required for the understanding of intrinsic sources of induced emotions (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). The relationship between structure and expression is close and forms the basis for an account of the source and systematic construction of expression. “Structural expression” is strongly related to the structural features of music that indicate segment boundaries to the listener, and is relevant for communication on the hierarchical level (Popović, 1998), whilst “emotional expression” communicates different moods (Kopiez, 2002) and different emotional responses. Ultimately, it is left to the listener to specify the precise “meaning” of the music (Juslin, 2001). Indeed, in the listener himself, there is an unconscious, unperceived struggle for the identification of the carrier of expression, a struggle between the superimposed processes of thinking in the course of perception, a struggle between the possible (expected) continuations, meaning – in a word, that general, comprehensive musical dynamics are displayed (Popović Mladjenović et al., 2009, 2008). Emotional expression is clearly more often bounded to music itself and emotional response is more intertwined with musical structure and texture. There are indices that some features of musical structure, that are present in the contemporary music piece performed in a second study (Berio’s Sequenza VI), represent the basis for certain reactions. Namely, complex, dissonant, atonal harmony is often followed by tension, fear and anger; fast tempo with activity, surprise, potency; sharp timbre with many harmonics, also with fear, potency, anger, disgust; repetition, sequential development, condensation, pauses with increased tension (Gabrielsson & Lindström, 2001, 2010). The reported reactions of participants in listening and live performing situations pointed to a cognitive appraisal (elaboration), emotional expression (depicting a temporary emotional status that represents something), and certain subjective feelings. We could say that our findings are in concordance with the conclusions of other researchers (Gabrielsson & Lindström, 2001; Juslin, 2001), and that there is a high degree of agreement concerning the broad emotional categories expressed by music (Sloboda, 2005; Scherer & Zentner, 2001), but less agreement concerning the nuances within these categories (Juslin et al., 2006). Our findings suggest that the emotional responses, together with musical apperception and comprehension, were to a great extent in balance with the points of gravity of the piece and with the general pattern of structural expression.

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4. The music motion has strong relatedness to emotional-cognitive appraisal and kinaesthetic motion and imagery, so the “music motion – physical motion – emotion” chain is the strong spiritus movens of experience during listening and live performing. In the composing process itself, physical motion, at least in our findings, is vaguely present, though intentions of the composer for the performer’s movements in Berio’s Sequenza VI surely support the abovementioned chain. These findings are in concordance of the Contour theory of musical expressiveness (Kivy, 1980), based on the analogy between musical expressiveness and human expression; it stresses that the “contour” of music, its sonic “shape”, bears a structural analogy to the heard and seen manifestations of human emotive expression, thus the motion and emotion are also inseparably linked in music and by music (Storr, 1992). Connections between size of movement and the degree of expressive intention with the most expressive performance producing the greatest degrees of movement were confirmed (Davidson, 2002). The thesis of music psychologist Michel Imberty (who is also concerned with systematic musicology and who studies musical language and musical pieces from the aspect of cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysis) is that, in a psychological sense, movement is the fundamental structuring element of music form, whereby “energy” spreads through the substantively common, spatially defined temporal trajectory in one’s live inner experience, without which the subject could not have the feeling of oneself, which means that movement is the basic psychological source of overall musical thinking and that, as a dynamic element of musical form, it is susceptible to cultural influence (Imberty, 2003). Considering that one of the aims of our pieces of research was to find out about “musical score – performers movements – embodied meaning – expression” relation and to explore specific keys/cues of embodied meaning, we could say that the expressive movements were found to be linked to musical form and structure. Next to that, findings pointed out that body movements, gesture and mime of the performer are closely related to musical structure in terms of: a) intensity levels; b) parallel changes of musical texture and type, frequency and intensity of movements on the other; and c) series of movements confined the reality of “expressive moment locations” related to points were condensed movements and intense musical structure were “meeting”. 5. The source of activation and arousal is highly different in listening and live performing (out of the micro system) and in composing, on the other side, when the source of activation is located inside the system, as a


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need to express, to generate, to communicate or to react critically on negative signals from the environment. Interactions that one has on the virtually moment-by-moment basis with the social and physical environment frequently produce a change in affect; and so do cognitive representations of the past and expectations of the future interactive events (Konečni, 2010). Konečni argued that in affective response to music arousal evoked by music and arousal evoked by the immediate context in which it is experienced are combined. According to Konečni’s arousal-based approach listeners’ arousal level is dependent on the complexity of music and arousal based-goals. When listeners experience music as repulsive, it could be interpreted according to Berlyne’s influential theory (Berlyne, 1971), by which exists too high of an arousal potential of the music that causes rejection by listeners. 6. The act of emotional experience during listening and performing is mainly responsive, directed towards “inner” or “outer” behaviour, with a growing physiological and psychological appraisal level, while during composing emotional experience is represented by an active need to create and to be in a state of emotional and/or cognitional flow. When emotional “drives” as an incentive for creating music were in question, composers mainly reported about strong positive emotional impacts – emotional states of enjoyment, elation, bliss, joy and fulfilment, though the sublimation of anger and criticism could also provoke music creation. Though, other kinds of sources were present at the beginning of the compositional process as a starting point of emotional flow that leads to a conceptual formulization of ideas that are approaching – for example, a deep mystical feeling of self-awareness or unity of sound and feeling. It has an unconditional “giving up” to the creational flow that has refined energy as a motor for the start. It is obvious that emotional and creative layers are closely intertwined giving an impulse for compositional flow, as a single-minded immersion and experience in harnessing the emotions in the service of composing. These findings are in concordance with the fact that composers’ personality traits have certain peculiarities, such as sensitivity, complex ideas, divergent thinking and discovery orientation (Kemp, 1996). 7. Communicating emotions and “structural expression” are a direct process during live performance and more indirect when listening and composing is in question. Emotional responses are influenced by emotional contagion and non-referential embodied meaning, transferred by psychological energy and physical tension of the performer.

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Due to the fact that music is almost a perfect source to convey a wide range of connotative meanings, and it is therefore open to an individual interpretation and understanding, there is always a question of efficacy of the mutual or at least unidirectional understanding of the participants in the musical communication process. Since music lacks denotative semantic or referential meaning, the non-referential embodied meaning has a core function in musical communication, and it is conveyed by a perceived intrinsic pattern structure of music (Thaut, 2005). Human gestures function in a creation of a unique cultural world where motives are shared in narrations of movement – organized sequences of actions that convey original thoughts, intentions, imaginary or remembered experiences (Gratier & Trevarthen, 2008). Visual cues of physical expression presented a strong contribution to the overall response to the performance. The results pointed out that a performer’s intense and dramatic movements had a significant role in communicating the character of the piece (Bogunović et al., 2009, 2010). 8. The content of the emotional experience in listening, live performing and composing is unchainably bonded to personal characteristics, life experiences, and personal projections and capacities. Namely, the structural expression of music induced a certain range of cognitive comprehension and diverse levels of emotional response and metaphorical elaboration of the listeners, which are also highly dependent on personal attributes (Popović Mladjenović et al., 2009). So, there is a high level of agreement between listeners about the emotions that the music communicates, but we could say that, viewed from a more distanced point of view, the musical expression of the piece is a matter of the listener’s individual perspective and the specific emotional meaning that the music induces. The realm of differences in the sphere of emotional expression that appeared among our participants was connected with the elaboration levels and the character of responses. We could say that music induce emotions that are not rooted only in music itself. Music is a means of personal projections, and in that sense it is a strong communication mediator (Juslin & Persson, 2002) among people and within oneself. The results concerning aspects of the personal experience of composers clearly showed active and continuous interdependence between dynamic layers of personality, such as emotional “drives” and creative needs, on one hand, and events in the immediate and wider social environment, on the other. Both of these represent strong sources for creation, while the direction of “inner” drives is towards the “field” with a need to express, tell something, to create, to communicate, or to critically react to negative stimuli. On the other hand, findings suggest the clear influence,


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even causality of the events in the social/field and the domain/professional systems that made a strong impact on the further life course and gave “colour” to the music of our participants. This data clearly confirms dynamic and constant interrelations between the micro system (dynamic layers of personality) and wider system of the socio-psychological and also socio-political and economical environment. They report about the influence of the socio-political climate at the certain moment of history, personal and professional experiences, strong personal experiences, life periods and key life events. Referring to factors that influence emotional responses to music integrated in the theoretical framework BRECVEM (Juslin, 2011; Juslin et al., 2010), we noticed that almost all psychological mechanisms were involved in responses of the participants. In the first place, episodic memory and visual imagery, musical expectancy, emotional contagion and presumably brain stem reflexes, next to the continuous presence of cognitive appraisal. It was confirmed that the higher complexity of the musical structure evokes higher musical expectancy and medium complexity visual imagery (variety of emotions and high volitional influence) and emotional contagion.

Cognition in listening, live performing, and composing The findings show that before and after everything that could be said about music comprehension, re-creating and creating music, is that the core of any music activity is cognition and then emotion. Cognitive processes are the condition sine qua non of the music world. Musicians themselves are perhaps scantly aware of that, when giving primacy to the emotional-expressive layer of musical performance, because very many cognitive skills became automatic and therefore remain on the pre- and subconscious level. Emotional function has its main role in communicating and transferring meaning, energy, tension or message, or to be functional in a whole variety of social settings and backgrounds. In this context, the seemingly simplest question, which is most often asked in everyday life, is why do we love (certain) music?, which directly entails the problem of emotion, as well as sense and meaning in music. Do we love it because of emotions or because of sense?6 Or, rather, what is the nature of this loving itself? Why do we need it at all, and why do we allow it (or 6 In this context, the polarization of answers or, more exactly, the understanding of music can be reduced to the following statements: music is the language of emotions and music is created on the basis of dynamic sound patterns weaving a formal play, which does not impart or communicate any (non-musical) meaning.

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leave to it) to occupy our lives without any apparent reason? Why do we need it as a way to express emotions, or why should the understanding of a dynamic sound pattern move and unfold so deeply (Popović Mladjenović, 2012)? Since we still do not find any answer to be correct and that none of the ideas seem correct, then the real idea must seem wrong. So, Marvin Minsky (1981), one of the founders of artificial intelligence, emphasizes that the problems related to understanding and emotions, in general, as well as to music, are rather identical. Only the demarcation lines have been wrongly drawn, since only the surface of reason is rational. Minsky holds that those old distinctions between affect, reason and aesthetics, which can be compared to ancient alchemists’ soil, air and fire, undoubtedly represent the poorly drawn demarcation lines. In that sense, Minsky finds it fascinating that we all know that music touches our emotions, but hardly anyone thinks about how music touches other thoughts. In other words, he finds it surprising that there is so little curiosity about such an all-permeating and all-encompassing mental power of music. In fact, Minsky holds that what we learn is not music itself, but the way how to hear it, and that the whole idea is how those processes of hearing, audiation7 and/or listening unfold. The interesting assumption of this author is that listening to music may activate an innate mental mechanism, the mechanism of “creating maps” that is similar to cartographer activity. It is possible that music is an illustration of that building process, namely the creation of mental maps. Hence, loving (or liking, taking pleasure in it) lies at the core of our understanding what we listen to. In music, according to musicologist Victor Zuckerkandl, thinking and creation become one and the same thing. Music revives the relationship between mind and body, between thinking and feeling, bridging that Cartesian abyss. Music is live motion, that is, a kind of pure motion which can be realised in thoughts. As emphasized by Zuckerkandl (1973), thinking in terms of the motion of tones (or thinking in tones about tones, because, in contrast to conceptual thinking, in music there is no existence on one side, and thinking about it on the other) is thinking which, in itself, creates existence. Namely, musical thinking generates existence. And hearing music means hearing an emotion. 7 The latest empirical studies show that the processes of music thinking also exist outside music, like the observation and structuring of visual temporal sets. This shows that the physical presence of sound is not a vital prerequisite for music thinking. The power to think musically, that is, hear music in one’s mind is called (by E. E. Gordon) audiation – the ability of inner hearing, hearing within oneself, when the sound is not physically present. This is where the justification has been found for an old belief that said: music has a vision: the deaf can compose.


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Anthony Storr, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, holds that the most abstract intellectual patterns also engage our emotions. But, in contrast to other domains of the mind, music touches our emotions in such a way that they draw the body along with them, which feelings do not. Being personally more significant than other mental powers, music is more relevant for the tides and ebbs of our subjective and fragile life (Storr, 1992). As for the fusion of emotion and thought in music, it is still insisted that an aesthetic response to music, or music as an aesthetic experience, includes both its cognitive and affective components and creates and carries its sense/thought for us, which may be related to our emotive life. The reason being that affects and aesthetics do not live in some other scholastic worlds, but in the epicentre of understanding (Minsky, 1981). Intellect and emotion are inseparable in an expressive and receptive musical experience (Popović Mladjenović, 2007). The insight into the findings, systematized in Figure 2, referring to cognition in listening, live performing, and composing, enables the following conclusions: 1. Musical structure perception and comprehension in listening is either in horizontal sequences or with vertical stratification of units, but then only from the “bottom up” perspective. “Structural expression” is related to structural features and perception of the structural organization. 2. Micro – mezzo – macro layers of musical structure were perceived in listening and performing as parts of the whole, even at the same moment, which again speaks about musical piece comprehension as a homogeneous and continuous process. All the participants/listeners in Berio’s Sequenza VI (Chapter 3) live performing perceived segments/sections/parts/stages of the piece or the piece as the whole or noted at the same time the whole and particular micro-plan of composition. The last group of the listeners/musicians identifies the segments but this does not prevent them from following the flow, there are breaths that are connecting tissue: the whole and segments but not as separated elements: homogeneity of micro-parts. Some were even more precise: dynamic and less dynamic – dramatic and calming – shift of aggression and peace. 3. Musical expectancy of the continuous flow of the composition was present in listening and live performing activities, but in such a way that it was significantly higher when a higher complexity of music provoked continuous cognitive appraisal. The unusual structure or unfolding of musical flow (at the end of Mozart’s Phantasie or in Berio’s Sequenza VI) produces the experience of irregularity or unexpectedness (Meyer, 2001, 1956), as opposed to a learned

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Figure 2: Cognition in listening, live performing, and composing LISTENING

LIVE PERFORMING

COMPOSING

• Structural expression is related to structural segmentation • Units are perceived as sequential or as stratified

Composer’s intentions

Composing is primarily cognitive process • Invention of musical structure – mental representation • Cognitive strategies “bottom up” and “top down’ • Composing as a sequential problem solving and decision making process • Process rises in complexity and divergent ideas, ends in convergent problem solving • Process is hierarchically organized, generative, multilayered, complex

Segmentation • Segmentation as perception of horizontal and hierarchical organization of music • Segmentation accomplished on three levels: • Micro syntactic, mezzo and macro level • Segmentation related to the analysis of musical form and musical expectancy Complexity • Continuous cognitive appraisal – higher complexity – higher musical expectancy. • Cognitive elaboration intertwined with emotional responses and imaginative process

Elements of musical structure deliberately used by composer to provoke certain responses: • Sequence of harmonic fields, polyphony, virtuosity, idiomatic writing • Technical demands deliberately used to elicit: endurance, strength, intensity • Complex musical texture draws forth musical expectancy Two models of responses: • Pleasure and arousal • Reflective – generating polyvalent meanings

Intuitive or spontaneous segmentation of a piece: • Sequence of segments/ parts/stages perceived – horizontal • Whole was perceived – vertical • Micro and macro plan at the same moment – homogeneity of the structure

Phases of the process: • Generative and exploratory Expert thinking: • Perceiving relevant aspects, grasping ideas on deep level • Metacognitive strategies of elaboration and structuring music materials and ideas. Auxiliary tools: Intentional goals, compositional devices, tonal and stylistic knowledge, constraints of form


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expectedness (Huron, 2006; Huron & Margulis, 2010; Thompson & Schellenberg, 2006). It induced emotional, imaginative and cognitive responses in a group of listeners because a specific feature of the music violates or delays the listener’s expectations about the continuation of the music. Namely, if the expectations are not met, the listener may be surprised, because expectations are based on the listener’s previous experiences with, for example, the same style of music (Juslin et al., 2010). This happened at the end of Mozart’s Phantasie. An unexpected end, non-typical for classical music style, aroused different cognitive and emotional appraisals in our group of listeners. Moreover, this is the part where their personal stories break through into the musical content. Therefore, the level of elaboration, cognitive and affective, is higher and more creative at the end of the piece, and also that the synchronicity of structural expressions and personal experience is tighter, due to the rising tension coming from the music and the emotional arousal of the listeners. As suggested by some other authors (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001), structure-induced proto-emotions turn into emotions due to a semantic content – iconic, associational and imaginative. This example is also illustrative for the link between a cognitive, mental representation of musical structure and features and music imagery. 4. In listening and performing, the rising of physiological and emotional appraisal moves on together with music structure comprehension, while in composing, the cognitive, mental imagery produces emotional appraisal. 5. As to the cognitive layer of musical experience, all three musical activities have as a central common point – musical structure comprehension. The main difference is in communication paths directions. Namely, in listening communication the chain starts from an outer source (the composer’s intentions and musical meanings) and is directed to the listener; in performing, both directions are present: from the composer’s musically structured intentions (outer source) to the performer and from the performer’s interpretation (inner source) to the listener; while the composer’s music structure is inevitably directed from his/her “inner” music comprehension world to the performer and then the listener. These roles in the communication chain direct and give “colour” to the music comprehension and experience. As an illustration of the successful communication process we cannot miss the identical metaphor of the performer of Berio’s Sequenza VI and one of the listeners – the fight of the wild beast, which speaks about the fulfilment of composers ideas to put the highest demands to the performer that would bring him to the “physical, psychological and mental edge”. Listeners’ references to a present life style and difficult, turbulent and senseless “time” that we are living in at the moment clearly impose the relevance of

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the socio-cultural context, but also of the Zeitgeist, for understanding and perceiving music. These answers confirm the idea of the communicational models that contextualize the music reception process (Hargreaves et al., 2005). 6. In listening and performing, two models of the responses could be sorted out: pleasure/arousal and reflective/generating polyvalent meanings, though both in combination with different hierarchically organized imagery. In composing, it is mainly reflective thinking with generating ideas of different meanings. Findings that speak about two levels of art apprehension support our results considering affective responses. Namely, in aesthetic processing, the reactive model accounts for responses with pleasure and arousal, while the reflective model describes how emotional responses contribute to the generating of polyvalent meanings in multilevel art and literary works (Cupchik, 1994). 7. Composing is primarily cognition based while the main activity is invention/production of musical structure that is adequately organized into balanced auditive Gestalt. The main concept is mental representation of well organized musical structure, based primarily on audio, but also on visual and imaginative images. In building up construction of the whole, both cognitive strategies were used: “bottom up” and “top down”, implying presence of hierarchical and metacognitive thinking. The process is marked as a problem solving process, characterized with divergent and convergent phases of ideas conceptualization. Composers’ cognitive processes also have characteristics of expert thinking, such as emphasizing on relevant aspects of the problem, grasping the problem on a deep level, also viewing the problem from different angles before making a decision about a solution (Kostić, 2010). We may agree that composers have knowledge of metacognitive strategies of elaborating and structuring music material or ideas when streaming towards the final version of the musical work and their application is related to context, goals they set and phases of creative process. Composers’ answers imply that at each turning point or phase, some decision making is going on concerning the path for further elaboration of musical thought, materials to be used, instruments, form, compositional devices, and where problem solving is going on (Willingham, 2007). Wherever the source of creations is, in deliberate thinking or in fantasy, the continuous process rises in its complexity and divergent thinking (provisional plans, subordinate ideas, flashes of illumination, new insights,


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trial-and-error search) and reaches its climax, which is followed by tension resolving through convergent problem solving (final structural shaping, orchestration, hierarchy of micro and macro levels). The latest part of the process passes through phases of idea formulation, forming basic material, intermediate forms and final form relying on intentional goals, repertoire of compositional devices, as well as to general music language and stylistic knowledge and superordinate constraints on form and direction (Brown, 2003; Impett, 2009; Sloboda, 1985). The other way around, typical “top down” thinking is present in the composers’ group too, and that is a process led by metacognitive representation of the overarching idea of the whole. Compositional strategies can be seen as patterns, where particular musical problems were addressed to either general or specific solutions, or by gestalt “insightful” restructuring processes. These findings are in consent with the opinions of the other authors that music is generally complex, generative, multilayered and hierarchical (Barucha et al., 2006; Stevens & Byron, 2009). The above-mentioned state of flow, when emotional–cognitive/creative drive was in question, is experienced and it motivates sustained involvement in composing activities. It is defined by enjoyment, control and focused attention that is present when opportunities for action perceived in the environment fully utilize the capacities for action and that is, when challenges that come from the environment or circumstances and skills and creative potentials match (Nakamura, 2000). It has been argued that the enjoyment of high-challenge, high-skill situations makes personal growth and socio-cultural evolution possible (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985). 8. Process of music creation usually develops in two phases: generative and exploratory. The cognitive psychology approach to creativity seeks to understand the mental representations and processes underlying creative thought. Results of our research of compositional practices of Serbian composers between nature and culture are supported by the Geneplore model (Finke et al., 1992), referred to in Chapter 4, according to which there are two main processing phases in creative thought: a generative and an exploratory phase. In the first one, an individual constructs mental representations referred to as preinventive structures (process of divergent ideas and mental representations reported by composers), which have properties promoting creative discoveries. In this phase, cognitive strategies were either inductive or deductive. In the exploratory phase, these properties are used to come up with creative ideas (convergent thinking as a part of the process). After the exploratory phase is completed, the preinventive structures can be refined or

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regenerated in light of the discoveries and insights that may have occurred. The process can be then repeated, until the preinventive structures result in a final, creative idea or product (Ward et al., 1999). A number of processes may enter into these phases of creative invention, including the process of retrieval, association, synthesis, transformation, analogical transfer and categorical reduction (Sternberg & Lubart, 2004). 9. In musical thinking during listening, live performing, and composing, cognitive music construction is clearly hierarchically ordered, though musical experts tend to have primarily an analytical approach and perceive music as a hierarchically ordered structure. It was already established that musical experts frequently give cognitive elaborations or analytical comments of the piece structure or some musical cues (for example, motive, segmentation, harmonic flow) (Bogunović et al., 2010; Sloboda, 1985, 2005). Musicians had a significant tendency to perceive the piece as the whole or whole with integrated segments, while non-musicians were reporting about the sequence of segments in a different emotional charge.

Musical imagery in listening, live performing and composing The use of a narrative, written story, as a holistic approach to the imagery drawn from a musical piece is well known (Farnsworth, 1969), but perhaps seldom used in the psychological research of music. Storytelling is one of the oldest and most universal forms of communication, and so individuals approach their social world in a narrative framework (Fisher, 1984). The narrative communicates the narrator’s point of view, their emotions, thoughts and interpretations of describing a certain event. By telling the story he/she shapes, constructs and performs the self, experience and reality (Chase, 2005). Narrative discourse explains or presents an understanding of actions and events, highlights the uniqueness of each human action and event rather than common properties (Polkinghorne, 1995). Mental imagery stimulated by music, or one could say, by the experience of music (Waltron, 1997), may be important in shaping the images of the listeners’ different emotional and associational responses to music (Juslin, 2005). It may be an effective means of enhancing emotional responses to music on the part of the listeners and performers (Band et al., 2001–02; Persson, 2001). Not many studies have addressed this issue. One of the first ones to do so (Seashore, 1938), gave a classification of types of musical imagery, dependent on the individual differences of the musicians (sensuous, intellectual, sentimental, impulsive and motor). In a more recent study, performers reported on music


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conceptualization they performed, based on four criteria: semblance in relation to some extra-musical association, mood, idiom-stylistic and structure (Persson, 2001). While reviewing research results, systematized in Figure 3, referring to music imagery in listening, live performing, and composing, we drew the following conclusions: 1. Imaginative creative process is represented with narrative, story, fantasy or fairytale like story with personal or external content and meaning, in listening and performing especially, and in compositional process partially. Composers tend to consider music itself as a story or experience the relationship between music and story as intertwined. Therefore, music can “live” without story, but context/people draw music into it and make it an integral part of culture. 2. There is a clear hierarchical level of imagery activation which is combined with emotional response or emotional contagion on the one side and with cognitive appraisal on the other. In listening, “lower” levels of activation are involved (episodic memory, evaluative conditioning, external associations, concrete representations). Though, in listening and live performing, higher levels of imagery conceptualization were present – philosophical ideas and creative metaphors, also metaphorical expressions, allegories, affective musical stories. 3. The narrative, given in a live performing situation (Berio’s Sequenza VI), was diverse considering the level of comprehension and verbalization. However, we spoke about the same levels of imagery elaboration in the research situation of listening (Mozart’s Phantasie). To be noticed that a rather different musical epoch were presented in these two pieces. There were: − Metaphorical/integrative which well expressed the dramatic character of Sequenza VI with a certain level of personal projections; − Associational metaphor (images with story); − Concrete associations; − Story without definite content/fluid hovering emotional states. Experts did not provide any concrete narrative, unlike other participants. On the contrary, they gave abstract and short interpretations from the domain of tension motility, accenting fundamental emotional energy and opposites of dynamic/dramatic/disturbed, on one hand, and calm/peaceful/ quiet, on the other hand. However, other participants gave concrete narratives in which fight, stormy nature, chaos, winter, jungle, wild animals, etc. have a central role.

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Figure 3: Musical imagery in listening, live performing, and composing LISTENING

Musical imagery stimulated – philosophical ideas and creative metaphors aroused.

LIVE PERFORMING

Affective musical story or images/metaphorical expressions. Performer

Emotional – cognitive response • Wide range of emotions, low induction, high volitional influence • Metacognitive elaboration

Psychological mechanisms • Visual imagery activated • Episodic memory • Evaluative conditioning

Dependent on personal differences: sensuous, intellectual, sentimental, impulsive and motor

• Narration of movement • “Theatrical narrative” • High expressive level of performing • “Performer’s narrative is emotional, personal, intimate in its nature”

Listeners • Emotional contagion • Cognitive appraisal • “By playing, performers tells the story” • More levels of cognitive comprehension: concrete associations, allegory, metaphor

High consistency in musical narratives of performer and listeners

COMPOSING

Sources for composing • Imagination as a source of creation: unconsciousness, complex world of sound, fantasy, spontaneity, history. • Story as a source for creation inspiration • Visual and acoustics imagery • Performer as inspiration – story is told for him/her

Music and story • Music and story are interdependent. • “People need story which gives meaning to music” • It makes communication possible. • Music itself is a story

Generative strategy Imagining as a cognitive strategy of composing, at the beginning of the process


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4. The narrative or metaphor related to musical imagery, visual, auditive or kinaesthetic, represents the sublimated, condensed meaning of the musical piece for any individual listener. The non-referential message of music is passed on and it again gets its own, referential meaning designated for each listener’s perspective. 5. In live performance, the communication process was successful because the intended message/meaning of the composer was successfully transferred by the performer to the listener. Even in the context of the contemporary music piece that almost completely did not meet musical expectations continuity (or just because of that). The main “transporters” of meaning and narrative are emotions, energy and tension embedded into musical structure and expressed by selected musical features positioned on appropriate gravity centres. Considering messages that are inbuilt in music, after live performing listeners again expressed their experience through metaphors that refer mainly to a dual nature of the piece and emotional response. Stories gave the essence of the “expressive musical reception” of the deliberate intentions of the composer and the performer. The content of received message seems to be short, dramatic and tense. What, interestingly enough, appear are some levels of communication that were perceived by participants-musicians (“premeditation, questions, questions!; (hidden) dialogue; auto-communication; multi-level conversation; artistic message grounded in emotional layer”). But, is it also a matter of “knowing music” or “having knowledge about music” that enables them for this kind of mental strategy? On the other hand, when an understanding of the composer’s messages was in question, then metaphorical thinking “top down” was used, nevertheless musical (il)literacy. This finding leads us to a conclusion that the level of music conceptualization, as well as music comprehension and apperception, relies strongly on the metacognitive capacities of the listener, performer or composer. 6. Some composers tend to have imagining as a strategy of composing (opposite to the cognitive one, reported by the other group of the sample) and therefore their sources of creation were unconsciousness, a complex world of sound, fantasy, spontaneity. Going back to the dichotomy of initial recourses of creating, we notice that composers reported about being overwhelmed with fantasy and dreaming as well as with musical ideas, cognitive searching, problem solving. The same roots of mental and emotional status of activity is described and that is dedication and devotion, but at the different level of elaboration and engagement of personal capacities. The participants reported about being in a state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), cognitive and

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imaginative. There are opinions that are more apt to interpret compositional creativity as an activity of simultaneous aural and aesthetic imaging in some kind of feedback relationship, where a creative person is responding to auditive stimulation. The compositional behaviour of a particular individual may be characterized by the scope, precision, innovation and relation of aural and aesthetic imagination (Impett, 2009). 7. Results pointed out that imagery is the place of unique integration of emotional response and expression, cognitive appraisal and music comprehension, connected to internal and/or external contents and happenings and is hierarchically organized. The listeners’ response and interpretations of the musical message are personally related and they move from certain emotions to metaphorical expressions and philosophical ideas.

Hierarchical levels of experience elaborations: Emotion, cognition and musical imagery in listening and live performing While reviewing research results of all four researchers as to listening, live performing and composing, one inference clearly imposed itself; namely, that processes unfolding in listening and performing are more alike and of the similar kind in comparison to the processes which are going on during music creation. This is to be understood, because we are speaking about two activities that are compatible and unseparately embedded into the communication chain: listeners need someone to play and performers need to perform for someone. They are like mirror reflections to each other. The other inference concerns the hierarchical order of the emotional content, cognitive and imagery elaboration, that was present in a similar way in both activities. The findings of the studies suggest that there are patterns of musical, expressional, cognitive and kinaesthetic interactions viewed through the psychological and social context of communication. So, we came to the idea to make this common content clearly depicted in Figure 4, which is therefore referring to hierarchical levels of experience elaborations: emotion, cognition and music imagery/narrative in listening and live performing. Reviewing Figure 4, we notice the rising level of delineated categories of responses directed towards more abstract, wider concepts with condensed meanings. It starts with a strong emotional experience with energy appraisal (in theatrical expressivity of Sequenza VI for viola solo it is an integrating factor which intertwines all levels of communication), through relatively passive responses of sentiments, associations with external reference and memory (in listening) to integrative metacognitive imagery, visual or verbal, which represents the message of music referring to philosophical ideas,

Strong emotional experience, based on complex musical structure and emotional contagion

Fluid emotional states, based on physiological and emotional arousal

Denotative meaning

Concrete representations

Rising cognitive/emotional complexity of responses, dependent on expertise level or/and capacity for metacognition

Energy / Tension

Distinct emotions

Clearly defined, with a dimensional profile

Sentiments

Personal content and associations from non-music world, based on episodic memory

Ideas and concepts, archetypes, based on cognitive appraisal

Story based on visual imagery, imagination and music expectancy

Philosophical dimension, creative imaginative metacognition

LISTENING

Associations

Contemplative reflections

Narrative

Creative metaphor

Broader emotional expressions

Allegories based on appropriate level of activation, openness, sensibility, cognitive curiosity

Integrative grasping of the message intended by composer and performer

LIVE PERFORMING

Figure 4: Hierarchical levels of experience elaborations: Emotion, cognition and imagery/narrative in listening and live performing


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archetypes and allegories. It is clear that the rising presence of metacognitive thinking presented through music imagery is moving parallel with cognitive appraisal (due to the structural expressiveness of music) and to a certain extent with emotional response and emotional contagion. As the level of experience elaboration increases, the intertwined pattern of emotional, cognitive and music imagery response to music has its rising into more condensed and complex, but in some way clear and transparent, with its symbolic and iconic meaning. In our opinion, the narrative represents the integrative element, a kind of mirror of processes during the performing event, the essence of experience from different points of view (Popović Mladjenović, 2009). As an illustration to this, we may refer to performer’s words (Chapter 3), that playing a piece is like telling a story. It refers to intimate, personal content that has its roots in the performer’s past and present. Therefore, there is no conscious verbal, cognitive narrative, but his narrative is there – it is emotional, personal and intimate in its nature. It is condensed in metaphors with which he explains his relations to music and the piece itself. He wants to say how the performer should be, to give his vision of the appropriate performance, to set a model, to say something about oneself with superiority, based on the experienced strength to perform the musical and personal message. Hence, experience elaborations begin with the emotional layer (energy, specific distinct emotions, broad emotional expressions) which is taken over by mental representations (concrete or abstract, “inner “or “outer” environment induced) and the highest level of experience is unbreakably connected to metacognitive thinking embodied in metaphors, allegories and narratives. Narrative is bonded to musical structure and gravity centres and is driven by micro and macro segmentation of the musical piece, while metaphor presents a high level of comprehension bringing condensed meaning of the piece, metaphorically speaking its mezzo/medium/middle time-space, but also bringing a touch of creativity of the participants in any of the musical activity.

Conclusions A higher level of cognitive activation and physiological and emotional could be noticed when viewing the processes during listening, live performing and composing. A wide scope of personal capacities was involved in order to sublimate the essence of emotional cognitive and imaginative personal layers and make an emotional – cognitive construction with a message from the very own intimate world of being. The process transients through


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the hierarchically ordered experiences and gives a condensed outcome as a result. Composing is an essentially different activity from performing and listening to music and it is primarily cognition and creative imaginary based. But, thinking in sound or by means of sound, whose forms of manifestation – music creation, performance and listening, rest on the same basic generic processes which are common to all music styles. Consequently, if we do not challenge the notion of style, which is continuously and inevitably changing, implying both the existence and change of the stylistically specific processes of musical thinking, it is assumed that there also exist generic processes of musical thinking, which are constant, durable and stable across different styles. In this connection, the generic processes of musical thinking (during composing, live performing, and listening) primarily as panstylistic (the processes characteristic of most, if not all styles) hold the possibility of transgressing, offending or violating the laws governing the area of musical language and characteristic tone systems, techniques, elements of the “phonetic” level, “grammatical” rules, formalized ways of structuring music patterns and standardized formal types. Highlighting experience jouissance in violation of these laws and rules which are, above all, the matter of styles, specified systems and music conventions, rests on the intensified impact of the processes of the panstylistic dimension of musical thinking, which is governed by other laws that cannot be generalized and formulated like general rules. Namely, the nature of those other “hidden laws”, hidden by definition and from definition, is acknowledged as the nature of laws only post rem, after the completion of the composing process and/or interpretative perceptive process, and after the realization of a musical work and/or its existence in sound. This means that the laws governing the processes of creating musical flow (during composing, live performing, and listening) are hidden in the processes themselves. Namely, during the creation of musical flow, these laws do not exist or, better said, still do not exist. In that context, the generic, panstylistic processes of musical thinking are the processes of seeking the laws which govern them and act through the final music pattern as the hidden meaning, which runs the unique, individual creative process (during composing, live performing, and listening) applied only once, in the case of a concrete individual musical flow (Popović Mladjenović, 2009). In the context of these “processes of seeking the laws and meanings which still do not exist”, the material gathered in our four pieces of research, nevertheless interesting, novel, rich and inspiring, gives the incentive for the first sketch of a holistic “big picture” of a common “emotion – cognition

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– music imagery” pattern. It gives incentives to think of emotional arousal influenced by perceptual and cognitive music comprehension, but very importantly it speaks about imagery as a link in-between them. Imagery production processes are on one side, referring to wider mezzo/medium/ middle systems of social environment and experiences influenced/caused by social and cultural events, but on the other side they are induced by inner/nature processes of creative imagination. The latter gives rise to visual and/or auditive and/or kinaesthetic mental images or concepts which are not actually present in the senses. They are a result of the personal talent or ability to produce images, concepts, to deal resourcefully with unexpected or unusual problems, circumstances, or of the ability to confront and deal with reality by using the creative power of the mind. It is clear that in all musical activities, cognition is the first key concept of music grasping, comprehension and experience. The cognition keeps music itself and music experience together and makes its structure in time and sound and it is determined by natural sources, human or environmental, though strongly influenced by social context and cultural domain. So, we can speak about “learned cognition” that makes composing/making music possible, but also performing and listening. It is a common concept in the construction of musical experience which makes communication possible. Imagery integrates emotional experience and comprehension of cognitive complexity and gives personal meaning. It presents a communicational path for all parties that are involved in the communication process (composer – performer – listener), because it gives meaning to music and therefore transfers the message. The complexity of musical imagery (visual, auditive, kinaesthetic, verbal, iconic) depends on the level and structure of the cognitive comprehension of music (composed, performed, listened) and the cognitive, physiological and emotional arousal and emotional contagion, and not the least of the structure and complexity of musical work.


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