Ellipsis (sentence fragments, question answering test) . ...... Apart from syllabi, the following text also contains a number of exercises. ...... If an XP (like an indirect object or other type of PP) is selected by a verb but is ..... English: - CASE-MARKING (only with central pronouns, often optional) ...... 8.2.3 Pro-Drop Languages.
English Syntax (1) Syllabi for the Lectures Examples and Exercises
Ludmila Veselovská
1st and 2nd editions 2006, 2009. Revised 2017. Reviews Prof. PhDr. Jaroslav Macháček, CSc., Dagmar Machová, PhD. Language consultant Prof. Joseph Emonds, PhD., Jeffrey Keith Parrott, PhD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1
2
REVISION (MORPHO-SYNTAX) ................................................................................. 3
3
2.1
Parts of Speech ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2
Phrasal projections .................................................................................................................. 3
2.3
Determined and Quantified NP ............................................................................................... 4
2.4
Adjectival phrases ................................................................................................................... 6
CONSTITUENTS AND CLAUSES ................................................................................ 9 3.1
Models of Predication (Clause Structure) ............................................................................... 9
3.1.1
Relation between Subject and Predicate ......................................................................... 9
3.2
Other sentence members - grammatical functions (= grammatical relations) ....................... 11
3.3
Constituency Tests ................................................................................................................ 12
3.3.1 Topicalization (fronting) of constituents ............................................................................... 13 3.3.2 Clefting and Pseudo-clefting of constituents ......................................................................... 13 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7
4
Pro-form substitution (replacement) ............................................................................. 14 Ellipsis (sentence fragments, question answering test) ................................................. 14 Omission (deletion) of constituents ............................................................................... 15 Coordination of like constituents................................................................................... 15 Morphology characteristic of types of constituents ....................................................... 15
SUBCATEGORISATION .............................................................................................. 17 4.1
Lexical items: Subcategorization .......................................................................................... 17
4.2 Semantic and Formal Hierarchies ......................................................................................... 18 4.2.1 English Verbs with respect to their syntactic subcategorization ................................... 19 4.3
Complements and Adjuncts................................................................................................... 20
4.3.1 4.3.2
5
6
Defining Complements and Adjuncts ............................................................................ 21 Adjuncts: Verbal and Sentential Adverbs ('Scope') ....................................................... 22
OBJECTS ........................................................................................................................ 27 5.1
Semantic Roles of Objects .................................................................................................... 27
5.2
Morphological Properties of Objects..................................................................................... 27
5.3
Syntactic Definition of Objects (≈ V-Complement).............................................................. 28
5.4
Terminological distinction between Complements and Objects ........................................... 29
PASSIVIZATION ........................................................................................................... 33 6.1
Function (Pragmatics/Usage) of Passivization ...................................................................... 33
6.1.1 6.1.2 6.2
Demoting the Subject/Agent of the active Verb = Deagentization ................................ 33 Focusing the Agent which becomes 'by-' Adjunct ........................................................ 34
Restrictions on passivization ................................................................................................. 35
6.2.1
Categorial incompatibility............................................................................................. 35
6.2.2 6.3
7
A Remark about Semantic notions of Action versus State .................................................... 36
COMPARING CZECH AND ENGLISH PASSIVES ................................................. 38 7.1
The Double Object Structures ............................................................................................... 38
7.2
Passivization with Verbal Complexes (Restructuralization) ................................................. 39
7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3
8
Semantic Restrictions .................................................................................................... 35
Phrasal Verbs (Preposition Stranding) ......................................................................... 40 Verbo-nominal phrases : complex Predicates ............................................................... 41 V+N Compounds ........................................................................................................... 42
Mediopassive ......................................................................................................................... 43
SUBJECT......................................................................................................................... 46 8.1
Semantic Roles of Subjects ................................................................................................... 46
8.2 Morphological Properties of Subjects ................................................................................... 47 8.2.1 Subject Case in English (Nominative) ........................................................................... 48 8.2.2 Subject – Predicate Agreement ..................................................................................... 49 8.2.3 Pro-Drop Languages ..................................................................................................... 49 8.3
9
Pragmatic Roles of Subjects (related to linearity) ................................................................. 50
SYNTACTIC PROPERTIES OF ENGLISH SUBJECTS ......................................... 52 9.1
Dissociating the form and the meaning ................................................................................. 53
9.2
Dissociated Subject (Expletives there and it) ........................................................................ 53
9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3
Locatives / Directional structures ................................................................................. 54 Raising to Subject .......................................................................................................... 54 Universal and cross-language correlations .................................................................. 56
10 ATTRIBUTE ................................................................................................................... 59 10.1
Prenominal Attributes............................................................................................................ 59
10.2
Postnominal Attributes .......................................................................................................... 60
10.3
The Relation between the Noun and Its Attributes................................................................ 61
11 NEGATION ..................................................................................................................... 65 11.1
Kinds of Negation ................................................................................................................. 65
11.1.1 11.1.2
Semantic Negation ......................................................................................................... 65 Partial Negation (Lexical, phrasal) .............................................................................. 65
11.2
Sentence negation .................................................................................................................. 66
11.3
The form and number of negative operators ......................................................................... 66
11.4
The Choice of the Unique NEG in English ........................................................................... 67
11.5
Position of Negation in English (revision) ............................................................................ 67
11.5.1 11.5.2 11.5.3
Declarative sentences .................................................................................................... 67 Morphological realisation of NEG ................................................................................ 68 Negative Questions ........................................................................................................ 68
11.6
NOT vs. NEVER ................................................................................................................... 70
11.7
The Scope of Negation .......................................................................................................... 73
11.7.1 11.7.2 11.7.3 11.7.4 11.7.5
Tests for Polarity ........................................................................................................... 74 Shortening the scope of NEG ........................................................................................ 74 Enlarging the scope of NEG (NEG-Transportation/Transfer) ...................................... 75 Negative Adverbs / Partial Negation ............................................................................. 75 More Polarity Items....................................................................................................... 76
12 ENGLISH SENTENCE PATTERNS (REVISION) .................................................... 79 12.1
Analytic characteristics of the English Predicate .................................................................. 79
12.1.1 12.1.2 12.1.3 12.1.4 12.1.5
Negation ........................................................................................................................ 79 Polar Questions ............................................................................................................. 80 The Verb 'be' and single lexical Verbs .......................................................................... 80 Other uses of the structure S-M/A-V-(O)....................................................................... 82 Negative questions ......................................................................................................... 83
12.2
WH questions ........................................................................................................................ 83
12.3
Indirect WH questions and Echo questions ........................................................................... 84
12.4
Imperatives (Covert Subjects) ............................................................................................... 85
13 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES .......................................................................................... 86 13.1
Classification of Subordinate Clauses ................................................................................... 86
13.2 Nominal Content Clauses ...................................................................................................... 87 13.2.1 Resumptive element ('opěrný výraz') ............................................................................. 87 13.2.2 Tense/Mood (and other characteristics) of the Subordinate Clause ............................. 87 13.3 Adverbial Clauses.................................................................................................................. 88 13.3.1 Kinds of Adverbial clauses ............................................................................................ 88 13.3.2 Conditional Clauses ...................................................................................................... 89 13.3.2.1 13.3.2.2 13.3.2.3 13.3.2.4
Future Conditional Clauses .................................................................................................... 89 Present Conditional Clauses ................................................................................................... 89 Past Conditional Clauses ........................................................................................................ 89 Mixed Patterns ........................................................................................................................ 89
14 REVISION OF THE COURSE(S) ................................................................................ 92 14.1
General Linguistics................................................................................................................ 92
14.2
English morphology .............................................................................................................. 92
14.3
Parts of Speech and Phrase Structure .................................................................................... 94
14.4
Syntax of a simple clause ...................................................................................................... 97
14.5
Exam in English Grammar ................................................................................................. 101
15 RELATED LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 103 15.1
A. Practical Manuals .......................................................................................................... 103
15.2
B. Theoretical Manuals ...................................................................................................... 103
15.3
C. Further related / cited literature ..................................................................................... 104
16 INDEX ............................................................................................................................ 105
1
INTRODUCTION
Working with this text This text has been written to assist students of English in their work in the course of English Syntax in the B.A. programme of English philology. It assumes a solid knowledge of English grammar, especially of the morpho-syntactic properties of English parts of speech and their grammatical categories in English. The latter topics are listed and covered in the preceding (B.A.) parts of the course in English Grammar: English Morphology and Morphosyntax. Some data and phenomena discussed in that volume are repeated here and analysed from a more specific perspective. This text, however, is in no way intended to replace any textbook specified in a course description, nor does the material presented cover all of what students need to read for their exams. Instead, it provides syllabi for the lectures with many schemes and examples commented on and discussed in the course. Without a commentary some of them may be difficult to understand and the students are strongly encouraged to make their own notes and remarks during the classes. Enough space is given between the paragraphs and on the margins so that such additions are possible. Some students may still have problems with English terminology and structuring their study - this text should also provide them with the main terms used, and the sections basically follow a pattern that can be used in preparing for English grammar exams, though not all topics are covered to the same extent and some require more individual reading. Apart from syllabi, the following text also contains a number of exercises. The function of the exercises is twofold. First, they introduce some new aspects or problems of the proposed analyses not mentioned in detail during the lectures. Second, they allow students to test their understanding of the topics under discussion. For some suggested problems, naturally, there is no generally agreed solution and the exercises provide more data for discussion of alternatives rather than simple minded summaries of memorized knowledge. The Topics and Background Philosophy The text constitutes a general introduction to the study of simple and complex sentences. It deals in detail with the main sentence members (subject and object above all) and their semantic, morphological and syntactic properties in English. The form of English clausal negation is also introduced and demonstrated. This section also contains a list of the main sentence patterns in English classified according to their function and form, and the classification of English subordinate clauses is introduced briefly with some most standard examples. A special Revision section (Chapter 14) summarizes the basic topics covered in the course and required for the oral exam. The final section demonstrates the format of the oral exam in more detail. The course as a whole concentrates on topics which the author finds most important, most interesting and sometimes neglected in other study materials. To complement these individual choices, at the beginning of most sections there are some bibliographical references to literature which are recommended as study material for the course. The students are expected to go through at least some of these materials mentioned.
1
Because the assumed readers are Czechs and many of them intend to translate or interpret in their future careers, English grammar is usually compared with its Czech formal and/or pragmatic equivalents. Other languages can be also occasionally mentioned, to provide a more universal background for the topic under discussion. The author of the following text believes in linguistics, above all in grammar, as an autonomous science. Therefore the analyses here assume that human language is a system which can be studied applying scientific methods with the result of acquiring some descriptively adequate and as explanatory as possible generalized hypotheses. Empirical data and argumentation are thus strongly preferred to the memorizing of any listed classifications, and no a priori analysis or theory is taken for granted or as definitive. Nonetheless, the presentation and hypotheses here, such as in the choices for categories, are based on traditional functional and structuralist grammar (which the students used during their pre-university grammar education) only more lately influenced by current theoretical proposals. Recent functional and generative approaches typically present themselves as reaching back to the empirical concerns of traditional grammar and at the moment provide a wide range of plausible frameworks. The grammatical analyses introduced in this course assume the need for empirical and scientific understanding of human language and although they concentrate on formal grammar, they assume interactions with other disciplines such as a theory of communication, literary study, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. The author hopes that discussing and trying to understand basic grammar in a more universal and open-minded way turns out to be useful for all students of English language, who can then go on in their studies in whichever field or framework suits their fancy. However, this script is not a textbook in a specific linguistic theory. If some students want to pursue their linguistic studies in future, they have to find their field and acquire more specialized knowledge in a more systematic framework. And at the end, I would like to thank the reviewers (prof. Jaroslav Macháček and dr. Dagmar Machová) and language advisors (prof. Joseph Emonds and dr. Jeffrey Parrott) for their comments, revisions of the text, adding many useful examples, and all their help which made the text more suitable for the seminar work.
2
2
REVISION (MORPHO-SYNTAX)
In case of need consult the textbook for Morphosyntax (AMOS).
2.1
Parts of Speech
Syntactic criteria for establishing the category of an item are based on its distribution, i.e. cooccurrence restrictions. Each part of speech appears not freely but in typical environments. There are typical elements which are subordinate to it (lower in a structural hierarchy) and typical elements which are superordinate to it (higher in a hierarchy). E.g. with Nouns: subordinate elements (what depends on N?) are Articles, Numerals, Adjectives, etc., while superordinate elements (what does the N(P) depend on?) are Verbs, Prepositions, etc. (1)
a. b. c. d.
N: NP: V,[ _ NP]: P, [ _ NP]:
book, friend, water, courage, fact, trip [NP that new book], [NP a friend of mine], [NP some water to drink] to publish [NP that new book], to see [NP a friend of mine] about [NP the new book], with [NP some water to drink]
2.2
Phrasal projections
Heads Every lexical category (N, A, V, P) can be a head of a more complex structure = a phrase. (2)
Phrases can contain: pre-modifier(s) that big right usually
HEAD
post-modifier(s)
brother out saw
of mine the door a movie
Phrases The forms of pre-/post-modification are typical for a specific heads/parts of speech. Various types of modifiers can be more/ less obligatory in a given type of phrase. Phrasal projection of a category X: Heads, Specifiers and Complements. Complement : a right hand sister of the head – the closest (post)-modifier Specifier : pre-modifier, sometimes called an adjunct (3)
a.
b. c. d.
X=N: X=A: X=V: X=P:
boy small find toward
[NP that little boy of hers ] [AP much smaller than Theo ] [VP to never find the article ] [PP right toward a door ]
3
*[NP little boy of hers ] *[AP much smaller than ] *[VP to never find ] *[PP right toward ]
(4)
XP
SPEC(X)
X0
specifier
(5)
!!!
X'
X-complement
head
complement phrase
EXERCISE ================================================
Consider more examples for the above structure (for various parts of speech). How complex can be the specifiers and the complements of distinct parts of speech?
2.3
Determined and Quantified NP
(6) QP
Q0 all
DP
a field of recursive N pre-modifiers
D0 those
NP
AP
NP
very tall
AP
NP
snow white N0
AP strikingly beautiful N0 city
(7)
N0 towers
EXERCISE ================================================
Construct more examples for the above structure. Which parts are obligatory/ optional? Can the modifiers in the different positions be replaced by others of different categories?
4
Recursive N post-modifiers
(8)
DP (Determined NP)
Det My
NP
NP
NP
clause which John gave me PP in a green cover
NP
PP with coloured pictures
N0 book
of-PP of stories
a field of recursive post-modifiers
Determined and pre- and post-modified complex NP
(9)
DP (Determined NP)
Det
NP
the NP
clause who John loves
AP
NP
pretty smart AP nineteen-year-old
NP
N0 student
5
of-PP of geometry
(10) EXERCISE ================================================ Construct more examples for the above structures. Which parts are obligatory/ optional? Can the various categories be replaced by other different ones without changing the structure?
2.4
Adjectival phrases
(11)
AP
SPEC(AP)
A'
A0
a. b. c.
He is extremely It is thirty-metres It is much more
(12) a.
b. c.
A-complement
proud [PP of their achievements] further [PP to the finish line] interesting [PP than anything else]
I have some extremely EAGER co-workers. Elisabeth jumped over a two-metre WIDE ditch. (metre can’t be plural here) Elisabeth jumped over the DEEP AND DANGEROUS ditch.
(13) a. b. c.
* Mary is a SCARED of monsters child. * Did she turn out to be a LOYAL to her husband woman? * I have some EAGER to please the boss co-workers.
(14) a.
*I know an employee extremely EAGER. Elisabeth jumped over a ditch two-metres WIDE. (metres has plural form) ?Elisabeth jumped over a ditch DEEP AND DANGEROUS. (ok in narratives) She turned out to be a woman LOYAL to her husband. David met a man very FOND of English literature. I know some employees extremely EAGER to please the boss. I saw a girl as BEAUTIFUL as Mary / more BEAUTIFUL than Mary.
b. c. b. c. d. e.
(15) EXERCISE ================================================ Consider the above examples and provide some meaningful rule for the distribution of the AP in the nominal complex. Discuss the cross-language varieties.
6
Pre- and post- modifying APs
(16)
NP
AP
SPEC(AP)
N'
N0
A'
A0
AP
*A-complement
SPEC(A)
A'
A0
a. more beautiful b.
(*than Mary )
GIRLS GIRLS
A-complement
much more beautiful
than Mary
Recursive V complementation: obligatory (subcategorized) + optional adverbials
(17)
VP
VP SPEC(V) AP often
VP VP
PP in the shower
VP
V0 sing
clause after he arrives
AP very loud
DP songs by Johnny Cash
7
non -lexical (grammatical)
lexical
(18) English Verbal elements semantics
phonetics
morphology
subcategorization
N.I.C.E.
VERBS
semantic roles assigned
no reduction
T, Asp, Voice, Inf etc.
any including VP
a) *+n´t b) *inversion c) *coda d) emph. DO
AUXILIARIES be, do, have
no semantic roles
see V (substitution)
Ving, Ven, Vbare-INF
no inflection
Vbare-INF
MODALS can, may, must, will...
present of be, have reduce "secondary" only will, semantic would roles reduce
a) +n´t b) inversion c) coda d) *emph. DO
(19) EXERCISE ================================================ Which verbal element is located in the position of V (Verb) and which is in the position of operator (Ω)? Decide according to the N.I.C.E. properties. a. c. e. g.
Susan will not help water the garden. Not one person’s asked for my help . Some teenagers have read not a single book. Mary has got to read the book now.
(20)
b. d. f. h.
TP (= clause)
NP (Subject)
TP
Ω:T
..................................................... PREDICATE
NegP
NEG
VP ...............VERB PHRASE
V Subject
All my friends arrived on time. You must get more sensible. You have to get more sensible. Mary got introduced to John.
Ω/T
(Neg)
Verb
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
8
XP V-complementation
3
CONSTITUENTS AND CLAUSES
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 235-243; QGLS (2004) pp. 717-770; Dušková (1994) pp.401-422; H&P (2005) pp. 11-28, pp. 63-66; G&Q (1991) pp. 204-230.
3.1
Models of Predication (Clause Structure)
(1)
What is the distinction between a SENTENCE and a CLAUSE?
Sentence: ... a pronounced or written idea... It says something about something... = general, pre-theoretical notion. Must be formalized and made more specific. (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Taxonomy of Sentences i.
SIMPLE (=clause)
ii.
NON-SIMPLE
a. b. c.
iii.
SEMI-CLAUSE
= infinitive or participle Predicate
Clause:
COMPLEX = one main + 1-x subordinate clause(s) COMPOUND = more than one main + no subordinate COMPLEX COMPOUND = more than one main + some subordinated clause(s)
definable structure (semantic or formal)
a. b.
semantic notion of the (kind of) predication relation formal means to express the two main parts of the sentence and the relation(s) between them (e.g. it consists of Subject and Predicate).
a. b. c. d. e. f.
Yesterday Emma saw William in the living room. Emma said that Adam loves her. Emma arrived yesterday and she saw Adam in the living room. Emma saw Adam in the living room when she arrived yesterday. When Emma arrived yesterday she saw Adam in the living room and Tim in the kitchen which was full of steam and she heard the sound of the running dishwasher. I saw [Joe leaving the house at 5 o'clock.]
a. b. c. d.
This sentence is simple/complex. This clause is simple /* complex. This sentence consists of three clauses. *This clause consists of three sentences/ clauses.
3.1.1 Relation between Subject and Predicate The relation between the two main sentence members (Subject and Predicate) is defined depending on the framework, i.e. the model of grammar used (esp. the notion of a hierarchy: what is the main
9
element). In all models, however, the structures defined in terms of constituents bigger than 'word' (Subject or Object, etc. are phrases). (6)
Subject and Predicate as equal members. (A traditional view.)
John SUBJECT
(7)
+
reads a book. PREDICATE Verb +complementation
Verb as the main member of the structure. Typical for all kinds of valency models.
XP (Subject) left valency John My little sister Barbara
(8)
PREDICATION = the relation between the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE
V
YP (Object) right valency
reads
a book
couldn't have given
the bunch of flowers to her boy-friend.
Immediate Constituent Analysis Structuralist model. The scheme/tree is able to capture
a. b.
categorial labels syntactic relations
Clause
NP [Subject] John
Predicate = Mod/Aux + VP
Mod/Aux (+NEG) will (not)
!!!
VP
V read
XP [V-complementation] a book
Immediate constituent analysis captures also the fact that the clause consists of more complex units (phrases) which can be further divided into smaller units. The tree can be therefore expanded to the level of individual words (heads).
10
(9)
a. b.
the new book of some folk tales [NP the new book [PP of [NP some folk tales]]]
NP Det the
PP NP
AP new
P of NP
N book
NP Q some
PP of some folk tales
NP
N(A?) folk
N tales
(10) Linear notation (for practical purposes):
English sentence:
3.2
SUBJ John
Aux/Mod (NEG) V does (not) read will can Ø/-s
+ YP the book
Other sentence members - grammatical functions (= grammatical relations)
The clausal structure is a hierarchy built of binary relations. These relations = functions = syntagmas have usually two members (one higher/superordinate) and the other dependent (subordinate). The sentence members are therefore relational terms. (11) a. b.
a woman a sister a widow
(independent expression) (assumes/requires the existence of a brother or sister) (assumes marriage and the death of the partner)
Noun Subject
(the property of the expression itself) (the expression when related to predicate)
similarly: c. d.
(12) A constituent in a clause can thus be classified both independently and in a relation: a. b.
(13)
part of speech (phrase) sentence member
Our Mary arrived late.
(independent classification of the element itself). (in relation to its syntagmatic partner).
Our Mary is
a. an NP b. a Subject of arrived late 11
(14) Syntagmatic relations: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Subject Predicate Object Adverbial Attribute Subject Complement Object Complement
(related to Predicate) (related to Subject) (related to Verb or Preposition) (related to Verb or Verb Phrase) (related to Noun) (related to both Verb and Noun) (related to both Verb and Noun)
John arrived late. Bill slept late. see/Mary/ about Mary arrive late/in the afternoon big house, brother of mine John looked so tired. Mary found Bill asleep.
The structure can be analysed at distinct levels of complexity (15) John lives in his father's house. a. b. c.
in his father's house: his father's house: father's:
PP, NP, NP,
adverbial of place related to the verb lives object of the preposition in attribute to house
d.
John [VP lives [PP in [NP his father's [N house]]]].
(16) The ternary relation of Subject/Object Complement a. b. c. d. e.
Mary painted the door. Mary repainted the green door. Mary painted the door green. My tired brother collapsed. My brother looked tired.
3.3
Constituency Tests
- door is an object of painted. - green is an attribute of door. - green is a complement of painted and door. - tired is an attribute of brother. - tired is a complement of brother and looked
What is it "constituent"? (17) A constituent is a word or a sequence of words that behaves as a single unit of a larger hierarchical structure (“tree”), e.g. of a clause.
!!!
The constituent structure of a clause is identified using constituency tests which manipulate some part of a sentence (a word or a sequence of words), and the result of this manipulation is that we can make conclusions about the structure. The tests are thus empirical but yet formal diagnostics to identify the constituent structure of sentences. (18) Constituency Tests
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Topicalization (fronting) Clefting and Pseudo-clefting Pro-form substitution (replacement) Ellipsis (fragments, question test) Omission (deletion) Coordination Inflectional morphology
12
!!!
3.3.1 Topicalization (fronting) of constituents Topicalization is a simple movement operation. It involves changing the position of the tested sequence, i.e. moving it to the front of the sentence. It tests for NP, PP and some clauses. (19) a. b. c. d.
Mary sends her brother those magazines on his birthday. Those magazines Mary sends her brother on his birthday. *Her brother those magazines Mary sends on his birthday. *Those magazines on his birthday Mary sends her brother.
(20) a. b. c.
The teacher arrived from the station late. From the station the teacher arrived late. *From the station late the teacher arrived.
(21) a. b. c.
He is going to attend another course to improve his English. To improve his English, he is going to attend another course. *Improve his English, he is going to attend another course to.
3.3.2 Clefting and Pseudo-clefting of constituents Clefting involves placing a sequence of words (an assumed constituent) inside the structure beginning with It is/was... X... that... In English it is a test for NP or PP, but not other XPs. (22) a. b. c.
She bought a pair of gloves of embroidered silk. It was a pair of gloves of embroidered silk that she bought. * It was a pair of gloves that she bought of embroidered silk. (Only part of NP)
(23) a. b. c.
She grows vegetables just outside (the back door). Just outside (the back door) she grows vegetables. *Outside the back door she grows vegetables just. (Only part of PP)
(24) a. a.
Jim seemed upset about the exam. *It was upset about the exam that Jim seemed. (Cleft doesn’t test for AP)
Pseudo-clefting (also postposing) involves inserting a tested sequence of words answering a question clause into a focus position after the copula. This pattern tests for all types of XP. (25) NP:
(26)
a. b. c.
AP: a. b.
(27) VP:
a. b.
She bought a pair of gloves with silk embroidery. What she bought was a pair of gloves with silk embroidery. A pair of gloves with silk embroidery is what she bought. What John was/ How John felt was upset about the exam. Upset about the exam was what John was / how John felt. My son will fix my car for me. What my son will do for me is fix my car. (the adverb PP is outside the small VP) 13
c.
What my son will do is fix my car for me. (the adverb PP is inside the small VP)
Both clefting and pseudo-clefting involve a change in interpretation dependent on stress. The moved constituents become stressed (focused).
3.3.3
Pro-form substitution (replacement)
Replacing the assumed constituent with a so called pro-form is called substitution. Different kinds of constituents (phrases) have different kinds of pro-forms. NPs (Noun Phrases) are replaced with pronouns, PPs (Prepositional Phrases) with short adverbs, etc. If the substitution provides a grammatical result, the tested sequence is most likely a constituent: (28) a. b. c.
I don't know the man who is sleeping in the car. *I don't know him who is sleeping in the car. I don't know him.
Variety of Pro-forms (29) The little boy was already running in the city's only park at 8 o’clock. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
[NP He ] was already running in the city's only park at 8 o’clock. She wonders if the little boy [VP did so ]. The little boy was running [PP there ] at 8 o’clock. The little boy was running in [NP our ] only park at 8 o’clock. The little boy was running in the city's only park [PP then ]. [AP Such] a boy was running in the city's only park at 8 o’clock. And [NP he] is [VP dong so ] ( [PP there]) ( [PP now]).
(30) a. b.
We all thought [Clause you had left ]. We all thought [Clause so ].
NP VP PP NP PP AP VP, PP, PP
The pro-form for a clause (TP) is so.
3.3.4 Ellipsis (sentence fragments, question answering test) An ellipsis can test the ability of an assumed constituent to stand alone, e.g. as a short reply to a question. The test is usually used to test the constituency of a VP (Verb Phrase). How is a test for omitted VPs, PPs, and certain clauses. (31) a. b. c.
Isn’t your project due next week? What will you do tomorrow? Work on my project (until supper). ?? Work on, of course. ??May work on it.
(32) a. b. c.
How do you expect Bill to spend the weekend? At the golf course. Sitting in front of the TV. He will shop for new clothes. *The cinema festival. *His girlfriend for new clothes.
14
3.3.5 Omission (deletion) of constituents Some constituents, especially locative or temporal adverbials (i.e. PPs) can be omitted without making the clause ungrammatical. Such omission often signals that the omitted unit is a constituent. The test is not always reliable, since sometimes more than one constituent is omitted. (33) a. b. c.
Fred rarely relaxes in the evening on his couch. Fred rarely relaxes on his couch/ in the evening. Fred rarely relaxes.
(34) a. b.
Mary can cover 100 metres in 30 seconds, but Bill can’t [VP Ø ]. *Mary can cover 100 metres in 30 seconds, but Bill can’t cover.
(35) a. b.
Bill goes to the doctor often, but Sam goes [PP Ø] rarely. *Bill goes to the doctor often, and so does Sam go to.
3.3.6 Coordination of like constituents The coordination test is based on the assumption that only similar units can be coordinated, i.e., joined by means of a coordinator such as and, or or (but) not. The test can be used to argue about which category is involved, as well. Note that gerunds are NPs, while infinitives are not. (36) a. b. c. d. e.
He started out [writing poems and playing the violin]. *He started out writing poems and in the theatre. She enjoys [short plays] and [writing poems/ *to write poems]. The good smells made me [hungry] and [ready to eat/ * start to cook dinner]. *His father makes him angry and play the piano.
3.3.7 Morphology characteristic of types of constituents In a language with a rich agreement system, a constituent can be signalled with inflection. The test can be used especially for NP or PP constituents. (37) a. b.
Ta ošklivá[N liška] honila našeho milého králíčka. Koupila jsem nějakých patnáct velkých [N broskví].
find the NPs!
c.
Takových jsem jich viděl na ulici opilých aspoň pět.
(Whom did I see?)
(38) EXERCISE ================================================ Are the underlined groups of words constituents? Apply several constituent tests. a. b. c. d. e.
The mayor sent the messenger out the back door. The mayor sent out the message to her assistants. She found some children very unhappy. She found some very unhappy children. The new procedure already seems so unfair.
15
(39) EXERCISE ================================================ Comment on the constituent structure of the following examples, and give data from constituency tests to prove your points. a. b.
They killed [the man] [with a gun]. They killed [the man with a gun].
c. d.
How did they kill the man? - [PP With a gun.] Who(m) did they kill? - [NP The man [PP with a gun.]]
!!!
(40) EXERCISE ================================================ What do the following tests show about so called 'particles'? What do they 'belong to'? i.
a. b. c. d.
It was in this bed that some children slept. In which bed did the children sleep? *It was in this bed that some children dragged. *In which bed did the children drag?
ii.
a. b. c. d. e.
This bed was slept in by some children. Which bed did the children sleep in? In which bed did the children sleep? The new film was only briefly talked about by Mary. About the new film Mary talked only briefly.
iii.
a. b. c. d. e. f.
This bed was dragged in by some children. Which bed did the children drag in? *In which bed did the children drag? The new secretary was quickly sent away by Mary. Which secretary was sent away by Mary? *Away the new secretary Mary quickly sent.
(41) EXERCISE ================================================ ADDITIONAL READING: The books are available in the Department library. Aarts, Bas (2011) Oxford Modern English Grammar. Chapter 3-4 (pp.41-112). Aarts, Bas (1997) English Syntax and Argumentation. Chapters about Constituency: Chap.11-12 (pp. 189-235). See the electronic version on Moodle (the first INFO slot). Baker, C.L. (1995) English Syntax. The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
16
4
SUBCATEGORISATION
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 213-319, pp. 663-784; QGLS (2004) pp. 740-754, 1147-1234; Dušková (1994) pp. 349-367; H&P (2005) pp.63-81; G&Q (1991) pp. 336-362 In the scheme in (8) on page 10 above, the Subject is labelled as NP (which it usually is) and the right hand verbal complementation is labelled as XP. What is it the XP (i.e. what follows the V, creating VP/Predicate). Notice that some of these XPs are obligatory. (1) a. b. c. d. e. f.
Jane sent a parcel to her mother. Jane sent a parcel. *Jane sent. Bill handed the box to me. *Bill handed the box right away. *Bill handed to me right away.
4.1
Lexical items: Subcategorization
(2)
REVISION: Valency of the Verb: (Participants/Arguments of the Verb)
g. h. i. j. k. l.
Wilhelm often swims. Wilhelm often swims to the bridge. Wilhelm swims to the bridge every day. *John relied. *John relied his brother. John relied on his brother.
verbal event action
complementary conditions (Manner/Place/Time)
1st participant (Agent) (3)
a. b.
Peter/He Petr/On
2nd participant (Patient/Theme) sent poslal
3rd participant (Recipient/Beneficiary)
a parcel/it to Henry/to him in the afternoon. balík Janovi v poledne.
Verbal subcategorization states the (form of) complementation required by the Verbs. (4)
Semantic subcategorization of the Verb hit:
For its full interpretation
s-selection
the activity hit requires two Arguments (with the semantic roles of Agent and Patient).
hit:
(5)
Formal/Syntactic subcategorization of the Verb hit:
The lexical item hit is a Verb and it must be complemented by
c-selection
a nominal element (NP, Object), which canonically follows it.
hit: V, [-- NP]
17
If an XP (like an indirect object or other type of PP) is selected by a verb but is optional, it is put within parentheses in the subcategorization: (6)
send: V, [-- NP (PP)]
Relations between the meaning (semantic role) and the form of a constituent is subject to both universal and language-specific rules. (7)
Petr/On (in (3) above) i. Semantic role → Agent ii. Sentence function → Subject iii. Formal properties of the sentence member → Nominative/pre-Verbal, etc.
The semantic roles determined by specific lexical Verbs are derived from "the verbal meaning" and they form a hierarchy. The sentence functions (sentence members/ grammatical relations) also form a hierarchy. The two hierarchies (semantic and grammatical) are related/ matched, which results in the semantic interpretation of the grammatical functions.
4.2
Semantic and Formal Hierarchies
(8)
THE FORM AND THE MEANING Canonic Formal Realization of the Semantic Roles (with active Verb)
a. b. c. d.
Semantic hierarchy (Arguments: Semantic Roles) Agent A 1 .................... Patient/Theme A 2 .................... Recipient/Beneficiary A 3 .................... Direction/Manner/etc. A 4 ....................
Formal hierarchy (Sentence Functions/Members) SF 1 = or ≠ Subject SF 2 = or ≠ Direct Object SF 3? = or ≠ Indirect Object / PP SF 4? = or ≠ PP / Adv
The two hierarchies cannot be unified into one, because the relation between them depends on many factors (e.g. the form of the verb) and can be language/speaker specific (especially with Verbs with non-typical semantic roles). The formal hierarchy is language-specific and the semantic hierarchy varies with specific lexical items and can be to some extent modified by the speaker’s analysis of the event: (9)
Mary liked the play vs. The play pleased Mary; buy vs. sell, borrow vs. lend, etc.
(10) The influence of the verbal form (active vs. passive Verb) a. b. c.
Emma wrote many letters to Bill. Many letters were written to Bill (by her/Emma). Bill was written many letters (by her/Emma).
18
Language-specific modifications of any (untypical) semantic hierarchy. For the verb 'like,’ who is (the active) Agent, or is there one? Who is (the affected) Patient? Theme? Discuss the distinction with your semantic teacher. (11) a. b.
I like John. Jan se mi líbí.
...English chooses Recipient I for the top semantic role. ...Czech chooses Patient Jan for the top semantic role.
(12) The knowledge of a language includes: a. b.
the knowledge of the formal hierarchy of the sentence functions/ members and the properties of specific lexical and grammatical items including their semantic hierarchies.
Information in the lexicon about each lexical item includes: (13) LEXICAL ITEM
!!!
a. b.
semantic definition (what does the word mean, e.g. borrow = ‘obtain temporarily...’) phonetic information (how does it sound, e.g. borrow = ['borәu])
c.
syntactic information
i.) ii.)
which category is it (e.g. borrow is a Verb) subcategorization (borrow requires an Object NP)
(14) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the acceptability judgments for the following examples: a. c. e. g. h. i.
?? He killed a stone. b. ?? He assassinated the rabbit. ?? The stone murdered a rabbit. d. * That old book gave Mary to Bill. * I put some books for Bill. f. * You can rely at him. *Mary told John about each other. He located/ ??targeted some deer asleep. /He located/ targeted some deer in the forest. *He was shooting deer hungry./He was shooting deer in the forest.
4.2.1 English Verbs with respect to their syntactic subcategorization Verbs can be classified w.r.t. to the number and characteristics of their Complements, i.e. w.r.t. types of constituents they require (i.e. which ones are obligatory!) or allow to appear with them to form a grammatically complete structure. (This is not to be mistaken for communicative completeness/appropriateness.) (15)
a. b. c. d.
*Peter sent (to Mary). *Peter found (to Mary). Peter sent a coat. Peter found a coat. Peter sent a coat to Mary. *Peter found a coat to Mary. Peter sent/ found a coat in the afternoon near his office.
(16) Subcategorization of English Verbs (+traditional, functional-structuralist approach). The selected XP are underlined, and the unselected adverbials are not. 19
a) Modals and Auxiliaries Subcategorization*
Traditional term
Example
Mod, [-- VP]
1. The boy can come to the party.
Modal
Aux/V, [-- NP]
2. Joe was a student.
Copula
Aux/V, [-- AP]
3. Joe is being very silly.
Linking Verb
Aux/V, [-- PP]
4. Joe must be at home.
b) Verbs (Lexical Verbs) V, [--]
5. The tramp laughed for five minutes.
Intransitive Verb
V, [--NP]
6. Mary found a diary.
Monotransitive Verb
V, [-- AP]
7. He seemed less tired than before.
Linking Verb
V, [-- PP]
8. The tramp leaned towards the girl.
Verb of Movement
V, [-- VP]
9. Harry kept whistling at her.
Temporal Aspect Verb
V, [-- (NP) NP]
10. He read the girl an interesting story.
Ditransitive Verb
V, [-- (NP) (PP)]
11. He was writing a letter to Joe.
V, [-- NP PP]
12. Joe put a book on the shelf.
V, [-- NP NP]
13. He called her a clever girl again.
tran. V + Object Complement
V, [-- NP (VP)]
14. Susan saw the car hit the tree.
Perception/ Causative Verbs
V, [--NP AP]
15. The music made me sad about him.
tran. V + Secondary Predicate
Notice that - all the verbal Complements are defined as phrases, - some Vs have semi-clause VP Complements, as above in (1), (9), (14). - many Complements alternate with a semiclause (to-infinitive or -ing form verb) or a finite clause, as in the following: (17) a. b. c. d. e.
4.3
I started/finished/wanted to write another paper. I love/hate to constantly write / constantly writing these papers. I convinced/ forced Benjamin to write the paper. He said that Mary would come in time. He asked whether Mary would come in time.
Complements and Adjuncts
The contrasted terms complements vs. adjuncts are approximately the same as the traditional terms objects vs. adverbials. In both cases they are two kinds of complementations of the verb - one closer and one more distant. We can use the terms complement/objects and adjuncts/adverbials as synonyms, but we should be aware of the distinctions.
20
4.3.1 Defining Complements and Adjuncts The distinctions between Complements and Adjuncts can be illustrated on both semantic and formal level. The terms, however, are primarily syntactic. A.
Lexical & semantic 'closeness':
Complements are semantically related to a verbal action (they are direct participants in the event, often necessary), while Adjuncts are more like additional background information. (18) a. b. c. d.
write a letter /* a tree/ *some courage to /*at/ *onto your friend. kill a man / * a stone/ *a picture (on the beach in January) wrote/ describe somebody/ something (for fun/ for no reason) to rely on/ *for/ *with/ *onto nuclear weapons (in peacetime)
!!!
B.
Formal obligatoriness (selection by a verb or class of verbs)
-
OBLIGATORY complementation of a Verb is called Complement(s). OPTIONAL complementation inherent to the action is also called Complement(s). Inessential OPTIONAL complementation of a Verb is called Adjunct.
(19) a. b. c. d. C.
Mary must send a letter to Henry on Monday. Mary must send a letter on Monday. *Mary must send to Henry on Monday. *Mary must send.
Constituency Test (distinguishes Complements including optional ones from Adjuncts)
The pro-form for VPs of activity in English is do so/ do it. These are VPs that refer back to minimally complete VPs, not partial ones. So they cannot be followed by a Complement. (20) Possible continuations of (19)a-b): a. b.
… and Bill must do so (on Tuesday) as well. … *and Bill must do so to Henry’s sister.
This test seems to show that directional PPs with motion verbs (P of direction + accusative case in Czech) are complements, whether obligatory (put) or optional (spill): (21) a. b. D.
One guy put his letters onto the table, and then the other did so (*by the desk). Adam spilled his drink on the computer, and Emma also did so (*on the floor).
The Number of Complements and Adjuncts:
Complements of a given type are unique, while Adjuncts of a type can occur multiply. (Co-ordination does not count as a multiple occurrence!) (22) a. b. c.
*read [a book] [a journal] *read [to Harry] [to my sister] read [a book] [at home] [in the kitchen] [in Olomouc] [yesterday] [for two hours]
21
E.
Distribution. In the neutral word-order: Complements immediately follow the Verb in English. Adjuncts are more peripheral.
(23) a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Emily will visit [Rome] [(on) Tuesday] *Emily will visit [on Tuesday] [Rome] Hillary wrote [a letter] [in January] [at home] Hilary wrote [a letter] [at home] [in January]. *Hillary wrote [at home] [a letter] [in January] speak [of Linguistics] [with friends] [on the train] *speak [on the train][of Linguistics][with friends]
4.3.2 Adjuncts: Verbal and Sentential Adverbs ('Scope') Apart from its Complements (cca. Objects), the Predicate is often modified with respect to other parametres: Manner, Probability, Time, Space etc. (See Quirk/Greenbaum/Leech/Svartvik (2004) pp. 475-654, 729-738). (24) a. b. c. d. e. f.
He does not speak naturally. -- Naturally, he can speak English He will not perhaps speak. -- Perhaps, he speaks English. Frankly, she never attended the meeting. Those guys actually stole my book. The flood waters reached nearly into the station. We consider that family desperately poor.
Adverbials modify some other constituent in the clause. They "take scope" over it. The SCOPE of an Adverb: i. ii. iii. iv.
the verbal action: the scope is the VP. the whole proposition (= the clause). These are “sentence adverbs.” the truth of the proposition, i.e. the YES/NO polarity. some sentence member (= phrase within the clause).
We can also distinguish Complements/ Adjuncts/ Disjuncts w.r.t. to the scope they take. This terminology is related to the size/ level/ projection of the verbal phrase: elements take scope over the constituent to which they adjoin. (25) a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Of course, he will never speak English well in the classroom. speak + English [speak English] well [speak English well] in the classroom never [speak English well in the classroom] will [never speak English well in the classroom] he [will never speak English well in the classroom] of course [he will never speak English well in the classroom]
22
→ minimal VP → VP → large VP → polarity + VP → TP: clause → TP: clause → clause
(26) The Scope of verbal/sentential complementation. Recall (12) and (13). Structural bases of the mains sentence functions:
Sentence
DISJUNCTS
!!!
TP = clause
Well / Of course
T’= PREDICATE
SUBJECT DP : He
operator Ω / T : will
NegP
Neg not
VP ADJUNCTS
VP
VP
TIME AP/P now/ after lunch PLACE AP/PP here/ in the
classroom
VP
V0
help
MANNER AP/PP very much/ in such a way
COMPLEMENT DP/VP/XP Mary/ to clean up
23
(27) Quirk´s division of complementation(s) based on syntactic criteria: a.
COMPLEMENTS are closest to the Verb, they are internal the minimal VP. i. ii.
b.
ADJUNCTS are adjoined inside VP (they are external w.r.t. V + Complement). i. ii.
c.
The students [VP read books every day]. I want to [VP speak to Jill on the bus].
DISJUNCTS take scope over the whole sentence/proposition. i. ii.
d.
The students [VP read books]for pleasure. I want to [VP speak to Jill] in private.
Naturally, he will help you. Of course, he is extremely polite.
!!!
CONJUNCTS are not related to VP, they modify (= take scope over) some other sentence member). i. He did it [AdvP very well]. ii. He seems [AP desperately poor].
(28) EXERCISE ================================================ i. Underline the Verbs and Predicates in the following sentences. Mark their left and right borders. ii. How many elements does each 'Predicate/Verb' have? iii. Which part of the complex tends to carry grammatical categories of the Verb (Tense, Aspect, Agreement), and which is the locus of 'lexical meaning'? Define both in terms of right/left side and w.r.t. the categorial status of the relevant element. a. b. c. d. e. f.
Mary reads novels. Johanna might run away with the sailor. Mr. Todd had been shaving the customers with real enthusiasm. Jane was allowed to look at those pictures. My parents are not looking forward to his arrival. Didn't he take courage, at last?
(29) EXERCISE ================================================ In the table (16) on page 19 some subcategorizations look 'similar'. Relevant examples are repeated below. Find and discuss the distinctions among the bold constituents. a.
V, [_ NP PP]
i. ii. iii.
He wrote a letter [PP to Benjamin]. He handed a letter [PP to Emma]. Benjamin put the book [PP on the shelf].
b.
V, [_NP NP]
iv. v. vi.
He told a girl [NP an interesting story]. Benjamin gave Emma [NP a nice present]. He called Emma [NP a clever girl].
24
(30) EXERCISE ================================================ Write the subcategorization for Vs, and state categories of the complementing elements. a. b. c. d. e. f.
Hugo longed for Mary( during the summer). *Hugo longed during the summer Hugo sent another letter. *Hugo sent to Bill. Hugo sent another letter to Bill. Hugo slept during the weekend.
long:.............…………………………… for Mary:.........…........………………… sent: ......................…………………… a letter: ...........………………………… to Bill: …....….........…………………… sleep: …………….........………………
(31) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii.
Draw lines suggesting which XP can combine with which V and which combinations are ungrammatical (labelled with *). Which constituents do the Verbs require to form a grammatical structure? Fill in the rightmost column marking which kind of phrase the XP is.
Clause
Ω/T = Aux/Mod/Tense
VP
V or VP
NP
Little Mary The camera Your speech etc.
!!!
Predicate = TP (“Tense phrase”)
NP [Subject]
Aux/Mod
will can must should etc.
XP [V-complementation] XP
V a.
this nice book
b.
rather angry
c.
to the school
d.
three of them
ARRIVE
e.
as soon as possible
BE
f.
with all his friends
g.
running home
h.
to help her
SEE
25
(32) EXERCISE ================================================ Write the subcategorization of the Verbs in the table above according to the formalism as in (16) . Find 2 more Verbs with the same subcategorizations. Use them in short sentences together with their complementation. Put the Complements into brackets and mark their syntactic category. A. see ............................... B. arrive ........................... C. be ..................................
(33) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss the scope of the underlined Adverbials. (What do the Adverbials modify? What are they related to?).
a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
Peter felt unbelievably tired. The frog will really become a Princess. The cake will never be finished in time. The dream soon came true everywhere. Surprisingly, little Adam has a rather American accent. Mrs. Lovelace can speak Spanish more fluently than her son. Often Mary will arrive and things become much better.
(34) EXERCISE ================================================ Make questions asking about the underlined Adverbials above. i. ii.
Which kind of WH-element is required in each case, or is the question impossible? What is the second member of a question paradigm?
(35) EXERCISE ================================================ Draw below trees for the following sentences and justify the position of the Complements and Adjunts.
a. b. c.
Your brother John can meet little Mary in the garden on Monday. He can look for the book in the living room. Bill will never help you with the homework.
26
5
OBJECTS
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 244-250; QGLS (2004) pp. 717-754; Dušková (1994) pp. 423-444; H&P (2005) pp.63-81. In spite of the fact that many modern English grammars use the terminology of Complements vs. Adjuncts/Disjuncts etc., the traditional terms of the sentence functions (e.g. 'Object') appear as well (e.g. in Dušková, 1994). In the following sections we are going to revise the properties of complements (objects) in English. The same topics were covered in the preceding Section 4.3. (1)
a) b) c)
Semantics of complements/objects, Morphology of complements/objects, Syntax of complements/objects.
5.1
Semantic Roles of Objects
See also Section 4.3 for complements. The most general semantic role related to the function of Object is Patient/Affected Object. The Object semantic role, however, is most closely related to the meaning of the Verb and it is therefore infinitely varied. The roles of some Objects can be otherwise typical for other functions (Agentive, Possession, Instrument, Location). (2)
(3)
a. b.
Affected Object Patient
He overturned THE CHAIR. The mob killed JOHN BROWN.
c. d. e. f. g. h. i.
Theme Cause Result of the action Locative Agentive Possession Instrument
John gave/sent Peter A BOOK. I love JOHN. He wrote A BOOK. John climbed MOUNT EVEREST. The room dances TWENTY COUPLES easily. We (have) got MANY LETTERS. They threw STONES.
EXERCISE ================================================
Which kind of semantic roles do the Objects in the sentence below represent? Bonnie runs THE RACE / A MILE / A SHOP.
5.2
Morphological Properties of Objects
See also Section 4.3 for complements. Morphological CASE: Object Case ('Accusative') is a structural Case, assigned by a Case assigner (V or P) to an adjoined NP. English: - CASE-MARKING (only with central pronouns, often optional)
27
(4)
a. b. c. d. e.
Mary loves Adam. --> She loves *he/ him Adam loves Mary. --> He loves *she/ her. Who/Whom does she love? the man who/whom she loves. Mary loves herself/*sheself.
personal pronouns interrogatives relative pronouns reflexive pronouns
(5)
Object Case after Verbs and after Prepositions
a. b.
I saw/introduced/met him/her/them. We were talking about/with him/her/them.
(6)
EXERCISE ================================================
Object of the Verb 'Object' of Preposition
Looking at the examples below, state/explain, which Case marking is obligatory in English and which is optional. a. b. c. d. e.
Who/*whom wants to go first? Who/%whom do you like most? About whom/%who are you talking all the evening? Who/%whom are you talking about all the evening? *Who/whose sister did Benjamin marry?
5.3
Syntactic Definition of Objects (≈ V-Complement)
See also Section 4.3 for complements. Objects are phrasal constituents, i.e. can be bare, but also very complex. The category (part of speech) related to Object function is Noun, i.e. NP (and its varieties) and clause (semiclause). Distribution: position w.r.t. other sentence members. See examples (18)/(19)/(22) and above all in (23) on page 22 above, showing that Object immediately follows the Verb. There is, however, another standard position of Objects: initial - in WH questions (followed by Aux/Mod) - in relative clauses, when Object is a relative pronoun (followed by Subject) - in Topicalization structures (followed by Subject) (7)
a. b.
Whom did he love most? What do you want?
OBJ - Mod/Aux - SUBJ –
c. d.
(This is the men) who Mary loves most. Syntax I hate.
OBJ - SUBJ - Mod/Aux - V
28
(8)
Object (=structural Object,= V-complement) The canonical / standard / unmarked 'syntactic/structural Object' (≈V-complements) (i)
semantic role
→ A2, i.e. Patient/Affected Object/Theme/Goal... (wide variety!!!)
(ii)
a. morphology
→ Object Case / ACC (if visible)
b. syntax
→ Immediately follows V (but also initial) → usually NP (+ its proforms. Also PP, VP, clause) → Structural Object can be passivized
- The Summary above shows several criteria, not all of which are always attestable. - English and Czech are typologically distinct (analytic vs. synthetic language) and therefore distinct criteria may be accentuated.
!!!
(9)
English/Czech Definition of 'syntactic/structural' Object
a.
The direct Object in English is defined above all syntactically. = Object is the nominal complex which immediately follows the Verb, i.e. it is the POSITION (= constituent order) that defines the structural Object.
b.
The direct Object in Czech is defined above all morphologically = It depends on CASE marking (direct Object is in Accusative). There are consequences of the distinct definition of Object in Czech and English. Some will be mentioned discussing the process of passivization in Chapter 7 on page 38 below.
5.4
Terminological distinction between Complements and Objects
Characteristics
of Object
(1) (2)
meaning/interpretation = semantic roles form = grammatical properties a. MORPHOLOGY b. SYNTAX
Compare the distinction between the ways a language signals a grammatical function: - in Czech it is mainly the Case (i.e. morphology), - in English it is the word order (constituent order w.r.t. the Predicate). (10) In Czech, a-b mean the same. a. b.
Anna ukázala své děti nové sousedce. (a') Anna ukázala nové sousedce své děti. (b')
In English, a’-b’ are completely different: Ann showed the new neighbour her kids. Ann showed her kids the new neighbour.
Many Czech "Objects of Verbs" have Prepositions in English. What shall we call the underlined constituents? Can "Objects of Verbs" have Prepositions? (11) a. b. c. d.
Hrabala zahradu hráběmi. Hrabala zahradu s hráběmi. Přinesl kytičku mamince. Přinesl kytičku pro maminku.
a'/b.' She raked the garden with a rake. c.' d.' 29
He brought a flower to his mother. He brought a flower for his mother.
e. f. g.
Dívala se na obrázek. Zpívala pro publikum. Dal to Pavlovi.
e.' f.' g.'
She was looking at the picture. She was singing for the audience. He gave it to Paul.
The traditional (Latin based) idea Object depends to a large extent on morphology. The term is vague when applied to analytic languages like English. Therefore a different terminology is widely used, namely Complement (approx. Object) vs. Adjunct (approx. Adverbial). Thus we use one of the following terminologies: (12) Traditional, mostly morphology-based (Latin based) terminology: OBJECT(s) vs. ADVERBIALS (13) Modern, mostly syntax-based (English based) terminology:
!!!
COMPLEMENT vs. ADJUNCT(s) In most cases Objects are the same as Complements and Adverbials are the same as Adjuncts. We can use both of them, but we must be aware of the cases when there can be some distinctions. We will discuss it in the following sections.
(14) EXERCISE ================================================ In the following examples, underline the Verbs and discuss the category / constituent of the Objects. Mark the left border bracket with a categorial label as in (a). a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m.
He loves [NP the most beautiful girl with long hair]. He loves Julie/her. They shaved themselves/each other. I prefer typing my articles. He stopped smoking. I don't like playing cards. He buys what he wants. He says he doesn't mind. We would appreciate (it) if you would leave. The situation requires that everyone should do his best. Which of those handsome boys does Julie love most? How many new black coats do you want to buy? Only huge spiders with black hairs I hate more than syntax.
(15) EXERCISE ================================================ Find structural Objects in the following sentences. Justify your choice, i.e. show that the Objects have the properties of structural Object as in (8) on page 29 above, or that they represent an acceptable variety. Try to give as many properties as possible (e.g. use substitution to show the Case or part of speech). a. b. c.
Emily saw me. All the people have the right to freedom. Whom did you invite for dinner. 30
d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
My brother really loves watching Friends. I cannot say what Julie bought. I cannot say that Julie buys many things. Julie wrote Bill a letter. Julie wrote a letter to Bill. Those new rules I cannot understand. Adam likes to read novels by Jane Austen.
(16) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii.
a. b. c. d. e. f.
State/repeat a descriptively adequate generalization for the order of verbal Complements. Use examples, compare with Czech. In the following examples mark the ungrammatical sentences *. If they are ungrammatical, explain the reason for their ungrammaticality. I saw yesterday Emily. I saw him yesterday in the garden. I saw him in the garden yesterday. I visited Emily yesterday. I visited yesterday Emily. I visited yesterday my older brother who moved to Prague in 1997.
(17) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the order of the constituents in the following sentences referring to the Heavy constituent shift (=the 'heavy' (=complex, long) constituents tend to be peripheral). a. b. c. d.
Peter gave the book to Julie, not to her brother William. Peter gave only the book his father brought from Chicago to Julie. Peter gave Julie the book his father brought from Chicago. Peter gave Julie not her brother William the book.
(18) EXERCISE ================================================ The following examples contain so called phrasal Verbs. Some of the sentences are acceptable, others are ungrammatical. Mark the ungrammatical * and explain the reason for the ungrammaticality. Find a descriptively adequate generalization for the distribution of verbal particles. a. b. c.
Joe gave back the book to Elisabeth. Joe gave the book back to Elisabeth. Joe gave the book to Elisabeth back.
a.' Joe gave back Elisabeth the book. b.' Joe gave Elisabeth back the book. c.' Joe gave Elisabeth the book back.
d. e. f.
I sent away him the car. I sent him away the car. I sent him the car away.
d.' I sent away the car to him. e.' I sent the car away to him. f.' I sent the car to him away.
(19) EXERCISE ================================================ READING (to be announced)
31
"COMPLEMENT" (20) A NOTE concerning terminology: Be sure you distinguish: A.
a general term "complement / complementation" which would translate to Czech as "doplnění" (např. doplnění slovesa) and is meant very vaguely as any complementation of something, e.g. of a Verb. Some examples of complementations are in (21) (A) below - they are objects, adverbials or so... In theoretical grammar we do not use it as a term at all.
B.
"Complement" which is syntactic function described in the following sections and can be best translated to Czech as "syntaktický předmět" or "komplement." This one can be compared to the traditional concept of "předmět". For the similarity and distinctions see Section 4.3 (where complement is compared with Adjunct) and Chapter 5 (where complements are re-defined using the term "object"). Complements (which are in the same time objects) are illustrated below in (21) (A) a little Peter, (B) a letter and (Cii) the door/Mary.
C.
"Subject/Object Complement" which would translate to Czech as "doplněk" and has nothing to do with the (a) and (b) above. It represents syntactic functions defined by their ternary relation: between a verb and between some NP. When the NP is a subject, we get a Subject Complement illustrated below in (21) (Ci) a better man a. When the NP is an object, we get an Object Complement as in (21) (Cii) green.
EXAMPLES: (21) A.
Bill sent [little Peter] [to Prague] [yesterday afternoon]. 3 (general) complements (complementations, Cz.: doplnění) of the V. See (20) (a) above. NOT a term.
B.
He gave [a letter] to little John. The Estonians cannot rely [on weapons] any more.
ʻa letterʼ / ʻon weaponsʼ - complements (Cz.: komplement) a unique, obligatory, adjacent constituent. See (20) (b). Notice that not each complement is also a traditional object. C.
i.
He went back from prison [a better men] He became / is [a teacher].
ʼa better menʼ/ʻa teacherʼ - Subject Complements (čes.: doplněk): related in the same time to the verb and to the NP (subject: he). See (20)(c). ii.
Peter painted [the door] [green]. They elected [Mary] [a chairwoman].
= ʼthe doorʼ/ ʼMaryʼ - complement (Cz.: komplement): a unique, obligatory, adjacent constituent. = ʼgreenʼ - ʼa chairwomanʼ - Subject Complement (Cz.: doplněk): related to the verb and to the NP (object: the door).
32
6
PASSIVIZATION
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 1427-1441; QGLS (2004) pp. 159-171; Dušková (1994) pp. 249-272; H&P (2005) pp. 217-222. Passivization is a process typical for structural (direct) Objects. Elements which can passivize are syntactic/structural Objects of the Verb (in English they can also follow the Preposition). (1)
a. b. c. d.
(2)
The Process of Passivization: what happens?
JOHN Subject Agent
Benjamin wrote/saw/bought/discussed some books. → The books were written/seen/bought/discussed by Benjamin. Our family was looking forward to Mary. →Mary was looked forward to by our family.
WROTE Predicate
→ → →
a BOOK Object Patient
the BOOK Subject Patient
was WRITT-EN Predicate
a.
the Verb changed its form (wrote → was written, morpheme be+-en).
b.
Agent and Patient are distributed in a distinct way, they acquire distinct sentence functions. (NOT **Subject and Object exchanged places.)
c.
as a result of b., the Arguments changed the formal properties (= Case, Prepositions, in English also position etc.) (John/he → by John/him, some books/them → the books/they)
6.1
Function (Pragmatics/Usage) of Passivization
by JOHN PP Object Agent
Results of passivization: semantic/pragmatic + formal. Passivization changes the formal realization of the semantic valency (especially the external top semantic role of Agent). It results in either a) demoting the Agent (deagentization), or b) rhematization of the Agent.
6.1.1 Demoting the Subject/Agent of the active Verb = Deagentization (3)
The book was written.
i. ii. iii.
Patient becomes Subject/= a nondynamic Topic/Theme, Predicate can become clause final/= a dynamic Rheme Agent disappears
(4)
Agent is
a. b.
It is believed... It can't be explained.
i.
general
33
ii.
author
iii.
hidden
iv.
none
c.
As has been stated before...
d. e. f. g. h.
This was studied in detail. The team was beaten. The house was searched. The city is situated... The two forms are distributed equally.
In Czech, Subjects can be partially demoted by dropping, but the deagentization is not full and therefore this kind of passivization appears, too (especially to rhematize/focus instrument or some Adverbial). (5)
→ →
a.
Petr/on napsal knihu.
Napsal knihu. ? Kniha byla napsána.
b.
Kniha byla napsána na zeleném papíře/skvěle/v 15. století.
6.1.2 Focusing the Agent which becomes 'by-' Adjunct (6)
The book was written by Peter. i. ii. iii.
Patient becomes Subject/=Topic=Theme, Predicate remains neutral Agent is clause final/=Focus-Rheme
The realization of the Subject of the active sentence depends also on its semantic role. True Agents are canonically realized with the Preposition by. (7)
a. b. c. d.
The phenomenon was first demonstrated by John Brown. I was impressed by his discipline. The metal was flattened by the machine. The door was opened by/with a key.
(8)
a. b.
John opened the door with a key. The key opens the door easily.
(9)
Inanimate Subjects can have also other Prepositions. a. b. c. d.
Sculpture interests her. His attitude surprises me. This prospect delights us. It worries me.
→ → → →
(=Agent) (=Agent?) (=Instrument?)
She is interested in/by sculpture. I am surprised at his attitude. We are delighted at the prospect. I am worried about it.
In Czech, Subject can be rhematized by the change of word order, which seems 'simpler/easier' than passive transformation. Therefore this kind of passive structures is not used often, unless stylistic reasons make them more plausible (especially with very long and complex Subjects). Compare the availability of the structures below (which constituent is in the rhematic/final position?).
34
(10) a. b. c.
House provedl operaci. Operaci provedl House. ?Operace byla provedena Housem.
a.' b.' c.'
House did the operation. *The operation did House. The operation was done by House.
d.
Pacient nepřežil, přestože operace byla provedena těmi opravdu nejlepšími chirurgy našeho oddělení za účasti geniálního doktora House a jeho tří ambiciózních asistentů.
6.2
Restrictions on passivization
Passivization is a very productive, general and universal transformation, still, not all V-Objects can be passivized. Some cannot be passivized because of formal reasons, other because of some semantic restriction, some are simply idiosyncratic.
6.2.1 Categorial incompatibility Recall that passivization targets direct Objects, and those are canonically NPs. Object, however, can be expressed with other constituents as well, some of which do not tolerate passivization. See below: (11) *Reflexive pronouns/*Infinitives/?Gerunds/?Clauses → → → →
a. b. c. d.
He excused himself. They hate each other. Children love to read. He admitted reading it.
e.
He suggested/shouted/whispered that such a case exists. → →
*He was excused by himself. *They are hated by each other. *To read is loved. ? Reading it was admitted.
??That such a case exists was suggested/shouted/whispered. It was suggested/shouted/whispered that such a case exists. (expletive it + clausal associate)
6.2.2 Semantic Restrictions Some Verbs allow passivization which removes the Subject of the active counterpart, but they do not allow the by-phrase, because of the semantic role of the Subject. The by-phrase is always OK with Agents, appears also with the semantic role Theme + Agent or Goal, but the by-phrase cannot be a pure semantic role of Theme. (12) Agent (= active participant) vs. Theme role a. b. c. d.
A dog crossed the road. The fire crossed the road. He received a good education. He suffered a heavy blow.
→ → → →
The road was crossed by a dog. *The road was crossed by the fire. *A good education was received by him. *A heavy blow was suffered by him.
Some semantic factors can disallow the passivization completely, though it is not very clear which, how and why. (Object, to passivize, 'requires to be affected' by the transitive Verb). 35
(13) some Verbs meaning 'possession' do not passivize, but not all (and not always) a. b. c.
Bill possesses a book. Bill has a book. Bill got a book.
BUT
d. e.
→ → →
The book is possessed by Bill. *The book is had by Bill. *The book was got by Bill.
(transitive Copula) (get = was given?)
There was nothing to be had. There was nothing to be got.
(14) other 'transitive Copulas':
to cost = the price is..., to measure = the measure is... etc.
a. b.
The book costs 5 crowns. The bridge measures 1 mile.
→ *5 crowns was cost (by the book) → *1 mile was measured by the bridge.
6.3
A Remark about Semantic notions of Action versus State
There is a high level of similarity between the passive participle (a Verb following the Aux be) and an adjective derived from V (which can follow the Copula be). In Czech the distinction can usually be seen in morphology –n/ný. (15) a. b. c. d. e.
Don Corleone nechal zavraždit rozhodujícího svědka. Rozhodující svědek byl zavražděn /zavražděný. Zavražděný/*Zavražděn svědek nemohl vypovídat.
... Verb ...Verb / Adjective ... Adjective /* Verb
Dům byl postaven/-ný z cihel minulý rok firmou Svanska. Petr je už unaven/-ný.
In English, the passive participle morpheme –ed is similar/ identical to the derivational morpheme –ed, which creates derived adjectives. Both forms can appear after the Verb be and can be mistaken and the term thus seems categorially 'fuzzy'. Notice distinctions between the two. (16) The distinction between adjectival passive (=Verb) and adjectives (=Copula + APs): Verbal passive is characterized by:
Adjective is characterized by
a.
a.'
b. c.
activity reading (i.e. can be perceived as progressive) ability to contain by- phrase active counterpart
:
stative reading (when progressive, then temporary) b.' no by-phrase c.' concrete modification d.' gradability
(17) Process vs. temporary state The scale from state to activity is gradual and some forms, if bare, remain ambiguous. a. b.
The house is being built. John is being silly /tired.
process (=V) temporary state (=Adj)
(18) Marked non-stative (be/get Auxiliary) a. b.
We are being served. She is being blamed.
a.' b.'
We got served. She got blamed. 36
c. d.
The matter is being attended to. Such things are being noticed.
d.' e.' f.'
Such things get noticed. She never got caught. It doesn't get solved by being talked about.
(19) Modification, by-phrase a. b. c.
This chicken was kill-ed by Harriet. This chicken is freshly kill-ed (*by Harriet). A freshly kill-ed (*by Harriet) chicken (*by Harriet).
(20) Gradability a. b. c.
I am very/rather/more tired/exhausted/surprised/irritated. This is very/rather/more unexpected/unjustified/clear-cut/widespread. The car is *very/*rather/*more repaired.
(21) EXERCISE ================================================ In the following couples of sentences find elements expressing: sentence functions (i.e. Subject - V - Object ) and semantic roles (i.e. Agent - Verb - Patient) a. b. c.
Everybody loved Emily. The hunter killed a stag. Mary feeds her dog.
→ → →
Emily was loved (by everybody). The stag was killed (by a hunter). The dog is fed (by Mary).
(22) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii. iii.
Discuss the underlined constituent in terms of its: semantic role (w.r.t. the verb), sentence function , sentence dynamism, i.e. Topic/Theme and Focus/Rheme.
a. c. e.
Petr Novák postavil dům. Ten dům postavil Petr Novák. Ten dům postavil Petr Novák.
h. i.
Všichni musejí dokončit své referáty do konce prosince. Referáty musejí být dokončeny do konce prosince.
j. k.
Everybody must finish their papers by the end of December. The papers must be finished by the end of December.
b. d. f. g.
Peter built a new house last year. The new house was built by Peter last year. Peter built a house last year. The house was built by Peter last year.
(23) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the following couple of sentences w.r.t. which expressions carry the sentence functions of Subject - V - Object ) and the semantic roles (i.e. Agent - Verb – Patient). a. b.
I haven't seen Peter. Peter I haven't seen.
37
7
COMPARING CZECH AND ENGLISH PASSIVES
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 1427-1441; QGLS (2004) pp. 159-171; Dušková (1994) pp. 249-272; H&P (2005) pp. 217-222; Mathesius (1915). The process of passivization in English and Czech seems very similar, though some distinctions w.r.t. frequency and usage were already mentioned on page 34. The following discussion concentrates on the formal distinctions. (1)
a. b.
Jan představil Marii. → John introduced Mary. →
Marie byla představena (Janem). Mary was introduced by John.
In both English and Czech the passivization targets the 'direct Object'.
(2) John
→
7.1
/ HE
Mary / SHE
introduced
Mary / HER
was introduced
(by John/him).
The Double Object Structures
Recall the definition of Object in section 5.3, esp. (9) on page 29. Following the definition (9) on page 29, the Czech sentences (a/b) in (3) have identical direct Object, since the same NP is in Accusative. Assuming Object in English is the NP immediately following the Verb, there are distinct candidates for Objecthood in the English translation (c/d). (3)
a. b.
Petr dal MariiDAT knihuACC. Petr dal knihuACC MariiDAT .
CASE (ACC) is crucial for Czech Object.
c. d.
Peter gave [NP a book] to Mary. Peter gave [NP Mary] a book.
POSITION counts most for English Object.
The claim is supported by the process of passivization: Structural direct Objects can be passivized. In English the candidates are both the NP following the Verb, in Czech it is only the NP in Accusative (DAT cannot passivize) (4)
a. b.
Peter wrote a letter to John. Peter wrote John a letter.
→ A letter was sent to John. → John was sent a letter.
c. d.
Petr napsal dopis Janovi. Petr napsal Janovi dopis.
→ Dopis byl napsán... /*Jan byl napsán... → Dopis byl napsán... /*Jan byl napsán...
38
The process of passivization in the double Object structures (see (3)/(4) above) can be described as follows: (5)
The NP immediately following the Verb, which can also be expressed as the so called 'dative' PP in English, can be passivized.
English double Object structures are complex phenomena and remain theoretically challenging, but they cannot be explained by their Czech translation (not all English speakers speak Czech). To perceive the distinction between English and Czech in a way suggested in (5) is superior to saying "in English Dative Object can passivize" because i. ii.
English has no Dative morphology, not all Czech Datives can passivize in English (Chce se mi spát).
I. Not all English 'double Objects' have the alternation [NP, PP] → [NP, NP] . The so called 'datives' with Preposition to are most likely, however some for 'datives' are also possible. (6)
a. b.
Carolyn baked that cake for my children. Carolyn baked my children that cake.
... NP, for PP ... NP, NP
II. Most of the structures which allow alternation, [NP, NP] vs. [NP, PP] have also 2 passive structures, but not all. The Preposition to/for seems to make the distinction. (7)
a. b.
They gave a book to me. They gave me a book.
→ A book was given me. → I was given a book.
c. d.
They bought a hat for me. They bought me a hat.
→ A hat was bought for me. → *I was bought a hat.
Some 'direct Object' passive structures are also marginally acceptable without the Preposition to. → → → →
(8)
a. b. c. d.
They offered a woman the job. They offered the job to a woman. They fixed the guests a lunch. They fixed a lunch to the guests.
A woman was offered the job. ?The job was offered a woman. The guests were finally fixed a lunch. ?A lunch was finally fixed the guests.
7.2
Passivization with Verbal Complexes (Restructuralization)
Recall the definition of Object according to (9) on page 29: Direct Object in English is the NP immediately following the Verb/Predicate. It follows that to recognize the Object, we have to recognize the Verb, at least to be able to find the right edge of the Verb. (9)
Subject -Aux, "Verb"
+ Object NP
In analytic language, this structure need not be so transparent because of the presence of Prepositions or some other 'words' between the Verb and the potential Object. 39
In the following example the verb 'look' is followed by a 'preposition' (Or is the preposition 'a part of ' the verb?). (10) a. b. c.
a'. Dívám se na Jana. b'. Těším se na Jana. c'. Hledám Jana.
I look at John. I look forward to John. I look for John.
7.2.1 Phrasal Verbs (Preposition Stranding) (11) a. b.
Pohlédl na obrázekACC. He looked at the picture
(12) c.
(On) He
pohlédl looked
VERB
+
obrázek the picture
na at PREPOSITION
+ NOUN PHRASE
In a sentence the Verb is often followed by a PP, i.e. a Preposition (and a NP). When we accept binary system, the Preposition must be grouped with the Verb or with the NP. The languages can differ w.r.t. the possibility of grouping (some) Prepositions with another element. Assuming the example in a. above, in b. below the grouping is V + [P+NP], and in c. it is [V+P] + NP. The c. grouping is not possible in Czech, but typical for modern English ("the preposition/particle becomes a part of the ('phrasal') verb")
(13)
(On) He
pohlédl looked VERB
obrázek. the picture.
na at +
PREPOSITION
PHRASE
The above analysis is usually available in both languages.
(14)
(On) He
pohlédl looked
obrázek. the picture.
na at
VERB + PREPOSITION
+
NOUN PHRASE
!!!
The above analysis is possible only in English. Only English can divide the PP into P+NP.
Assuming some Prepositions (particles) can count as a part of a complex Predicate, the nominal structure following such a P is Object = can be passivized and questioned as NP. In these structures the Preposition remains related to the Verb (it becomes so called stranded Preposition).
40
(15) Contexts for Preposition stranding: i. WH questions and ii. passivization.
(a)
Mary is looking at [those flowers] very carefully.
(b) (c)
What is she looking at? ( % At what is she looking?) Those flowers were looked at very carefully.
Not all [V+P] combinations can be 'restructured' in English, i.e. not all Ps can be stranded. - Some [V+P] combinations are synchronically unified (so called phrasal Verbs), - some [V+P] combinations can be optionally restructured (V+adjacent/Complement PP), - some [V+P] combinations cannot ever be restructured (V+nonadjacent/Adjunct PP). (16) a. b.
Who were you looking for? Who were you looking at?
??For whom were you looking? At whom were you looking?
(17) a. b. c.
You were looking at the picture with Adam. *Who were you looking at the picture with? With whom were you looking at the picture?
7.2.2 Verbo-nominal phrases : complex Predicates In English, also some [weak Verb+Noun] combinations can be perceived as one unit: They are semantically opaque expressions, i.e. they create a "semantic unit" and they are also formally unified. (See also 7.2.3 on page 42.) Such complex Verbo-nominal Predicates can be followed by a PP. (18) a. b. (19) People
take advantage [PP of something put an end [PP to something
took VERB
+
ADVANTAGE OBJECT
+
of his mistake. PP (= P + NP)
'advantage' follows the Verb take, therefore it is its Object and can be passivized. → PASS (20) Liz
ADVANTAGE was taken of his mistake.
took
advantage of
HIS MISTAKE.
'weak' VERB + NOUN + P = 'complex Verb' (verbo-nominal complex)
+
OBJECT
'his mistakes' follows the complex Verb take an advantage of , therefore it is its Object (21) → PASS
!!!
His mistake was taken advantage of. 41
(22) The verbonominal complex 'take advantage of' allows the analysis for two direct Objects: i) ii)
advantage as an object of take and mistake as an object of take advantage of.
We can prove this strcutural ambiguity using the existence of i. two passive structures and also ii. two WH questions for Object. (23) a. b.
What can be taken of his mistake? What can we take an advantage of?
-
An advantage. His mistakes.
7.2.3 V+N Compounds In English, we must distinguish Objects from the 'Object-like' parts of a complex verbal form. Apart from the verbonominal complexes, English has also Verbal compounds in the form of V + N. (24) a. b. c. d. e.
I had a walk / a nap. They took trouble / a walk. He took courage. He made a mistake / a bet. The meeting took place.
The V+N compounds are semantically opaque expressions, i.e. they create a "semantic unit" and they are also formally unified. The process of compounding (V+N) is, however, subject to diachronic change. When the process is finished, the compound becomes inert w.r.t. syntactic operations: compounds do not allow passivization (or questioning) of the items which may look like direct Object. Compare the properties of the Verb + Noun (Phrase) complex w.r.t. two properties: i. questioning and ii. passivization of the N(P), which show to which extend is the N(P) independent of the Verb and to which extend they are compounded. (25) WH question on Object He took a book/a nap/courage. - What did he take? a. b. c. (26) → a. b. c. (27) a. b. c.
- A book. - % A nap. - *A courage.
Passivization → → →
The book was taken (by Benjamin). % The nap was taken (by Benjamin). * A courage was taken (by Benjamin).
take a book take a nap take courage
………always V + NP Object ………% marginal [V+NP] compound ………only [V+NP] compound
42
!!!
7.3
Mediopassive
Similarity of the 'reflexive passive' (Cz) and 'mediopassive' (En): Active form (there is no passive morpheme: be+V-en), but the meaning is the similar to passive (Subject is interpreted as Patient and Agent is unexpressed). (28) a. b.
Dveře byly zavřeny. The door was closed.
a' b'
Dveře se zavřely. The door closed.
(29) general characteristics a. b.
The clothes wash easily. That is easy to believe.
=It is easy to wash the clothes. =It is easy to believe a thing like that.
(30) modal possibility a. b. c.
The lid shuts. The door locks. His poem does not translate well.
=The lid can be shut. =The door can be locked. =His poem cannot be translated well.
(31) individual characteristics g. h. i.
He counts among the best. The text sings to the tune. The dress buttons down the back.
=He is/can be counted among the best. =The text is/can be sung to the tune. =The dress is/can be buttoned.
(32) EXERCISE ================================================ Find and underline the Objects in the following examples. Respect the definitions in (9) on page 29, i.e. recall that in English (because of the word order) distinct elements can count as structural (=direct) Objects in English and in Czech. Check your analysis by passivization. a. b. c. d.
Henry sang a song to Mary. Henry sang Mary a song. Jude sent a parcel to her brother. Jude sent her brother a parcel.
a.' b.' c.' d.'
Jindřich zpíval písničku Marii. Jindřich zpíval Marii písničku. Jitka poslala balík svému bratrovi. Jitka poslala svému bratrovi balík.
(33) EXERCISE ================================================ Passivize the underlined 'Objects' and watch what happens with the capitalized Prepositions. What are their Objects? Can you passivize them? a.
He blamed [the teacher][FOR his failure]. → PASS: ......................................................................................................................
b.
He blamed [his failure][ON his teacher]. → PASS: ......................................................................................................................
c.
Adam entrusted [a task] [TO Mary]. → PASS: ...................................................................................................................... 43
d.
Adam entrusted [Mary] [WITH this task]. → PASS: ......................................................................................................................
(34) EXERCISE ================================================ In the following sentences underline the Verb. Is there a clear unambiguous "NP following the Verb" which would be a candidate for Object? Mark such NP with a bracket [NP] .Recall that such NP would be able to passivize and check your analysis by passivization. E.g. Mary saw [NP John. → John was seen (by Mary).
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.
Jessica writes articles for the newspaper. William will be helping you tomorrow. Mary was not allowed to go to the cinema yesterday. His brother is looking for a girlfriend. Marilyn will take advantage of her father's money. He was looking at the picture. I have been looking forward to your visit. He sleeps in his bed. Jane has got a new friend.
(35) EXERCISE ================================================ Make passive structures from the active sentences below and describe changes w.r.t. a. semantic roles, b. grammatical functions, c. pragmatic roles. Mention also possible reanalysis and comment on possible Verbo-nominal complexes. → PASS:…………………………………… → PASS:……………………………………
a. b.
The boy gave that article to Mary. The boy gave Mary the article.
c.
The terrorist attack put an end to the hope of a better future. → PASS:………………………………..……………………………. …………. → PASS:………………………………….…………………………. ………….
d. e. f. g.
Theodore sent the paper to his teacher. Theodore sent his teacher the paper. Mary looked forward to Bill. James slept in that bed.
→ PASS:…………………………………… → PASS:…………………………………… → PASS:…………………………………… → PASS:……………………………………
(36) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the following examples and answer the following questions: i. ii. iii.
How does passivization influence the distribution of Semantic roles of the Verb? What is the function of passivization w.r.t. the sentence dynamism? List some distinctions between English and Czech which can be related to the distinct definition of the concept of the ʻstructural object/ complementʼ.
i.
a.
William gave the bunch of flowers to his mother.
b. c.
→ →
The bunch of flowers was given to his mother. His mother was given a bunch of flowers.
44
ii.
a.
Emma wrote the book very well.
b. c.
→ →
The book was written very well. The book writes very well.
(37) EXERCISE ================================================ Mark the level of (un)grammaticality of the sentences (* for ungrammatical, ? for formally marked) and explain/justify your evaluation. (Write down the active counterparts of the passive structures.) a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
The exam was taken by all of us. The courage was taken by all of us. The book was recommended by me. To read was recommended by me. Peter was spoken about. Peter was spoken with Mary about. The letter was written by a pencil. The road was interrupted by a river.
(38) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain which sentence on the right is the equivalent of the example on the left. i. ii. iii.
considering the sentence functions of Subject and Object, considering the Topic/Theme and Focus/Rheme interpretation, considering the semantic roles of Agent and Patient.
a.
The letter was written by your brother.
i. ii.
Tvůj bratr napsal dopis. Dopis napsal tvůj bratr.
b.
Peter was seen by Mary.
i. ii.
Marie viděla Petra Petra viděla Marie.
c.
Králíka zabila babička. (Dědeček je vegetarián.)
i. ii.
Grandmother killed the rabbit. The rabbit was killed by Grandmother.
(39) EXERCISE ================================================ Give example of a canonical and non-canonical Object/ Complement assuming the below characteristics (see (8)on page 29).
The canonical / standard / unmarked 'syntactic/structural Object' (1)
semantic role
→ A2, i.e. Patient/Affected Object/Theme/Goal... (wide variety!!!)
(2)
a. morphology
→ Object Case / ACC (if visible)
b. syntax
→ Immediately follows V (but also initial) → usually NP (+ its proforms. Also PP, VP, clause) → Structural Object can be passivized
45
8
SUBJECT
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 235-243, QGLS (2004) pp. 724-767; Dušková (1994) pp. 390-422; H&P (2005) pp. 12-13, 67-70. Subject is a main sentence member (sentence function). It can be defined w.r.t. its (1)
a. semantics (interpretation) and b. form i. morphology and ii. syntax (=distribution, special operations).
8.1
Semantic Roles of Subjects
Semantic vs. Syntactic Subcategorization See also 'valency' in section 3.1.1 on page 9 and section 4.1 on page 17.
(2)
'hit' is a VERB and its semantic selection contains A1=Agent and A2=Patient. In syntax, 'hit' must be complemented by a nominal element (Object), which canonically follows the verb.
hit: V, < Agent, Patient >
V, [-- NP]
Notice that semantic subcategorization < Agent, Patient > mentions two semantic arguments: i. A1, Agent (i.e. usually Subject) and ii. A2, Patient (i.e. usually Object). The syntactic subcategorization V, [-- NP] refers to the right hand complementation only. It is because only that element can be specific w.r.t. the Verb. The form of Subjects depends on the type of the sentence, not on the Verb. (3)
a. b.
[VP To read letters] is irritating. I do not like [VP to go home soon].
The function of Subject standardly realizes the (highest) semantic role of Agent. (4)
a.
Mary heard George to hit the window with stones.
b.
MARY heard GEORGE/the WIND hit the WINDOW (with STONES). Experiencer Agent /Force Patient/Goal (Instrument)
Consider the need of conscious activity for the notion of Agent. Non-active (passive) Agent is often called Experiencer, unconscious Agent is a Force. BUT: Are all Subjects Agents? - No, in Subject position also non-Agent can appear. (5)
a. b. c.
JOHN [Agent] opened the door. MARY [Experiencer] can hear the noise. The HURRICANE [Force] took away many roofs in the neighbourhood. 46
d. e.
THE KEY [Instrument] opened the door. THE DOOR [Patient] opened/broke.
Are all Agents Subjects? - No, Agents can be realized as non-Subjects. (6)
The letter was written by Bill.
Is the role of the Subject the same in different languages? - No, especially with Verbs with ambiguous arguments, the realization varies. (7)
a. b.
Peter really likes the book. Petrovi se ta kniha opravdu líbí.
Do all Subjects have some/any meaning/Semantic role? - No, some Subjects are purely formal (expletives). (8)
a. b.
Prší. / ?? To prší. / ?? Ono prší. It rains. / *Rains.
(9)
a. b. c. d. e.
It is raining/ snowing. It is late. It seems that John arrived late. It is outrageous that nobody helped you. It is easy for me to go.
weather Verbs (NO Agent)
linking/ anticipatory it
Conclusion: The examples above showed that Subject is a formal concept not directly related to the interpretation. Subject is a necessary part of each sentence, although i. ii.
the semantic role of the function of Subject can vary cross-language, the semantic role is neither necessary nor sufficient for the function of Subject.
8.2
Morphological Properties of Subjects
The finite predicate agrees with the structural subject - the predicate reflects the relevant features of the subject nominal phrase. (10) EXERCISE ================================================ Underline the Subjects. If there is an ambiguity, choose the most salient candidate. State precisely which formal criteria you used to make your choice. a. c. e.
Chlapci viděli muže. Ženy viděla děvčata. Dívky viděly ženy.
b. d. f.
Vlky honili muži. Káčata honila husy. IBM koupil Apple.
47
(11) EXERCISE ================================================ Mark the acceptability of the agreement. Consider the criteria you apply. Give some similar examples in English. a. b. c. d. e.
Shromáždění studenti stáli / stálo... Čtyři studenti šli / šlo... Do školy šel/ šla/ šli Petr a Marie. To je / jsem já. Děti jsou naše radost.
a.' b.' c.' d.' e.'
Shromáždění studentů stáli / stálo... Pět/mnoho studentů šli / šlo... Petr a Marie šel/ šla/ šli do školy. Buď ty anebo já budu / budeš /budeme Čas jsou peníze.
The formal characteristics (morphologic and syntactic) are similar in both Czech and English, but the hierarchy between them is distinct Czech
1. 2.
Case/Agreement Word order
English:
a.
- CASE-MARKING (with personal pronouns): special/distinguishable/regular/frequent/obligatory form
b.
- AGREEMENT (of the Verb-PRES and its Subject-3sg)
a.
He(NOM) see-s(AGR) her(ACC). *Him sees her. *He see her.
(12)
(b)
English
1. 2.
Word order Case/Agreement
8.2.1 Subject Case in English (Nominative) BUT: Nominative/Subject Case in English is highly marked. It does not appear in separation and in coordinated structures. (13)
a. b. c. d.
Who did it? - Me. William and him are good students. It was I/me that Mary brought the present. Nobody but he/him can help you.
In non-2nd person imperatives and with infinitives the Nominative does not appear at all. (14)
a. b.
Let's go home, shall we? Let me help you, shall I?
English Agents/Subjects? in nominal - infinitive constructions: (15)
a. b. c.
For him to go home seems very complex. After his/*he/*him saying goodbye, I left. His reading of the article is really irritating.
48
8.2.2 Subject – Predicate Agreement Also AGREEMENT in Person/Number can be idiosyncratic. The distinction between the so called 'semantic' vs. 'formal' agreement appears a. b.
(16)
with Copula, when Subject and nominal Predicate have distinct features when Subject NP is 'complex': is coordinated, contains quantifier, of-phrase, etc. (the head of the Subject is not unambiguous). a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.
His only success was his short stories. His short stories were his only success. What we need most is/are sufficient funds. Two years is a long time to wait. Bread and butter is a nice breakfast. A large number of students are granted scholarships. Either you or he is mistaken. Either he or you are mistaken. A book or flowers are a good present. Flowers or a book is a good present. The police is/are looking for the criminal.
8.2.3 Pro-Drop Languages Languages with rich verbal inflection for Agreement (Czech but not English) can leave the position of the Subject empty. A Subject 'pronoun' is dropped and the Subject is realized only as a bound morpheme on the Predicate. Czech is a pro-drop language, English is not. (17)
a. b. c. d.
Odešel jsem. (=1sgM) Pomáhali nám celý den. (=3pl) Prší. (=3sgN) Pomoz si sám! (=2sg)
a.' b.' c.' d.'
I left. They were helping... It rains. Help yourself, will you!
Realization of the grammaticalized feature in the form of a free or a bound morpheme. Synthetic languages prefer the bound form, analytic the free one. In some cases the bound and free form cooccur. bound / free (18) a. Nicer more beautiful ..... -er / more b. vykládat to talk ..... -t / to c. (my) chodíme we go / he reads ..... -me / we
(19) EXERCISE ================================================ What is the distinction (in form and in interpretation) between: (i) Chodíme do školy (ii) My chodíme do školy. There are only few contexts in English with no overt Subject.
49
(20)
8.3
a.
Imperative:
Open the window, will you? Help yourself! BUT: Let's go, shall we?
b.
Idiosyncratic:
Thank you.
c.
Diary style:
Came back soon. Made a dinner and watched TV....
Pragmatic Roles of Subjects (related to linearity)
Recall the pragmatic Aspects of discourse which are related to the distinction between "old" and "new" information and to the speakerʼs emphasis or stress. All of those can be expressed with a constituent-order (i.e. linearity) and also specific sentence functions. E.g. given that the position of Subject is usually clause initial, it follows that Subjects have a strong tendency to be the ʻTopic/Themeʼ of the proposition. (21) Discourse order, sentence dynamism, Functional Sentence Perspective THEME / OLD /TOPIC →→ SUBJECT
VERB →→ RHEME / NEW / FOCUS VERB
OBJECT
In English (because its constituent-order is grammaticalized) the correlation between pragmatic factors and word-order is not as strong as in Czech, but it still exists. (22) WH questions ask for the Rheme/Focus. WHO saw Mary? a. b. c. (23)
John saw Mary. = * Mary saw John. = Mary was seen by John. English: S–V–O / * O–V-S
a.' ?? Jan viděl Marii. b.' Marii viděl Jan. c.' Marie byla viděna (??Janem). Czech: S–V–O / O–V-S
There is a preference in all languages to identify Subject with the Agent and the Topic but this tendency is weaker in English than in Czech. There is also a strong tendency to repeat parallel structures, when Subjects "tend" to remain Subjects unless marked otherwise. (24)
Peter saw Paul and he(=PETER) greeted him(=PAUL).
(25) EXERCISE ================================================ Write down the syntactic and semantic subcategorization of the following Verbs. a. b. c. d.
believe read give say
....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... 50
e. f. g.
tell bear appear
....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................
(26) EXERCISE ================================================ Which semantic roles do Subjects in the following sentences have? a. b. c. d.
Jude wrote a letter to Bill. Hannah was hit by Susan/the stone. The enemy was destroyed. The book sells well.
e. f. g. h.
The key opened the door. The stone hit the roof. Benjamin heard the thunder. Debora was given a bunch of roses.
(27) EXERCISE ================================================ Find the morphemes realizing the Subject: a. b. c.
Moc jste mi nepomohla! Stmívá se. Thank you ever so much!
d. e. f.
Let's go! Open the window, I beg you! Went back. Met Jessica.
(28) EXERCISE ================================================ What is the Subject/Object in the following sentences? Give arguments for your claim. Explain the ungrammatical example. a. b.
Let us go home, shall we. Let us go home, will you.
c. d.
Let's go home, shall we. *Let's go home, will you.
(29) EXERCISE ================================================ Consider who is a preferred Subject of the second coordinate.
a. b.
Bill udeřil Johna a pak odešel. (On) Bill udeřil Johna a on/ten pak odešel.
on = on/ten =
................................. .................................
c. d.
Bill hit John and Bill hit John and
(he) = HE =
................................. .................................
then ??/he left. then HE left.
(30) EXERCISE ================================================ Consider the following examples and try to define which part of the predicate agrees with the Subject. Assume the structure as in (26) on page 23. Make your own examples, if you need them. Write down your conclusion! a. b. c.
!!!
I am reading a book. John has read an article. We will help you.
.........................................................................................................................................................
51
9
SYNTACTIC PROPERTIES OF ENGLISH SUBJECTS
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 235-243, QGLS (2004) pp. 755-766; Dušková (1994) pp. 390-422; H&P (2005) pp. 12-13, 67-70. LINEARITY: Distribution, word order. See the schemes in Section 3 on page 10. "subject" = "position"
S
XP Which constituent can be the XP in the scheme?
(1)
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.
TP
Mod / Aux
VP
My older brother (who lives in Prague) is at home. Adam / He / One never knows. Putting it off won't make it any easier. To leave so early would be impolite. It's a pleasure to write for your journal. Whoever stole my purse didn't get much. That the ship was wrecked was feared. It is feared that the ship was wrecked. It is not determined WHO should be sent.
VERB
Subject is a position in the structure - it is defined by its relation to the predicate. (2)
Subject position in main sentence patterns w.r.t. other sentence members:
a.
Yesterday William did not go to school.
b.
In the afternoon Mary cannot work.
c.
Will Bonnie see his grandma tomorrow?
Mod/Aux - SUBJ - V...
d.
How many cars does Bill Gates have?
WH Mod/Aux - SUBJ - V ...
e.
Who will help me?
WH SUBJ Mod/Aux - V ...
f.
Never will I do it!
NEG Mod/Aux - SUBJ - V ...
(3)
Constituents in the position of the subject are prototypically
a. b. c.
NPs or their substitutes (pronouns). They can be also VPs (infinitives, gerunds) or finite clauses (with or without expletive it)
(4)
Syntactic Subject are signalled also through specific processes
a. b.
Syntactic Subjects invert with the first Mod/Aux in questions. Short answers repeat pronominalized Subject.
. . . SUBJ - Mod/Aux - V...
52
!!!
c. d.
Question tags repeat pronominalized Subject. Syntactic anaphors (reflexives and reciprocals) take Subject/Agent for their antecedents.
(5)
(6)
Mary saw Adam.
a. b. c. d.
→ Did Mary see Adam? → - Yes, she did. Mary saw Adam, didn't she/*he. Mary saw Adam herself/*himself.
Summary The canonical / standard / unmarked 'Subject' (1) (2)
semantic roles a. morphology b. syntax
9.1
→ A1, i.e. Agent (some variety including none) → Subject Case / NOM (if visible) → Agreement on Predicate (3sg,Pres) → NP (+ its proforms. Also PP, VP, clause) → Immediately precedes the Predicate, inverts in questions, appears in Question tags, short answers... It is an antecedent to anaphor.
!!!
Dissociating the form and the meaning
Subject is a formal concept not directly related to interpretation. In English an overt subject is a necessary part of each sentence.
9.2
Dissociated Subject (Expletives there and it)
English sentence must have an overt Subject. Assuming that we can define Subject w.r.t. its i. meaning, ii. morphology and iii. position, in some sentences there seem to be more candidates for the role of Subject, one of which is expletive. A. B.
Linking it Existential structures there is/there are...
A. Linking it Subject has two parts (7)
(8)
a.
It seemed obvious that Mary left, didn't it.
b. c. d.
Did it seem obvious that Mary left? That Mary left seemed obvious. It seemed obvious.
a. b.
It was not the best idea to go home, wasn't it. Was it the best idea to go home? 53
c. d. (9)
To go to the cinema was not the best idea. It was not the best idea.
Linking it (expletive) + associate Subject (semi-)clause i. ii.
the associate (semi-)clause follows the clause containing the expletive it the expletive it is able to stay without the associate (in a salient context).
SUBJECTFORMAL - the rest of the clause ] [ SUBJECTSemantic/MORPHOLOGICAL Expletive associate B. Existential structures In the following sentences the expletive is not it but there. There serves as a syntactic Subject, while the associate NP controls the verbal agreement and provides the semantic content. (10) a. b. c. d. e.
There is a book on the table, isn’t there? Is there a book on the table? *There is two books on the table. * There are the books on the table. * There is on the table.
!!! violates Subject-Verb agreement the associate must be indefinite the associate is obligatory
(11) Expletive there + associate Subject i. ii.
the associate (=indefinite NP) is in the same clause as the expletive there the expletive there is not able to stay without the associate
SUBJECTFORMAL - Vcopula - SUBJECTSemantic/MORPHOLOGICAL - LOCATION Expletive associate
9.2.1 Locatives / Directional structures The existential structures (See above in section 9.2.) developed from the locative/directional structures. (Old English had a relatively free constituent order). (12)
Locative PPs
a. b.
In the house can be found a famous painting. In the house is hanging a famous painting.
(13)
Directional PPs
a. b.
Into the house ran Jessica. Up came the number.
9.2.2 Raising to Subject In English distribution (=the position) is the main signal of Subjecthood. The semantic role of Subject (Agent) is not a necessary condition. Because of the loose correlation between the semantic role and
54
sentence function in English, the Subject of a finite Verb can also realize a semantic role related to another (infinitive) Verb. In Czech, the structures are rare. (14)
(ono) Zdá se, že Petr je unavený.
→ Petr se zdá být unavený.
It (=0) seems that Peter is tired.
→ Peter seems --- to be tired.
Raising to Subject: some argument (Agent or Patient) of infinitive rises to the position of the formal Subject of a finite (agentless) Verb or 'impersonal' structure.
(15) Peter seems to be reading a book.
....
Peter is
i. ii.
Subject of seem Agent of read
Consider the semantic roles of IT and JOHN and notice, how far can 'Raising' go. (16)
a. b. c.
It seems that John left home. ?? (That) John left home seems. John seems to be at home.
(17)
a. b. c.
It is impossible for John to come. For John to come is impossible John is impossible to come.
(18)
a. b.
It seems that John was beaten. It is easy for them to please John.
→ →
John seems to have been beaten. John is easy to please.
COMPARING ENGLISH AND CZECH SUBJECTS Czech
a. b.
Pro-drop language (Subjects can be expressed by a verbal morphology). The preferred Subject is the element carrying the Agent semantic role, i.e. Agents have a strong tendency to become and remain Subjects.
English
a. b.
Not a pro-drop language (Subjects must be overt free morphemes). The semantic role is often ignored and Subject is often purely syntactic.
(19) a. c.
The door closed. Bonnie seems to read the book.
b. d.
Dveře se zavřely. Zdá se, že Jan čte knihu.
(20) EXERCISE =========================================== Discuss what is the Subject of the following sentences. Following the table (6) on page 53 give all possible semantic, morphological (Case, agreement) and syntactic (word order and syntactic processes) reasons for your analysis. If necessary, use substitution. a.
She is watching TV.
b.
My little brother will read the letter soon. 55
c. e. g. i. k. m. o. q. s. u. w.
Can your sister help you? Is it finished already? When did our parents arrive? Which of them helped you? Peter is silly. It is possible to leave. The point is that we are leaving. It was Peter who arrived late. This is a cat on the mat. In the hole there is a string. Help yourself!
d. f. h. j. l. n. p. r. t. v. x.
The last letter has been written this morning. What has little William said? Who knows everything? What has been said at the lecture? It/This is me. To leave is difficult. That we need it is obvious. Whoever wants to go can go. There is a cat on the mat. There comes the bus. Let's go!
9.2.3 Universal and cross-language correlations Each constituent in a sentence can be defined w.r.t. several criteria: (21) a. b. c. d.
Categorial label of the constituent (NP, AP, VP, etc. - part of speech); Semantic Role (Agent, Patient, Goal, Beneficiary, Instrument, etc); Syntactic (sentence) Function (Subject, Object, Attribute, Adjunct, etc); Pragmatic (discourse) Role (Theme/Topic, Rheme/Focus).
The tree below demonstrates a universal correlation which tends to be realized in a language specific way - languages prefer some correlations to others.
(22) Clause
!!!
Predicate = TP (“Tense phrase”)
XP [Subject]
Ω/T = Aux/Mod/Tense
VP
V
The tall boy a.
NP
b.
Agent
c.
SUBJECT
d.
Theme/TOPIC
must
YP [V-complementation]
read
a nice book. NP
CZ = (Subject = Agent)
Patient OBJECT
EN (Subject = Topic)
Rheme / Focus
56
(23) EXERCISE ================================================ Using the above concepts describe the underlined expressions. a. b. c. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.
Mary was working on her paper. The paper has been written by Emma. To fly is better that to drive. It is impossible for his sister to get there. She seems to know everything. People say that John has arrived. People say that John has been seen by Mary. John is said to arrive late. My brother is easy to please. Reading is said to be easy.
(24) EXERCISE ================================================ i. Discuss the Semantic Role and Syntactic function of the underlined constituents (which verb is it related to?). Notice the format of the predicate (active/passive, finite/infinitive). ii. Think of similar structure and illustrate possible derivations. a. b. c. d. e. f.
People say that John loves Mary. People say that Mary is loved by John. It is said that that John loves Mary. It is said that Mary is loved by John. John is said to love Mary. Mary is said to be loved by John.
(25) EXERCISE ================================================ Find the elements which express the semantic roles of the underlined Verbs. Are they expressed in a standard way? Explain the term raising to Subject. a.
People say that Mary has a new boyfriend. → →
b.
i. ii.
I believe him to have read the novel himself. William is believed to have read the novel himself.
It appears that they sold out the book. → →
d. e.
It is said that Mary has a new boyfriend. Mary is said to have a new boyfriend.
I believe that William has read the novel himself. → →
c.
i. ii.
i. ii.
It appears that the book has been sold out. The book appears to be sold out.
It is easy to catch a cold in autumn. It is impossible for me to bear Theodore.
→ Some cold is always easy to catch. → Theodore is impossible to bear.
57
(26) EXERCISE =========================================== Discuss the specific properties of the Subjects in the following sentences. English ʼsubjectʼ a.
Open the window!
Imperative
b.
Thank you very much.
Ellipsis
c.
Came late and watched TV.
Diary style
d.
It became dark.
Weather verbs
e.
There is a book on the table.
Existential/locative structures
f.
I saw him do it.
Raising to Object (amalgamate)
g.
My brother/He was awarded a prize.
Passivization
h.
Henry/He is sure to come.
Raising to Subject
i.
This book reads well.
Mediopassive
j.
Your journal is a pleasure to write for.
Passivization
k.
It is a pleasure to write for you.
Expletive/Linking it
Write down the Czech formal equivalents of the structures in (26). Some of them will be ungrammatical. Explain the distinction between the two languages referring to specific characteristics of their structural Subjects.
(27) EXERCISE ================================================ Draw a tree for the following clauses: a. b. c.
John will help you. I saw Mary in the classroom. We have to help Maryʼs friends.
(28) EXERCISE ================================================ Additional READING (the texts see the courseware in Moodle or in the library) Veselovská, Ludmila (2013) "Subjects in English and Czech." In Bell, G.J., Nemčoková, K., Wójcik, B. (eds.) From Theory to Practice 2012: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Anglophone Studies. September 5-6. 2012.
58
10
ATTRIBUTE
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 526-561, QGLS (2004) pp. 402-437; Dušková (1994) pp. 484-517; H&P (2005) pp. 112-121. (1)
NOUN PHRASE ==> Head Noun + its Modification e.g. some very interesting German journals about geography
For the NP structure consider the structures in (11),(13) and (14) on page 6.
(2)
The order of modifiers (the SCOPE)
the/my
favorite
hairy
shepard
specific Det/Poss/APs
dogs
general APs + secondary As
-N-
The scope of AP covers all elements within NP which are c-commanded (≈followed) by the AP itself. The initial modifiers are the most specific. (3)
a. b.
the [big black dog] the big [black dog]
10.1 Prenominal Attributes (4)
(5)
DETERMINERS
POSSESSIVE NPs
a. b. c. d.
a/the book * that some book taková nějaká kniha each/every/any/some/no man which/what man
a. b. c. d. e.
(*a/the)our Peter's book (a/the) bird's nest * the dress's colour [NP my older brother's] book [NP the earth's] gravity
59
(6)
AP PREMODIFIERS
a. b. c. d.
(7)
'DERIVED/SECONDARY ADJECTIVES' (morphological Nouns (in productive compounds)) a. b. c. d. e.
a [AP very large] [AP dark green] book true gentlemen a great Italian painter a Spanish student
f.
exercise book steel wire corrosion immunity the UEFA Cup three act play *three acts play heat-resistant glass lamp shades
(8)
ADVERBS
a. b.
the then president the down train
(9)
PARTICIPLES
a. b.
a forgotten artist an entertaining person
(10) QUOTATIONAL COMPOUNDS a. b.
a take-me-as-I-am smile an after-dinner cigar
10.2 Postnominal Attributes (11) POSTNOMINAL ADJECTIVES a. b. c. d.
Romance A's idiosyncratic A's A's follow pronouns complex (postmodified) A's
Princess Royal, court martial, attorney general syntax proper something [AP very interesting] man [AP taller than me] hero [AP faithful to his ideals]
(12) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
(13) INFINITIVES
a. b. c. d. e. f. g.
the book [PP of my brother] a man [PP of courage] a pair [PP of trousers] a great variety of opinions a way to school a girl with a blue scarf a story about animals
a. b.
a promise to help a man to talk to
60
(14) -ING FORMS
a. b.
the book lying on the table the man reading newspaper
(15) CLAUSES
a. b.
the book which you gave me a warning that nobody should enter
(16) APPOSITION
a. b.
The River Danube Paul Smith the lawyer
(17) COMPLEMENT (Secondary Predication / Small Clause) a. b. c. d. e.
He was born blind. We came home tired. He ranks high. She dyes her hair black. It's enough to drive me mad.
(He was born + he is blind )
10.3 The Relation between the Noun and Its Attributes (18)
(19)
a. b.
Semantic/ Argument role (includes Possession) Modification (specification, generalization, characterization, etc.)
c.
and also Determination, quantification (Determiners)
a. b. c.
Caesar destroyed the city. Caesar's destruction of the city. Caesar's destruction. / City's destruction.
..... verbal 'valency' .... nominal counterpart.
While verbal semantic roles are usually clear and arguments are realized w.r.t. their interpretation, semantic roles related to Nouns are often ambiguous and their interpretation depends on context. (20)
a.
Our Mary's picture The picture of Mary
b.
Maruščin obrázek Obrázek naší Marušky
( Possessor / Agent / Patient)
The combination of more co-occurring modifiers (especially possessives and of-phrases), can, however, restrict the interpretation. (21)
a. b.
Mary's picture of Renoir Maruščin obrázek Renoira
Observe the distinction between 'semantic argument' and pure 'modification'. POSS and of-P are positions typical for arguments, A(P)s and PPs are usually only modifiers. (22)
a.
Their attack, the attack of wild tribes
61
(23)
b.
Benjamin's house, the house of my grandma
a. b.
a red rose, an intelligent student, a house with a red roof
(24) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming the following structure of NP revise the terminology related to the specific kinds of pre- and post-nominal Attributes.
(Q) - D/POSS - (Q) - A – A - N/A -
N
- of P - PP - Vinf/ing - clause
determination field - modification field
(25) EXERCISE ================================================ Based on the following examples discuss the differences between English and Czech in the field of pre/post-modifiers/attributes. Give more examples concentrating on number , obligatoriness , position /order of specific kinds of attributes. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
The book The blue book The book of his The three boys All the three boys Those nice intelligent energetic boys famous Italian actor city towers new hospital building a book of stories in green cover
a.' b.' c.' d.' e.' f.' g.' h.' i.' j.'
*Blue book *Blue the book *The his book *Three the boys *The all three boys ?Those nice energetic intelligent boys ??Italian famous actor down town English history teacher * a book in green cover of stories
(26) EXERCISE ================================================ Underline the most salient interpretation(s) of the bold modifier. (Poss = possessor). a. b. c. d. e. f.
Támhle visí ten Jaruščin obrázek. Támhle visí obraz Jarušky. Támhle visí obraz Petrův obraz Jarušky. Támhle visí obraz vašeho strýce. Poslouchali Mariinu / Shakespearovu báseň. Poslouchali mariánskou / Shakespearovskou báseň.
Poss / Agent / Patient Poss / Agent / Patient Poss / Agent / Patient Poss / Agent / Patient Poss / Agent / Patient Poss / Agent / Patient
(27) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the characteristics of the underlined Attributes. Consider their
62
i. ii. iii. iv.
distribution (i.e. their position w.r.t. the head N and other pre-/post-modifiers) uniqueness (How many of such elements can modify one head N?), complexity (Are the Attributes Ns, NPs or PPs?), semantics (Is the range of possible forms restricted to some meaning only?).
a. b. c. d. e. f.
(*that) John’s party that John party that party of John(‘s) city’s life the city life the life of the city
(28) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming the structure of NP as in the scheme below, discuss the distinction between the Czech and English Attributes in the postnominal position. Give examples.
DP (Determined NP)
Det My
NP
NP
NP
NP
N0 book
i.
clause which John gave me PP in a green cover
PP with coloured pictures of-PP of stories
a field of recursive post-modifiers
what is the Czech equivalent of the English of-phrase. Is it the same constituent? Is its position identical?
.................................................................................................................................................. ii. what is the Czech equivalent of English PP postmodifiers. Is their distribution similar to the distribution of English PP post-modifiers? ..................................................................................................................................................
63
(29) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss the properties of the underlined elements. What is their category? Give reasons for your claim. What is 'bracketing paradox'? a. b.
the local government policy the money exchange rate
(30) EXERCISE =========================================== Referring to the tree below, explain the restriction on the structure of APs in attribute functions i.
Premodifying Attribute
e.g. I saw [NP a [AP tall] tree]
ii.
Postmodifying Attribute
e.g. * I saw [NP a tree [AP tall]]
(31)
NP
AP
SPEC(AP)
N'
N0
A'
A0
AP
*A-compl.
SPEC(A)
A'
A0
a. more beautiful b.
(*than Mary )
GIRL GIRL
much more
beautiful
A-compl
than Mary
(32) EXERCISE =========================================== Referring to the tree below, explain the restriction on the structure of APs in the non-attribute AP functions. Give more relevant examples (also the ungrammatical ones)
i.
Nominal Predicate after Copula:
e.g. [NP The tree ] is [AP tall]]
ii.
Subject Complement
e.g. The tree became [AP tall]]
iii.
Object Complement
e.g. They made the tree [AP tall]]
64
11
NEGATION
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 785-850, QGLS (2004) pp. 775-799;Biber et al. (2002, 239) Dušková (1994) pp. 336-348; H&P (2005) pp. 149-158; G &Q (1991) pp. 223-230.
11.1 Kinds of Negation The following classification is based on the (i) gramaticalisation and (ii) scope of negation.
11.1.1 Semantic Negation Opposites (=pairs of words which are distinct in at least one feature) are part of each natural language. The phenomenon possibly reflects some psychological property of a human brain (the ability to see the facts as contrastive or in binary opposition). Opposites are not a part of grammatical system. (1)
a. c.
good friend
vs. vs.
bad enemy
b. d.
day mother
vs. vs.
night father
11.1.2 Partial Negation (Lexical, phrasal) The first stage of grammaticalization of negation. Some specialized grammatical morpheme (affix) is used to negate a unit a. a word (e.g. un-, in-, dis, -less, -free) b. a phrase (not) a) (2)
Lexical negation a.
im+possible, un+easy, dis+proportionate, non+sense coffein+free, speech+less
b.
It is il-logical.
!!!
(not a negative clause, X = Y)
Scales of positive – grammatical negation – opposite (3)
b)
(4)
a. b.
true – untrue -- false easy – uneasy – difficult
Phrasal Negation The particle not negates the whole phrase (usually some existing sentence member) a. b. c.
He prepared the dinner in the living room, not in the kitchen. Mary, not her little sister, will drive the car today. I want to read novels not to study vocabulary.
The negated phrase can be also the VP. To negate the whole clause, we must negate the sentence modality (the Predicate).
65
11.2 Sentence negation CLAUSAL NEGATION (propositional, 'grammatical') negates the clause, i.e. the whole proposition. In English it is done by a particle not added to the Mod/Aux or by a negative polarity item with a scope over the Predicate. (5)
a. b. c. d. e. f.
Mary will not help you. Mary will never help you. Nobody can do it for you. I met nobody in the park. ?? I gave the book to nobody. ??? I met Jessica never / nowhere.
(particle not) (negative quantifier in ADV) (negative quantifier in SUBJ) (negative quantifier in OBJ) (partial negation?) (partial negation?)
Partial (lexical and phrasal) negation can combine with the clausal negation. (6)
a. b. c.
It is impossible. It is not possible. It is not impossible.
(positive clause) (negative clause) (negative clause (positive meaning))
(7)
a. b. c.
I was allowed not to come. I was not allowed to come. I was not allowed not to come.
(positive clause) (negative clause) (negative clause (positive meaning))
(8)
Scalar reading of lexical negation vs. opposites. a. b. c. d.
(9)
It is true. It is easy. He is tall. She is beautiful.
It is not true. It is not easy. He is not tall. She is not beautiful.
≠ ≠ ≠ ≠
It is false. It is difficult. He is short. She is ugly.
INTENSIFICATION: ... at all, no X whatever, not one ... a. He is not big at all. b. I have no money whatever. c. Norbert has not a single friend.
11.3 The form and number of negative operators A negative sentence can contain more negative operators (constituents denoting empty sets). In fact any sentence member can be a negative operator. Compare the following examples. (10)
SUBJ, ADV, OBJ, OBJ,
V
a. b. c. d. e.
Petr včera Marušce tu knihu ne-dal. Ni-kdo včera Marušce tu knihu ne-dal. Ni-kdo ni-kdy Marušce tu knihu ne-dal. Ni-kdo ni-kdy ni-komu tu knihu ne-dal. Ni-kdo ni-kdy ni-komu ni-c ne-dal.
a.
Peter did not give the book to Mary.
(11)
66
b. c. d. e.
Peter did not give any/*no-thing to Mary. Peter did not give any/*no-thing to any/*no-body. No-body gave any/*no-thing to any/*no-body. *No-body did not give.
Czech: Negative Concord ('Multiple' negation) English: Unique negation
(12)
NEGATIVE/POSITIVE QUANTIFIERS no-, not any- / some- + -body/-thing/-where/-time/-how...
complex nature of pronouns = polarity item + 'proform' Polarity elements are sensitive to the polarity of the context (=their interpretation depends on the linguistic context). Negative polarity items: appear only in the scope of negation.
11.4 The Choice of the Unique NEG in English See also above in section 11.2 on page 66. (13)
a. b. c. d. e. f.
Nobody has any friends. *Anybody has no friends. Adam and Mary do not have any friends Adam and Mary have no friends. Adam will never come. Adam won't ever come.
As early as possible / as short as possible. Negative polarity items any MUST be in the scope of negation (also ever, at all, etc.).
11.5 Position of Negation in English (revision) Clausal negation in English is formed with the help of a grammatical element not. Its position is fixed and represents an important point in the sentence structure so it is to be stated precisely.
11.5.1 Declarative sentences (14)
a. b. c. d. e. f.
David can NOT be reading. ?David can be NOT reading. *David can be reading NOT. *David NOT reads. ??David reads NOT. David does NOT read.
67
(15)
Negative particle (+negative/short Adverbs) follows the first Aux/Mod
David
SUBJECT
can
NOT
will might is (-ing) 'does'
never just
Mod/Aux
NEG
- - - read phonologically empty nonemphatic do becomes lexicalized to 'provide DO-support' for the NOT particle - - - VERB
The importance of the POSITION, the first phonetically present Mod/Aux distinct from other Auxs and VLEX. This element precedes the particle not (bound morpheme -n't). (The only exception is the Copula/lexical Verb be.)
11.5.2 Morphological realisation of NEG How is the +/- NEG morphologically realised?: [-]: n´t / 0; [+]: 0 / do (16) a
Ω + not / n´t
John won´t give you anything at all.
.....
b.
Nobody [0] will give you anything at all
..... 0 NEG operator in Ω
c. d.
John [0] helped you a lot. John did help you a lot..
....... zero morpheme Ω? ....... emphatic ʻdoʼ
11.5.3 Negative Questions Consider the format of NEG and the definition of ʻinversionʼ (=fronting of the operator) i.
Inversion: Recall which element (how many of them) inverts with a Subject?
(17)
a. b. c. d.
ii.
Insertion of not or -n't
David will be reading. *Will be David reading? Will David be reading? *Will be reading David?
Consider the categorial status of English not and its morpho-phonetic contraction -n't as signalled by the grammaticality judgments below. It shows that -n't is a bound morpheme, while not is a particle: it requires the presence of Mod/Aux but is not morphologically unified with it. (18) a. b. c. d.
David won't be reading. Won't David be reading? David doesn't read. Doesn't David read?
a.' b.' c.' d.' 68
David will not be reading. * Will not David be reading? David does not read. * Does not David read?
(19) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii.
First distribute the constituents from the following sentences to the scheme below. Use the (realized or potential) position of negation (NEG) as a criterion for distribution. Then label the XP phrase which is a right hand sister of V.
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
He would not call him. John never does what I ask him to do. I've got many interesting books. Jane cannot start to read immediately. Samuel has a breakfast in the kitchen.. Barbara has to help me. Mary is beautiful. We hate reading novels.
TP (clause)
NP (Subject)
!!!
TP
Aux/Mod/Tense
NegP
Ω/T +/-NEG
VP
V a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
Consider the position of "short" adverbs: never, ever, often, still, usually...
69
XP
(20)
Complex Predicate in English
will / have / Ø
modality + Tense + Aspect Mod / Aux
a. read b. look c. take
at / for care (of)
a. lexical Verb b. phrasal Verb c. light Verb
!!! particle nominal part of the Predicate
↓ functional level lexical level.
NEGATION (not/never/+NEG)
11.6 NOT vs. NEVER The distinctions between not and never can be stated as a distinction between a grammatical morpheme (not) and lexical morpheme (never: Adverb: mayor open class category). In a sentence this distinction is signalled by distinct behaviour. A. (21)
Sentence function (and interpretation) a. b.
He will not arrive tomorrow. ?? He will never arrive tomorrow.
(tomorrow = Adverbial of time) (2 Adverbials of time?)
Sentences like above appear only in colloquial language (defensive style). B. (22)
C. (23)
D. (24)
Position (=after (the first?) Mod/Aux) a. b. c. b.
He will not / won't be reading. *He will be not reading. He will never be reading. He will be never reading.
(= VP negation)
DO-support (and position) a. b. c. c.' b.
He does not / doesn't read. * He not / n't reads. * He does never read. ? He never does read. He never reads.
(pragmatically special)
Question formation (Inversion in front of the Subject) a. b. c. d.
Does HE not read? *Does not HE read? *Does HE n't read? Doesn't HE read? 70
e. f.
Does HE never read? *Does never HE read?
Recall that b/f are similar, in both cases the structure is ungrammatical because more than one "word" is inverted with Subject. (*Does often he read such books?) E.
Fronting (Topicalization,WH questions)
(25)
a. b. c. d.
To Mary Josephine never has written. The letter Joe did not receive. Yesterday William did not arrive. When did Barbara arrive? (inversion)
(26)
a. b. c. d.
Never will he read. ? Never he will read. *Not will he read. *Not he will read.
F. (27)
G. (28)
Usage in Separation Will he read?
a. b.
- Never! - *Not. / *N't. / No.
Interfering inflection a. b.
*He do not read-s / stop-(p)ed. He never reads / stopped.
The categorial status of English never, not and -n't can be expressed in the terms of grammaticalization. It shows the distinction between: grammatical elements
lexical elements
bound morpheme - particle -
free morpheme
-n't
not
never
(29) EXERCISE ================================================ In both the following examples the negative element (-n't, never) appear in front of the Subject. Discuss the distinctions. a.
Won't you help Mary?
b.
Never will I help Mary.
(30) EXERCISE ================================================ Recall the definitions of a. Question formation and b. Position of negation in Standard English. Then mark and explain the (un)grammaticality of the following examples. a.
Won't Benjamin help you?
b. 71
Will not Benjamin help you?
c. e. g.
Will Benjamin help you not? Will Benjamin not help you? Will Benjamin help you never?
d. f. h.
Will often Benjamin help you? Will Benjamin never help you? Will never Benjamin help you?
(31) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii.
Which of the following sentences are positive/negative? Why? Translate the sentences to English and try to keep the same kind of negative element.
a. c. e. g. i.
Je inteligentní. Není inteligentní. Mám hodně nepřátel. Nemám hodně nepřátel Mám v Praze jenom jednoho kamaráda.
b. d. f. h. j.
Je hloupý. Mám hodně přátel. Nemám hodně přátel. Nemám v Praze žádného kamaráda. Znám v Praze stěží víc než 5 lidí.
(32) EXERCISE ================================================ Negate the underlined constituents and show Czech morphemes creating the lexical and phrasal negation. The clause should remain positive! Then translate the sentences into English and do the same. a. Petr je můj přítel. ....................................................................... b. Ta cesta je bezpečná. ....................................................................... c. Nová fakta jsou relevantní. ....................................................................... d. Maminka dnes spěchala do školy. ....................................................................... e. Přijdu dnes. ....................................................................... f. Strašně mě baví pracovat. ....................................................................... g. Přikázal mu odpovídat celou větou. ....................................................................... h. Sedí v kuchyni. ....................................................................... (33) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the interpretation of the polarity element any-/some- and state the interpretative rule for ANY-. (positive / negative / free choice). a. b. c.
I can give you anything. I cannot give you anything. Can you give me anything?
a.' I can give you something. b.' I cannot give you something. c.' Can you give me something?
(34) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii. iii.
fill the bold columns with the polarity specification [+], [-], [±] or so... in the central column relate the Czech equivalents of the English polarity items. write the rule for interpretation of 'any' : positive, negative, free choice...
English SOME ANY NO
Czech NĚbody / thing / where
kdo / c(o) / kde/(-koli) NI-
ANY - ..................................................................................................................................... 72
(35) EXERCISE ================================================ Which kind of negation can you find in the following examples? Discuss the STYLE! a. b. c. d. e. f.
The product is not faultless. He doesn't like doing nothing. Nobody has never got into trouble. I don't know nobody. Nobody ain't at home. I never did it yesterday.
(36) EXERCISE ================================================ Translate into Czech and discuss the distinctions concerning negation. a. b. c. d. e. f.
There is no question of Harry’s decoration not being earned. You cannot say ‘it was nothing’; it can’t have been nothing. She hardly saw anything. Anyway, you can’t do just nothing. He went there not because of Mary. He didn’t go there because of Mary.
(37) EXERCISE ================================================ Translate the sentences. Which is partial and which are clausal negations? Can you prove it? a. It is impossible, isn't it? b. Anybody cannot speak. c. He feels better with nobody, doesn't he? d. Mary likes no work, doesn't she? e. Mary likes no work, does she?
11.7 The Scope of Negation See also: H&P (2002) pp. 785-850, QGLS (2004) pp. 775-799; Dušková (1994) pp. 336-348; H&P (2005) pp. 149-158; G &Q (1991) pp. 223-230. The domain in which the polarity item any gets negative interpretation. In English it is usually a simple clause. The following examples show that the scope is not enlarged to other clause in a complex/compound sentences. (38) See the interpretation (negative vs. arbitrary) of any a. Main-Subord.
Bonnie cannot see anything [ when anything covers his eyes. = free choice / * negative
b. Subord.-Main
Though we did not ask anybody [ any people can come. = free choice / * negative
c. Main-Main
I did not bring anything but [ you can take any of those. = free choice / * negative 73
The scope of negation is signalled by the interpretation of the negative polarity any- . Given that in the above examples any is interpreted as free choice and not as negative in a clause which does not contain not, they signal that the negative operator has a scope over one simple clause..
11.7.1 Tests for Polarity The formal characteristics of a polarity item cannot be derived referring to semantics of the proposition but with the help of formal signals, namely with the form of (39) a. b. c.
related polarity item(s): NPI question tag inversion when neg. adverb is fronted. Consider the following examples.
See ALSO H&P (2002) pp.785 - Tests for polarity:
!!!
(40) a. b. c. d.
tag question neither-tag either conjoining NPI: e.g. not even, at all (signal NEG scope)
(41) a. b. c. d.
John married an Italian, didn´t he /*did he? He didn´t show any mercy, neither was he sorry for what he has done. He will never accept your help, and his sister will never accept it either. She did not give him anything at all, not even on his birthday.
Consider the tests in your native tongue. CZ:
Question tags are not a reliable diagnostics and the Czech vůbec (ʻat allʼ) is not NPI. BUT: (i) ne-/ni-/-koli prefix is significant, (ii) obligatory ne+V, (iii) NPI: ani
(42) a. b. c.
Maruška nehnula ani prstem. *Maruška hnula ani prstem. *Hnula Maruška ani prstem?
a. b. a.
Maruška nehnula ničím. *Maruška hnula ničím. *Hnula Maruška ničím?
11.7.2 Shortening the scope of NEG Though negation takes scope over the whole simple clause, sometimes it is necessary to restrict it (e.g. to get general, non-negative interpretation of the any- element). (43) a. b.
Nebavím ses nikým. / s někým. / s kýmkoliv. I do not talk to somebody / anybody. (any=NEG. How can we get a free choice reading?)
(44) a. b.
He will not choose just anything. (=free choice reading!) Mary cannot invite just anybody. (=free choice reading!)
74
11.7.3 Enlarging the scope of NEG (NEG-Transportation/Transfer) In complex sentences containing Verbs of the 'think' type in the main clause, the negation can be transported/transferred to the initial main clause. (45) a. b.
I think he will not come at all. I do not think he will come at all.
(46)
a.
I think
he is NOT here.
b.
I do NOT think
he is here.
main clause
subordinate clause
NEG Transportation: The shift/move of NEG from the embedded clause to the main clause, the interpretation does not change in a. and b., but formally, the scope of the negation covers both main and subordinate clauses in (b). (47) a. b.
I think [[ that Mary will NOT help any-body/*some-body /*no-body at all. I do NOT think [[ that Mary will help any-body/*some- body /*no- body at all.
In a. the underlined main clause is positive. The negative particle not is in the second/subordinate clause and the second/subordinate is negative, as signalled by the negative interpretation of any-body and the presence of 'at all' In b. the main clause contains the negative particle not (although it is probably not interpreted as negative, it still is formally marked as negative). The second/subordinate clause does not contain any negative particle, but the negative interpretation of any-body and 'at all' signal its negative polarity. The scope is thus enlarged into both clauses. (48) a. b.
I think that Henry will NOT write any-thing/*some-thing/*no-thing at all. I do NOT think that Henry will write any-thing/*some-thing/*no-thing at all.
11.7.4 Negative Adverbs / Partial Negation Apart from negative Adverb never, which creates "full" clausal negation, there are Adverbs in English, which constitute so called "partial" clausal negation: e.g. hardly, scarcely, barely, rarely, seldom, little, few… Compare the positive vs. negative patterns represented by 'often' and 'never': (49) a. b. c.
He often knows anything *at all. He never knows anything / *nothing / at all. He knows hardly/barely anything / *nothing / at all.
... positive pattern ... negative pattern ... negative pattern
(50) a.
He often knows all, doesn't he /*does he.
... positive pattern
75
b. c. (51) a. b. c.
He never knows, does he / *doesn't he. He knows hardly/barely all, does he/ *does he?
.. negative pattern ... negative pattern
Often I will help you. / *Often will I help you. *Never I will help you. / Never will I help you. *Hardly I will help you. / Hardly will I help you.
... positive pattern ... negative pattern. ... negative pattern
11.7.5 More Polarity Items Apart from polarity elements containing items some-/any-/no-, there are more lexical (phrasal, idiomatic) expressions sensitive to the scope of negation (and/or interrogative operator). (52) a. b. c. (53)
Mary did not see a single friend / anybody on her trip. *Mary saw a single friend/ anybody on her trip. Did Mary see *a single friend/ anybody on her trip?
Some English polarity items
Both NEG and Q any, anyyet, ever, long need, dare at all (UK) give a damn move an inch
only NEG: NPI a single N (US) either ?at all (US) lift a finger, spend a red cent, spend a penny,
Only Q
Never NEG
whether, how
already, too sort of, kind of
what the hell
(54) EXERCISE ================================================ i. Explain the process of NEG-transportation and show what signals the scope of NEG in the following English examples: a. b.
I believe that Mary will not say anything at all to anybody. I do not believe that Mary will say anything at all to anybody.
ii. Write Czech equivalents of the above sentences and check the scope of negation. Underline the elements which show the polarity of the Czech sentences. Is the process of NEG transportation the same in Czech as in English? c.= a. d.= b.
.................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................
(55) EXERCISE ================================================ i. Explain what signals the presence of NEG scope in the following examples. Why are the Adverbs like hardly/scarcely etc. called (partially) negative?
76
a. b. c.
He does not help anybody, does he? He never helps anybody, does he? He hardly helps anybody, does he?
ii. Write Czech equivalents of the above sentences and check the scope of negation. Underline the elements which show the polarity of the Czech sentences. Assuming that 'partial' negation can refer to interpretation and formal characteristics, to which extent can the Adverbs like hardly/stěží be called 'negative' in English/Czech? d.= a. e.= b. f.= c.
.................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................
(56) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the (un)grammaticality of the following examples. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
He knows nothing at all. % Did you drink at all at the party? *Did you have a single drink at the party?(US) *He knows everything at all. He doesn’t know anything either. *Did you drink either at the party? *He knows everything either. He doesn’t understand it yet/*still. Did you *yet/still go to the party? He *yet/still remembers everything.
(57) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the (un)grammaticality of the following examples.
a. b. c.
I sort of don’t have any family. I don’t sort of have any family. I (*don’t ) have sort of a family
(58) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the phraseological vs. literal interpretation of the phrase lift a finger. a. b. c.
He hasn’t ever lifted (??left) a finger for anybody, as far as I know. ?? Would you please lift a finger for me? ?? I often lift a finger for my friends.
(59) EXERCISE ================================================ Consider the standard position of the negative adverb never compared with the position of Adverbial/Adjunct of Time in the afternoon. a. b.
Joe will never do it. Joe will do it in the afternoon.
77
(60) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming that Adjuncts can be fronted in English, which of them trigger Aux-Subj. inversion? a.
In the afternoon Joe will do it.
b.
Never will Joe do it.
Clausal negation in English can result also from structures with negated Object or Adverbial, though esp. the latter structures remain often ambiguous between i. the clausal and ii. partial negation. c.
I have no friends.
=
I do not have any friend.
d.
I will do it in no time.
=
AMBIGUOUS: interpreted depending on the assumed scope.
i. ii.
I will not ever do it. I will do it [ in short time].
... clausal negation ... partial negation
Recall that if the negative adverb negates the whole clause, and if such an adverb is fronted, it triggers inversion. The contrast between g. and h. should help you to explain the distinct interpretation of (g) and (h). Inversion signals a clausal NEG. No inversion signals a phrasal NEG scope only. e.
Often Mary will come.
f.
Never will Mary come.
g.
[In no time] Mary will come. (=she comes soon = in no time) partial (NP) NEG
h. [In no time] will Mary come. (=she never comes=she will not come ever) clausal NEG
(61) EXERCISE ================================================ Translate (or paraphrase) the following sentences. Notice that (a/b) are ambiguous, while (c-f) are not. Referring to the discussion in this section, explain the distinction in terms of partial vs. clausal negation. a. They are ready for no job. ....................................................................... ....................................................................... b. The food tastes well with no salt. ....................................................................... ....................................................................... c. For no job are they ready. ....................................................................... d. With no job they are ready. ....................................................................... e. With no salt the food tastes well. ....................................................................... f. With no salt does the food taste well. ....................................................................... (62) EXERCISE ================================================ Find signals of negation and discuss their interpretation. Explain the ungrammaticality in h.. a. c. e. g. i.
Petr is friendly / unfriendly. It is impossible for Peter to be unfriendly. Peter knows nothing. Peter does not know nothing. *No people cannot help you.
b. d. f. h.
Petr is not friendly / unfriendly. It is hardly possible for the chips to be fatless. Peter does not know anything / ?? nothing. No people can help you.
(63) EXERCISE ================================================ HOMEWORK: Fill the tables in sections 12.1- 12.3 below.
78
12
ENGLISH SENTENCE PATTERNS (REVISION)
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 851-946; QGLS (2004) pp. 49-5, H&P (2005) pp. 159-173; G &Q (1991) pp. 159-1739; Svoboda (2004) pp. 33-35. Word order in English simple clauses is grammatical (‘fixed’). Students often use the 'SVO (MPT)' pattern. In the following section 12.1 we are revising the topic step by step, arguing that though 'SVO' is a correct typological characteristic of English constituent order (especially when compared with other languages), a single symbol ʻVʻ in the S-V-O is not detailed enough to capture the constituent order in various English sentence patterns.
12.1 Analytic characteristics of the English Predicate The Predicate Verb in English often consists of several parts and there is a good reason to assume that it theoretically always consists of several parts. The reasoning is provided in the exercises below which show that a more analytic concept of English predicate allows general and systematic treatment of distinct sentence patterns. Distribute the words/ phrases/ units (=constituents) into slots in the table below. Consider also the size of the elements. (1) (2) (3) (4)
Henry will sleep tonight. The boy is reading a novel. That curiously beautiful girl has walked around our school every day this week. He can put the book on its place as soon as Mary tells him where it should be. S (Subject)
M/A (Modal/ Aux.)
"VP" 'Verb'
V-complementation
(1) (2) (3) (4)
12.1.1 Negation In forming a clausal negation in English, where is the position of negation (particle "n't/ not")? Consult the examples and define the position precisely with respect to the elements (columns) in the above table. Mark the relevant line dividing the relevant columns. (5) (6) (7)
Henry will not sleep tonight. The boy is not reading a novel. That curiously beautiful girl has not walked around our school every day this week.
79
12.1.2 Polar Questions Polar questions in English are formed by inversion/ fronting. Study the examples and define the fronted element precisely with respect to the elements (columns) in the above table. Circle the relevant column and mark by an arrow the process of inversion/ fronting. (8) Will Henry sleep tonight? (9) Is the boy reading a novel? (10) Has that curiously beautiful girl walked around our school every day this week? Assuming that the position of negation and question inversion are the two main criteria for dividing the English Predicate field, also distribute these constituents in the following structures into the table below. (11) Henry will be sleeping well. (12) The new boy will look for you tomorrow. (13) She may have been having a shower for more than an hour. fronting in questions S (Subject)
position of NOT M/A (Modal/ Aux.)
"V –VP" 'Verb'
V-complementation
(11) (12) (13)
Analytic Predicates in English The above data illustrate what is called an analytic Predicate = a Predicate which can be divided into several parts. Such a Predicate is characteristic of Modern English (contrary to Czech which has a synthetic Predicate). Notice (check/ show) that the English word order expressed as S-V-O is not able to capture with clarity either the position of negation or the nature of question inversion. Moreover, it presupposes the presence of Object, which is not always present. Therefore we will replace it by S – M/A – V – (O), where M/A +V represents the two main parts of the English analytic Predicate.
12.1.3 The Verb 'be' and single lexical Verbs Apparent exceptions: Two separate cases seem distinct from S – M/A – V – (O)… The Verb be: Consider the following examples with ‘be’. Locate the Verb ‘be’ in the table below using the position of negation and question inversion. (14) Henry will be reading the book. (15) You have been students for many years. 80
(16) (17) (18) (19) (20)
He may have been at home. Henry is reading the book. You were students for many years. I am to go there soon. Don’t be silly! S
M/A
"V-VP"
(14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) Conclusion: the Verb ‘be’ (Auxiliary/ Copula/ existential but not Modal) is special, because it can be a V, but in the absence of any Modal/ Auxiliary, ‘be’ takes over this position, leaving V empty. Is there any distinction between ‘be’ when it is i. an Auxiliary, ii. a Copula, iii. existential, iv. Modal? 'Lexical' Verbs In English, a 'lexical' Verb is often preceded by an Auxiliary or modal element, but sometimes such a Verb appears alone. Assuming our division between A/M and V, fill into the slots in the table the constituents in the following examples. Take into account the criteria we have been using – i.e. the position of negation and question inversion. How do we call the ‘do’ in (24) , (25), (26)? (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26)
Henry does sleep at home. He did (indeed) read the novel you gave him. Elisabeth does walk around our school every day around 5 o‘clock. Henry sleeps at home. He (indeed) read the novel you gave him. Mary walks around our school every day around 5 o‘clock. S
M/A
"V-VP"
(21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) DO-Support (Covert Auxiliary do) with lexical verbs 81
To keep the idea of English constituent order as general as possible, we can claim that English Predicate is always analytic and assume that in non-emphatic positive declarative clauses the Auxiliary DO remains covert (phonetically unrealized). It becomes overt when needed (e.g. in emphatic contexts, questions, and with the negative particles ‘not’ / ‘n’t’).
12.1.4
Other uses of the structure S-M/A-V-(O)
The word/ constituent order in English has a grammatical function. We must state the order of constituents in a clause correctly to be able to discuss the main types of sentences, i.e. properly state the position of negation, the inversion process and also other processes. 'SVO' does not mean, that "the first word is a Subject." Remember:
i) ii) iii) iv) v)
there can be topicalized constituents in front of the Subject, a SUBJECT can be very complex (it is an NP, not N!), MOD/AUX is one word, a Verb can be complex (contain other Auxiliaries), and V-complementation varies according to the Verb.
(27) Constituent order in English SUBJECT - MOD/AUX - (NEG) -
VERB …
the position of the polarity (positive/ negative) (= after the first Mod/ Aux) Question inversion (= the first Mod/Aux inverts in front of the Subject) Referring to the scheme in (27), we can e.g. define which elements appear in English question tags, short Yes/No answers and in questions of surprise. a.
Question tags
(28) Sunday morning Henry will sleep, won’t he? (29) Whoever Mary talked to at school is not at home, is he? (30) That curiously beautiful girl often walks around our school, doesn’t she? Question tags are formed with …………………………………………………………… b.
Short answers
(31) Will Henry sleep late Sunday morning? (32) Does that beautiful girl talk a lot? (33) Is the boy Mary talked to at home?
-
Yes, he will. /?Yes, Henry will. Yes, she does. /*Yes, she talks. No, he is not. /*No, the boy not.
Short Yes/No answers are formed with …………………………………………………… c.
Questions of surprise
(34) Henry will sleep all afternoon. (35) The girl walked around our school again!
82
Will he? Did she?
/*Will Henry? /*Walked she?
(36) The boy you talked to is never at home!
-
Isn’t he?
/*He not at home?
Questions of surprise are formed with ……………………………………………………
12.1.5 Negative questions In formulating the “rule” for question inversion in English in (27), negative questions show the importance of the size of the inverting element. Consider the following examples and explain the ungrammaticality. (Underline the inverting element. How many words invert?) (37) a. b. c. d.
Henry won’t arrive soon. Henry will not arrive soon. That girl is never reading novels. That girl is often reading novels
-
Won’t Henry arrive soon? Will Henry not arrive soon? Is that girl never reading novels? Is that girl often reading novels?
(38) a. b. c.
Henry will often arrive Henry will never arrive Henry will not arrive.
-
* Will often Henry arrive? * Will never Henry arrive? * Will not Henry arrive?
12.2 WH questions What is the constituent order in the WH question in English? Compare the a. examples in (39)/(40) with the b. examples and try to generalize about the changes. (39) a. b.
Lucy will read your book tomorrow. Intelligent students can learn a lot of exciting facts at school every day.
(40) a. b.
Whose book will Lucy read? What else can intelligent students learn at school every day?
S
M/A
"V-VP"
(39) a (39) b (40) a (40) b (41) The main characteristics of the WH question are
a) question inversion, b) a fronted WH element or a phrase.
The characteristics of the WH element Consider which part of the declarative sentence is questioned in WH questions. a) Underline the interrogative element (+ which sentence member it is) b) Consider what would the answer be (+ which sentence member it is) Then try to answer the following questions: - How complex is the initial element? ……………..…..…………………...……… - Which structures do not exhibit the inversion? …………...………………………...……… 83
(42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48)
What can intelligent students learn at school every day? Which facts can intelligent students learn at school? How many exciting facts can intelligent students learn in a day? Where can intelligent students learn a lot of exciting facts? When can intelligent students learn a lot of exciting facts? Who else can learn a lot of exciting facts at school every day? Which students learn a lot of exciting facts at school every day?
……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………
There are some other structures which suggest that the fronting of some constituent is a more general phenomenon. Consider the similarity of the following examples Fronted operators (adverbial question operators, negative constituents, and some operators with special reference) can trigger the same inversion. OPERATOR -
Mod/Aux -
SUBJECT
---
VERB...
SUBJ-Mod/Aux Inversion WH-/NEG fronting (49) When/ Where (in the world)/ How (on earth) will Henry find that novel? (50) Never will Henry read that novel. Not one person did she help. (51) Only once did she help me. And so did her husband.
12.3 Indirect WH questions and Echo questions There are some special WH questions which show characteristics more/ less distinct from those stated above. Compare the following structures with the "standard" in (39)/ (40), i.e. concentrating on a. the presence of inversion, b. the position of the WH element. Indirect WH questions. This is the term for “embedded questions.” They are defined by their form, not by interrogative meaning. (52) He told us which facts intelligent students should learn at school every day. (53) He wonders whether intelligent students can learn a lot of exciting facts at school. (54) What intelligent students should learn at school every day is an intriguing question. Indirect WH questions are special because they ………………………………………….… Echo questions (55) (56) (57) (58)
Intelligent students can learn what at school every day? Intelligent students learn a lot of which kinds of facts at school every day? Intelligent students learn a lot of exciting facts every day where? NOTICE: Who can learn lot of exciting facts at school every day?
Echo WH questions are special because they ………………………………………….....…
84
12.4 Imperatives (Covert Subjects) The structural formula S – M/A – V – (O) suggests that Subject is a necessary part of the English clause. Sometimes, however, it is not overt. Consider the following examples of imperatives and look for the signals of the presence of a Subject. (Make similar examples to prove this claim.) (59) a. b. c.
Open the window! Open the window, you! *Open the window, her! (You sob), don’t do that! Help him please, will you!
d. e.
Help yourself to some strudel! Let’s go, shall we?
b.
I ordered him to go outside.
(60) Indirect commands/ requests a.
I asked Mary to open the window.
lexical
(61) English Verbal elements (Revision)
non -lexical (grammatical)
VERBS
semantics
phonetics
morphology
subcategorization
N.I.C.E.
semantic roles assigned
no reduction
T, Asp, Voice, Inf etc.
any including VP
a) *+n´t b) *inversion c) *coda d) emph. DO
S+Aux Neg+Aux
see V (substitution)
Ving, Ven, Vbare-INF
"secondary" some semantic S-Aux roles Neg+Aux
no inflection
Vbare-INF
AUXILIARIES no semantic be, do, have roles MODALS can, may, must...will...
a) +n´t b) inversion c) coda d) *emph. DO
(62) EXERCISE ================================================ What is the distinction between (a) and (b) in the following example? First translate the (a) and (b) examples into Czech. Then state the function of the pronominal ‘us’. In the end explain the ungrammaticality of (d). a. b.
Let us go, shall we? Let us go, will you?
...................................... "us" is .................................... ...................................... "us" is ....................................
c.
Let’s go, shall we?
d.
*Let’s go, will you?
(63) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss the following structures using the term of "movement". Which elements are moving into which positions? Mark the movement by an arrow and the original place by t ("trace"). a) b) c) d) e)
Is John playing computer games every day? Yesterday afternoon I will help you with your homework. What is John doing at home? Those big bags of food I cannot carry for sure! Never will I give you so much money! 85
13
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
See also: H&P (2002) pp. 851-1096; QGLS (2004) pp. 49-50, 985-1146; H&P (2005) pp. 159-194; G &Q (1991) pp. 159-173, 262-335; Svoboda (2004) pp. 33-35. In a quite traditional framework but with many very useful constructions English subordinate clauses are introduced (with their Czech equivalents) in Dušková (1994) pp. 588-647;
!!!
13.1 Classification of Subordinate Clauses Consider the sentence functions of the bold elements.
(1) a. b.
A EVELYN EVELÝNA
A. B. B. C. D.
Subject Attribute Object (Prepositional) Object Adverbial
(2)
a.
WHO(EVER) WANTED gave a proposal to the committee yesterday. KDO CHTĚL, podal návrh předsednictvu.
b.
Evelyn gave the proposal which was fantastic to the committee yesterday. Evelýna podala včera komisi návrh, který byl fantastický.
c.
Evelyn gave them WHAT THEY WANTED. Evelýna jim podala, CO CHTĚLI.
d.
Evelyn gave a proposal to who(ever) she wanted. Evelýna podala návrh, komu chtěla.
e.
Evelyn gave a proposal to the committee after she introduced herself. Evelýna podala návrh předsednictvu , jakmile se představila.
made podala
B C D a fantastic PROPOSAL to the committee fantastický NÁVRH předsednictvu
E yesterday. včera.
→ Subordinate Subject Clause → Relative/Attributive Clause → Subordinate Object Clause → Subordinate (Prepositional) Object Clause → Subordinate Adverbial Clause
Subordinate clauses have the function of some sentence member of its main clause. Two kinds of Classification of subordinate clauses (plus many mixed types) (i).
The traditional way: Functional: According to the sentence member the clauses replace/realize. See (1) and (2) above.
(ii).
Dušková/Quirk etc.: According to the part of speech which typically occurs in the same function. A. Subject → Noun → Nominal Content Clause B. Object → Noun → Nominal Content Clause C. (Prep.) Object → Noun → Nominal Content Clause D. Adverbial → Adverb → Adverbial Clause 86
(3)
Subordinate clause taxonomy
a) b) c)
NOMINAL content clause ('replace main/obligatory NP sentential members') ADVERBIAL clause ('replace Adverbials') ATTRIBUTIVE (content) and RELATIVE clauses ('replace Attributes')
13.2 Nominal Content Clauses Used in the function of a nominal phrase (Subject, Object, Complements, etc.). Connected with the main clause with a connecting element: 0, THAT, WH-ELEMENT (4)
a. b. c. d.
He's told us jokes. He's told us THAT he couldn't come. This story is interesting. WHAT you say is interesting.
= Object / Noun = Object / Nominal Content Clause = Subject / Noun = Subject / Nominal Content Clause
13.2.1 Resumptive element ('opěrný výraz') (5)
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
IT is interesting WHAT you say. (*It/*That) What you say, is interesting. TO je zajímavé, CO říkáš. (To,) Co říkáš, je zajímavé. He was interested in (*it/*that) what he needed. Zajímalo ho jen to, co potřeboval. (Ten) Kdo šetří, (ten) má za tři. (To) O čem nevíš, (to) tě nebolí.
English vs. Czech equivalents: clause vs. semiclause i. j.
Vadí mi, že to udělal. I mind his doing it.
Chci, aby to udělal. I want him to do it.
Pro-form replacing the whole proposition: so (6)
Can we get there in time? a. I hope (that) we can get there in time. b. I hope (*that) so
13.2.2 Tense/Mood (and other characteristics) of the Subordinate Clause The distinction between the main and subordinate clause can be seen also in the level of their separate and independent reference to Time/mood. Some subordinate clauses lose their independence and their form is influenced by some characteristics of the main clause (and/or by a Preposition). (7)
a.
Indirect speech
He said he would do it when he came. Řekl, že to udělá, až přijede.
b.
Indirect question:
He asked if/ whether she would come. 87
c.
Subjunctive:
It is
appropriate essential necessary not fitting
that he SHOULD come.
13.3 Adverbial Clauses Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp.262-335; Dušková (1994) pp. 588-647; Quirk/Greenbaum/Leech/Svartvik (2004) pp.985-1146.
13.3.1 Kinds of Adverbial clauses Used in the function of Adverbial (Adjunct). (8)
Place: a. b.
(9)
Time : a. b.
Replace Adverbial of Place. Provide information about location or direction to the contents of the main clause. I found my notebook WHERE I LEFT IT. WHEREVER WE CAME, we meet with friendliness. Replace Adverbial of Time. Provide temporal information w.r.t. the contents of the main clause. (In English they do not have future Tense.) I'll give it to you, AS SOON AS I (*WILL) FINISH. WHEN (I AM) ON HOLIDAY I (will) dismiss all work.
(10) Manner (and condition): There exist many kinds of Adverbials of 'Manner', e.g. cause, reason, purpose, result, condition, concession... Include also conditional clauses. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
His voice broke AS IF HE WERE GOING TO CRY. There is no light here SO THAT WE COULD WORK. We had to go there BECAUSE WE WERE ASKED TO. I am not going to go there IN CASE YOU DON'T COME. He will do it, IF YOU ASK HIM. IF YOU ASKED HIM, he would do it. (AL)THOUGH THE WEATHER IS FANTASTIC we will have to stay at home. SINCE SHE DID NOT ANSWER we can do it our way.
(11) Manner (Grading): Adverbial clauses of Manner can be also related to Adjective or Adverb (grading, degree, comparison, etc). a. b. c.
Mary is more lazy THAN ANYBODY CAN IMAGINE. He was so stupid THAT I COULD NOT BELIEVE IT. The airplane got as high AS NOBODY HAD EXPECTED.
88
13.3.2 Conditional Clauses (12) Taxonomy of conditional clauses a.
Real
b.
Unreal
13.3.2.1
i. classification w.r.t. TIME ii. classification w.r.t. INTERPRETATION
a. b. c.
Future Present Past
Future Conditional Clauses
(13) = always real (it can happen) a. If it rains (tomorrow) I WILL not WORK. b. Jestli bude pršet (zítra), NEBUDU PRACOVAT. 13.3.2.2
Present Conditional Clauses
(14) Real
a. b.
(15) Unreal
a. b.
13.3.2.3
If it rains (now), they ARE wet. Jestli prší (teď), tak JSOU mokří. If it rained (now), I WOULDN'T BE here. Kdyby pršelo (teď), tak BYCH tu nebyl.
Past Conditional Clauses
(16) Real
a. b.
If it rained (yesterday), they DIDN'T MANAGE to do it. Jestli pršelo (včera), tak to NESTIHLI udělat.
a. b. c.
If it had rained (yesterday), he WOULDN'T HAVE GONE there. Kdyby (bývalo) pršelo (včera), (NEBYL) BY tam ŠEL. Had it rained (yesterday), he WOULD HAVE TAKEN an umbrella.
(17) Unreal
13.3.2.4
Mixed Patterns
e.g. PAST condition with PRESENT result (18) Real
a. b.
If it rained (yesterday), the barrel is full of water (now). Jestli (včera) pršelo, tak je nádrž plná vody (teď).
(19) Unreal
a. b.
If they had done it (yesterday) they wouldn't be busy (today). Kdyby to bývali udělali (včera), neměli by spoustu práce (dnes).
89
(20) EXERCISE ================================================ (i) Change the underlined constituents into more complex phrases. Which kind of phrase are they? (ii) Change the underlined constituents into subordinate clauses. How would you classify them? a. c. e.
Mary arrived yesterday. I like Josephine. Don't say that!
b. d. f.
The man reading newspaper is my brother Tom. Joe is not interested in sports. He is taller than Mary.
(21) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii. iii.
Look into the table below and notice that some subcategorized Complements can/must be expressed by a clause. See the variety of the Complements, add more examples. What are the semantic roles of the PP in (9) and (18)? What is the distinction between the second NP in (10) and (16)?
VERB monotransitive
ditransitive V
complex transitive V
subcategorization V, [--NP] V, [-- that-CL] V, [-- wh-CL] V, [-- wh-INF] V, (-- to-INF] V, [-- ing-CL] V, [-- NP to-INF] V, [-- NP ing-CL] V, [-- NPd PP] V, [-- NPi NPd] V, [-- NPi that-CL] V, [-- NPi wh-CL] V, [-- NPi wh-INF] V, (-- NPi to-INF] V, [-- NPd AP] V, [-- NPd NP] V, [-- NPd adv] V, [-- NPd PP] V, [-- NPd to-INF] V, [-- NPd bare-INF] V, [-- NPd ing-CL] V, [-- NPd -ed-CL]
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
example Jane read a diary. I think that we have met. Can you guess what she said? I learned how to sail the boat. We've decided to move to Prague. She enjoys playing squash. They want Jane to help us. I hate Jane shouting. He wrote a letter to Jane. He told Jane a story. They told Jane that I was ill. He asked Jane what time it was. Mary showed Jane what to do. I advised Jane to see the doctor. That music drives Jane mad. They called Jane idiot. I left Jane at home. I put the book on the shelf. They knew Jane to be a spy. I saw Jane leave the room. I heard Jane shouting. They got Jane killed.
(22) EXERCISE ================================================ Underline the subordinate clauses and classify them. Use both functional and categorial terminology. a. I did not know that you would arrive so soon. b. That Clara will do it was clear from the very beginning. c. The said that if I helped him he would be able to finish it by noon. d. Because the world is round one cannot see America from Spain. e. He figured that they all must have left already. f. Barbara has more money than you can imagine. 90
(23) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii. iii.
State which kind of subordinate clause is the underlined text. Underline the sentence member in the main clause which is related to the subordinate clause (what is the syntagma?). Replace the subordinate clause by a non-clausal constituent.
a. b. c. d. e. f.
I wonder where he put it. This shows you I was right. The material world is the only world there is. Bill sat at the same table as Fred (did). He hit him so hard that he tumbled off the chair. I'll give it to whoever you suggest.
(24) EXERCISE ================================================ Write the example of a complex sentence containing a.
a nominal content clause in the function of Subject (with and without the linking it)
................................................................................................................................................... b. a nominal content clause in the function of Object ................................................................................................................................................... c. a nominal content clause in the function of Object of Preposition ................................................................................................................................................... d. a nominal content clause in the function of Predicate ................................................................................................................................................... e. an Adverbial clauses in the function of Time adv. and adv. of Place ................................................................................................................................................... f. an Adverbial clause in the function of Grading ...................................................................................................................................................
(25) EXERCISE ================================================ Are the following sentences grammatical? a. b. c. d.
He will help you when he will come. He will ask Connie when she will come. Mary will arrive if she will have time. Bill wants to know if she will have time.
(26) EXERCISE ================================================ In which contexts English does not tolerate 'will/shall' (Czech future)? What is 'Tense Shift'? State in detail the conditions when it applies (and exceptions to the rule).
91
14
REVISION OF THE COURSE(S)
The following exercises assume the knowledge acquired during the Course of English grammar comprising Morphology, Morphosyntax (the parts of speech) and Syntax of simple and complex sentence structures. It is aimed to help students with their preparation for the oral exam and it also serves as introduction for the following more advanced topics.
14.1 General Linguistics (1)
EXERCISE ================================================
Discuss the relation between theory of communication and linguistics. Name fields of research which were developed mainly in the 20th century. You know some representative scientists related to some of the new fields? (2)
EXERCISE ================================================
i. ii. iii. iv.
Discuss the following terms: sign (index, indices, symbol) language as a human specific communication code double articulation, complex system Langue vs. Parole, Competence vs. Performance
(3)
EXERCISE ================================================
Name the topic and main units in the distinct levels of the language system. Mention the distinction between Langue and Parole. (4)
EXERCISE ================================================
Consider the domains and autonomy of the individual sciences. Which of them is more/less general, which studies a clearly specific topic (introduces its unique terminology, uses specific rules, etc.) and which is intermediate (related to some other). Concentrate on the relation between the formal parts of linguistics (phonetics vs. morphology vs. syntax). Which position within the other field does semantics have?
14.2 English morphology (5)
EXERCISE ================================================
Discuss the internal structure of the following complex words. Divide them into morphemes and state (in detail) the kinds of the morphemes (lexical vs. grammatical, derivational vs. inflectional). Find other words comprised of the same morphemes. Example: underemployment = under+employ+ment under - derivational prefix, ‘low, less’ (e.g. under-graduate, under-mine) employ - root/stem, ‘give work’ (e.g. employ-er, employ-ee) ment - derivational suffix, V→N, ‘institution/abstract’ (e.g. govern-ment, improve-ment ) readers ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ 92
modernize ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ cranberry ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ reads ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ spoke ................................................................................................................................ (he) was ................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................ he's
reading
having been eaten
will
sing
(6)
-
be written
sang - sung
- song
EXERCISE ================================================
Give examples of all the functions of the morphemes –s / -ed in English. How do we pronounce them? -s ......................................................................................................................................... -ed ......................................................................................................................................... (7)
EXERCISE ================================================
Give the form of English verbal morphemes for …………………………………..........…… …………………………………..........…… …………………………………..........…… …………………………………..........……
a. b. c. d.
Tense (present, past, future) Aspect(s) (progressive, perfective) Voice (active, passive) Mood (conditional)
(8)
EXERCISE ================================================
Give the form of English Verb 'stop' with the following set of features. …………………………………..........…… …………………………………..........…… …………………………………..........……
a. b. c.
[+PAST][+PERF] [+PRES][+PASS][+COND] [+FUT][+PERF][+PROG][+PASS]
(9)
EXERCISE ================================================
Find the morphemes of the required type. Discuss the distinction between inherent, optional and configurational feature. a. Tense, Aspect, Number Barbara will be reading those papers on Sunday. b. Agreement, Case He introduces them to Mary. c. Grading The most intelligent students are harder to control. d. Gender, Agreement, Case Malá Maruška šla do parku. 93
14.3 Parts of Speech and Phrase Structure
(10) EXERCISE ================================================ What do the exercises above tell us about the status of the underlined constituents. Are they heads of phrases? Fill in the subscripts to mark them. Use the substitution test to prove your claim. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.
[ A good friend of ours] wrote a letter yesterday. [ Emma] wrote a letter yesterday. Emma [ wrote a letter yesterday]. Emma [ wrote] a letter yesterday. Bill is [ extremely talented for mathematics]. Bill is [ talented]. Bill is extremely [ talented] for mathematics. Bill is extremely talented [ for mathematics]. I hate going [ to the local cinema]. I hate going to the local [ cinema]. I hate going to [ the local cinema].
(11) EXERCISE ================================================ Fill the slots for the most complex NPs you can construct. Use also expressions a lot of, 50-page-long, very interesting, most refreshing.
Q every
D/Poss ---
Q ---
A large
A cold
N/A snow
N MAN
Of-P
PP with a cap
XP
BOOKS LOVE JUSTICE AIR (12) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming the structure of the English NP as below, mention all possible distinctions between English and Czech (articles, possessives, PP, etc.). Concentrate on: i. position w.r.t. Noun and w.r.t. the preceding and following elements ii. uniqueness vs. recursivity (how many of the elements can we find in one NP?) iii. mention morphology, too. all
the
seven very tall black city
towers
(Q) - D/POSS - (Q) - AP - AP... - N/A -
94
N
of Mordor with golden spires + which everybody fears so much
- of P - PP - XP
(13) EXERCISE ================================================ Let's assume the structure of English adjectival phrase (AP) as below:
AP =
Grading ADV / Measure Phrases - A
-
PP / XP
In the following sentences underline the whole APs (bare/complex). Mark their heads. State the syntactic function of each AP. Explain the ungrammaticality. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m.
Hugo is very silly. He seems to be foolishly proud of his achievements. He became about twice as mad at his son. She is a very faithful woman. Joe jumped over a two metre wide ditch. *Sybille prefers the taller than her boy-friends. *She is a faithful to her husband woman. *Emma became a child very scared. *She is a woman very faithful. ??Henry jumped over a ditch two metre wide. Emma is a child (very) scared of monsters. He painted the door as green as I like it. Emma likes her boyfriend's skin very dark.
(14) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming the structure of English AP as in the scheme above, give examples of all its components and create APs of the suggested levels of complexity. a. b. c. d.
‘bare AP’ [AP A] ‘AP with premodified A’, [AP -- A] ‘AP with postmodified A’ [AP A -- ] ‘AP with both pre- and post-modified A’
.....old............................................................ ....................................................................... ....................................................................... .......................................................................
e. f. g. h.
‘bare AP’ [AP A] . ‘AP with premodified A’, [AP -- A] ‘AP with postmodified A’ [AP A -- ] ‘AP with both pre- and post-modified A’
....tall............................................................. ....................................................................... ....................................................................... .......................................................................
(15) EXERCISE ================================================ Fill in your APs from Exercise above to the proposed context. Mark the acceptability of the structures in Standard English and state a generalization about the size of the constituent acceptable in the specific function. i.
AP Predicate
a. b. c. d.
This tree is [AP tall ]. ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... 95
ii.
premodifying AP
iii.
postmodifying AP
iv.
Complement AP
a. b. c. d. a.
It was a [AP tall ] tree. ............................................................... ............................................................... ...............................................................
* It was a tree [AP tall ]. b. ............................................................... c. ............................................................... d. ............................................................... a. b. c. d.
The surgery made Hugo [AP tall ]. ............................................................... ............................................................... ...............................................................
(16) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the following Predicates. What is the sentence function of the following AP? a. c.
The boy is [AP handsome]. The dream came/remained [AP true].
b. d.
The cake looks/tastes/smells [AP good]. The door flew [AP open].
(17) EXERCISE ================================================ i. ii. iii. iv.
Discuss the syntactic relations of the underlined elements in the structures below. Find the relevant syntagmatic relations (What are the underlined items related to?) How do we state the hierarchy in a syntagmatic couple? Compare the "Complement" with "Attribute" and "Object". Explain the distinction between "Nominal Predicate" and "Subject Complement".
a. b. c. d. e. f.
I love Mary. I love Mary suntanned. They elected Mary a chairwoman. I love her sun-tanned skin. The wall was painted white. Christine called her brother an idiot.
(18) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the distinction in scope of the following Adverbials. Give more examples of simple and/or complex Adverbial phrases. Use examples to prove your claim.
INITIAL position sentential VP/clause >
ADV Naturally
MIDDLE position temporal ... - ADV
- V -
he
runs
often
96
END/FINAL position verbal ...
- ADV quickly
(19) EXERCISE ================================================ Which Adverbials are appearing in the 'middle' position in the scheme in exercise (18)? i. ii.
Try to define those Adverbials w.r.t. their semantics and w.r.t. their complexity. In the following sentences consider the position of those Adverbials w.r.t. the co-occurring elements (try all options) and state it as precisely as possible. Use more examples to prove your claim.
a. b. c.
Mary reads many novels. Mary has read many novels. Mary can be reading many novels.
14.4 Syntax of a simple clause
(20) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss the interpretation and the sentence functions of the bold pronouns. a. b.
I want this book. I want it/this, too. It/This is not true, that he did it.
c. d.
It/*That is snowing. There is a table in the middle of the room.
(21) EXERCISE ================================================ Compare the following sentences. a. b.
It / This is a lady on a white horse. There is a lady on a white horse.
(22) EXERCISE ================================================ Fill the indexes of the bold pronouns and compare their sentence functions. a. b. c. d. e. f.
Tobias saw him. Tim and Maryi saw themselves. Jessicai saw her at the last second. Maryi was looking at herself in the mirror. Johni promised to Peterk to shave himself. Johni made Peterk shave himself.
(23) EXERCISE ================================================ Write the active / passive verbal forms of the English Verb stop and mark (underline, circle, etc) the morphemes of Tense, Aspect(s), and Voice. When you are done, add to each also the form containing the feature [+PASSIVE]. a.
[+PAST] [+PERF] [-PROG]
.....................................................................................
b.
[+PRES] [-PERF] [-PROG]
.....................................................................................
c.
[+PAST] [+PERF] [+PROG]
...................................................................................... 97
d.
[+FUT] [+PERF] [-PROG]
......................................................................................
e.
[+FUT] [+PERF] [+PROG]
......................................................................................
(24) EXERCISE ================================================ Revise the terminology and give more examples of each kind of verb and use in a short sentence. Kinds of lexical Verbs w.r.t. their obligatory complementation (their selection):
..... Traditional term
Example
sentence functions
Form of complement*
16. intransitive V
The tramp laughed.
S-V
V, [---]
17. monotransitive V
Mary found a diary.
S – V - Od
V, [---NP]
18. V of movement
The tramp leaned toward the girl.
S – V – Adv
V, [---PP]
19. echoatives
Bill started to read.
S – V –V/Com.**
V, [---VP]
20. linking/copula V
He seemed tired.
S – V – pred./com.
V, [---AP]
21. ditransitive V
He told a girl an interesting story.
S – V – Oi – Od
V, [---(NP) NP]
22. **
He sent a letter to John.
S – V – Od – Oi
V, [---NP (PP)]
23.
John put a book on the shelf.
S – V – Od – Adv
V, [---NP PP/Adv]
He called her a clever girl.
S – V – Od – com.
V, [---NP NP]
He saw Bill run.
S – V – Od – com.
V, [---NP VP]
The music drives me mad.
S – V – Od – com.
V, [---NP AP]
24.
trans. V with complement
25. 26.
trans. V with complement
* ** ***
Many non-VP complements can be replaced by a (semi)clause. Com. = Complements, which means 'doplněk' here. Patient’ is sometimes called ‘Theme’ when change of Location is involved.
(25) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss which element in the following sentences is the Subject, i.e. which fulfils the relevant criteria of Subjecthood. List the reasons: i. ii. iii.
semantic (Agenthood) morphological (Subject Case, agreement) syntactic (word order, inversion, question tag)
a. b.
Some man is in front of the house. There is a man in front of the house. 98
(26) EXERCISE ================================================ Comparing the expletives "it" and "there", look at the following contrasting examples. State the similarities/distinctions w.r.t. the following criteria i. ii. iii. iv.
Can the associate replace the expletive? (What is the distinction?) Must the associate be present for the sentence to be grammatical? What is the form of the associate? What is the position of the associate?
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.
There is some boy over there. It is really silly to stay longer. There is a boy over there. It is really silly to stay longer. There is a book on the table. It is impossible to read it. There is a horse in the garden. It is necessary to do it.
Some boy is over there. To stay longer is really silly. * There is over there. It is really silly. * There is to read on the table. *It is impossible a book. *There is in the garden a horse. *It is to do it necessary.
(27) EXERCISE ================================================ Assuming that ‘no’ in the following sentences can mark both partial and sentence negation, give the two possible interpretations for (a/b). Are the two interpretations present also in the following Topicalization structures in (c-f)? a.
b.
He is happy with no job.
She looks well in no dress.
i.
Cz:..................................................................
ii.
Cz:.................................................................
i.
Cz: .................................................................
ii.
Cz:..................................................................
c.
With no job is he happy.
Cz:..................................................................
d.
With no job he is happy.
Cz:.................................................................
e.
In no dress she looks well.
Cz:.................................................................
f.
In no dress does she look well.
Cz:.................................................................
(28) EXERCISE ================================================ What are the main formal (morphological and syntactic) criteria to distinguish Auxiliaries, Modals and lexical Verbs in English? What is their order in a sentence? Use the following examples and add more to prove your claim. a. c. e.
Mary will come. Will Mary come? *I speak not English. *Bill can reading be.
b. d. f.
99
*Will come Mary? *Mary musts help me. *Has Peter to go home now?
(29) EXERCISE ================================================ Discuss the following examples and explain the specific properties of the English Verb have. Say which kinds of have are in the following examples? State their characteristics assuming do-support as the main criterion. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
* She (can) have a book, haven't she? They (*can) have got the book, haven't she. * Do you have got a book? - * I don't have got a book. You have the book, don't you? I (*can) have written a letter, haven't I. * Do you have written a letter? - * I don't have written a letter. They (*can) have to go there immediately, don't they. *Have you to go there? - *I haven't to go there immediately. We (can) have a look around, don't we? *Have you a look around? * I haven't a look around.
¨
(30) EXERCISE ================================================ Explain the specific properties of the English Verb ‘be’. Which kinds of be you know? a. b. c. d.
He is reading some novel, isn't he? It is written in English, isn't it? Peter is a teacher/silly, isn't he? Mary is at home, isn't she? There is a man in the middle of the room, isn't there? I am to leave as soon as possible.
(31) EXERCISE ================================================ Predicate is a sentence member usually expressed by a Verb. Look at the following examples of English sentences and underline their Predicates. a. b. c. d. e. f.
Benjamin will build a new house. Benjamin is not able to build the new house in one month. The house must have been being built for years already. The girl cannot be reading all the time. The girl must have finished reading the novel. He would have had to start working earlier.
Translate the above examples into Czech, underline the Predicates and compare them with the English equivalents. How would you schematically describe the parts of English Predicates in the examples (a-c)? Try to use the three proposed (used) structures of English sentence: A) B) C)
S–V-O Modal - perfective - progressive - passive - lexical S - Mod/Aux - (not) – V ...
(5 slot model) (2 slot model)
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each of the schematic patterns A,B,C in terms of simplicity and generality.
100
i) Which of the above patterns A,B,C is most simple, which is most detailed? ii) Which of the patterns describes above all the form of the Predicate and which deals with a sentence structure? Consider also other forms of English Predicates (other Tense, Aspect) and other sentence patterns (transitive/intransitive Verbs, active/passive Voice, negation and questions, etc.). Write down the conclusion of the comparison and give some examples to support them. (32) EXERCISE ================================================ Classify the following sentences (explain your choice and make schematic picture of their structural relations). a.
As soon as I see him I will tell him that the work must be done by Friday if he wanted to leave for a weekend.
b.
If you want I will show you the building much taller than those you have in Chicago.
c.
I wanted to do something about it and I thought I would have a chance because before we decided to go home on Sunday evening, Sheila said that Bill was out but when we arrived he was sitting in the living room and he rejected to leave because he wanted to watch TV and so we finally ended up in the pub and nothing happened.
d.
It is unlikely that John would help you because lately he is very tired when he arrives home and goes to bed after he finishes his dinner and so I think you will have to finish the work yourself as quickly as you can because it is sure that the teacher repeated several times that in this case the deadline is fixed and there will be no excuses and whoever delivers the assignment late than it is the date written on the web page will have to repeat the course because he will not give him the credit.
14.5 Exam in English Grammar
kaa/GRFZ - English grammar for Philology The exam covers the main topics from the courses of Introduction to linguistics (UJ00) and the grammar courses, i.e. Morphology (AMOR) Morpho-syntax (AMOS) and Syntax (SNX1), including the reading assigned in these courses during the BA study.
The exam is written, a 60-90 minute-long test with maximum of 100 points, (min. 60 to pass). The questions in the test will be formed to cover some aspects of the following topics: 1. Language as a System, Linguistics as a science. Langue vs. parole (competence vs.performance); duality of patterning (double articulation); empirical, descriptive and explanatory linguistic science. More or less autonomous fields within linguistics (phonology, morphology, etc.) their fields of study and elementary terminology. 2. Morphology as a science, morpheme as a unit. Classification of morphemes (according to various criteria). Inflection vs. Derivation. Heads within words. Relation of Morphology to Parts of Speech. Exemplify in English and Czech.
101
3. Compounds and Idioms. Compositionality. The main characteristics of semantic and formal unification of several lexical morphemes (phrases, idioms, compounds). The structure and stress patterns of English compounds, some English specific methods of compounding. 4. Genetic and Morphological Typology of languages. Mention the systems of typological classification and illustrate them with examples in English and Czech. Agglutination vs. inflection, and analytic vs. synthetic. 5. Formal classification in the lexicon. Parts of Speech. Give a typical inventory. The history of such classification. Compare different approaches and explain these approaches. Categorial prototypicality vs. fuzzy categories. 6. Semantics and morphology of Nouns (Case, Animacy/ Gender, Countability/ Number, Determination). The internal structure of NP (determiners vs. modifiers; types of modifiers) and its sentence functions. Quantifier types. 7. Pronouns - classification, morphology and sentence functions of distinct kinds of pronouns. Pragmatic vs. syntactic anaphors; antecedents; binding; structural restrictions on types of binding of various pronoun types. 8. Verbs - their semantics (semantic/ theta roles), syntax and morphology (Tenses, Aspects, Agreements). Formal classification of English verbs: Modals, Auxiliaries, lexical Verbs. The N.I.C.E. properties. Specific properties of English be and have. The structure of VP (kinds of formal subcategorization) and the sentence functions of VPs. 9. Semantics and morphology (derivational and inflections) of English Modifiers (adjectives and adverbs). The structure of AP (AdjP and AdvP), its distribution (word orders) of APs and their sentence functions. Adverbial scope. 10. Sentence Members: the compositional analysis of constituents within a clause. Types of constituents/ phrases that make up the various grammatical relations (syntagma). Exemplify these relations (sentences members) comparing English and Czech. 11. English Subjects. Their semantic and formal characteristics; their word order. Discuss the canonical correlation between Agent - Subject - Topic and illustrate classes of exceptions (e.g. raising to subject). Give examples of some special kinds of English clausal subjects (e.g. expletives, verbal/ clausal subjects) compared with Czech. 12. English Objects. Their semantic and formal characteristics; their word order. Relate these to distinctions between complements and adjuncts and to subcategorization. Discuss the concept and grammatical properties of passivization (its form, meaning and functions) comparing English and Czech. 13. English Sentence/ Clausal patterns. Their functional (pragmatic) classification and parallels with formal clausal structures (do not confuse this with subcategorisations). Give detailed constituentorder specifics for each of the clausal patterns. Discuss the canonical realisations of pragmatic and formal clausal patters (statement - declaratives, etc.) and some standard exceptions. 14. English Negation. Explain the concept of negation. Give generalised descriptions and examples of lexical negation, constituent/ phrasal negation and clausal (grammatical) negation. Give the options for expressing negation in English. Discuss and exemplify polarity items (negative, interrogative), explaining the relation between them and negation. 15. Explain the concept (nature) of Subordinate Clauses, their repertory, and the main characteristics of each type. Then, describe English relative clauses in more detail - their classification and formal properties. Concentrate on the relative pronouns, their choice and distributions.
102
15
RELATED LITERATURE
The list A below gives practical manuals of English grammar which can help students not fully familiar with the practical usage of the structures discussed. The working knowledge of these manuals is assumed for the course. The list B provides bibliography for the more theoretical manuals covering the topics in more detail. They provide some discussion of the phenomena, provide much more data and demonstrate alternative terminologies and analyses. The list C provides bibliography for the cited works and some additional literature related to the topics discussed in the course.
15.1 A.
Practical Manuals
Alexander, L.G. (1993): Longman Advanced Grammar. Reference and Practice. Longman. Hewings, Martin (2005): Advanced Grammar in Use (2nd edition) with answers and CD ROM. CUP. Jones, Leo (1991): Cambridge Advanced English. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English. Longman, London. Murphy, Raymond (2004): English Grammar in Use With Answers and CD ROM : A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. 3rd edition. CUP. Svoboda, Aleš (2004) Lectures on English Syntax. Filozofická fakulta Ostravské Univerzity, Ostrava.
15.2 B.
Theoretical Manuals
Aarts, Bas (1997) English Syntax and argumentation. Palgrave Macmillan. Aarts, Bas (2011) Oxford Modern English Grammar. OUP. Baker, C. L. (1995) English Syntax. The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass. Biber et al. (1999) Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman, London. Biber et al. (1999) Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman, London. Dušková, Libuše (1994) Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Academia Praha, Prague. Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005): A Students Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Leech, Geoffrey (1971) Meaning and the English Verb. 3rd edition. Longman, London 2004. Quirk, R., and Greenbaum, S. (1991): A Student´s Grammar of the English language. Longman, London. 103
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (2004) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman, London.
15.3 C.
Further related / cited literature
Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K. & Harnish, R.M. (1990) Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Chomsky, Noam (1971) 'Remarks on Nominalization.' In Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. Crystal, David (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Demers, Richard A. & Farmer, Ann K. (1991) A Linguistics Workbook. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Emonds, Joseph (1976) A Transformational Approach to English Syntax. Academic Press, New York. See Chapter IV for gerunds. Emonds, Joseph E. (1985) A Unified Theory of Syntactic Categories. Studies in Generative Grammar. Foris Publications, Dordrecht. Fillmore, Charles (1977): 'The Case for Case Reopened.' In P. Cole and J. Saddock (ed.) Syntax and Semantics 8:1977. (59-82) Firbas, Jan (1992) Functional Sentence Perspective in Written and Spoken Communication. Cambridge University Press. Fromkin, Victoria & Rodman, Robert (1990) Introduction to Language. HBJ. Grimshaw, Jane (1991) Argument Structure. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Hawkins, J. (1990) 'A Parsing Theory of Word Order Universals.' In Linguistic Inquiry 21:1990. (223-261) Mathesius, Vilém (1915) 'O passivu v moderní angličtině.' In Sborník filologický 5. (pp 198-220). Sgall, Hajičová, Buráňová (1980) Aktuální členění věty v češtině. Academia, Praha Sgall, Petr, Hajičová, Eva and Panevová, J. (1986) The Meaning of the Sentence in its Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects. Dordrecht: Reidel. Vachek, Jan (1959) Two Chapters on Written English. Brno Studies in English. Veselovská, Ludmila (2009) The Course in English Morphology and Morphosyntax. Palacký University Press, Olomouc.
104
16
INDEX
Adjectival phrase, 4, 6 Adjunct, 20, 21, 22, 27, 78, 102 Agent, 17, 18, 19, 33, 34, 35, 37, 43, 45, 46, 47, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 62, 102 Agglutination, 102 Agreement, 102 amalgamate, 58 anaphor, 53, 102 Animacy, 102 antecedent, 102 anticipatory, 47 AP, 7, 64, Adjectival Phrase apposition, 61 Arguments, 17, 18, 33 Aspect, 50, 102, 104 associate, 35, 54, 99 Attribute, 12 prenominal Attributes, 59 Auxiliaries, 82, 99, 102 Auxiliary, 36, 81, 82 Beneficiary, 17, 18, 56, 98 binding, 102 Case, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 45, 48, 53, 55, 93, 98, 102 clause, 9 Adverbial Clauses, 88 Conditional Clauses, 89 Subordinate Clauses, 86, 102 Clefting, 12, 13 competence, 101 complement, 4, 6 Complement, 3, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 31, 87, 90, 98, 102 complex Noun phrase, 5 compound, 42, 102 constituency, 12, 16, 21 constituency tests, 12 constituent, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 50, 52, 54, 56, 63, 79, 82, 83, 84, 91, 95, 102 Coordination, 12, 15 Copula, 20, 36, 49, 64, 68, 81 Countability, 102 deagentization, 33, 34
Determination, 61, 102 determiner, 59 Diary style, 50, 58 double articulation, 92, 101 DP, 4, 5, 63 duality of patterning, 101 Ellipsis, 12, 14, 58 existential, 54, 81 Existential structure, 53, 54 expletive, 47, 99, 102 Expletive, 54, 58 FOCUS, 50 fronting, 80, 84 Gender, 93, 102 Grading, 88, 91, 93, 95 grammatical relations, 11, 18, 102 grammaticalization, 65, 71 head, 10, 94, 95, 101 hierarchy formal hierarchy, 18, 19 semantic hierarchy, 18, 19 Idiom, 102 Immediate Constituent Analysis, 10 Imperative, 85 inversion, 71, 74, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 98 it linking, 20, 47, 91, 98 Langue, 92, 101 lexical item, 17, 19 Linking, 20, 53, 54, 58 Measure Phrases, 95 Mediopassive, 43, 58 Modal, 20, 79, 80, 81, 99, 100, 102 Modifiers, 102 morphemes, 51, 55, 72, 92, 93, 97, 101, 102 Morphology, 1, 12, 15 movement, 13 N.I.C.E., 102 negation Clausal negation, 67, 78 Lexical negation, 65 'Multiple' negation, 67 Partial Negation, 65, 75 Phrasal Negation, 65
105
Negation, 1, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 99, 101, 102 Negative Concord, 67 NegP, 8 NEG-transportation, 76 NP, 4, 5, 63 Number, 21, 49, 93, 102 Object, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 102 Affected Object, 27, 29, 45 structural, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 51, 56, 58, 64, 78, 80, 86, 87, 91, 96 Omission, 12, 15 operator, 66, 84 Opposites, 65 Parole, 101 participant, 17, 35 passive, 18, 34, 36, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 57, 93, 97, 100, 101 passivization, 29, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 58, 102 PASSIVIZATION, 33 Patient, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 29, 33, 34, 37, 43, 45, 46, 47, 55, 56, 61, 62, 98 performance, 101 phrase, 10, 20, 41, 61, 79, 90, 94, 96, 102 polarity, 67, 76 NPI, 74, 76 possessive, 59 pragmatic, 2, 33, 44, 50, 102 Pragmatic Roles, 50 Predicate, 9, 10, 12, 17, 22, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 39, 40, 49, 53, 56, 64, 65, 66, 70, 79, 80, 82, 91, 95, 96, 100, 101 Analytic Predicates, 80 predication, 9, 61 premodifiers, 60 Preposition Stranding, 40 Pro-form, 12, 14 Pro-form substitution, 12, 14 projection phrasal, 3 pronoun, 27, 28, 35, 48, 52, 60, 67, 97, 102 Pseudoclefting, 12, 13 QP, 4 question Echo questions, 84
WH questions, 28, 41, 42, 50, 71, 83, 84 questions Polar Questions, 80 Raising, 54, 55, 58 Recipient, 17, 18, 19, 20 recursive, 5, 7 Restructuralization, 39 Resumptive, 87 rhematic, 34 RHEME, 50 Rising, 102 scope, 22, 23, 24, 26, 59, 66, 67, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 96, 102 selection c-selection, 17 s-selection, 17 semantic role, 18, 19, 27, 29, 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 46, 47, 54, 55 Cause, 27 Experiencer, 46 Force, 46 Instrument, 27, 34, 46, 47, 56 Locative, 27, 54 Semantic role, 18, 47 Semantic Roles, 18, 27, 46 semiclause, 20, 28, 87 sentence, 9, 79 Sentence function, 18, 70 Small Clause, 61 specifier, 4 Specifier, 3 subcategorisation, 102 subcategorization, 17, 18, 19, 25, 26, 46, 50, 90, 102 Subcategorization, 17, 19, 20, 46 subject, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 25, 28, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71, 79, 80, 82, 85, 86, 87, 91, 96, 98, 102 Subject, 9, 34, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55, 58, 85, 102 Tense, 102 Tense phrase, 25, 56 Tense Phrase TP, 69 THEME, 50 theta roles, 102 TOPIC, 50, 56 106
Topicalization, 12, 13, 28, 71, 99 TP, 8 Typology, 102 valency, 10, 33, 46, 61 Verb, 14 Verbal Complex, 39
verbal event, 17 VP, 8 Weather verbs, 58 WH element, 83, 84 Ω, 8, 23, 25, 56, 69
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