Enhancing destination image through travel website information

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) Published online 6 January 2011 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.827

Enhancing Destination Image through Travel Website Information Chul Jeong1,*, Stephen Holland2, Soo H. Jun3 and Heather Gibson2 School of Tourism, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea 2 Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA 3 School of Tourism, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK

1

ABSTRACT Effects of a travel website on tourists’ destination images were examined. The relationship between information search using websites and destination image was studied. In addition, the validity of experimental design as a method for examining destination image was explored. A static-group comparison design was conducted using two sets of students as experimental and control groups. A travel website search was the stimuli for the experimental group. Results revealed that exposure to a travel website significantly affected the majority of cognitive and overall destination images. Additionally, experimental design was shown to be an effective method in measuring changes in destination image. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Keywords: destination image; image evolution; organic image; induced image; travel website information; experimental design. Received 16 February 2010; Revised 20 July 2010; Accepted 18 November 2010

INTRODUCTION

D

estination marketing organizations (DMOs) make substantial efforts to establish positive images of destina-

*Correspondence to: Dr Chul Jeong, School of Tourism, Hanyang University, 17 Haengdang-dong, Seongdonggu, Seoul, 133-791, Korea. E-mail: [email protected]

tions because they understand image is important in attracting potential visitors (Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; Sirgy and Su, 2000). In particular, potential foreign visitors have limited knowledge of destinations they have not previously visited (Chon, 1991; Sönmez and Sirakaya, 2002); therefore, they largely depend on their perceived image of a destination in making choices (Um and Crompton, 1992; Beerli and Martín, 2004). Because of the significance of image, many researchers have studied destination image in various ways such as refining the conceptualization and operationalization of image (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Chen and Hsu, 2000; Gallarza et al., 2002; Hughes and Allen, 2005; Ryan and Cave, 2005); image formation and change (Chon, 1991; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Hughes and Allen, 2005; Kim and Morrison, 2005; Choi et al., 2007; Yüksel and Akgül, 2007; Frías et al., 2008); and the relationship with other variables (Baloglu, 1997, 1999; Sirgy and Su, 2000; Sönmez and Sirakaya, 2002; Hernandez-Lobato et al., 2006; Castro et al., 2007; Chen and Tsai, 2007). In these image studies, some researchers have demonstrated the importance of travel information. They have found that the type and amount of information significantly influences the formation of positive destination image (Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Mansfeld, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu, 1999; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Prebensen, 2007). As a result, DMOs have sought cost-effective marketing techniques to provide travel information to potential visitors (Kaplanidou and Vogt, 2006). With the growing Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Enhancing Destination Image popularity of the Internet, DMOs are also trying to understand the importance of travel websites, and most of them have used official travel websites since the late 1990s as one of their main communication channels (So and Morrison, 2003; Kaplanidou and Vogt, 2006). However, researchers studying the effects of travel websites have tended to focus on evaluating website performances in terms of content and accessibility. Thus, in spite of the significant role of Web information sources on image formation processes (Choi et al., 2007), few researchers have empirically examined the role of website information on destination image. In addition, due to the over-reliance on survey research in destination image studies, researchers have been unable to establish a clear causal relationship between image and tourist behaviors (Sönmez and Sirakaya, 2002). In other words, traditional survey methods make it difficult to distinguish the effect of websites on image perceptions from other communication media such as brochures, TV commercials, films and magazines. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of travel websites on potential tourists’ images of a destination. More specifically, the purposes were: (i) to assess the relationship between information search through a travel website and destination image and (ii) to explore the validity and effect of experimental design on destination image measurement. LITERATURE REVIEW Evolution of destination image There are many definitions of destination image; in fact, Gallarza et al. (2002, p. 59) suggest there are nearly as many definitions of image as researchers studying it. One of the most prevalent was proffered by Crompton (1979) as ‘the sum of beliefs and ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination’ (p. 18). Destination image is defined as the total impression that tourists have about a destination (Kotler et al., 1993), including its cultural, natural and social characteristics (Beerli and Martín, 2004). As Gartner (1986, 1993) explains, such images incorporate information from a wide range of sources and include perceptions about the political, cultural, economic Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

17 and social attributes of a destination. Thus, many researchers have found that image is a vital concept in understanding the destination selection process of tourists (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004). Destination image, in particular, is dynamic rather than static; thus, image changeability has been an important topic in this area (Gartner and Hunt, 1987; Chon, 1991; Gallarza et al., 2002; Kim and Morrison, 2005). Gunn (1972) originally suggested the idea of destination image evolution that accounts for image change from an organic image to an induced image. Over the years, various researchers have further developed Gunn's (1972) concept of image change (Gartner, 1986; Chon, 1991; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Kim and Morrison, 2005; Yüksel and Akgül, 2007). These researchers have found that destination image is largely changed by external stimuli. According to Gunn’s original conceptualization of image, organic images are formed by general information such as newspapers, periodicals, children’s geography and history books and school, while induced images are created by travel information sources such as the tourism promotion literature, including magazine articles, guidebooks, Web pages and TV promotions. In other words, a destination image that a potential tourist has may be changed when he or she is exposed to travel information. Such a change is generally positive, so the term ‘evolution’ is appropriate to use. Fakeye and Crompton (1991) also used the same expression, ‘image evolution’, in order to explain the process of destination image change. However, they added another stage in the process, that of complex image, that is generated from actual visitation of a destination. In sum, the process of the evolution of destination image is defined as change, mainly positive, but there is always the possibility of less positive image formation in an individuals’ destination image, brought about by exposure to a variety of information sources, as for example in the 2010 Haitian earthquake. Role of information on destination image Based on the significant role of information on image formation and change, researchers have Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

18 investigated the relationship between travel information and destination image, especially in relation to image formation (Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Mansfeld, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Choi et al., 2007; Prebensen, 2007). Findings from these studies have shown that exposure to more travel information results in destination image improvement. Indeed, Gartner (1993) suggested eight kinds of information sources that are likely to influence destination image formation, including overt induced I (i.e. traditional forms of advertising); overt induced II (i.e. information received from wholesalers); covert induced I (e.g. the use of a recognizable spokesperson); covert induced II (e.g. newspaper and travel section articles); autonomous (e.g. movies and TV programs); unsolicited organic; solicited organic; and organic (i.e. actual visitation). However, Gartner did not provide empirical support for the influence of these sources on image formation. In response to the lack of empirical investigation in these earlier conceptual studies, some researchers (e.g. Baloglu, 1999; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004) have used quantitative methods to provide empirical evidence for the relationship between travel information and destination image. More specifically, Baloglu and McCleary distinguished among three types of image: ‘cognitive’, referring to beliefs and knowledge about a destination; ‘affective’, referring to the emotions about a destination; and ‘overall’ image, which is a combination of the two. The authors found that the variety and type of information sources mainly influences cognitive images. To measure the influence of different information sources on destination image, they used four information source categories: professional advice (tour operators, travel agents and airlines); word of mouth (friends, relatives and social clubs); advertisement (print or broadcast media); and books/movies/news. From these information sources, word of mouth and advertisements were found to have significant positive effects on overall image. Beerli and Martín (2004) also showed similar results that the organic (i.e. friend and family members) and autonomous sources (i.e. guidebooks, news, articles, reports, documentaries) influenced some cognitive image factors positively. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

C. Jeong et al. Recently, there has been concern among some researchers that a major limitation of many studies is that there is confusion among respondents, especially when they lack knowledge about a destination or have not visited it. Thus, Pike (2002) and Ryan and Cave (2005) recommended that future research on destination images should use alternative methods including adopting a qualitative approach. Likewise, Prebensen (2007) used picture, word and free association to explore the relationship between travel information and destination image among French, German and Swedish participants with regard to Norway. He concluded that to fully understand the wide array of knowledge and images that people hold of destinations, it is important to use a variety of methods, with qualitative methods being particularly useful during the exploratory stages. In sum, travel information appears to be one of the main factors influencing the cognitive image and/or the total image of a destination. The impact of travel information on destination image appears to be mainly positive based on the mere exposure effect. Thus, the term evolution is appropriate to express it. Travel website information Websites have made communication in unrestricted time and region possible (Kim et al., 2004). Websites benefit tourism destinations because ‘it allows them to develop a coherent position in the marketplace, to increase the destination’s market shares by getting closer to actual and potential customers’ (So and Morrison, 2003, p. 130). In addition, websites provide tourism destinations with speedy communication of information, accessible internationally and at insignificant cost (Rayman-Bacchus and Molina, 2001). Therefore, DMOs are using websites as part of their marketing efforts (Wan, 2002). For example, tourism bureaus and advertisers reduce their traditional reliance on mass advertising and develop more targeted approaches to potential tourists through websites (Lau et al., 2001). In addition, ‘tourism suppliers (particularly airlines, car rental and hotels chains) have taken advantage of the new opportunities and developed eCommerce applications by allowing Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

Enhancing Destination Image

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users to access directly their reservation systems’ (Buhalis and Licata, 2002, p. 208). In recent years, travel websites have become an important source of travel information and an important medium for travel industry promotion (Pitt et al., 2007). Bonn et al. (1999) suggested that DMOs should pay attention to the use of the Internet in their marketing mixes. That is, the authors maintained that the advantages of using the Web include worldwide accessibility, ease in updating, real-time information service, interactive communications and the unique ability to customize information. Furthermore, recently, many studies stress the increasing pervasiveness of Web travel information (Bonn et al., 1999; Buhalis and Licata, 2002; Wang and Fesenmaier, 2004). While it is recognized that there are groups in society who do not have Internet access or who are unwilling to use a computer, it is recognized that most potential tourists can access digitalized travel information quite easily (Choi et al., 2007). Today, Web information is regarded as the fastest, cheapest and most available information tool compared with other sources. Nonetheless, despite the growing number of researchers who are investigating the role of the Internet in the travel and tourism industry, few studies to date have used an experimental design to investigate the role of Web-based information on image change. Based on the existing literature in the areas of destination image, travel information search and travel websites, this study suggests the following

Figure 1. The evolution.

process

of

destination

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

conceptual model and hypotheses as shown in Figure 1. Hypotheses Following the guidance from the literature, conceivably the destination images potential tourists have may be changed by exposure to travel websites. In particular, it is suggested that cognitive images and total images of a destination would be influenced by travel website information. Two hypotheses, therefore, will be tested. Hypothesis 1: The cognitive image of a destination will be significantly different between participants exposed to a travel website and those not exposed to a travel website. Hypothesis 2: The overall image of a destination will be significantly different between participants exposed to a travel website and those not exposed to a travel website. METHOD Experimental design A static-group comparison design (i.e. experimental and control groups without pre-tests) was used for this study as shown in Figure 2. This is a design in which the group receiving experimental stimulus is compared with one

image Figure 2. Static-group comparison design. Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

20 which did not, for the purpose of establishing the effect of the stimulus (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). One limitation is that this design cannot check whether experimental and control groups have similar organic images toward Korea (Babbie, 2004). To control for this weakness, the study employed a filter check. The filter check questions included (i) whether the study participants had visited Korea and (ii) whether they had previously visited the Korea Tourism Organization (KTO) website (Tour2Korea.com). Potential participants who had visited Korea or had visited the KTO website were excluded from the study. This study assumes that the majority of American students who have not visited Korea or Korean travel websites have little knowledge about Korea (Chon, 1991; Lee, 2004). In particular, according to Hong (2008), most teachers of middle or high schools in the USA showed a lack of knowledge about Asia and Korea. Accordingly, it is reasonable to assume that both experimental and control groups have similar organic images toward Korea. Procedures A pilot study was conducted with 10 graduate students to test the experimental stimulus and survey instrument. After the pilot study, minor changes to the wording of the survey instrument were made. One hundred and sixty-one American undergraduate students participated in the primary study in June 2006. Ninety undergraduate students from a mixed major class were invited to a computer lab at the university to form the experimental group. The students participated in the experiment in exchange for partial completion of a course requirement. Participants were asked to visit the KTO website (Tour2Korea.com) and to observe as much travel information as they wished for 10 minutes, after which they were asked to close the website and fill out the survey questionnaire. The reason why 10 minutes was used in the experiment was that that much time is enough for a standard undergraduate student to read approximately 2000 words. An average undergraduate student generally reads around 200 words per minute with a typical comprehension of 90% (Kock, Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

C. Jeong et al. 2007), so they can read a short article about a destination consisting of five or six pages in 10 minutes. It is likely that an article of this length would be typical for a narrative description of a destination in many outlets. Figure 3 shows the main Web page of the Tour2Korea.com. This website includes a variety of travel information as the official travel website of Korea. Specifically, it includes trip planning, culture, sightseeing, reservations, food and shopping as it relates to Korean tourism. There is substantial visual and verbal travel information. Many of the visual images show street scenes, rural landscapes, foods, activities and Korean life. For the control group, the researchers visited additional classes at the same university and asked the undergraduate students to fill out the same questionnaire as the one completed by the experimental group. Seventy-one students participated as a control group. Instrument The questionnaire included 38 items measuring cognitive image and 3 items assessing the overall image of Korea based on previous image studies (Um and Crompton, 1990; Chon, 1991; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Chen and Hsu, 2000; Sönmez and Sirakaya, 2002; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Kim and Morrison, 2005). Cognitive images were measured through a five-point Likerttype scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The cognitive scale items refer to tourist attractions, natural and cultural resources, lifestyle of local people and safety. To measure overall destination image, a sevenpoint Likert type scale (e.g. from 7 = extremely positive to 1 = extremely negative) was used. Data analysis Factor analysis with varimax rotation was applied to the 38-item cognitive image scale to identify underlying dimensions. Means were calculated for each of the factors and the internal consistency was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. To test the hypotheses, mean scores were compared between the experimental group and the control group with independent Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr


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Figure 3. Korea Tourism Organization website (Tour2Korea.com).

sample t-tests being used to identify significant mean differences between the two groups. RESULTS Sample characteristics In terms of gender, 55% were female and 45% were male. The majority (76%) were aged between 20 and 23 years. More than 72% had previous international travel experiences. Of those who had traveled abroad, 77% had made five or fewer trips. Most of the participants (94.4%) were US citizens and nine students were non-citizens. Countries of non-citizens included Bahamas (1), El Salvador (1), Guatemala (1), Haiti (1), India (1), Panama (1), South Africa (1), Taiwan (1) and the UK (1). Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Factor analysis Principal components analysis with varimax rotation was performed on the 38 cognitive image items and yielded seven factors. An eigenvalue of 1.0 was utilized for factor extraction and factor loadings of 0.40 were used for item inclusion. One item (i.e. good quality restaurants) was eliminated in the initial solution due to low factor loading (0.383). Another item (i.e. friendly people) also was deleted due to double loading. The seven factors explained 67% of the total variance (Table 1). The factors were labeled according to their common characteristics: local attractions (Factor 1 [F1]), outdoor and cultural attractions (Factor 2 [F2]), local quality of life (Factor 3 [F3]), nightlife (Factor 4 [F4]), comfort and safety (Factor 5 Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

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Table 1. Factor analysis of cognitive images. Factor name Factor 1: Local attractions Korea has many interesting places to visit Korea has pleasant weather Korea is a different and fascinating place to visit Korea has many interesting local festivals Korea has an adventurous atmosphere Korea is a restful and relaxing place to visit Korea’s cities are attractive Korea has important museums and art galleries Korea offers a lot in terms of natural scenic beauty Korea has environmental friendliness Korea has plenty of quality hotels Factor 2: Outdoor and cultural attractions Korea has many natural attractions Korea offers a wide variety of outdoor activities Tours/excursions are readily available in Korea Korea offers good opportunity to increase knowledge Good tourist information is readily available Korea has many cultural and historical sites Korea has unique architectural styles Factor 3: Local quality of life Korean standards of cleanliness and hygiene are high Korea has a high standard of living Shopping facilities are good in Korea Korea is technologically advanced Factor 4: Nightlife Korea offers good nightlife possibilities Korea offers a lot of things to do in the evening Korea offers a variety of good bars Factor 5: Comfort and safety Many people speak English in Korea It is easy to find convenient airline schedules to travel Korea offers good local transportation Korea is a safe place to visit Factor 6: Price Prices are low in Korea It is easy to get inexpensive services and goods Korea offers good values for my vacation There are many inexpensive hotels in Korea Factor 7: Similarity in culture Korean lifestyles are quite similar to ours Local architectural styles in Korea are similar to ours The food in Korea is similar to ours Total variance explained


Factor loading

Eigenvalue

Explained variance (%)

Cronbach’s alpha

6.616

17.41

0.93

4.686

12.33

0.90

3.483

9.17

0.76

2.862

7.53

0.86

2.734

7.19

0.77

2.601

6.85

0.77

2.472

6.50

0.76

0.755 0.721 0.697 0.697 0.672 0.671 0.605 0.588 0.549 0.546 0.494 0.745 0.664 0.648 0.599 0.592 0.528 0.441 0.705 0.694 0.614 0.522 0.821 0.787 0.636 0.642 0.575 0.547 0.445 0.799 0.753 0.554 0.530 0.827 0.792 0.712 66.98

Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

Enhancing Destination Image [F5]), price (Factor 6 [F6]) and similarity in culture (Factor 7 [F7]). All factors showed high-reliability coefficients ranging from 0.76 to 0.93. Tests of hypotheses The first hypothesis states that the cognitive image of a destination will be significantly different between participants exposed to a travel website and those not exposed to a travel website. The results of the t-test showed that 23 of the 36 cognitive image items showed significant differences between the experimental and control groups as shown in Table 2. Ten of eleven local attractions (F1) items; all seven outdoor and cultural attractions (F2) items; two of four local quality of life (F3) items; two of four comfort and safety (F5) items; and one of four price (F6) items were significantly different between the two groups. On the other hand, all three nightlife (F4) items and all three similar in culture (F7) items were not significantly different between the two groups. In terms of domain, four factors out of seven were significantly different between experimental and control groups (Table 2). Respondents in the experimental group had more positive cognitive images in the domains of local attractions (F1) (mean difference = 0.56, p < 0.001); outdoor and cultural attractions (F2) (mean difference = 0.70, p < 0.001); local quality of life (F3) (mean difference = 0.30, p = 0.005) and comfort and safety (F5) (mean difference = 0.28, p = 0.015), compared with respondents in the control group. The cognitive images in the three domains of nightlife (F4) (mean difference = 0.11, p = 0.383); price (F6) (mean difference = 0.03, p = 0.736); and similar in culture (F7) (mean difference = 0.05, p = 0.722) were not significantly different between the experimental and control groups. From these results, the study found partial support for Hypothesis 1. The second hypothesis states that the overall image of a destination will be significantly different between participants exposed to a travel website and those not exposed to a travel website. The results of the t-test showed that all three overall image items (i.e. unfavorable– favorable, dislike–like and negative–positive) were significantly different between experimental and control groups as shown in Table Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

23 3. More specifically, the experimental group (M = 5.50) held significantly higher ‘favorable’ images than the control group (M = 4.38) (p < 0.001). In addition, the experimental group (M = 5.50) was more likely to ‘like’ Korea than the control group (M = 4.52) (p < 0.001). Lastly, the experimental group (M = 5.53) had a more ‘positive’ image of Korea than the control group (M = 4.79) (p = 0.001). In sum, respondents in the experimental group had more positive overall destination images toward Korea than respondents in the control group. From these results, Hypothesis 2 was strongly supported in this study. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION The primary purpose of the study was to investigate the influences of a travel website on tourists’ destination image. The results of the study indicated that the travel website significantly affected the majority of cognitive destination image components and overall destination image. The study findings supported previous studies concluding that exposure to travel information positively influences the formation of destination image (Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Mansfeld, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu, 1999; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Choi et al., 2007; Prebensen, 2007). Thus, from a theoretical perspective, the study supported the process of destination image evolution suggested by Gunn (1972) and later scholars (Gartner, 1986; Chon, 1991; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Beerli and Martín, 2004; Kim and Morrison, 2005; Yüksel and Akgül, 2007). In other words, the destination image evolved from an organic image to an induced image through exposure to travel information. From a methodological perspective, the experimental design was shown to be an effective method to study image perceptions (Sönmez and Sirakaya, 2002; Frías et al., 2008; Tasci et al., 2007). This study was able to control a single experimental stimulus and explain causal relationships well. Experiments have been regarded as an effective tool to complement other methodologies such as case studies, content analysis, survey research and qualitative approaches (Havitz and Sell, 1991). Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

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Table 2. Cognitive image differences between experimental and control groups. Meana

Image factors and items Factor 1: Local attractions Korea has many interesting places to visit Korea has pleasant weather Korea is a different and fascinating place to visit Korea has many interesting local festivals Korea has an adventurous atmosphere Korea is a restful and relaxing place to visit Korea’s cities are attractive Korea has important museums and art galleries Korea offers a lot in terms of natural scenic beauty Korea has environmental friendliness Korea has plenty of quality hotels Factor 2: Outdoor and cultural attractions Korea has many natural attractions Korea offers a wide variety of outdoor activities Tours/excursions are readily available in Korea Korea offers opportunity to increase knowledge Good tourist information is readily available Korea has many cultural and historical sites Korea has unique architectural styles Factor 3: Local quality of life Korean standards of cleanliness are high Korea has a high standard of living Shopping facilities are good in Korea Korea is technologically advanced Factor 4: Nightlife Korea offers good nightlife possibilities Korea offers a lot of things to do in the evening Korea offers a variety of good bars Factor 5: Comfort and safety Many people speak English in Korea It is easy to find convenient airline schedules Korea offers good local transportation Korea is a safe place to visit Factor 6: Price Prices are low in Korea It is easy to get inexpensive services and goods Korea offers good values for my vacation There are many inexpensive hotels in Korea Factor 7: Similarity in culture Korean lifestyles are quite similar to ours Local architectural styles are similar to ours The food in Korea is similar to ours

Experimental group (n = 90)

Control group (n = 71)

Mean difference

t-value

p-value

3.93 4.20 3.65 4.34

3.38 3.51 3.13 3.80

0.56 0.69 0.52 0.53

5.15 4.75 4.07 3.58

0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000***

3.85 3.91 3.88 4.09 3.71 4.27

3.50 3.27 3.31 3.34 3.30 3.70

0.35 0.64 0.57 0.75 0.41 0.56

2.31 4.68 3.77 5.17 2.86 3.80

0.022* 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.005** 0.000***

3.40 3.86 4.08 4.14 4.02 4.27 4.06 4.21 4.34 3.91 3.58 3.58 3.24 3.61 3.89 3.31 3.36 3.44 3.12 3.38 2.96 3.51 3.62 3.46 3.33 3.12 3.54 3.52 3.42 2.39 2.62 2.49 2.04

3.21 3.14 3.38 3.38 3.34 3.20 3.68 3.03 3.73 3.52 3.28 3.20 3.15 3.06 3.72 3.20 3.24 3.25 3.11 3.10 2.90 3.30 3.24 2.96 3.30 3.20 3.37 3.19 3.25 2.34 2.41 2.46 2.11

0.19 0.71 0.70 0.76 0.68 1.07 0.38 1.18 0.61 0.39 0.30 0.38 0.09 0.55 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.19 0.01 0.28 0.06 0.21 0.38 0.50 0.03 −0.08 0.17 0.33 0.16 0.05 0.21 0.03 −0.07

1.43 5.11 6.76 5.64 5.10 7.92 2.60 7.97 4.63 2.52 2.88 2.89 0.64 4.26 1.17 0.87 0.80 1.33 0.08 2.47 0.40 1.34 2.64 3.24 0.34 −0.61 1.36 2.47 1.28 0.36 1.29 0.185 −4.40

0.156 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.010* 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.013* 0.005** 0.004** 0.524 0.000*** 0.242 0.383 0.426 0.185 0.936 0.015* 0.693 0.183 0.009** 0.001** 0.736 0.546 0.176 0.015* 0.204 0.722 0.198 0.854 0.661

* p < 0.05; * *p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. a On a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 2 = strong agree. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.



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Table 3. Overall image difference between experimental and control groups. Meana Overall image Extremely favorable/extremely unfavorable Like very much/dislike very much Extremely positive/extremely negative

Experimental group (n = 90)

Control group (n = 71)

Mean difference

t-value

p-value

5.50

4.38

1.12

4.96

0.000***

5.50 5.53

4.52 4.79

0.98 0.75

4.62 3.53

0.000*** 0.001**

** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. a On a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = negative to 7 = positive.

Therefore, experimental design methodologies deserve further attention in tourism research as well as in image studies (Goossens, 1994). From a practical perspective, the study has several implications. Overall, the KTO website had positive influences on image changes and interest in visiting Korea. Destination attitudes were significantly improved. Therefore, DMOs need to continuously consider the design and content of their official travel websites. For example, a website providing fluent, informative and positive travel information should strongly influence potential tourists. For example, Pitt et al. (2007) verified that brand personalities of African nations were formed by their websites, and as a result, the authors suggested that ‘DMOs give attention to brand personality dimensions when developing their websites as this effectively positions the brand against competing websites and their brand’ (Pitt et al., 2007, p. 841). In addition, comparison studies about the effects of verbal and visual information (MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; Prebensen, 2007) showed that these would help marketers develop their website strategies. These studies provide insights about specific implications as to how a variety of website content should be designed or organized. The results of this study also suggest solutions as to how travel website managers should deal with their websites’ disadvantages. For instance, the KTO website was not successful in persuading American students to believe that Korea offers tourists good nightlife activities or good price deals. Therefore, the KTO website should be redesigned to improve Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Korean destination image perceptions especially related to nightlife and price options. Communicating the benefits of a destination, in this way, to potential tourists may be one of the significant principles of strategic destination marketing (Waitt, 1996). In particular, as potential tourists have more information available about a destination, he or she can increase familiarity and expertise, and at the same time, reduce external search costs (Gursoy and McCleary, 2004). These will likely increase one’s probability of visiting a destination. There are limitations in this study. In the experimental design, study participants were allowed only 10 minutes to surf the KTO website. In reality, people generally spend longer times searching for travel information for their trip decisions. Thus, future studies should consider measuring multilateral lengths of exposure times to travel websites in order to test the effect of exposure times on image perceptions. Several previous studies have mentioned that varying amounts of information would influence destination images (Baloglu, 1999; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999). These studies have verified that increased information causes image improvement. An additional limitation was that all the study participants were undergraduate students. Therefore, the sample may not be representative of the general population. Certainly, the perceived lack of good nightlife might be indicative of the characteristics that individuals in this life stage hold compared with those who are older or who are accompanied by children (Ryan, 1995; Gibson and Yiannakis, 2002). Future studies should investigate if demographic variables Int. J. Tourism Res. 14, 16–27 (2012) DOI: 10.1002/jtr

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