Kakuma-refugee camp is one of the world's largest refugee camps ... refugees living in Kakuma-refugee camp with necessary education in entrepreneurship and ...
Entrepreneurship Education Program in a Refugee Camp
Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management NTNU School of Entrepreneurship TIØ4530
By Sonia Ahmadi Trondheim, 19th December 2017 Supervisors: Øystein Widding Gunn-Berit Sæter
Preface This project thesis is written by a master student at NTNU School of Entrepreneurship (NSE). The goal of this thesis is to present a literature review that will serve as a theoretical foundation for the upcoming master thesis in spring, 2018.
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what the existing literature say about the entrepreneurship education programs for small businesses and what important elements should be taken into consideration while designing an entrepreneurship education program for refugees who live in the refugee camps. Through the literature review, it became obvious that there are very little theoretical studies that are concerned about refugee entrepreneurship. Furthermore, there is almost no literature that is focused on entrepreneurship education and training programs in a refugee context. In the upcoming master thesis, the author will seek to design an entrepreneurship education module for refugees based on the theoretical framework that is presented in this thesis.
I want to thank my supervisors, Øyestein Widding and Gunn-Berit Sæter, for their supervision, constructive feedback and guidance this fall. They have motivated me throughout the semester to think creative and their motivation and support is much appreciated.
The author, Sonia Ahmadi
Trondheim, December 19th, 2017
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Abstract Over 65.6 million people worldwide are forcibly displaced due to the war, persecution, or human rights violations. These persons are referred to as refugees and most of them live in refugee camps, established as a temporary institution in response to an emergency. Refugees in refugee camps face the problems of joblessness, corruption, crime, violence, drugs, frustration, boredom and economic challenges. Entrepreneurship is linked to self-employment, innovation, profitable opportunity identification and creation, creativity, empowerment, new venture creations, economic development, social welfare, stability and creation of new jobs Therefore, entrepreneurial activities and education can help refugees to become self-employed by creating their own jobs, recognize and create opportunities and become economically self-sufficient. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate what does the existing literature say about the entrepreneurship training program, its various types and goals and the importance of the context in the development of an entrepreneurship education program for refugees. The goal of this literature review is two-folded; to look at the different types of entrepreneurship training programs for small businesses and to look at the importance of context for developing an entrepreneurship education model. In order to conduct a literature review, a structured search method is used for finding relevant studies on entrepreneurship and various types of entrepreneurship education programs. The scientific databases; Oria and Web of Science (WoS) were used as search engines. Some articles were found in the scholarly journals. Furthermore, several articles are found from the references in the primary sources.
For further research, a theoretical framework has been developed based on the theory of embeddedness. Furthermore, a new model has been developed, which contains some of the most important elements for development of an entrepreneurship training module for refugees. In this manner, this paper contributes to new knowledge about developing an entrepreneurial education program for refugees.
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Table of contents 1.0 Introduction
5
1.1 Background
6
1.2 Purpose
7
1.3 Research question
8
1.4 Contributions
8
1.5 Limitations
9
1.6 Structure
9
2.0 Refugee context
9
2.1 Importance of Education for Kakuma-refugees
10
3.0 Method
11
3.1 Acquisition of relevant literature
11
3.1.1 Defining research questions
12
3.1.2 Conducting the search
12
3.1.3 Screening the articles
12
3.1.4 Keywording
15
3.1.5 Retrieving data and mapping process
18
3.1.6 Limitations
18
4.0 Literature review
19
4.1 Importance of entrepreneurship education for refugees
19
4.2 Why Entrepreneurship?
20
4.3 Who is an entrepreneur?
22
4.4 Entrepreneurship education
23
4.5 Importance of entrepreneurship education
24
4.6 Goals of Entrepreneurial Education
25
4.7 Types of entrepreneurship education for small businesses
26
4.8 Context and Embeddedness Perspective
29
4.9 The theoretical Framework
30
5.0 Conclusion
33
6.0 Implications for further research
33
7.0 List of references
34
Appendix 1
39 3
List of Tables Table: Inclusion & exclusion criteria Table 2: The structured search in Oria and WoS Table 3: List of primary sources that led to the secondary sources Table 4: List of researchers recommended by supervisors Table 5: List of number of articles used within each relevant subject Table 6: List of the five types of entrepreneurship education programs Table A: List of articles and the themes in each article in the literature
List of Models Model 1: Important elements for development of an entrepreneurship education module Model 2: Important elements for entrepreneurship education program for Kakuma-refugee camp
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1.0 Introduction Today, there are over 65.6 million people worldwide who are forcibly displaced due to the war, persecution, or human rights violations (UNHCR, 2017). Displaced persons who have to leave their country of origin involuntarily are usually referred to as refugees. Most displaced people live in refugee camps that are established as a temporary institution in response to an emergency (De la Chaux & Haugh, 2014). Life in refugee camps are described as frustrating, boring and violent due to the high unemployment and economic problems (Stearns, 2012; De la Chaux & Haugh, 2014; Betts, Bloom, & Weaver, 2015). Entrepreneurship can be a part of the solution for the social and economic problems related to refugees who live in the refugee camps. This is because entrepreneurship is linked to self-employment, innovation, profitable opportunity identification and creation, creativity, empowerment, new venture creations and economic development, social welfare, stability and creation of new jobs (Wennekers & Thurik, 1999; Desai, 2011; Wasdani & Mathew, 2014; Acs, 2008; Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002). Furthermore, it is argued that adequate education in entrepreneurship has a positive impact on creating new business venture, selfemployment, economic growth, recognizing profitable opportunities and possibly increasing the chances of entrepreneurial success (Benus et al., 2008; Michaelides & Benus, 2012; Fairlie & Holleran, 2012; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Further, it is argued that education in entrepreneurship should be embedded in its social and cultural context in order to create better opportunities and enhance the performance (Yousafzai, Saeed, & Muffatto, 2015; Jack & Anderson, 2002).
Entrepreneurial activities and education is assumed to help refugees to become self-employed, create new jobs and new business venture, recognize and create opportunities and become economically self-sufficient. Therefore, the author seeks to investigate the existing literature on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education programs for small businesses and the role of cultural and social context in development of an entrepreneurship training course in order to be able to design an entrepreneurship education module for refugees that is adapted to their cultural and social context and living conditions.
The coming part presents the background for selecting this research topic. Then the purpose and the following research questions will be presented. 5
1.1 Background As mentioned above, the purpose of this literature review is to enable the author to design an entrepreneurship education program that suits a refugee context. Most refugees living in refugee camps face the problem of joblessness, mostly because they are not allowed to work during their stay in the camps in the host state. As a result, these individuals become frustrated, bored and violent. Young people get involved in crimes, drugs and violence because they do not have access to work (Stearns, 2012; De la Chaux & Haugh, 2014; Betts, Bloom, & Weaver, 2015). Education can help them to get out of poverty and be able to make a living for themselves. Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurship activities are considered to be an effective tool against unemployment and poverty. Therefore, an entrepreneurship education program that is adapted to a refugee context can provide them with effective tools to fight their problems.
The author is going to focus mainly on Kakuma-refugee camp, which is located in northwest Kenya and was established in 1992. Kakuma-refugee camp is one of the world's largest refugee camps and hosts around 180,000 refugees from many different nationalities such as South Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and DR Congo (Jansen, 2008; UNHCR, 2016). The biggest challenge refugees in Kakuma-refugee camp faces is that Kenya does not allow them to integrate or to work. Instead it transfers them to the camps that are under the maintenance of UNHCR (Juma & Kagwanja, 2003). Transferring refugees to camps where they get help from UNHCR and do not have the right to work is not considered to be a sustainable solution. Therefore, entrepreneurship can be a part of the solution to their problems.
The Center for Engaged Education through Entrepreneurship (hereafter Engage) in cooperation with the Norwegian Refugee Council “Flyktninghjelpen” is planning to make a center for entrepreneurship in Kakuma-refugee camp. The purpose of Engage`s project is to provide the refugees living in Kakuma-refugee camp with necessary education in entrepreneurship and assist them to find new markets for their products and to be economically self-sufficient. NTNUs School of Entrepreneurship (hereafter NSE), which is affiliated with Engage, Business School of Nairobi and the University of Nairobi will also be cooperating with Engage on this project. NSE has experience with educating entrepreneurs and facilitating them with starting their own businesses. 6
Transferring NSE model for teaching entrepreneurship education without any adaptations to a refugee context might not give positive results. Therefore, it is important to explore the literature on entrepreneurship education programs and its various types for small businesses that can be relevant for refugees. This will enable the author to design an entrepreneurship education program that is aligned with the local needs and cultural setting of refugees living in refugee camps.
In the following part, the purpose and the research questions of this thesis is presented.
1.2 Purpose Through a literature review the author wants to explore what has already been done on refugee entrepreneurship and what the existing literature say about the entrepreneurship training program and why it should be embedded in a social and cultural context. This will provide a theoretical framework for the upcoming master thesis, which will link the new findings with the already existing ones. In this manner, it will make it possible to establish new knowledge or theory based on the previous studies (Randolph, 2009). Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to obtain a deeper understanding of entrepreneurial education programs and the importance of context in designing a suitable entrepreneurship training model for refugees. Therefore, the following purpose is outlined: To investigate what does the existing literature say about the entrepreneurship training program, its various types and goals and the importance of the context in the development of an entrepreneurship education program for refugees. Since there are several different types of entrepreneurship education and training programs, the author will limit the search scope to only small business ownership. Developing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are encouraged by many countries across the globe since they contribute to the creation of new jobs, economic growth, social welfare and stability (Scarborough & Zimmerer, 1996 in Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002). For this reason, this thesis will be looking at the entrepreneurship training programmes that are suitable for these types of enterprises. Further, the author will focus on the importance of social and cultural context from an embeddedness perspective of entrepreneurship. Embeddedness is defined as a concept that makes contextual challenges in a cultural, social and structural setting understandable (Welter, 2011). This limitation enables the author to focus on the relevant literature, which will contribute to achieving the purpose 7
of this thesis. In the coming part, the research questions that are based on the purpose of this thesis are outlined.
1.3 Research question Knowing what previous studies say about entrepreneurship training programs, its importance, types and goals and the importance of context are the most important elements in this thesis. It is important for the author to obtain a deeper understanding of these elements through a literature review in order to be able to design an entrepreneurship model in a refugee context. Therefore, the author has broken down the purpose of the thesis into two research questions (RQs) that will be investigated in the coming chapters. The research questions are as follows: RQ1: What types of entrepreneurship training programs exist for creating small businesses for refugees? RQ2: Why is the cultural and social context important in development of an entrepreneurship course for refugees? Answering these research questions will provide the author with a deeper understanding of how an entrepreneurship training model can be designed to suit a refugee setting.
1.4 Contributions Evidence from different countries shows that entrepreneurship education plays an important role in the development of a country. Furthermore, entrepreneurship education is considered as an intervention that teaches individuals entrepreneurial skills and enables them to start their own businesses and become self-employed (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007; Bechard & Toulouse, 1998; Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002).
This thesis focuses on designing an entrepreneurship education program for refugees so that they can learn entrepreneurial skills, start their own businesses and become self-employed. In this way, they can improve their lives with engaging in entrepreneurial activities. The author has developed a theoretical framework and a model that contains some of the most important elements for development of an entrepreneurship training module for refugees. In this manner, this paper contributes to new knowledge about developing an entrepreneurial education program for 8
refugees. In addition, this paper might inspire others to do more research on refugee entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial education for them.
1.5 Limitations During the literature review it became obvious that there are very limited studies on refugee entrepreneurship. In addition, there exist almost no literature on entrepreneurship education programs that are made for refugees living in refugee camps. Thus, studies on migrant and minority entrepreneurship has been used instead of refugee entrepreneurship, and studies on development of incubation- and innovation centers has been used in the absence of literature on entrepreneurship training centers.
1.6 Structure The next chapter will present the method for collecting relevant literature. In the final chapter there will be a presentation of the existing literature and the theoretical framework for this research, where each subchapter will end with a short discussion written in cursive letters.
2.0 Refugee context In order to be able to design an entrepreneurship education program for a refugee context, it is important to understand who a refugee is. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (Hereafter UNHCR), refugees are categorized into three groups. The first group includes persons who are granted complementary forms of protection under national, regional, or international law to individuals who are at risk of serious harm. Refugees in the second category are recognized as individuals who are granted temporary protection who do not live inside their country or territory of origin and might have same protection risks as refugees. The third refugee category includes persons whose asylum application is pending in the procedure for asylum seeking (UNHCR, 2015). This paper focuses on the second type of refugees who live in the refugee camps based on a temporary protection and will return to their country of origin after its safe again. Thereby, the term “refugee” in this paper means “refugees who live in the refugee camps” and not the other types of refugees.
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Research shows that refugees, who are forcibly displaced and live in the refugee camps or other uncertain living conditions, engage in innovative and entrepreneurial activities despite the insecurity, discrimination and financial loss. In this manner, they contribute to their community by using their skills to create income-generating activities and start new projects and businesses (Betts, Bloom, & Weaver, 2015). Therefore, education in entrepreneurship might enable them to create even better innovative and entrepreneurial businesses by getting relevant and structured training. Education and training in entrepreneurship may encourage them to both create and enhance their own businesses. This will help them to become self-employed and at the same time create jobs for other refugees as well. However, getting training and education in entrepreneurship just as in any other field requires motivation and dedication to learning. Thus, it is important to learn more about the attitudes of refugees towards learning. Since this paper focuses on Kakumarefugee camp, it is appropriate to learn about the education system in this camp and about the attitudes of the youth towards getting education. The following part elaborates on the development of education system in Kakuma-refugee camp throughout the years and the importance of education for the youth in this camp.
2.1 Importance of Education for Kakuma-refugees The education and schooling system in Kakuma- refugee camp has developed since its establishment. When the refugee camp was newly established in 1992, the students had to sit on the grounds and use the shade of big trees as classrooms due to lack of conventional school building. By 1993, UNHCR started constructing schools and provided textbooks for the student and after one year the regular schools were opened (Mareng 2006). The education system in Kakuma-refugee camp has improved a lot since then (Sommers, 2002). The students in Kakumarefugee camp appreciate education and believe that getting education will benefit them in one or another way in the future (Mareng, 2006; Mareng, 2010). However, not all the youth go to school and get education, for some people working and doing small business was the right path to take (Mareng, 2010).
Studies support the notion that there is a significant relation between entrepreneurship and education given the fact that education is linked to worthy outcomes. Education is important in 10
terms of desirable results, behavior, innovation, creativity, flexibility, autonomy, self-direction and capacity to respond properly in various situations (Ryle, 2009; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Therefore, getting education in entrepreneurship might produce better results and become a part of the solution to the refugee problems. The young people in Kakuma-refugee camp consider getting education as a means for improving their future. At the same time, to some people, getting education is not as necessary as working or starting a business. In either case, education in entrepreneurship can benefit both groups. The ones, who believe in getting education as a chance to change their future, might be positive towards entrepreneurship education program anyway. The ones who are interested in business might consider getting education in entrepreneurship as a start point to start their own business venture. However, it is necessary to get more information about how a potential entrepreneurship education program will be received by the refugees who live in uncertain living situation with little hope for a good future.
3.0 Method The goal of this literature review is to get an overview of the existing literature on entrepreneurship education programs and the importance of context for development of such a program in a refugee context. This chapter presents the methods that are used to find relevant literature for answering the research questions. Furthermore, it presents the different sources and how they led to new relevant articles. Finally, the chapter wraps up with a reflection on the process of literature search and the limitations during the search due to the lack of literature on refugee entrepreneurship.
3.1 Acquisition of relevant literature A structured search method is used for reviewing the literature on entrepreneurship and various types of entrepreneurship education programs. According to Petersen et al. (2008), the systematic search process has five steps: (1) defining the research questions, (2) conducting the search, (3) screening the articles, (4) keywording, (5) retrieving data and mapping process. The purpose of this process is to give the author an overview of the existing theoretical and empirical studies on the research area; entrepreneurship education programs, refugee entrepreneurship and the important elements for designing an entrepreneurship education program for refugees.
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3.1.1 Defining research questions As mentioned above, the two research questions outlined in this paper will guide the author to investigate the literature within entrepreneurship education programs and the importance of context. The research questions are as follows: RQ1: What types of entrepreneurship training programs exist for creating small businesses for refugees? RQ2: Why is the cultural and social context important in development of an entrepreneurship course for refugees? For answering the RQs, the author will investigate the existing literature on the different types of entrepreneurship education programs for small businesses and the literature on the importance of context for designing such a program for refugees. This will give an overview of what already exists and what needs to be researched in this area of interest. 3.1.2 Conducting the search In this step, the author searched the relevant articles only in the scientific databases within the specific research scope. The search strings; entrepreneurship, refugee entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial education programs, and context were used during the first search. Each keyword was searched separately due to the limited literature on refugee entrepreneurship and the lack of literature on entrepreneurial education program for refugees.
The scientific databases; Oria and Web of Science (WoS) were used as search engines. Both Oria and WoS are trustworthy databases within academia that are recommended by NTNU and covers large parts of the scientific articles. All the relevant articles are registered in EndNote so that the author can easily get access to them.
3.1.3 Screening the articles The author made an inclusion and exclusion criteria in order to limit the search by defining what topics will be included and what not. Table 1 shows the criteria for inclusion and exclusion that helped to make the search more focused on what is relevant for answering the RQs. 12
Inclusion
All the English and scholarly articles and literature that had empirical and theoretical focus on entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education program were included. In addition, any article that had researched a different phenomenon such as business incubation or innovation center in a refugee context was also included as a source of motivation for this research paper.
Exclusion
Articles that had focus on entrepreneurship in developed countries, and with no full text available were excluded. In addition, articles that had mentioned the terms entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship education or context only in the abstract or introduction were also excluded.
Table 1: Inclusion & exclusion criteria
The search began with screening the articles in Oria by their titles. The keywords for search string included: “entrepreneurship education and training programs”, “refugee and entrepreneurship”, “teaching entrepreneurship”. More searches were performed using specific keywords such as: “small business”, and “refugee entrepreneurship” after reading some of the articles that were found during the first search. As mentioned earlier as well, there were not so many relevant articles while searching due to the limited literature on refugee context.
Next, the author started reading the abstracts of the relevant articles, that passed through the first search based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion and exclusion criteria listed above in Table 1 were applied for selecting the relevant articles. Table 2 presents an overview of the structured literature search:
13
Oria
Entrepreneurship training and education
19 757
16
10
7
Oria
Refugees and entrepreneurship
1,132
15
9
7
(Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994), (Briga, 1996), (Dhliwayo, 2008), (Fairlie & Holleran, 2012), (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007), (Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002), (David, 2004) (North, 2002), (Nieman,
English, relevant scholarly journals and articles
English, relevant scholarly journals and articles
2001), (Mescon, 1987), (Juma, & Kagwanja, 2003), (Jansen, 2008), (Betts, Bloom, & Weaver, 2015), (Desai, 2011) WoS
Teaching entrepreneurship
98
Scopus
Entrepreneurship
108
Education
21
10
5
1
(Jesselyn & Mitchell, 2006)
English and articles
6
0
None
English and articles
14
Oria
Embeddedness theory
14 707
15
8
4
(Jack, & Anderson,
English, articles and annual reports
2002), (Welter, 2011), (Hart & London, 2005), (Yousafzai, Saeed, & Muffatto, 2015 WoS
Entrepreneurship training AND refugees
Oria
Entrepreneurship education for refugees
Oria
Small businesses
5
2
108
2
0
None
English and articles
21
8
0
None
English, relevant scholarly journals and articles
17
10
4
(Gibb,
365
1993), English, relevant (Gibb, 1996), scholarly journals and articles (Curran, & Stanworth,198 9), (William & Laura, 2004)
Table 2: The structured search in Oria and WoS
3.1.4 Keywording After reading the abstracts, the relevant articles were chosen and were then read fully. After this step, new literature was found through citations in primary sources. For instance, the author found that there are many different types of entrepreneurship education and training program that are aimed at university students. The author then had to limit the search to “entrepreneurship training programs for small business owners”. The latter type of education programs is more relevant to the context of this thesis, which is refugees living in a refugee camp. In this way, the author had to exclude all the articles that were not concerned with small businesses and started using the keyword “small businesses”. The process of reading the selected articles led to a deeper understanding of the subject and therefore the author started writing down new keywords. At the same time, the “snowballing” method was used, where new articles were found in the selected articles. Since both the name of the authors and the title of the articles were known from the primary source, the author used Google 15
Scholar and Oria to find the new sources. Table shows an overview of the primary sources that led to the new sources during the systematic search.
Primary Sources Jesselyn & Mitchell
New Sources Laukkannen (2000), Postigo &Tamborini (2002), Klandt (1993)
(2006) Fairlie & Holleran
Oosterbeek, et al. (2010), Karland & Valdivia (2011), Benus et al. (2008), Benus &
(2012)
Michaelides (2010), Birth (1979)
Garavan &
Colton (1990), Gibb (1993), Sexton & Bowman (1984), Bannock (1981),
O′Cinneide (1994) Briggs (2016a)
Acs et al. (2008), Langevang et al. (2012), Brundin et al. (2005)
Briggs (2016b)
McDade & Spring (2005)
Mareng (2010)
Mareng (2006)
David (2004)
Birch (1979), Gibb (1996)
Table 3: List of primary sources that led to the secondary sources
Additionally, the author had used some specific journals and reports in order to find relevant literature. The journals include: Oxford academic`s Journal of Refugee Studies and Journal of Education + Training. The articles by Jesselyn & Mitchell (2006), Garavan & O′Cinneide (1994), and Dhliwayo (2008) were found in the Journal of Education + Training.The articles by Jesselyn & Mitchell (2006), Garavan & O′Cinneide (1994), and Dhliwayo (2008) were found in the Journal of Education + Training.The reports include the most recent Statistical Yearbooks of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and recent reports on innovation and its effects in refugee camps in Kenya, Jordan, Uganda, South Africa and the United States by university of Oxford and Refugee Studies Center. Furthermore, the author has been recommended by the mentors to contact people who are doing research on refugee entrepreneurship and other similar subjects that can be relevant to this thesis. Table 4 shows those researchers who were being recommended by the supervisors and were contacted by the author:
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Author
Institution
Area of research
Relevant articles
Kristine Briggs
Chalmers School of Entrepreneurship
Business incubation in African countries such as: Uganda and Tanzania
(1) Travels of Business Incubators: Exploring Entrepreneurship Support from an Embeddedness Perspective in Uganda and Tanzania (2) The translation of an incubator: the case of the Lighthouse in Bubulo, Uganda (3) Conflicting whys: analysing business incubator rationales
Hani Tarabichi
Aalto University
Integration of Syrian refugees in Finland through innovation center for refugees
None
Lubna Rashid
University of
None
Berlin
Refugee entrepreneurship
Vegar Lein
NTNU School of
Business model
Ausrød
Entrepreneurship
Business model design at the base of the pyramid (2017)
Torgeir
NTNU School of
Aadland
Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship education
(1) How do we know what we assess? A taxonomy of science and technology entrepreneurship education (2) Systematizing Higher Education: A Typology of Entrepreneurship Education
Table 4: List of researchers recommended by supervisors
Contacting these researchers helped the author with finding some important literature on the importance of social and cultural context for developing a new entrepreneurship training center. 17
As a result, the author started searching for more relevant articles on the theory of embeddedness and the importance of context.
3.1.5 Retrieving data and mapping process Finally, the most relevant and basic information in each article was gathered and put under various categories. This systematic mapping process included the title of the article, the name of the authors, and the publication year and can be seen in both table 2. The more detailed form of the systematic mapping process is shown in Appendix A. The table in Appendix A presents an overview of the relevant literature that is used in this thesis. The most important and relevant themes include: entrepreneurship education, importance of entrepreneurship, context, the theory of embeddedness, entrepreneurial personality traits, refugee entrepreneurship and the two types of entrepreneurship; necessity- and opportunity entrepreneurship. This structured search has been used to collect and analyze information from the literature review in order to answer the research questions RQ1 & RQ2 outlined above. The table below presents a list of the number of articles that are used within each subject. Article
Number of references
24
37
4
7
9
7
Table 5: List of number of articles used within each relevant subject
3.1.6 Limitations As mentioned earlier, there has been very limited literature available on the refugee entrepreneurship. Therefore, each subject was searched separately and then they were put together 18
and customized for this thesis. In addition, the author had limited timeframe to conduct the literature review, from 15th October 2017 to December 2017. This made it challenging to establish a broader overview of the research topic. As shown in table 2, there were several hundred hits for each search. This made the search process quite time consuming and might have resulted in missing out some relevant articles. However, not all the articles were relevant for this thesis. For instance, some articles had only one word of the search string and was not relevant at all. The author further limited the search to only Oria and WoS, which might also have resulted in missing out some relevant articles.
4.0 Literature review The goal of the literature review is two-folded. Firstly, to look at the different types of entrepreneurship training programs for small businesses and secondly to look at the importance of context for developing an entrepreneurship education model. This chapter begins with a short presentation of paper`s context, which is a refugee setting. Then, there is a presentation of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship education program and their importance and goals. Further, this chapter presents the types of small business education that can be relevant for refugees and why they should be embedded in their cultural and social context. As mentioned above, each subchapter will end with a discussion in cursive letters in order to separate it from the rest of the text.
4.1 Importance of entrepreneurship education for refugees As mentioned earlier, entrepreneurship is linked to new job creation, opportunity recognition and creation, social welfare, self-employment and empowerment, economic growth and prosperity; therefore, there is a special emphasis on development of minority entrepreneurs through entrepreneurship training and education programs. Studies claim that education in entrepreneurship can encourage economic growth, self-employment and innovation among minority groups. In addition, it strengthens the existing small businesses, improves the minorityowned small businesses in the private and public sectors (Mescon, 1987). 19
The term minority represents refugees in this paper since refugees are considered a minority group in the host state. There are several reasons that show why education in entrepreneurship is important for refugees. It can be argued that entrepreneurship and small business education is important for refugees since it provides them with skills that are necessary to start and improve small businesses and their performance to levels where there is demand for additional employment (Mescon, 1987). In this manner, they will create jobs both for themselves and for others. Education in entrepreneurship further encourages educated and structured business development and provides entrepreneurs with necessary skills for business ownership (Mescon, 1987). Through a structured business education, refugees will learn necessary entrepreneurial skills to start and enhance their own businesses. From this, it can be understood that entrepreneurship and education in this field is an essential tool for improving the condition of refugees by teaching them entrepreneurial skills that will enable them to create their own job.
In the coming part, there is a short presentation of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education program, followed by the goals, importance and various types of it. As mentioned above, each subchapter will end with a discussion in cursive.
4.2 Why Entrepreneurship? Timmons (1989, p. 1) defines entrepreneurship as “the ability to create and build something from practically nothing. It is initiating, doing, achieving, and building an enterprise or organization, rather than just watching, analyzing or describing one. It is the knack for sensing an opportunity where others see chaos, contradiction and confusion”. In the recent years, there has been a broad interest in entrepreneurship in different parts of the world and governments in different countries views it as a national priority. This is mostly because entrepreneurship is viewed as a solution for economic prosperity. Entrepreneurship and small businesses have captured attention because they do contribute to generating job opportunities, fostering innovation, enhancing economic growth, and facilitating the development of nations. In
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addition, new ventures, small businesses and self-employed entrepreneurs create jobs not only for themselves but also for others. (Birch, 1979; Reynolds, 2007; Fairlie & Holleran, 2012; Wennekers & Thurik, 1999; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994; Fairlie & Holleran, 2012; Birch, 1979). Therefore, innovative activities and entrepreneurship is being supported and expanded to different societies and settings in order to develop new business ventures. However, there exist studies that do not support the notion of the positive link between entrepreneurship and economic growth. These studies argue that there is a limited number of businesses that grow larger and contribute to the economic growth (Wong, Ho, & Autio, 2005; Shane, 2009). Therefore, they do not see entrepreneurship and small businesses as a guarantee for economic development and therefore do not support expanding them to different settings.
There are two types of entrepreneurship; necessity and opportunity. The entrepreneurs who do not have the opportunity for employment turn to entrepreneurship out of necessity and are necessity entrepreneurs. Therefore, some scholars argue that entrepreneurs out of necessity do not contribute to the economic growth in a country (Acs & Varga, 2005). Entrepreneurs who have a business idea and act upon them are opportunity entrepreneurs (Acs, Desai, & Hessels, 2008). Businesses based on opportunity entrepreneurship might grow larger and contribute to economic prosperity, but there is very limited number of such businesses that grow larger (Acs, Desai, & Hessels, 2008).
As mentioned previously, there are two types of entrepreneurship; necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship that describe the motivation behind entrepreneurship (Acs, 2006). Necessity entrepreneurship is equalized with survival-oriented entrepreneurship and opportunity with growth-oriented entrepreneurship (Langevang et al., 2012). It is argued that only opportunity entrepreneurship contributes to economic growth whereas necessity entrepreneurship is more about survival and not growth (Acs 2006;Acs et al., 2008). Refugee entrepreneurship can be viewed as out of necessity since they are not allowed to work in the host country. Subsequently, it might not contribute to the economy of the entire country, but it might contribute to the individual economy of refugees. Given the fact that refugees are mostly not allowed to work in the host states (Juma & Kagwanja, 2003), entrepreneurship out of necessity can be a part of the solutions to the refugees social and economic problems. Entrepreneurship can pave the way for the unemployed young people to stand on their own feet and be economically self-sufficient by creating their own jobs. 21
4.3 Who is an entrepreneur? An entrepreneur is a business-owner with or without focus on innovation, who can organize others and possess the knowledge and expertise that is required for establishing a new venture. Furthermore, entrepreneurs are characterized by traits such as: risk-taking, opportunity creating, innovating, coordinating of limited resource, and opportunity seeking (Gartner, 1990; Briggs, 2016; Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). The origins of term “entrepreneur” stem from the French word “entreprendre”, which means to undertake. Therefore, an entrepreneur is someone who changes the status quo and make things happen. Thus, can be referred to as a change agent and can be both a small business owner and an employee in a large organization or company (Brockhaus & Horwitz, 1986; Briggs, 2016, Gibb, 1996; Briggs, 2016). Entrepreneurs are viewed as individuals whose main goal is growth and profit through innovation and management capabilities. Contrarily, small business owners are rarely engaged in innovative practices. Small business owners use most of their time and resources on their businesses, which are usually the sole source of their income (Sexton & Bowman 1984, and Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). This suggests that all entrepreneurs are self-employed; however, all self-employed individuals are not entrepreneurs.
The need for entrepreneurs goes hand in hand with the interest in job creation and economic development (Gibb, 1996). To some scholars, entrepreneurs are born and not made, but many scholars argue that “entrepreneurs are often made, not born”; hence, they can be trained through entrepreneurship education (Johannisson,1991; Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994).
Even though, studies support the notion that most of the aspects of entrepreneurship can be taught, there is still some personality traits such as an attitude towards risk taking, preference for autonomy, innovativeness and risk tolerance that differentiate a successful entrepreneur from the unsuccessful one. Therefore, it is argued that entrepreneurship should always be done through stimulation of entrepreneur's desire to start new ventures and enhancement of their capacity to pursue success in those ventures (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Mostly, these personality traits are referred to as entrepreneurial personality skills and are used as a selection criterion while 22
choosing candidates for an entrepreneurship training program. Therefore, it can be argued that while selecting refugees for the entrepreneurship education course it might be helpful to take these characteristics into consideration.
Many studies support the paradigm that “entrepreneurs are often made, not born”. From this, it can be understood that in order to create successful new ventures it is important to get adequate education in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education will increase the chances of success in businesses and entrepreneurial activities (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). In the coming part, the term “entrepreneurship education” and its importance will be presented.
4.4 Entrepreneurship education Entrepreneurship education is considered as an intervention that can enable individuals to start their own business ventures and to teach them entrepreneurial skills and qualities. Entrepreneurship education includes; education for enterprise that is concerned with developing business skills, education about enterprise that is concerned with knowledge and understanding of the business and education through enterprise which is concerned with learning to become enterprising (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007).
There are two areas of entrepreneurship education; (1) education about entrepreneurship (2) education for entrepreneurship (Laukkannen, 2000). Education about entrepreneurship views entrepreneurship as a social phenomenon and is concerned with the development and studying of the theories. It involves studying the theory and the entrepreneurial process of the small and middle sized firm creation, and entrepreneurship`s contribution to economic growth. This type of entrepreneurship education is usually aimed at undergraduate, Masters, PhD students, policy makers and researchers. Whereas, education for entrepreneurship prepares entrepreneurs for developing new ventures by stimulating entrepreneurial process and providing them with the necessary tools (Laukkannen, 2000; Jesselyn & Mitchell, 2006). Different terms are used to describe entrepreneurship education and training programs. The most widely used terms are entrepreneurial education and training for entrepreneurship. Some other most commonly used terms are: entrepreneurship education, enterprise education and small
23
business education. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably; however, at the same time there are some noteworthy conceptual differences between them (Curran & Stanworth, 1989 and Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994).
This paper is concerned with refugees who might have lived in refugee camps for years and might not have access to higher education. Therefore, the focus of this paper will be directed at the education for entrepreneurship rather than the theoretical aspect. This area of entrepreneurship education is concerned with the practical preparation of the entrepreneurs to start new businesses. It further provides entrepreneurs with necessary tools to become selfemployed; thus, it is considered more relevant for the purpose of this research. Furthermore, the term entrepreneurship education program will be used in this paper to indicate enterprise and small business education. Now that the term is defined, it’s time to present the importance of entrepreneurship education followed by a discussion of its relevance to refugees.
4.5 Importance of entrepreneurship education Some studies support the notion that entrepreneurship training increases the chances of individuals with entrepreneurial skills to become self-employed and consider business ownership as a career. Nevertheless, there exist studies that claim that there is no positive relationship between entrepreneurship education programs and an individual's motivation to become a business owner ( Karlan & Valdivia, 2011; Oosterbeek, Van Praag, & Ijsselstein, 2010; Fairlie & Holleran, 2012).
Furthermore, evidence from different countries indicate that entrepreneurship education plays an important role in economic growth. Experts believe that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can contribute to the growth of a country much more if entrepreneurship education and training programs are implemented at school levels (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007). Furthermore, research shows that entrepreneurship training has a significant positive impact on business ownership and the unemployed seem to benefit the most from these trainings. The reason for this can be the stronger desire for self-employment among the unemployed (Benus et al., 2008 & Benus, & Michaelides, 2010).
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Given the fact that there is a positive relation between entrepreneurship education and business ownership, it can be argued that education in entrepreneurship can be a good base to start with for promoting entrepreneurial activities. Education and training in entrepreneurship might be relevant for refugees since studies show that the unemployed benefit the most from such trainings (Benus et al., 2008; Michaelides & Benus, 2012; Fairlie & Holleran, 2012). Therefore, it can be concluded that adequate education in entrepreneurship through entrepreneurship education and training programs might increase the chances of refugees to start their own businesses and become economically independent.
The goals of entrepreneurship education program are shortly outlined below.
4.6 Goals of Entrepreneurial Education They theory above suggests that entrepreneurship education is important for starting a business and such training might help the jobless individuals the most since they are highly motivated. Thus, it is appropriate to look at the objectives of teaching such courses. The literature shows that various goals are usually set to be achieved by arranging courses in entrepreneurship education. One of the main goals of teaching entrepreneurship, among other things, is to raise the awareness of the students about self-employment. Entrepreneurship education make individuals aware that they can choose entrepreneurship as a career and can become self-employed. In addition, studies show that entrepreneurship education programs aim to promote entrepreneurial personality traits such risk-taking, responsibility, innovation and providing the students with technical and business skills that they need for starting their own business (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007). Entrepreneurship education programs further aim at preparing entrepreneurs for success in terms of their career, to enhance their capacity for further learning and their aspiration to start new business ventures (Sexton & Kasarda, 1992; Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Some of the main goals of entrepreneurship education programs are outlined below: ● to acquire relevant knowledge regarding entrepreneurship. ● to obtain necessary skills relevant to analyzing business situations and schematizing action plans. ● to be able to identify entrepreneurial opportunities. 25
● to recognize entrepreneurial opportunities. ● to develop support for all aspects of entrepreneurship. ● to encourage new entrepreneurial ventures.
Now that the entrepreneurship education program, its importance and goals are presented, it is time to look at the different types of entrepreneurship education for small businesses that can be relevant for refugees as well.
4.7 Types of entrepreneurship education for small businesses There are different ways of teaching entrepreneurship and small businesses. Even though there are some confusions between small business training and entrepreneurship training, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Small business training program is concerned with starting and operating small business; whereas, entrepreneurship training program is mostly concerned with creating new business ventures where the emphasis is on profitability, growth and innovation (Neiman, 2001; Wilson, 2004; Ladzani & Van Vuuren, 2002). In order to be able to design an entrepreneurship education program in a refugee context, it is essential to understand what types of models exist. The table below presents various types of entrepreneurship education programs for small businesses. Type of Education
Aim
Learning
Small Business Ownership
Help individuals to Small Raising funds, finances, become selfemployed legal regulations, recruiting businesses people, cash flow, budgeting, money- or people management, sales and marketing etc
Difficult to measure the effect
Continuing Small Business
Update and expand
One-day training
Expanding entrepreneurial knowledge by building on the existing skills
Focus
Small businesses
Challenge
26
Start your own business
Help individuals with Very specific and practical education programs little skills
Small businesses
Candidates have no capital to finance their business
Entrepreneurial Education
New ventures
Creating new businesses by new-thinking and creativity
Innovation
Conventional education can kill the creativity
Small Business Awareness
Business as a career
Learning about the industry and the importance of small firms
Small businesses
Narrow understanding of the opportunities and problems linked to starting a business
Table 6: List of the five types of entrepreneurship education programs As mentioned earlier, entrepreneurship can be an effective intervention and an urgent need for the refugees to escape the problem of crime and joblessness. Learning about how to start a small business can enable individuals to create jobs both for themselves and others. The table 6 shows the purpose, learning goals, focus and challenges linked to the different types of education programs for small businesses that can be relevant for refugees. It is important to discuss the relevance of each type of course for the refugees.
Education and Training for Small Business Ownership aims at helping individuals to become self-employed. This type of education program emphasizes on learning about raising funds, finances, legal regulations, recruiting people, cash flow, budgeting, money- or people management, sales and marketing etc (Kiesner, 1985 and Carswell, 1987 in Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). The problem linked to this type of training includes trainers opposing perceptions on how such a program should be designed, how to find out the shortcomings of the existing training models and how long such a program should be (Gibb, 1985 in Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Refugees can benefit from this type of training since they learn about the importance elements of starting a small business. In this way, they can establish their own small business and become self-sufficient. 27
Continuing Small Business Education is designed to enable entrepreneurs to update and expand their skills. Many business schools offer this type of entrepreneurial training in the form of oneday training module (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). The problem linked to this type of entrepreneurship training is that it is challenging to organize a one-day training because it builds on the existing knowledge of the entrepreneurs and does not create new business ventures. This type of training can be relevant only to those refugees who have already participated in an entrepreneurship training program and have previous knowledge about entrepreneurship. Even though, it can be challenging to promote this type of entrepreneurship training program among refugees, it is a good way of freshening up the existing knowledge about entrepreneurship in a workshop-like gathering. “Start your own business” program might be a good solution for the unemployed. This model is designed to help individuals with little skills, short work experience and little or no capital. This type of entrepreneurship training model seems to be quite relevant to those refugees who have low levels of education and cannot finance their businesses. Furthermore, the candidates for this type of training might have low level of self-confidence due to lack of previous success or low level of education and the trainers who teach this model use a “down to earth” approach. This approach is considered to be more successful since the participants demand practical and very specific programs (Clark, Davis, & Harnish, 1984). Refugees with low levels of education and little skills might benefit more from a practical training than a more academic or theoretical training.
Entrepreneurial Education is concerned with innovation and creating new business ventures. Since
creativity is a very important element in entrepreneurship, there are some doubts whether conventional form of education is helpful in teaching entrepreneurship. It is also argued that a genuine entrepreneur has a different approach towards solving problems and if management and formal education emphasize on order, rationality and predictability, then this might not help an entrepreneur in enhancing her/his true potential (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Entrepreneurial education with main focus on innovation and creativity can be relevant to those refugees who participate in the vocational institutes in Kakuma. These refugees get technical learning and skills in vocational institutions. Through entrepreneurial education, refugees can create new ventures
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that can solve bigger societal problems than the small businesses, which might help only the individuals involved in it.
Small Business Awareness Education seeks to educate those individuals who have sufficient knowledge about small business and consider it as a career. The purpose of this form of education is to raise the awareness of participants about the industry and the importance of small firms. This type of program is mostly suitable for secondary school and undergraduate programs (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). This type of entrepreneurship education might be relevant to refugees with secondary or undergraduate education. The problem linked to this type of entrepreneurship education program is that it provides a narrow understanding of the process of starting a business. The solution might be a longer education program that will provide a wider understanding of new venture formation (Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994). Through this training, refugees will learn about the importance of small businesses and might start considering it as a career.
In the coming subchapters, the importance of entrepreneurship education for minorities and how it should be adjusted to their local needs and cultural context is being presented.
4.8 Context and Embeddedness Perspective Context plays an important role in entrepreneurship since the social aspect of entrepreneurship is as important as its economic aspect. Therefore, scholars suggest that context and culture are important aspects of entrepreneurship and they should be always included in the discussions about entrepreneurship (Brundin, Isaacs, Visser, & Wigren, 2005). Entrepreneurship has different contexts in different parts of the world; however, it is not being adapted to the social and cultural setting of those different places. It is claimed that; even though, entrepreneurship plays an important role in economic growth, it can be still destructive if is not adapted to the social context of each part of the world (Langevang, Namatovu, & Dawa, 2012). Thus, entrepreneurship can be seen as a phenomenon that is embedded in its social and cultural context. Embeddedness shows the relation between the economic and social aspects of a society and how things are connected to their social contexts. From an embeddedness perspective of entrepreneurship, all types of entrepreneurship are embedded in their social, cultural and political institutions and have deep bonds to their environment. In this manner, embeddedness plays a crucial role in shaping and sustaining businesses since being embedded in the social and cultural structures create better 29
opportunities and enhance the performance. (Yousafzai, Saeed, & Muffatto, 2015; Jack & Anderson, 2002). Furthermore, being embedded in the social and cultural context contributes to entrepreneur’s ability to recognize the opportunities that are specific to their environment and thus perform in a better way (Jack & Anderson, 2002).
For an entrepreneurship education program in order to succeed in a refugee camp, it is important to collaborate with the locals and design a model based on the local needs. Furthermore, the model should be aligned with the local culture and should be adapted to the refugee setting so that it works for the economy of the refugees living under peculiar conditions.
As mentioned previously, entrepreneurship is connected to economic development and job creation opportunities (Wennekers & Thurik, 1999; Desai, 2011). The reason for the link between economic prosperity and entrepreneurship is that entrepreneurship creates new businesses, new jobs, and increases productivity through innovation, all these in turn contribute to economic growth (Acs, 2008). Furthermore, entrepreneurship education plays an important role in promoting entrepreneurial activities among minorities (Mescon, 1987). Therefore, it is important that entrepreneurship training is based on the local needs and circumstances. Implementing any changes without localization will not contribute to any kind of improvement and to creating small and medium enterprise development (Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich, & Brijlal, 2007). Therefore, it might pay off to make an effort in researching about the local needs before developing or implementing the entrepreneurship education program.
Following, there is a presentation of the theoretical framework for this research paper.
4.9 The theoretical Framework In this paper, the concept of embeddedness is presented as an analytical tool for the analysis of entrepreneurship education program in a refugee context. According to Welter (2011) embeddedness is defined as a concept that makes contextual challenges in a cultural, social and structural setting understandable. Businesses are advised that in order to succeed they should become socially embedded and build upon local capabilities. This is because being socially embedded and showing respect to the local culture increases trust among people (Hart & London, 30
2005; Jack & Anderson, 2002). Embeddedness is a part of the entire business systems and all types of entrepreneurship is embedded in social and cultural institutions (Yousafzai, Saeed, & Muffatto, 2015). According to this perspective, development of an entrepreneurial education model can be dependent on social and cultural structures and institutions of the refugee camp. The embeddedness theory will be used as a framework for investigating how an entrepreneurship education program should be embedded in the social and cultural structure of a refugee camp. Further, it constitutes a scheme that can be used as a base to develop a program based on the local needs and cultural context of any refugee camp. In Kakuma-refugee camp, there are many different ethnic groups that have lived together for several years. This is an element that should be taken into account while developing the entrepreneurship education program for them. The author of this paper has developed a model that presents the most important elements that should be taken into consideration while designing an entrepreneurship education program for refugees. Model 1 shows that entrepreneurship education program, its goals and the various types of entrepreneurship education courses should be aligned with each other and they should be further embedded in the cultural and social context.
Model 1: Important elements for development of an entrepreneurship education module
31
The model above contains the elements such as types of entrepreneurship trainings, the goals of the education program and the education program, the importance of cultural context and local needs. Since the context of this thesis is a refugee camp, the important contextual elements are the different nationalities that live in the refugee camp and their levels of education. From the model above, it can be understood that an entrepreneurship education program for refugees should be designed based on the local needs of the refugees, their social and cultural context, their level of education and based on the fact that there are people from different nationalities with different values and attitudes towards education. In addition, the goals and the type of the entrepreneurship education program for refugees should be aligned with each other. For instance, the goal of an entrepreneurship course for refugees should be enabling them to start their own small business.
The author has further developed model 2 shown below to explain the elements in more details. Model 2 shows the most important elements for designing an entrepreneurship education
Model 2: Important elements for entrepreneurship education program for Kakuma-refugee camp
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program specifically for Kakuma-refugee camp in Kenya. Model 2 shows that the most relevant entrepreneurship education program for refugees in Kakuma-refugee camp is small business trainings since its goals are self-employment, improving personal economy, innovation and opportunity recognition. It further shows the important contextual elements such as local needs that include: more jobs, economic self-sufficiency, and a market for their products. There are people from eight different nationalities in Kakuma-refugee camp that include people from South Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and DR Congo. Furthermore, their cultural context, especially with regards to education and entrepreneurship, and level of education are also important elements that should be paid attention to while designing the entrepreneurship education program.
5.0 Conclusion This paper has obtained a deeper understanding of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education programs with a focus on a refugee setting. The theoretical framework has been concerned with a perspective of entrepreneurship education program as embedded in its social and cultural context. As studies of entrepreneurship and economic growth are influenced by cultural and country specific contexts; therefore, these contexts should be included in the process of developing a new program if the purpose is to utilize entrepreneurship for the transformation of a country (Delmar and Wiklund, 2008, Brundin et al., 2005). Understanding the entrepreneurial activities in a country is crucial to be able to develop relevant policies (Desai, 2009) that reflect the heterogeneity, in terms of both aspirations and capabilities of entrepreneurial actors, and in terms of the resources they need to develop (Phillips and Bhatia‐Panthaki, 2007). Poorly developed policies on the other hand, may be more destructive than productive for the economy (Baumol, 1996). This paper lays the foundation for the upcoming master thesis that seeks to contribute to the literature about developing an entrepreneurship education program in a refugee camp.
6.0 Implications for further research This thesis highlights the importance of refugee entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education programs for refugees living in the refugee camps. Based on the information from the existing literature, the author has developed a model where the most important elements for designing an entrepreneurship education program for refugees are being presented. The new model will lay the 33
foundation for the coming master thesis in spring, 2018 and may have implications for developing entrepreneurship education program in a refugee context. The future research will focus on testing the new model in practice while collecting empirical data through interviews next semester.
In the future, there is a need for more research on refugee entrepreneurship and on more focused entrepreneurship education and training programs specifically developed for a refugee context. Therefore, it is essential to test the model in order to find out whether it can be relevant for other contexts as well, especially to see whether it can be relevant for refugees living in other refugee camps in different host states.
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Appendix 1 The table below presents an overview of the articles and the theme of each article that are used in the literature review. The subjects that recur in the literature include: importance of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship education programs, the importance of context and theory of 39
embeddedness, refugee entrepreneurship and the necessity- and opportunity entrepreneurship. Some of the articles contains more than one of these themes.
Jesselyn & Mitchell, 2006 ⛌
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Fairlie & Holleran, 2012
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Garavan & O′Cinneide, 1994
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Ladzani & van Vuuren, 2002 Isaacs, et al., 2007
Acs, Desai, & Hessels,
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⛌
2008
Langevang, Namatovu,
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& Dawa, 2012
40
William & Laura, 2004
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David,2004
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North, 2002
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Juma & Kagwanja, 2003
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Jansen, 2008
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Krueger, et al., 2000
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Mescon, 1987
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Isaacs, et al., 2007
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Pretorius, Nieman, & Vuuren, 2005
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Dhliwayo, 2008
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Acs, Desai, & Hessels, 2008
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Sexton & Bowman, 1984
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Briggs, 2016
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41
Sexton & Kasarda, 1992
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McDade & Spring, 2005
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Sommers, 2002
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De la Chaux & Haugh, 2014
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Gibb, 1993
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Brockhaus & Horwitz, 1986
Benus et al., 2008
Gartner, 1990
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Wennekers & Thurik, 1999
Michaelides & Benus, 2012
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Reynolds, 2007
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Birch, 1979
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42
⛌
Stearns, 2012
Briga, 1996
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Curran & Stanworth, 1989
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Gibb, 1996
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Johannisson, 1991
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William, 2004
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Brundin et al., 2005
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Yousafzai, et al.,2015
Clark, et al., 1984
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Total
24
37
4
7
9
7
Table A: List of articles and the themes in each article in the literature
43
