entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship in Food and Chemical Industries


Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh

First Published 2007 by Institute for Development Studies University of Nigeria Enugu Campus Enugu - Nigeria

©

2007 Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh

ISBN: 978 - 2409 - 29 - 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication Foreword by Prof. J.O. Onah Preface Acknowledgments List of Boxes, Charts, Tables and Figures Chapter One: ENTREPRENEURSHIP Introduction Starting Your Enterprise -Growing Your Enterprise Leadership in Workplace Interpersonal Relationship in Workplace Time Management in Workplace Feasibility Study/Report and Business Plan Conclusion and Recommendations

viii x xii xiii xv 1 5 21 35 50 56 61 77

Chapter Two: GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE (GMP) 79 Introduction 79 Basic Requirements for GMP 81 FOODSAND BEVERAGES Chapter Three3: Introduction Table Water Mineral Water Malting Beer Brewing Malt Drinks Gins (Spirits) Fruit Drinks Dairy and Related Products Fast Foods and Related Products Starch and Flour Oils Fruit Juice/Paste Pectin

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88 88 88 94 95 98 107 107 118 121 124 140 143 147 149

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Chapter Four: COSMETICSAND PHARMACEUTICALS Cosmetic Products Creams Lotion Shampoos Shaving Lotions Deodorants and Antiperspirants Depilatories Powders Manicure Preparations Laboratory Evaluation of Cosmetics Pharmaceuticals and Drugs Intravenous Fluids (Drips) Antidermatitis Preparation Tris Solution Relaxer Aspirin Paracetamol and Paraminophenol

151 151 151 158 160 161 163 165 166 171 175 176 176 177 177 178 179 179

Chapter Five: SOAPSAND CHEMICALS Soap Products Soap Toothpaste Liquid Detergents Detergent Powder Soap Powder Scouring (Scrubbing) Soap Powder Chemicals Sodium Sulphide Calcium carbide Metallic Stearates Zinc Nitrate Sodium/Potassium CitrateAnd Iodides Copper Salts Zinc Chloride Zinc Sulphate Zinc Cyanide Precipitated Calcium Carbonate

181 181 184 184 185 186 187 188 188 189 190 191 191 193 194 195 196 197

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Table of Contents

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Glue and Gelatine Rubber Eraser Inks (Writing) PVC Polyester Resin (Unsaturated) Particle Board CoatedAbrasives Gums SulphuricAcid CitricAcid Activated Carbon Mosquito Coil PhosphoricAcid and Gypsum Soldering Wire Chlorinated Paraffin Wax Abrasive Wheels Graphite Crucible Silica Gel Coal Briquettes Silicon Carbide Crucible Copper Wire BakeliteAccessories Carbon Brushes Hot Dip Galvanising Bleaching Earth Matches Fertiliser Sodium Chloride (or Common/Table Salt) Sodium Sulphate Sodium Bisulphite Sodium Hydrosulphite (Hydro) Sodium Nitrite Sodium Silicate Sodium Peroxide Sodium Perborate Sodium Hypochlorite Pigments Paints

197 199 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 216 217 218 219 219 220 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 231 232 238

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Solid Perfume Candle Starch GumArabic Alkyd Resin Sealing Wax Shoe Polish Plastic Button Fountain Pen Pencil Toilet Roll Aluminum Sulphate (Alum)

239 239 240 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 248 249

Chapter Six: LIVESTOCK Honeybee and Honeybe eKeeping Fish Farming Poultry and Feeds Production Snailry Goatry Piggery Chapter Seven: CROPS Introduction Cassava Cocoyam Maize Sorghum (Guinea corn) Rice Soyabean Tomato Oil palm Pineapple Melon Pepper Mango Plantain Banana Castor Bean

251 251 273 279 287 292 296 301 301 302 305 306 308 310 312 314 316 319 321 322 324 325 327 328

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Table of Contents

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Sweet Potato Pawpaw

Chapter Eight: MINERALS Introduction Kaolin Limestone Quicklime/Hydrated Lime Clay Flooring Tile Marble Tile Chalk Calcium Sulphate (Plaster of Paris, POP) CeramicArtware/Toy Phosphate Talc Bentonite Crushed Granite Lead/Zinc (Smelting) Cement

329 331 333

Chapter Nine: TRANSLATING INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY REPORTS INTO ENTERPRISES Introduction Commercialisable Project Reports

333 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 344 345 346 347 344 349 350

Chapter Ten: INDUSTRIALWASTES MANAGEMENT 360 Introduction 360 Problems and Consequences of Waste Management in Nigerian Cities 360 Recommended Methods of Waste Management 361 Waste-to-Wealth 364 REFERENCES APPENDICES INDEX

368 378 3790

DEDICATION

FOREWORD

To Entrepreneurs and Philanthrepreneurs.

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The Federal Government of Nigeria has noted that "… the quality and extent of educational provision in Nigeria falls well below an acceptable level. Consequently, the Minister of Education instigated a reform process to address key issues in education sector." The mission statement of the reform agenda is "To promote quality education and life-long learning relevant to the dynamics of global change through effective policy formulation and the setting and monitoring of standards at all levels; and delivery of tertiary education through federal institutions." st Even in the 21 century, undergraduates in Nigeria are still subjected to education curriculum designed mainly for white-collar jobs. This heightens unemployability problems among graduates in the private sector. Worse still, at a time the number of graduates churned out from the nation's tertiary institutions is multiplying exponentially, the white-collar jobs are fast disappearing owing to corruption and ineffectiveness in government establishments, privatisation of state owned enterprises and downsizing in government ministries and parastatals dictated by economic reforms in the globalising economy. Generally, economies are ailing in developing countries. Most manufacturing concerns operate below half of the installed capacity. Hence, unemployment, under-employment and poverty characterise Nigerian economy and indeed those of other developing countries. Little wonder, over 70% of Nigerian population are absolutely poor. And, poverty is pervading, deepening and widening. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target, among others, halving the population of people living in extreme poverty and hunger by year 2015. This can only be achieved through promotion of entrepreneurship. Many food and chemical industries are dwindling in performance today due to improper training of personnel and ix

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insufficient knowledge of proper technology. Books on skills development are lacking in developing countries because of the notion that professionals should keep trade secrets. Against this backdrop, the book entitled, ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES by Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh, has arrived at the right time to: !Make up for the shortage of entrepreneurship skills in the curriculum of the three tiers of education system, which has led to production of teeming population of unemployable graduates and school-leavers in countries where white-collar job opportunities are thinning down. !Address job creation and poverty eradication by providing a wide range of life-skills for all to become self-reliant and employers of labour. !Provide materials for teaching entrepreneurial skills in the three tiers of education as well as for industrial training. !Provide a grand tool for enterprise development and entrepreneurship promotion for industrial promoters, aspiring and practising entrepreneurs in the real sector of the economy now favoured by private sector-driven policy. !Provide manufacturing tool for product design, production, supervision, monitoring and evaluation. !Provide a valuable research material for researchers in universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, trade centres, secondary and primary schools. The book covers in details entrepreneurship, good manufacturing practice, 13 food and beverage products, 9 cosmetic products, 7 pharmaceutical and drug products, virtually all soap and soap-related products, 62 chemical products, 6 livestock products, 17 crops, 14 mineral products, information on translating indigenous technology reports into enterprises in Nigeria, as well as industrial wastes management. It is written in good and simple language that demystifies science and technology to enable an averagely literate person benefit from the wealth of knowledge contained therein.

Foreword

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Therefore, I strongly recommend this book without reservations to all and sundry, particularly aspiring and practising entrepreneurs, students, teachers and researchers. I commend O.C. Eneh for a wealthy and worthy contribution to the economic development of humankind, particularly in sustainable development and poverty reduction, which the publication of his unique book is bound to achieve. Professor Julius O. Onah, Ph.D. Professor of Marketing and Chairman, UNN-ESC Steering Committee Former Vice-Chancellor Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT)

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PREFACE About 20% of the world population (or 1.2 billion people) live in extreme poverty and hunger. Poverty causes and worsens many problems in developing countries. About 70% of Nigerians live in abject poverty. Except a negligible few citizens, most of who have ill-gotten wealth, others live with relative poverty of money, access and power. The picture is similar for other developing countries, some of whose cases have been worsened by wars. In recognition of this unpalatable fact, part of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is halving the number of people living in extreme poverty and hunger by year 2015. The industrial sector plays predominant roles in reduction of poverty and hunger through creation of jobs and sustainable livelihoods. This sector encourages the culture of self-help and provides opportunities for career and skills development. It creates wealth and promotes productivity, equity and security. ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES is a grand tool for enterprise development and entrepreneurship promotion for aspiring and practicing industrialists in the real sector of the economy as well as for science/engineering researchers in universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. It covers starting and growing your industry, good manufacturing practice, translating Nigeria’s indigenous technology reports into enterprises, as well as industrial waste management. It targets the foods and beverages, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, soaps and chemicals, livestock, crops and minerals industries. It builds the industrial capacity of the entrepreneur for self-reliance, poverty and hunger reduction and sustainable national development. It corrects ailing industries and bridges the gap created by the absence of job-creation, employability and enterprise-readiness programmes in the curriculum of the three tiers of tertiary education xii

system in most developing countries. This situation breeds an army of graduates job-seekers, who cannot even engage themselves until they are subjected to post-graduation apprenticeship to equip them to stand on their own. This, to say the least, is wasteful of human and material resources and occasions idleness, which begets crimes and vices of all shades and magnitudes. Worse still, large companies and government ministries are down-sizing in response to economic realities and introduction of computer in their operations in the rapidly changing world, leading to tens of thousands of managers being laid off and worsening the unemployment situation. Entrepreneurs build the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in history, hiring people as fast as the large companies and government ministries lay them off. They control their destiny and enjoy the reward of freedom, which results from owning a successful enterprise. By equipping entrepreneurs, unemployment is addressed, poverty is tackled, equity is enhanced, idleness and attendant social vices are reduced, and the economy of the nation will be developing in real terms. ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES converts job-seekers to self-reliant and employmentgenerating job-creators by building the technical and managerial capacity of aspiring and practicing entrepreneurs. Addressing the biting twin problems of poverty and hunger, this book is part of the author's humble contributions toward the actualization of the United Nations MDGs of halving extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. As some readers will recognise, this book is a descendant of an earlier book, entitled Welfare and Industrial Companion (Welfare and Industrial Promotions, WIPRO, International, 1998), which I wrote in response to demand for training manual on incomegenerating ventures for employment generation, economic selfreliance and poverty alleviation. Eneh, Onyenekenwa Cyprian

June 2007

LIST OF BOXES, CHARTS, TABLES, FIGURESANDAPPENDICES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Box 1: Goal setting Box 2: Actioning your plan My heartfelt profound gratitude goes to God Almighty, who grants wisdom, vision and grace to write. I profusely thank my wife and children forBox the 3: Persistence encouragement, understanding and sacrifice in course of the preparation Box and 4: Optimism writing of this book. Box 5: Seeing the opportunity beneath the challenge May I also thank Mr. Rowland Egolum, a publishing expert,Chart for 1: Ledger professionally handling the book. I am grateful to Nkechi Maduagwu and Oluchi Table 3.1: Quantity of chemical required for control of Edeh for typesetting the book. different micro-organisms I immensely thank Prof. Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, Director, Institute For Table 3;2: Maximum acceptable levels of different Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus for his continuous parameters in drinking water advice and support and Prof. Julius O. Onah for writing the foreword.

Table 3.3: Malting additives and their functions Figure 3.1: Outline of malting Figure 3.2: Outline of beer brewing Table 3.4: First two alcohols Figure 3.3: Flowchart for the conversion of synthesis gas to methanol Figure 3.4: Flowchart for synthesis of ethyl alcohol from ethylene by direct hydration Figure 3.5: Flowchart for production of industrial alcohol Table 3.5: Levels of production of some fruits in Nigeria Table 4.1: Classification of creams Table 4.2: Typical composition of cleansing cream Table 4.3 Typical composition of vanishing foundation cream Table 4.4: Composition of quick-liquifying creams Table 4.5: Foreign raw materials and their local substitutes for preparation of water-free cream Table 4.6: Formulation of 3 samples of water-free bleaching cream Table 4.7: Classification of lotions I Table 4.8: Classification of lotions II Table 4.9: Formula for shampoo Table 4.10: Formula for loose face powder Table 4.11: Formula for cake or pressed powder

20 23 25 26 28 32 92 93 97 98 106 108 109 112 114 148 151 153 154 155 156 156 159 159 161 169 170

Table 4.12: Formula for face powder 170 Table 4.13: Formula for talcum powder 171 Table 4.14: Formula for body powder 171 Table 4.15: Basic nail lacquer formulation 173 Table 4.16: Laboratory evaluation of cosmetics 175 Chart 2: Steps in soap manufacturing process 182 Table 5.1: Fatty materials and the characteristics of their soap products 184 Table 5.2: Proportion of materials for striking surface match 222 Table 5.3: Proportion of material strikeanywhere match 222 Table 5.4: Statistics on Gum Arabic export/import for Nigeria 242 Table 5.5: Gum Arabic presentations and production process 243 Table 5.6: Classification of synthetic alkyd resin 243 Table 6.1: Development time and honeybee castes 258 Table 6.2: Temperature requirement for brooding 281 Table 6.3: Feed formula 285 Table 6.4: Feeds composition 286 Table 6.5: Weaning schedule for gil and sow 299 Table 6.6: Compounding feed 299 Table 6.7: Weight increase with good feeding for pigs 300 Table 6.8: Pen area requirement for different pigs sizes 300 Table 7.1: Uses of cassava derivatives 303 Table 7.2: Domestic market potential of cassava derivatives 304 Table 7.3: Export market potential of cassava derivatives 305 Table 7.4: Further differentiation of two pepper species 322 Appendix I: Some functional breweries in Nigeria 378 Appendix II: Estimated capital expenditure 379 Appendix III: Working capital 379 Appendix IV: Initial set-up capital 379 Appendix V: Registration of the Maltings 379

Table 7.5: Types of plantain Table 7.6: Types of banana Table 8.1: Bentonite derivatives, uses and activating agents Table 9.1: Cassava processing machines Table 9.2: Grain processing machines Table 9.3: Palm processing machines Table 9.4: Food processing machines Table 9.5: Other commercialisable and adaptable projects/equipment Table 9.6: Annual demand and supply of some major industrial goods Figure 10.1: Wastes garnered in the home/industry Figure 10.2: Wastes taken to Neighbourhood Collection Centre (NCC) Figure 10.3: Wastes sorting and human scavengers’ activities Figure 10.4: Wastes storage Figure 10.5: Wastes hurled into pits for land reclamation Figure 10.6: Metallic products from wastes Figure 10.7: Necklace from wastes

325 327 344 352 353 354 354 355 357 362 363 363 364 365 366 367

Acknowledgements My heartfelt profound gratitude goes to God Almighty, who grants wisdom, vision and grace to write. I profusely thank my wife and children for the encouragement, understanding and sacrifice in course of the preparation and writing of this book. May I also thank Mr. Rowland Egolum, a publishing expert, for professionally handling the book. I am grateful to Nkechi Maduagwu and Oluchi Edeh for typesetting the book. I immensely thank Prof. Ikechukwu E. Nwosu, Director, Institute For Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus for his continuous advice and support and Prof. Julius O. Onah for writing the foreword.

Chapter One

ENTREPRENEURSHIP INTRODUCTION Entrepreneurship is the willingness and ability to seek out investment opportunities, establish and run an enterprise successfully. An entrepreneur is an individual who is willing and able to take business risks for gainful purposes. People go into entrepreneurship because of: * a strong desire to be independent; * the chance to work at something they enjoy, instead of settling for second or third best because of a desire for security in the form of a steady income; * the feeling that they would like to operate at their own pace; * a yearning for recognition and prestige (Atoe and Ibobor, 2006: 294). According to http://www.hcmpublishing.com/Essays/entrepreneurdefinition.html, some business experts have offered definitions for entrepreneur(ship) as follows: Entrepreneurship is the recognition and pursuit of opportunity without regard to the resources you currently control, with confidence that you can succeed, with the flexibility to change course as necessary, with the will to rebound from setbacks (Bob Reiss, successful entrepreneur and author of Low-Risk, High-Reward: Starting and Growing Your Small Business with Minimal Risks). Entrepreneur is a person who starts a business to follow a vision, to make money, and to be the master of

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his/her own soul (both financially and spiritually) (Linda Pinson, author of much materials on business plan). An entrepreneur is not static but fluid … continues to seek opportunities and/or different methods of operation (Gillian Murphy, leader of College Business Development Centre). Entrepreneur is one who undertakes to carry out an enterprise, a swashbuckler, business, adventure, risk taker (Bernard Kamoroff, entrepreneur and author). According to http://search.techtarget.com/sdefinition/0,290660, sid19-gci532613,00.html: Entrepreneur translated from its French roots, means “he who undertakes”. Perceiving an “opportunity niche” - inadequate filling of a consumer need - an entrepreneur is inspired to start a business. Entrepreneur is one who creates a product on his own account (Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 1913). Entrepreneur is an individual who starts his/her own business (Investorwords, a set of definitions of financial terms). Entrepreneur is one who organizes, manages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise (Merriam-Webster Online). Social entrepreneur is a person who opens up major new possibilities in education, health, the

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environment, and other areas of human need. Just as business entrepreneurs lead innovation in commerce, social entrepreneurs drive social change (Ashoka, an organization promoting social change). Entrepreneur is one who has decided to take control of his future and become self-employed whether by creating his own unique business or working as member of a team, as in multi-level marketing (Daile Tucker, entrepreneur and author). Lifestyle entrepreneur is one who is not daring, but perfectly content to sell tried-and-true product, bringing a steady income (Mark Hendricks). Entrepreneurship is loving the journey, not destination (Tom O'Malia). Entrepreneur is one who creates value (Jean Baptiste say, a French economist). Entrepreneur is the innovator who drives the creativedestructive process of capitalism, who reforms or revolutionizes the pattern of production (Joseph Schumpeter). Contemporary writers in management and business present a wide range of theories of entrepreneurship, many of which are variations of say - Schumpeter tradition that entrepreneurs exploit an invention or, more generally, an untired technological possibility for producing a new commodity or producing an old one in a new way. They open a new source of supply of materials or a new outlet for products. They reorganize an industry, as change agents in the economy. By serving new markets or creating new ways of doing things, they move the economy forward. They start new, profit-

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seeking business ventures. They are catalysts and innovators behind economic progress. Successful entrepreneurs typically: * are distinctive decision makers; * enjoy taking charge and following through to the end; * want to be master of their fate; * are satisfied with doing what they know is right; * are organised, independent and self-confident; * are diligent; * come from a small family business background; * can take criticism and rejection; * have specialised business ability from education or experience; * are determined and persistent, not quitting at the sign of trouble; * are good judges of talent and character, especially in forming appropriate mastermind alliance; * can wear many hats: finance, marketing, accounting, bookkeeping, human relations, and more (Reilly and Millkin, 2005). Entrepreneurship grows from the innate human drive to survive and flourish. The term comes from the French words entre and prendre with the literal sense of taking a matter into one's own hands and doing something about it (Jill Muehrcke, 1998: 2). The objections to voluntary and religious organizations embarking on enterprises has been laid to rest. In the 6th century, St. Benedict ruled that monasteries had to be self-sufficient. Reynold Feldman (1998: 56) observes that philanthropreneuring non-profits sustaining themselves through enterprise is an ancient practice. St. Paul subsidized his evangelistic travels with proceeds from tent making. Taking risks Your life story is written in risks - the ones you take and the ones you avoid. Twenty years from now, you will be more disappointed with yourself over the risks you avoided than you will regret the risks you took. But, you can forestall tomorrow’s feeling of self-

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disappointment by moving forward today into the faith-zone. If you consider yourself presently in poverty, then your ‘safety-zone’ is not realistic. In order to change your state for the better, you must step out of it. Changes for the better begin when you leave your so-called ‘safety-zone.’ Stop spending your life in Egypt , the land of ‘not enough’ and deprivation. Join today the few proactive people willing to step out of their unrealistic ‘safety-zone’ into the desert, the precarious land of ‘just enough.’ You can do even better by going beyond the wilderness into the Promised Land of ‘more than enough.’Overcome your doubts and feelings of insecurity and uncertainty. Step out! If you think your present state is comfortable, consider changing the label. Comfort can become a greater threat to your progress than adversity. Pursuit is proof of desire. You cannot pursue what you do not desire, nor can you get what you desire without pursuing it. And, weak pursuit is evidence of wishy-washy desire or wishful thinking or day-dreaming. It does not change situations one bit. On the other hand, coveting riches and comfort or a strong desire to quit poverty can become functional and fruitful only when it swings you into a plunge to launch you into the space of liberty from want and misery. STARTING YOUR ENTERPRISE Introduction Enterprise is defined as business firm or venture. It refers to a company of any size, including a corner candy store, a large corporation or government agency. The term “enterprise,” “company,” “corporation,” and “organization” are used synonymously ( http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopaediaterm/ 0,25242 t=entreprisei=42637,000.asp). According to the source above, other definitions of enterprise on the web are:

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· · · · · · · ·

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A purposeful or industrious undertaking (especially one that requires effort or boldness). An organization created for business ventures. Readiness to embark on bold new ventures. A collection of organizations and people formed to create and deliver products and/or services to customers. A system of business endeavour within a particular business environment. All the establishments that operate under the ownership or control of a single organization. A business, service, or membership organization, operating at one or several locations. An entity constituted, established or organized under applicable laws, whether or not for profit and whether privately-owned or governmentally-owned. A business owned and operated by one or more individuals. A group of departments, divisions or companies which make up an entire business. Ardous and difficult task. Trading or industrial house or company founded to undertake or carry out constructions, business or projects of importance. Continuous purposive activity. One or more firms under common ownership. A portion of a company which is related by a common interest in a product or group of products. Undertaking. A body corporate, partnership or unincorporated associated with carrying on a trade or business with or without a view to profit. Set of functions that carry a product through its entire life span from concept through manufacture, distribution,

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·

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sales and service. A complete business consisting of functions, divisions or other components used to accomplish specific objectives and defined goals. An organization with partially overlapping objectives working together for some period time to attain their objectives.

Be on the Offensive Naturally, people prefer to remain in their condition. This is called the law of inertia. Thus, people accept, resign or adjust to poverty, hard times, oppression, suppression, and other unacceptable manmade conditions. They soon become lukewarm and begin to defend the situation to which they have adjusted. They can hardly on their own move to rise above the bad water, no matter how bitter their situation. A clinical psychotherapist, P.O. Ebigbo (2006), calls this condition within the academic circle, learned helplessness, a situation whereby a person reacts with total resignation to a caughtup or caged-in situation, rejecting escape, even when he has a chance to escape from the messy situation. Successful people rise above board for one or two reasons. They respond to a call of God to take a radical, invading, unique move, or a vision they believe in. Either or both ways, they break away from docility, lukewarmness and defeat, into the offensive realm. They nurse a burden, take a decision and subsequent action, all of which are non-conforming, but offensive to their present situation. To break the atmosphere of one's life requires a choice to be on the offensive. Lukewarmness, docility and the such-like attitudes do not change situations.

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The Hero is within You A man once stood before God, his heart breaking from the poverty and injustice in his country. “Dear God, look at all the suffering, anguish and distress in this country! Why don't you send help?” he cried out. God responded furiously, “I did send help. I sent you.” The will to fight individual, family, and society poverty lies within you. God has empowered you to conquer the earth. You can tap from the natural resources abounding in your country. You have the talents and potentials sleeping in you, but you take to idling about in the name of looking for job. You can establish or strengthen your own micro and small-scale enterprise today, and even employ some of the growing number of employable but unemployed people. Through your self-help project you can become economically selfreliant. Change Versus Stagnation Change means alteration in the state of a thing or status quo. To change does not always bring about the opposite; most of the time, it means adding on or slightly adjusting what already exists. Change has two origins: external (from the world around us) and internal (self-induced). Externally induced changes are those that the world around us undergoes, usually without reference to us. Internal changes are precipitated or induced by us with or without realizing what the consequences would be. Multiplicity of changes take place at any moment in all living things. Change is an evidence of life. Change is at the heart of growth. It is impossible to grow without change. Life is always at some turning point. Change is an unchangeable law of progress. Change in its various forms is permanent, as it constantly occurs in our world. A person or system that cannot accept and cope with changes constantly taking place in the society soon stagnates to irrelevance. Nothing inhibits growth more than mindlessness of the changes in the society and lack of the

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ability to adapt and adjust to them. The future, which certainly will be different from the past and cannot be correctly predicted, calls for flexibility on our part. We should not let the way we are accustomed to doing things interfere with the opportunities God is providing for us today. Man is not concrete -all mixed together and permanently set. He must bend to changes that produce the best in him. The most precious germs need to be chiselled and faceted to achieve their best lustre. Man must avoid the fate of inanimate objects, such as clothes, houses and buildings, which do not have the ability to change, and soon grow out of style and become unusable. Change is natural, inevitable, and the law of life. The only constant thing in nature is change. The world around us changes in various manners and arenas, including biological, political, educational, social, religious, communication, cultural, transportation, etc. The society undergoes various developmental changes. Between the boundaries of birth and death, every object undergoes changes. Inanimate objects are shifted from their former positions. They also undergo some form of radioactive decay, thereby exhibiting half-life. As individuals or groups, we continually change and undergo changes. Whether we realize it or not, accept or reject change, resist or manage change, changes occur and we undergo them anyway. One must adapt to these changes, or lose ground and become shadow of one's former self. One needs to reinvent oneself by redressing and making a few adjustments and adaptations to survive and remain relevant in the changing society. A person who reinvents himself and adapts to changes, and offers people the way to cope with these inevitable changes, will grow. Living is about change. Variety is the spice of life. The person, who never changes never corrects himself, and does not improve. Defending your faults and errors only proves that you have no intention of quitting them. You cannot become what you are destined to be by remaining what you are. The man who uses

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yesterday's methods in today's world won't be in business tomorrow. Don't be a traditionalist - a person whose mind is always open to new ideas, provided they are the same old ones. When patterns and traditions are broken, new opportunities come together. Change is not your enemy; it is your friend. The opposite of change is stagnancy. Stagnation breeds boredom and irrelevance, and soon snuffs life out of animate objects or groups. Failure to align to the changing society leads to inevitable irrelevance and death in unhealthy stagnancy. A person that is unmindful of changes tends to stagnation and irrelevance in the society. A person who resists changes cannot progress. Change is actually his basic need for growth. One needs to accept changes inherent in the society and learn to manage these changes in vision building, monitoring and evaluation. Only this way can one move forward according to the plan of God. The only constant thing in nature is change. People undergo various and numerous external and internal changes, which require their adjustments and adaptations, if they must survive and remain relevant. Look around, and see the need and areas to change in your life and vocation. It could be in making or becoming different, alteration or modification, new experience or variety, and substitution of one thing for another. Thus, change alters a thing, place, time, culture or tradition, status, etc. One area to introduce change in your life is starting and growing your own industry. It is certainly worth giving a serious thought. It will change your poverty situation for good, pushing you higher up above society, personal and family poverty. It will enable you associate with a new circle of people of success. It will break your status quo, and release you into the desired realm of success.

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Start where you are, with what you have Your condition remains as it is until you do something more than anticipating, wishing, praying or believing for a change. As everything remains in its present state of rest until an external force is applied to it, so no significant changes will take place in your finances, business, personal or family poverty until you do something different from what you have done in the past. Until you start, your dreams and desires - no matter how intense they are - will remain mirages. A condition changes in recognition and response to boldness and courage to dare. Quadrillions of ideas and dreams die and get buried daily because their owners cook up all the reasons why they cannot step out and attempt something with their ideas and dreams. Often people believe they do not have the means of effecting a change, or specifically, to venture into an enterprise. Start with what you have, where you are; not with what you do not have, where you are not. Opportunity is always where you are, never where you were, or where you are not. God always gives ability to create what we need from what is available. Mike Murdock (2004) said, “Whatever God has already given to you will create anything else he has promised you.” Hamilton Mabie (2004) said, “The question for each man to settle is not what he would do if he had the means, time, influence, and educational advantages, but what he will do with the things he has.” Teddy Roosevelt (2004) said, “Do what you can, with what you have, where you are.” Ken Keys Jr. said, “To be upset over what you don't have is to waste what you do have.” Epicurus (2004) said, “Do not spoil what you have by desiring what you have not; but remember that what you have now was once among the things only hoped for.” A key factor in Bob Reiss's definition of enterpreneurship (vide supra) is taking opportunities regardless of the resources the entrepreneur currently controls). On the contrary, many people fail to start business for lack of money. History's greatest entrepreneurs

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did not start rich, but they ended rich and successful. Michael Dell started his computer company in his college dorm room. Lillian Vernon started her mail-order business as a housewife looking for extra income. Entrepreneurial is associated with venturesomeness and creativity. Entrepreneurs find ways to acquire resources including capital, needed to achieve their goals. Think outside the box and you will acquire what you need to succeed. If you have nothing else, you have God's talents and gifts deposited in your life accounts. You alone determine the interest on them by how you put them to use. Mark you, these divine deposits are never used up or depleted. Rather, the more they are used, the greater, stronger, and more valuable they become. The grace of God cannot be exhausted. It is multiplied unto us, as the need arises. Choose today to look for opportunities to exercise your divine gifts and talents, for which you certainly will be required to give account someday. It's not what you have; it's what you do with what you have that makes all the difference. Decision and action Take a decision. Indecision is deadly. Exercise wills, not wishes. Indecision breeds instability. Even when we have not all the facts available, we usually have all the facts needed to make decision. The Bible says, “If you wait for perfect conditions, you will never get anything done” (Ecclesiastes 11:4). According to John L. Mason (2004), The first step to overcoming procrastination is to eliminate all the reasons and excuses for not taking immediate action. Procrastination is a tool of the devil to hold us back and to make us miss God's timing in our lives. If you want to be successful, you must either have a chance or take one. You can't get your head above water if you never stick your neck out. If you dare for nothing, you need hope for nothing.

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13

There is simply no way you can grow without taking chances. You'll miss 100% of the shots that you don't take. No one reaches out of the storm or to the top without daring. Even a turtle doesn't get ahead unless he sticks his neck out. Rising above mediocrity never just happens; it is always a result of faith combined with works. Faith without works is dead. It is like gold within the earth - of no value until it mined out. True faith has hands and feet. Learn and grow Don't just be, but grow. Growth distinguishes living organisms from inanimate objects. Enquiries are necessary for decisions on areas to grow. Only hungry minds can 'eat' for growth. Docile minds eat, but stand the risk of being atrophied. Learn as if you will live forever and live as if you will die tomorrow. Harvey Ullman said, “anyone who stops learning is old, whether this happens at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning not only remains young, but becomes consistently more valuable regardless of physical capacity.” Learn from others. See in their challenges the ills to avoid. Pursue education. If you think education is unnecessary, try ignorance. Use time wisely All human beings are equal in having 24 hours or 1,440 minutes or 86,400 seconds a day, but differ in their use of it. Everyone is certainly on the move. People are moving forward, backward and sometimes nowhere. Don't just stay busy - progress! The apostles were known for their acts, not their policies, procedures, theories and excuses. The cost of growth is always less than the cost of stagnation.

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Personal attribute requirements for entrepreneurs Successful entrepreneurs have: ! enterprising and industrious spirit ! outstanding curiosity, inquisitiveness and adventurous spirit; ! remarkable, visionary, inventive, innovative and ingenuous dispositions; ! strong yearning for the tapping and harnessing of abounding resources and potentials, as well as the utilisation of their talents from the benevolent Creator; ! incurable desire to convert dreams to realities; ! undaunting, persevering and self-confident personality; ! eloquent obsession for making and keeping customers or clients; ! pleasant, amiable and exciting personality. Vision assassins An attitude that will attempt to kill your dream to establish a self-help project will come in the following five (5) ways: postponement of taking off until procrastination steals the ! opportunities. You want to start “someday.” “Someday” does not actually exist. Of the 7 days in the week, none of them is called “someday.” Start NOW! keeping the knowledge or training acquired and materials ! gathered from training and waiting till you get the feeling and means to start enterprise fearing and refusing to work with other people to cover your ! areas of inadequacies giving up on the way when challenges unavoidably come ! failing to give prayer, moral and material support their ! rightful positions. Supportive attitudes for the establishment of enterprise Attitudes that support vision to fruition manifest in

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! immediate take-off no matter how small, and thereafter the feeling and means will follow and flow ! combining forces with others ! persistence in the face of challenges, which will unavoidably come your way ! keeping the heart open to learning through genuine consultations, experience and acquisition of proper and needful training ! always looking up to God, who gives the power to make wealth. Success tips ! You certainly have not learnt everything in life. But you can consistently use the little you know to create results, unlike those who know the most but fail to act. ! Use every second wisely; do not keep any time in the bank to waste away. We do not all have 24 hours in a day. You have as many hours in a day as you utilize. Don't be fooled by the calendar. There are only as many days in the year as you make use of. ! Watch your actions today! They determine your future! Your wise actions - not your inaction - will certainly better your tomorrow. Why delay action. Resolve now to implement immediately what you have learnt. One decisive action to do something now will certainly change your whole life and catapult you out of poverty. You must take actions that must transform your life situation for better, thereby impacting positively on your family and society. ! The only person without challenge is in the cemetery. Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence. No matter how many times you may fail, continue trying. Most people give up just when they are about to hit success. ! Be a careful person, but not a risk dodger. There is no bigger risk than to avoid risk. If you risk nothing, you will accomplish nothing, amount to nothing, and be nothing or a nobody. ! Be diligent; don't be a lazy drone.

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17

! Be sincere. For, you reap what you sow. You can only cheat people once. And, thereafter, your bad works will return to you not anyone else. ! Be grateful always. Gratitude turns what we have into enough and more. It is not satisfaction that makes us grateful, but gratefulness that makes us satisfied.

! Free and secure society will result from equitable distribution of resources and comfort for all.

Benefits from micro, small & medium enterprises

Life is a battle spiritually and materially. It is risky to sit at ease in battlefield, or to go to battle without strategising. Complacency and lack of vision are self-destructive. Time is moving and the world is evolving fast. Continual self-examination, evaluation and re-evaluation are imperative for the progress of individuals and groups. Poverty and wealth are, to a great extent, self-induced. An enterprise that is built on strong and foresighted vision, reinvents itself and adapts to changes, and offers people the products or services to enable them cope with the inevitable changes in the world, will be massively patronized and will experience limitless growth. Examine yourself now. Where are you today? You are either on or off. Do not vote for status quo, the Latin word for which means this our miserable situation. Vote for change of the situation for better. That things are out of hand does not mean they are irredeemable. You may be an employable unemployed graduate, excusing your wasting away in idleness with the prevalent unemployment situation in the country. You might be a disengaged or retired-but-not-tired worker. Are you defeated in life's fight? Have you failed to get into the programme of success? Entrepreneurship is the answer. What are the changes you require to undergo in the present and future realities in the society? Fashion an appropriate vision now, to make for relevance and waxing strong in the world around you. Jesus' ministrations were full of relevance and applications to issues of life within the concepts of life and society. Those who do not know what they want, do not go for it, nor

If you delay not in establishing a micro, small or medium enterprise, the following benefits will accrue to you and the society: ! The idle ones will become self-employed and escape from the temptation to get involved in social vices associated with idleness. ! The self-employed will become self-boss and self-manager, no longer depending on others for their fate. ! You will utilize the talents/resources at your disposal, not allowing them to waste away. God hates wastes and you must avoid being atrophied. ! You will become self-reliant and earn your own living the just and moral way. ! You will have wealth resulting from the profit you make in your enterprise. ! You will enjoy comfort provided by your income. ! You will enjoy good health resulting from exercises associated with mental and physical activities of enterprises. ! You will enjoy friendship, which comes and increases with success. ! You will enjoy investment for self, family and offspring. ! You will enjoy enhanced giving/charity from increased income, and the needy in the society will be better for it, while you enjoy the satisfaction . ! There will be increased tax collection for the government for the provision of social services for the masses, thereby making for equitable distribution of resources.

You must, therefore, act now! Not later! Vision building and goal setting

18


Entrepreneurship

19

get it. Even when they stumble on it by chance, they cannot recognize it, nor grab it. To survive and excel, you need to decide to sail above odds and then make a definite plan on how to do so. Fortunately, the hero to fight individual, family, and society poverty lies within you! You can be that help God has sent to fight poverty in your family and the society. He has empowered you to conquer the earth. You can tap from the natural resources abounding in the society. You have the talents and potentials sleeping in you. You can establish or strengthen your own enterprise today and employ other people. With a self-help project, you can become economically self-reliant, even an economic giant. Start NOW! Procrastination steals opportunities. You want to start someday. Someday does not actually exist. Of the seven days in the week, none of them is called someday. Same with some-week, some-month and some-year. Each of them is a deceit from procrastination, defeatist language. What you do today predicts what and where you will be tomorrow. Get at doing the right thing today, and you will surely be where you would want to be in future. No good thing comes by chance. You need to desire it, plan for it, go for it and get it. There are two categories of entrepreneurs: prospective or dreamer entrepreneur and practising entrepreneur. The former needs to stop prospecting and dreaming, and get off the ground to jump-start the enterprise. The latter needs to grow and strengthen the enterprise. They must not recede or stagnate.

goal or purpose. Some vision-bearers fail by not effectively communicating their written dreams or visions to partners and colleagues so as to mobilise and carry them along in the pursuit of the goal. Yet, some others fail by, after writing their dreams and communicating their visions and kick-starting the project, they fail to restate their purpose halfway through the project. As a result of losing their sense of purpose midway through a project, workers easily become overwhelmed with fatigue, frustration, discouragement and fear. In Nehemiah's story of rebuilding the broken walls around Jerusalem, mid-course through the project the people got discouraged and wanted to give up. Nehemiah rallied the people back to work by reorganising the project and recasting the vision (Nehemiah 4: 6-15). To keep a dream in focus and a project moving in the right direction, vision and purpose must be restated periodically. Slogans, maxims, mottoes, and pithy phrases, which are remembered long after the main briefs are over, are wonderful mnemonics for keeping visions and purposes fresh in people's minds and for reinforcing them. Some examples include “All leaders are learners,” “Evaluate for success,” “Win the customer at any cost,” “We're here to perform,” “Every staff is important,” “Every piece of work matters,” etc. They help to communicate old ideas in fresh, succinct ways. A leader should periodically set aside time to think of new ones.

Writing down your dream, communicating your vision and restating your purpose

Starting your industry

Many genuine dreams remain dreams because their dreamers failed to write them down. “Write the vision; make it plain upon tablets, so he may run who reads it” (Habakkuk 2:2). When a dream is written down, it becomes a vision. A vision is plain and has a time-frame. Whoever reads it can then choose to identify with it, run or pursue the goal. When a vision is communicated and pursued, it becomes a

Take a creative look at existing products and services to identify unsatisfied needs or service gaps. This leads to identifying a venture and the potential market. Further thoughts will address wise locations and the choice of the most appropriate site, the sources of fund to finance the venture, trade name registration or business incorporation for legalising the trade, business control arrangement for effective management, and accounting records keeping for

20


appraisal and future guide. These are summarised in a business plan to be written by you or by a consultant, who may also be commissioned to do a feasibility study/report on the project. In starting the venture, appropriate accommodation needs to be procured and remodelled. Provision of running cost or overheads should be made for the incubation period of 3-6 months for micro enterprise, 6 months to 3 years for small enterprise and 3-5 years for medium enterprise, within which the enterprise is expected to break even and begin to record returns. Take off should be properly timed. Personal or family finance needs to be separated from the business finance. Short-term loans for long-term projects must be avoided. Box 1: Goal setting Pick the dream that appeals to you most! Stop floating! (E.g. Production of Bread) Define and sharpen your goal! (E.g. What standard of bread to serve a chosen class of the society would you want to embark on?) Set your goals and objectives! Define your target and the steps you need to take to get at it! When, where, how and who will take which step? (E.g. Where will you site the bakery? What are the raw materials and equipment and their sources? How do you acquire the technology? How do you fund the enterprise? How many loaves of bread would you want to produce a day? Whose services do you need to engage? Workplan . Etc.

Summarising the guide with an example of a bread baker who wants to become successful, he has to: ! Ensure that he has the inner yearning for bakery as well as the talent and drive to pursue it (not that he has seen a successful baker and wants to be like him - lust). ! Interact with forerunners, read bakery magazines/books, watch/listen to bakery television/radio programmes and visit bakeries. ! Go for skills acquisition and management training, while saving

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21

for the establishment of his own enterprise. ! Decide on what class and size of the population to target and this determines the standard and quantity of the bread to produce. ! Get space in a good site and establish his own bakery. ! Plan everyday's work schedule in advance. ! Expand to accommodate another segment of the society by picking a loan and engaging more workers and apprentices, for whom he must make daily/weekly work schedule for effective engagement. GROWING YOUR ENTERPRISE Leverage Leverage is the power to do a lot of work with just a little effort. It has 3 parts: (i) dream or vision, which must be SMARTA (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound, and Adjustable); fulcrum, the vision-bearer, on which the project lever pivots; (ii) lever, which must be sufficiently long and strong to easily, (iii) effectively and fastly swing the dream. “Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand and I will move the entire earth” (Archimedes, 287 BC). ! !

! !

Five leverages you can use are Other people's money (OPM): credit in various forms. Other people's experience (OPE): life is too short to get to all necessary experiences. Learn from others. Be apprenticed to, and mentored by one who has passed the way you dream to follow and is rich in its experience. Read the books, watch the videos and listen to the tapes of forerunners. Other people's ideas (OPI): share in people's ideas. Do not keep to yours alone, or believe so much in yours. Other people's time (OPT): in pursuance of your dream, you

22

!


need to buy people's time, talent, connection, resources, etc. Other people's work (OPW): people with strengths are looking for jobs. Hire them for those jobs you cannot do well by yourself and those ones you do not want to do.

23

Entrepreneurship

Box 2: Actioning your plan Action your plans now! Decisions are a waste of time until they are actioned! Think about this riddle!

Building partnership “For every project, no one succeeds alone. There is need to find a dream team or team mates” (Chris Omeben, 2006). Every successful enterprise is like a happy marriage in which the groom has found his missing rib, or an association in which the chief actor has found his help mates or complimentary partners. Success is not a solo project; it needs to be shared among a TEAM (Together Everyone Achieves Miracles). Each team member must have integrity, passion and love, and must be able to go unto the mountaintop with others, even against all odds. Team players fall into 4 categories, with the acronym, HOTS: Hares: People with ability to generate good ideas at random. They are ideas breeders. Owls: Masterful planners, who create sound action-plans out of ideas supplied to them. Turtles: Risk averters, who dread change and suspect new ideas/moves, but believe in traditions and status quo. They stimulate analysis, which help keep actions in check until success is achieved. Squirrels: Methodical and detail-inclined organizers. Actioning your plans Many beautiful plans die on the drawing board for lack of action. You need to act - and now! Procrastination is a thief that steals opportunities.

Follow your dream! Don’t deviate! Don’t stop, even if you stumble, until you get to the top!

Strengthening and Growing your Industry Networking and SWOT Analysis Networking with related business concerns provides social capital for growth of enterprises. It is important to be abreast of regulatory requirements and economic policies. Operating environment needs and imperatives must be regularly visited. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of the venture need to be periodically analysed. These provide the enablement for the entrepreneur to reinvent and reinvigorate the enterprise from time to time. The appropriate response to the prevailing economy and economic policies will sustain the business. Prompt introduction of necessary changes will keep the enterprise relevant and sailing above others. Purpose Too many people know what they are running from, but not what they are running to. Define your purpose, then concentrate on fulfilling it. Having a powerful why will provide you with the necessary how. “It is a poor disgraceful thing not to be able to reply, with some degree of certainty, to the simple questions, 'What will you be? What will you do?' (John Foster, 2004).

24


Peak performers are people who are committed to a compelling mission. It is very clear that they care deeply about what they do, and their efforts, energies, and enthusiasms are traceable back to that particular mission” (Charles Garfield, 2004). When you base your life on principle, 99% of your decisions are already made. Purpose does what it must; talent does what it can. “Take care of your purpose, and the end will take care of itself” (John L. Mason,2004). “Without a purpose nothing should be done” (Marcus Aurelius, 2004). “You are not truly free until you have been taken captive by your supreme mission in life. The only true happiness comes from squandering ourselves for a purpose” (John L. Mason, 2004). Purpose needs to be restated midcourse, to restore the distracted, dismayed and discouraged workers. Sincerity, Honesty and Consistency “Go straight. Every crooked turn delays your arrival at success. Keep your head and heart in the right direction, and you won't have to worry about your feet” (John L. Mason, 2004). “Do not use dishonest standards when measuring length, weight or quantity. Use honest scales and honest weights” (Leviticus 19:11 and Deuteronomy 25:14-15). “The getting of treasures by a lying tongue is a vanity tossed to and fro them that seek death” (Proverbs 21:6). “Constancy to purpose is the secret of success.” Benjamin Disraeli, 1995). These principles apply to sincerity, honesty and consistency in quality and quantity of products and services offered for a given value of money. They also guide self-discipline of the workers in relation to their work and customers. Persistence

Entrepreneurship

25

There are two times when a person stops: after a defeat and after a th victory. Calvin Coolidge, 30 US President once said: Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful men with talent. Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent. The slogan 'press on' has solved and always will the problems of the human race. Box 3: Persistence ·

Persist! Don’t despair! Abraham Lincoln failed in business at age 22, lost legislative elections

On the other hand, successful people understand that there is greater opportunity right on the other side of victory and that a bend on the way (or failure or downfall) is not the end of the road (or the life project). One of the greatest prizes of victory is the opportunity to do more. The faithful servant receives more talents, to do more (Matthew 25:14-30 of The Holy Bible, 1996). Unfortunately, we often inoculate ourselves with small doses of success, which keep us from catching the big victory. No matter how much you have already “arrived,” there is still much more to achieve and accomplish, more to reach out for, more people to influence, more lives to touch. There are always more

26


products to create, new services to provide, more inventions in site with the life God gave you. Most successful people on the planet earth never rest on their laurels. Rather, they are continuously possessed by a positively restless spirit. Having money does not satisfy the craving of human spirit to accomplish. Prosperity must not lead to complacency. The moment you stop starting, sustaining and winning with your ideas, atrophy sets in and you will begin to deteriorate on the inside. You must birth the ideas and dreams God has deposited in your spirit to influence your generation. Until you breath your last, your life must count for something greater than your past. Otherwise, you will be unfulfilled, unhappy (Praise George, 2005:8-10). Optimism You must outlast your challenge. Box 4: Optimism Be optimistic! Two frogs fell into a bowl of creamy oil. The gloomy frog lamented, despaired and resigned itself to drowning, bidding “goodbye” to life. The optimistic frog recognized the problem, but refused to give in, determin ed to die the more content only after swimming around until its strength is spent. Unknown to it, its struggles generated heat, which gradually melted the cream. Suddenly, it stepped on a solid impurity and hopped out of the bowl to safety. Moral: (1): Tough times never last, but tough people do. (2): If you can’t hop out, keep swimming around!

Faith It is not our lack of ability that keeps us from succeeding, but our lack of faith to dare the unknown. Unfortunately, people take to doubt, fear and worry, rather than exercise faith. “The rich worry over their money, the poor over their bread.” Yet, worry does not generate solutions. It empties today of its strength, and does not empty tomorrow of its sorrow. The earth and the fullness belong to God, their Creator (The Holy Bible, Psalm 24:1-2). They include wealth. In fact, it is God

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who gives the power to make wealth (Deuteronomy 8:18), which primarily belongs to him as part of his creation. You need to please God with faith (Hebrews 11:6), for him to give you the power to produce wealth. “Faith is the way to God's divine influence” (John L. Mason, 2004). Faith is putting all your eggs in God's basket, then counting your blessings before they hatch (Ramona Carol, 2004). Faith sees the invisible, believes the incredible, and receives the impossible (Corrie Ten Boom, 2004). “Faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (Hebrews 11:6of The Holy Bible, 1996). You must be sure of the success of your venture, which you hope for; and certain of the attendant wealth, which you cannot see as yet. The only limit to your realisation of tomorrow is your doubt of today. The primary cause of unhappiness in the world today is lack of faith. Faith gives us the courage to face the present with confidence and the future with expectancy. It is the littleness of our faith, more than the greatness of our troubles, that causes us to stop or complain. All the strength and force of man comes from his faith in things unseen. He who believes is strong; he who doubts is weak. Strong convictions precede great actions (J.F. Clarke, 2004). Faith keeps the man who keeps faith. Move forward with strong and active faith. See unique opportunity in a misfortune Within every challenge lies a unique opportunity you need to find out and exploit. Thomas A. Edison once said, “Opportunity is missed by many people because it is dressed in overalls and looks like work.”

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Box 5:Seeing the opportunity beneath the challenge ¨

Find out the opportunity lying beneath the challenge! Tap it! Two farmers planted seeds on a piece of land. Poisonous fruits resulted.

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Throughout history, the most admired and influential people are those known for character and integrity. In addition to dream, vision, goal, skill and capital to set up a successful enterprise, there must be good attitudes, including integrity. For you to be blessed with entrepreneurial success and be happy, you have to first be a partner with truth, then you can be trusted. When clients discover you are false, they feel shortchanged and cheated and desist from patronising your business, no matter how skilful you may be. They will choose some other entrepreneur with the skill and character. The seed you plant today determines the fruit you will reap tomorrow. Be genuine!

Compromise versus Integrity

Office Work

Compromise is a middle course. It may be good, but certainly neither right nor wise. Therefore, it is surely wrong and dangerous. A compromise is often more expensive than either of the alternatives. One day a hunter came across a bear in the forest. The bear said to the hunter, “I want a full stomach.” The hunter responded, “I want a fur coat.” “Let's compromise,” suggested the bear, which then ate the hunter. Both got what they wanted, the bear going away with a full stomach, and the hunter (now dead and consumed and digesting in the bear's stomach) was wrapped in fur (skin of the live bear forming the coat the hunter had bargained for). When deciding between two evils, please choose neither. The call of God is to excellence, not to mediocrity. If you cannot do a thing with excellence, do not bother to embark on it at all. When compromise is allowed in one area, it always leaks out and begins to affect other areas. Once it has a foothold, it grows and spreads. It allows lies, deceit and error to creep into and take over the system. Take a stand against compromise. Be a person of integrity. Guard your reputation.

The office for an enterprise is its information centre for customers and records. The staff in the office covers telephone calls, business letters, collecting and sorting paper works, record tidiness (filing), office neatness and decency, etc. The staff need to be trained as such. Record Keeping Financial records keeping is a widely neglected practice in sole proprietorship. Many sole proprietors feel not obligated to record their business transactions. They fear that record keeping makes them vulnerable to appropriate tax payments, which they could avoid completely or supply wrong data in order to be undertaxed. Secondly, they are too occupied to keep records, and consider employing a record keeper a waste of resources. Often times, they do not separate business account from personal or family account. The business may not even have a bank account. These result to unchecked financial indiscipline on the part of the proprietor. Besides, planning and access to loans are hindered due to lack of data. From the onset, create an efficient internal system of bookkeeping, accounting, inventory management and cost control.

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Entrepreneurship

A simple table of every expenditure, income and banking on daily basis may suffice in some cases. In others, separate books may be used for expenditures, incomes and cash movement or banking transactions.

3.

15 July

Bookkeeping

4. 5. 6.

15 July 16 July 18 July

7.

19 July

8. 9.

19 July 20 July

10.

22 July

Bookkeeping is writing down all the transactions arising from business activities which can be expressed in money. The books used for keeping records consist of a ledger and subsidiary books. The ledger is the general book in which you enter almost all the figures arising from your business activities. The subsidiary books are used to record information which will help you to remember important things about your business, e.g. the bills you have to pay or the wages. The number of subsidiary books varies, depending on the size and kind of business. The Ledger Every business transaction represents “give” and “take,” or something given out and another received in its place, or “out” and “in” movements. In most cases, it represents goods sold or services rendered (”out”) and money received “(in”). An account is a column in the ledger that specifies the subject in question, e.g. cash, bank, sales, etc. A ledger consists of a number of accounts. In some ledgers, a whole page is devoted for one account, in others one page is divided into many accounts. Every transaction takes one whole row across the ledger. Entry is first made in the cash or bank account. At the end of a month, you must add up each column and carry forward the balance of each account to a new page in the ledger. The following transactions are entered into the ledger that follows: S/No 1. 2.

Transaction Date 8 July 10 July

Item Acarpenter sells a sofa for N600 cash. Carpenter receives a loan of N8,000 from

31 bank into his loan account. Purchase of turning lather for N7,000 paid with money from the bank Wages of N400 paid to 4 employees Sale of 4 chairs for N 600 Purchase of 6m x 5 x 2.5cm timber for N240 cash. Loan interest of N100 paid with money from the bank Payment of water bill of N300 cash Refund of N150 cash for bad quality product (chair) returned. N500 from bank taken to pay son’s school fees.

Subsidiary Books Some subsidiary books are invoice, the purchase journal, the wages book, the business notebook (records of what transpires between owner and the business), the stock book, the inventory book, etc. Management Accounting Using written records of the enterprise to appraise its performance is management accounting.

The Profit and Loss Account Tells the profit or loss during a certain period (3 months, 6 months, 1 year).

32

500

150

Others

Out


100

Out

In

Drawings Interest

Successful industrialists do not work alone. They engage staff and apprentices. Two or more minds working actively together will achieve the set goal. All truly great people have benefited from contact with others that enable them to grow and expand. No single mind is complete by itself. Indeed, no one has attained outstanding success in anything without alliance. The people that staff an enterprise largely determine the success of the business. The best companies, therefore, take a long time, careful interview and careful checking of references, to hire people. Wrong workers cause a great deal of irreparable harm before being shown the way out. Understaffing and overstaffing are equally destructive.

In

Equip ment

Out In

8000

In

Loans

Out

400

240 7000

600

Wrong Staffing

600

Sales

Out

In

Raw Material

Out

In

Wages

Out

7400

1200 1800

1560 1460 1160

1010

610

400

240 100 300

150

500

4 5

9

10

6 7 8

600

1600 7000

8000 2

3

8600

600 1

22

20

18 19 19

15 16

15

10

Particulars

Date

One sofa Bank Loan Turning lathe Wages Four chairs Timber Interest Water bill One returned chair School fees

ID. NO

Staffing Your Industry

July 8

In

Out

600

Bal

In

8000

500

100

Out

7900

Bal

In

Bank

Staffing Your Industry

In

Cash

33

Introduction

Out

Ledger

Entrepreneurship

Unfortunately, many entrepreneurs are not careful in hiring workers, nor calculate the number and category of staff needed in their establishments. Whoever accepts their proposed poor salary with minimal qualifications is okay. Sometimes their base consideration is the opposite sex who accepts their illicit love advances. For some, consanguinity and friendship determine who gets the employment. Right staffing and MAP The “Mastermind Alliance Principle” (MAP) advocates appropriation and use of the full strength of the experience, training and knowledge of other people in pursuit of an objective. It is built on two or more minds working actively together on a common definite object. All truly great minds have been reinforced through contact with others. Indeed, no one has attained outstanding success in anything without applying MAP, one way or another, knowingly or

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unknowingly. Since, no single mind is ever complete, entrepreneurs must learn from every possible source. Books, magazines, lectures, audiovisuals and other sources must form very important parts of your mastermind alliance. Make it a habit to read newspapers to keep you current and other materials to expand your mind and put you ahead of challenges and other people. You cannot serve the society well when you are deficient in current affairs and are starved of the latest.

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! Ability and willingness to adapt oneself to the good culture of the establishment. Workers must be teachable and easily motivated people, with the spirit of hardwork and persistence. Supervision, monitoring & evaluation Some entrepreneurs do not supervise, monitor and evaluate the activities of their staff before they land them in deplorable losses. Some of them hire and fire too quickly, with the attendant losses. These unwise attitudes have sent many enterprises into oblivion.

Recruitment and apprenticeship strategies LEADERSHIPIN WORKPLACE Choosing the right people to help attain a goal is critical to success. Ability to attract and keep the suitable calibre and number of staff/apprentices is vital to long-term success. Selection of workers involves time, careful interview and careful checking of references. What to watch out for in workers There are qualities to keep foremost in mind if surprises must be avoided: ! Ability to do the job. Do not hire staff on basis of relationship. Your best friend or closest relation may not be suited for the vacancy in your enterprise, but he may introduce you to someone who is. ! Ability to work in harmony with others. Without harmony, the work alliance will falter - if not right now, at some crucial moment when everything is about to be won or lost. Discords must be kept out of alliance. Bad blood and bellyache must be avoided in workplace. Colleagues should be able to create and encourage friendly work atmosphere, which fuels proper team spirit and engenders efficiency. The meeting of the minds must be complete - without any reservations on the part of any member. Personal ambitions must be subordinate to the achievement of the definite purpose of the alliance.

Introduction A leader is one who shows the way, one who guides, one who directs, one who commands others to achieve results and a desired goal or vision. Leadership is the key to producing results and fulfilling vision. Leadership is responsible for success or failure of enterprise. Importance of leadership As an oldArabic proverb has it, “An army of sheep led by a lion would defeat an army of lions led by a sheep.” This underscores the importance of leadership. Although an average man is republican, effective leadership is indispensable for meaningful progress in any industry. Leadership is the most important single factor in determining business success or failure in our competitive, turbulent, fast-moving economy. The quality of leadership is the decisive strength or weakness of organizations and institutions. The ability to provide the necessary leadership is the key determinant of achievement in all human activities. And, there has never been a greater need for leadership at all levels than there is today. Leadership provides visions and goals, and gets followers to

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be committed to achieving them. Leadership that is not objectively selected, but politically and emotionally installed will exercise a lot of base sentiments. It will lack in vision and commitment. It cannot guide the followers to conceive, what more, achieve any goal. Rather, it tends to drive the enterprise to retrogression, stagnation and destruction.

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How to become a good leader Leaders are made, not born. You become a leader when you rise to the occasion a leader is needed. You become a leader in your business and in the world around you by cultivating the qualities and practising the behaviours of good leaders. Many enterprises have failed because of poor leadership. Every would-be successful industrialist must cultivate practice the qualities and practise the behaviours of a good leader.

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Qualities of good leadership and personal attributes of a good leader

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The qualities of good leadership and personal attributes of a good leader include: ! Integrity: Impeccable, honest and transparent truthfulness, and straight dealing with every person, under all circumstances characterize great business leadership. Integrity entails doing what you must do, how and when you must do it, even at your own hurt and disregarding what you want. ! Courage: Greatness in leadership is ability to make decisions and act boldly in the face of doubt, uncertainty, setback and adversity. Like everyone else, leaders are not lacking fear. They simply suppress and control the fear and act with no guarantee of success. They resist the natural tendency to back away from the things they fear. As they move toward the thing they fear, the fear shrinks and loses its power over them.

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Realism: Leaders deal straightforwardly with an issue as it is, not as they wish it to be. The ability and willingness to be completely realistic in life and work are among the most important qualities of leadership. Ambition: Leaders have a clear vision of a better future, which they are determined to realize, and the ability to communicate this vision to others in an exciting and inspiring way. The articulation and development of this vision is a key responsibility of leadership. Optimism: A true leader radiates the confidence that all difficulties can be overcome and all goals can be attained. Empathy: Leaders are sensitive to and aware of the needs, feelings, and motivations of their followers. Resilience: Leaders have the ability to respond effectively to a setback or crisis. Emotional stability: Leaders are calm, cool and controlled in the face of problems, difficulties, and adversity. Excellence: Leaders are committed to being the best in everything they do. They set standards of excellence and continuously learn to improve. Foresight: Leaders have the ability to predict and anticipate the future.

Leadership styles Major leadership styles include autocratic, manipulative, laissezfaire, paternalistic and participative. 1. An autocratic leader takes alone all decisions, and assigns tasks, facilities and direction without consultation with the person carrying out the work. He claims monopoly of wisdom, experience and perfection, and would not give a chance to the other person to give suggestions. He does not know - and does not want to know - that the best question in human relations is what's your opinion? He does not know that a good leader is one who recognizes and harnesses good

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suggestions from others - and not one who alone brings all the opinions. He is conceited and, in most cases, a fat fool for failure to learn from others. He misses all the wisdom he could have tapped from his followers. He is often left alone, tolerated, in his fool's paradise and derided, since nobody can succeed in changing him. This leadership style must be avoided. A manipulative leader is basically an autocratic leader, who gives the impression that he is carrying every follower along. He allows the subordinates to participate in decision-making, but he pulls the string from behind to do only his predetermined wish. His tricks soon burst, and the resultant effects can be disastrous. A laissez-faire leader cares no hoot how things move. He depends on chance and accepts any outcome. In our competitive, turbulent, fast-moving economy, there is no room for this style of leadership. A paternalistic leader stresses fatherly influence in the relationship with the followers. He exercises a watchful care for the comfort of the followers. In some instances the approach is too sentimental. When the care is discontinued for any reasons, the services and loyalty of the followers are withdrawn. A participative or supportive or democratic leader involves and carries every follower along from vision building, goal setting, planning through execution and evaluation. The success or failure is collective. In our democratic world, this appears to be the best option of leadership.

Excuses for leadership failures Whereas it is the responsibility of leaders to get results without excuses, failing leaders turn to think that money, people, the environment, the government or some other factor is the problem, and blame them for their failure. They do not realize that when

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leaders do their job, everything else will work. Excuses for failures are no replacements for required results. It is wiser to repent of failure than to excuse it or explain it away. Excusing a failure caused Adam so much. Yet, many unscrupulous leaders rather have bundles of excuses for failure, they dish out their flimsy excuses without any sense of guilt and shame for their failure. They are content with excuses for failure. Some leaders even consider God as the source of their limitations. They erroneously believe their enterprise is standing where God plans for it and that there would come a relief at the fullness of God's time. Therefore, they pray - or slumber - as they wait for revival, in the hope that when God moves, a revival will come to the enterprise. Many enterprises have fizzled out or died while waiting for God to move, whereas God has never stopped moving. The state of an enterprise is a direct product of the leadership performance, since leadership is a controlling factor of a system. The enterprise is made up of people with many different variables and peculiarities consciously pieced together and placed under the leadership. The leadership, not the people, determines where and how the enterprise goes. It is safer to decline or resign a leadership position, if one cannot achieve the desired goal. But ego and selfish desires do not allow base people to quit for other people to take up the positions. Often, they take the positions for the name and delegate authority, forgetting that they must still take full responsibility for the failures of their delegates. Responsibility and Blame Game The price of greatness is responsibility. Ability to accept responsibility is the measure of character and maturity. Blaming others for our shortcoming, mistakes or underperformance is usually a way to avoid facing the truth about ourselves. The only thing blame does is to keep the focus off you when you are looking for external reasons to explain your failings

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with the attendant unhappiness and frustration. You may succeed in making another person feel guilty of the situation, but you will not succeed in changing the situation. Notwithstanding, man is given to blame game, from creation. In Genesis, the first man, Adam, actually blamed God for giving him a woman that made him fall. The first woman, Eve, offered God the excuse of being tricked by the snake to disobey Him. In Deuteronomy, Israelites spent forty years in the wilderness for a journey of eleven days. They were rather busy blaming God, Moses and whatever for their catalogue of problems. Every adverse development was somebody else's fault. They disclaimed responsibility. A smoker dies of lung cancer, and his family sues the tobacco company. A woman crashes, while driving drunk, then blames the barman or brewery. Your kids are out of control, and you blame television programmes or lack of discipline in school or peer influence. For our woes, we blame our ancestors or parents or guardians for failing us, our friends for letting us down, somebody for giving us bad advise, our partner for failing to understand us. Urging Nigerians to jettison the blame game for Nigeria's underdevelopment,Aimiuwu (2006: 4) writes: First, it was fashionable to blame the colonial masters (who left us 45 years ago!) for everything wrong in Nigeria. Then when the military first struck everything was the fault of the 'bloody civilian' politician. As military started staging coups among themselves (many more than these staged against civilians) military blamed military, destroying 'esprit de corps' and all the noble traditions and disciplines for which they were renowned. When the agbada people re-emerged, again it was fashionable to heap all the blame on the military. As every passing year makes military rule history, party blames party, legislature blames executive and vise versa; tribe

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blames tribe, zone blames zone. Private sector blames public sector and vise versa. Followers blames leaders, whilst leaders blame followers. This national pass-time has assumed some disturbing, even if amusing proportions. Your undernourished mother dies at the nevertheless ripe old age of 98 years, and you say 'the wicked have done their worst! You caught stealing and claim 'it is the work of the devil!' Your defective structure collapses on innocent passerby and you say 'it is God's will!' You did not prepare for your exams and rd had a 3 class, and you claim 'they gave me third st class!' (But of course the lingo changes to 'I made 1 class,' if you did well). The examples are endless. Everyone blames every one else, plus God, and the devil. No-one blames self! Of course, many turn round and then pontificate that 'Nigeria has failed us'. Nigeria is not made up of just toads and lizards and mosquitoes. Nigeria is made up of people. We make up Nigeria! Nigeria has not failed us; we have failed ourselves! Avoid moaning about darkness or looking for a convenient 'whipping boy' to pass the buck to whenever things do not go well. Instead, light a lamp. Address the relevant issues and catalyse the process of regeneration. The truth may be hard to face, but hiding from it does not dissolve it. In fact, until you are willing to take responsibility, you will keep having problems and fixing blame. You cannot overcome a problem with blame. All blame is a waste of time. Regardless of how much fault you find, it will not change the situation.

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Common leadership illnesses and symptoms

Handling and relating with employees

A sickly leadership always begets a malnourished enterprise. The illness of the leadership of many enterprises manifests in the following symptoms: ! lack of vision or goal; ! chicken heart; ! old fogeyish style, living in the past and resistance to changes; ! manipulative attitude; ! laissez-faire attitude; ! evasiveness and lack of commitment; ! wrong self-image; ! jealousy; ! autocracy and failure to carry others along; ! failure to identify and employ the strength in others; ! inability to attract others for team-work; ! conservatism and lack of innovations; ! stinginess; ! weak faith; ! fearing, rather than using or learning from, mistakes; ! grudges and animosity; ! party spirit; ! poor relationship with those outside one's party or camp. When some or all of these combine with conceit or failure to admit one's fault but shifting the blame to fellow leaders or the innocent followers, then the illness is “unto death.” For, God will rise to abase the conceited, the proud. The seven things God hates and cannot tolerate include pride (Proverbs 6:16, GNB). Stiffneckedness and hardened heart characterized the Pharaoh of Egypt, who had to end up drowned in Red Sea together with his warriors, chariots, horses and their riders.

Computers and other equipment must be handled in ways prescribed in the manuals by their manufacturers. Similarly, there are ways to handle employees to achieve desired results. Motivation - a process that arouses, channels and sustains people's behaviour - is certainly a factor. Clearly defined rewards are important here. When workers are well motivated, they feel they cannot do without their job, and will, therefore, ever try to impress their employer. They maximise their output in the atmosphere devoid of rancour and tensions. Indeed, an employee could be enslaved with kind and considerate treatment. The way an employer relates with his employee counts in this regard. One must realize that life is simply service. At every moment of life one should be serving and being served. The one serving in an enterprise is an employee, the one being served an employer. As it were, one is actually serving and being served simultaneously, depending on the perspective. For example, the head of a government is the chief servant of the people, but a master to his aides. An employee is a servant to his employer, but could be head of a home. The manager of an organization is a master to his subordinates, but a servant to the managing director. A managing director is a servant to both God and people, but a master to his staff. Worthy life is quantified by the amount of godly service rendered. Williams James said, “Life is computed not by its duration but donation.” Even as an employer, your position is for service to humanity, including your employees. Unfortunately, most people hardly appreciate the value of being a servant. The ones that understand this battle with their ego - the worst enemy of self - and fail to adapt. On account of this, strife abounds in workplace. There are roles an employer must play to help the employee prove effective. The employer has to: * Dictate and delineate or define the functions to be carried out by the servant. The servant must not be left in the dark,

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groping in lack and search of what to do or struggling with ambiquity. God gives adequate guides in the Scriptures, through the conscience, the communication through the inner voice, and through our human spiritual guides. This is an exemplary act of a good and perfect employer. An employee gets into a mess if he lacks adequate and clear guide from the employer. The employer must make clear the goals and objectives of the enterprise for the employee to perform. Train, before exacting, the servant. Provide facilities for actioning the plans. No soldier goes to battle at his own costs . Provide leadership by examples. It is impossible to make a good master from aloof point, too high a position from which you see your servant too low and worthless. You have to lower yourself from the high level - most probably a false or conceited height - to communicate and relate with your servant. An employee may not even know his employer because of the unrealistic human gap created in-between them. This leads to no relationship. Jesus (the ideal Employer or Master) was with his disciples (employees or servants) in the boat, on the land, on the mountain, in their host's house, etc. He even ate the same food with them. This, contrary to opinions, did not detract from his honour. Rather, he earned the respect of his servants by his relating with them and mankind. Mark you! He had to leave his exalted throne in heaven, took the form of a man, in order to reach man, and in fact died a most shameful death on a cross (tree) to save mankind from their sins. Paul knew this secret and lowered himself to the positions of those he was better than so as to serve God effectively. Bureaucratic hurdles can be counterproductive. And, written and oral languages that should be designed only for correspondence for British royalty need to be minimised. You have to close in on people to influence them. Proximity determines impact. Avoid threatening the employee. Threats have a way of

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putting employees off and rather hardens them than encourage them to higher performance. Be humble in relating with the employee. Every employer shares some joint fate with the servant, as colleagues in the same enterprise. When it is well with one, it will be well with the other. Treat the employee as his child. Serve others, including his employees. He serves the Lord as he ministers to the others, his employees inclusive. Those in authority are servants of the subjects. Be considerate of the employee, who in this case, is poor relative to him. He must be interested in the servant's welfare. The genuine cry of the poor (employee in this case) touch God, who can resist the employer.

Basic motivators of man Provision of human economic and social needs motivate employees. According to Abraham Maslow (1954), human needs form a hierarchy that needs to be satisfied in the following order: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

basic primary physiological needs of food, water, clothing and shelter; security needs of protection of personal interest and against changes and economic disaster; social needs of affection and association with others; esteem needs of recognition by others of one's importance; self-actualisation or self-fulfilment needs of realising one's capabilities and potentials by achieving some stated goals.

Once one’s need is reasonably well satisfied at one level, the individual tend not to be further motivated by the satisfied need, but will seek the satisfaction of the next level of needs, which become motivators or conative or striking needs. It is argued that in practice, physiological and safety needs

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form one level of needs, while all others form the next level. Any of the other needs in the latter level may emerge as the single most important need, depending on the individual. Thus, motivation is a complicated concept. The ten basic motives down the history of man are: 1 Self-preservation 2 Love 3 Anger 4 Fear 5 Hate 6 Sex 7 Life after death 8 Freedom 9 Recognition and self-expression, and 10 Wealth. Rewards are wisely based on these motives. The best motivator, wealth, must be willingly, fairly and generously divided among the team players. The more generous an entrepreneur is, the more help and co-operation he will get. Wealth obviously has the greatest appeal, but the other motivators play very important roles as well. To many people, recognition and self-expression are as important as money. Anger, hate and fear can twist the minds of people you rely on. There seems to be more to motivation than needs. A need will not motivate a person if he sees little chance of fulfilling that need. Thus, one's expectation plays an important role in motivation. Therefore, a person will work hard (say, towards achieving an organization's objectives) when he expects doing so to be favourable and probable. In attempt to give it back to the management, employees treat the customers the way the management treats the employees. This determines the customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and impacts on the survival or gradual death of the enterprise. Many companies are out or suffering of insensitivity to their

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workers' plights. They need to repent urgently today for the sake of the enterprise. Pleasing your employer An employer employs someone for a purpose, to fulfil a need. To be worth the name, the employee must fulfil this purpose in an atmosphere of compatibility. To please employer, the employee needs to: ! Be set apart for his employer. He has to be available for his employer's use. He cannot serve two masters at the same time. ! Give undivided loyalty, attention and love to the employer. He has to surrender to the decision of the employer. He must not hinder the employer's progress. ! Take training and instructions from the employer. He has to aspire to perfect to the standard or taste of the employer by understanding him. ! Do good works. He obeys the employer with all sincerity of heart. He serves wholeheartedly as though serving the Lord and not men, and works for heavenly reward. ! Love the employer with all his heart, soul and strength, and is prepared to swim or sink with him. ! Long and wait for the employer's instructions, take them seriously and ever memorize them for use, without retorting to his employer. ! Avoid stealing from the employer, but prove trustworthy and faithful. ! Submit even to harsh, wicked and unworthy employer. ! Put his priorities right and prove responsible. ! Joyous in serving and serve continuously. ! Acknowledge his employer in humility without seeking recognition. Endure in suffering (e.g. lack of pay, troubles, hardships, ! distress, etc.).

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Be chaste - unchaste instruments are unappetizing; understanding - difficult servants are thorns; kind - unkind employees are dreadable; sincere in love - hypocritical employees are undesirable; known yet regarded as unknown i.e. take no glory for success; poor, yet making many rich this is true servant-like. Avoid unfaithfulness, dereliction, greed, lying and betrayal or mischief or treachery. Be wise to possibly rule his employer's wicked sons and share their estate.

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Fighting social vices in workplace Wherever men meet, “The Seven Deadly Sins” - pride, envy, malice, gluttony, avarice, lust, and sloth - are present in handful measure to eat away their noble ideals. These social vices, in their numerous forms, must be fought in the workplace, if the enterprise must taste success. In most cases, social vices are individualised. They eat at the individuals that exhibit them, and then the enterprise. Highlighted below are dissension, gossip and malice. Dissension Dissension is disagreement in opinion: discord: strife. It must be minimised in the workplace to make for unity, which enhances strength and progress. Gossip A gossip is a person who goes about telling and hearing news or idle, malicious, and scandalous tales. Gossip is also idle talk: scandalous rumours. To gossip is to run about telling idle or malicious tales. Malicious is bearing ill-will or spite; moved by hatred or illwill: mischievous. Scandalous means giving scandal or offence to; to shock: calling forth condemnation; defamatory.

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Scandal is something which is injurious to reputation; malicious gossip; slander; a disgraceful fact, thing or person. Defamatory is the act of defaming or taking away or destroying the good fame or reputation of; the act of speaking evil of; calumny; slander. Calumny is false accusation; slander. Slander is a false or malicious report; injurious defamation. Gossip and Malice To gossip is to run about telling idle or malicious tales, to portray someone in bad light behind his back, or to listen to such talks. Malice is ill-will; spite; disposition or intention to harm another or others; a playfully mischievous attitude of the mind. A person sick with malice is quite often into open or secret mischief against his colleagues in workplace. He talks bad of, and listens to idle talks against them behind their back. He refuses to cooperate with them even in moving the work of the enterprise forward. Yet, malice, as secret anger and grudge, most dangerously “eats away” at the host, boring a hole of animosity. As it percolates, it colours his world with bitterness, filtering all his experiences through the lens of resentment. Even when he tries to keep a lid on it, inevitable explosion will occur, giving a jolt to those who thought they knew him so well to be good. Although, malice may hide behind smiles, laughter and greetings, yet it simmers towards the real or perceived offender or victim, who may be innocent and ignorant of the time bomb and who can be a colleague that shares the same office/factory with him. It may take some remote event that took place probably some years ago. He dismisses any thought of forgiveness with “This offence is unforgivable. I have been warning him. He is taking me for a ride. I need to teach him a lesson this time around.” He labels it an “irreconcilable difference.” Malice comes out in schemes, manoeuvers, diplomacy and outright deception. In extreme cases it can turn to violence. The answer is communication and forgiveness.

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The leadership of the enterprise has a great role to play in detecting and quelling malice, gossip and suchlike. The leadership must not treat it with levity, or it will destroy the enterprise as it infects it and the staff. As soon as gossip or backbiting is detected, the parties involved and their victim(s) must be called to a round-table to talk it over together. This is the most effective way to discourage gossip in an enterprise and spare the staff and the system. Things must not be allowed to degenerate and grow in sourness or get out of hand. A stitch in time saves nine. Addressing the value system of the staff Other social vices as enumerated above also come into play in the enterprise. Dissension, gossip and malice are highlighted as examples. Most of these vices have to do with the value system of individual and the society. To enhance workers' values in order to improve efficiency, the management needs to train and retrain the staff in education and morality, so as to change the person. Ethical re-orientation also helps to change people and their attitudes from the animalistic, sinful, wayward instincts and depraved nature of man. The change needs to be real, that is, learning has not taken place. The management also needs to review the system from time to time. Poor performance of workers may be traced to the system, which may have to be changed or reformed to a pattern consistent with the level of the operators. INTERPERSONALRELATIONSHIPIN WORKPLACE Introduction Good interpersonal relationship in workplace is a notable factor for co-operation and smooth running of the enterprise. When colleagues master and practice good interpersonal relationship, the staff and the organization are better for it.

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Cases are, when man-hours are spent settling disputes among colleagues. Gossip, backbiting, calumny, strife, envy, etc. are common among colleagues. Indeed, poor interpersonal relationship among staff in workplace is a major cause of dwindling productivity and enterprise failure. There are basically three (3) beings that interplay in life: the Creator, you and the other person. The Creator's manual for life relationship emphasizes love. It says, “You must love the Lord your God with all your heart, soul, mind, and strength, and you must love your neighbour as yourself” (The Holy Bible, Mark 12:30-31). If we do not love, nothing works. Love is more than a feeling; it is a behaviour. We must express love in practical ways, and intentionally act in ways that demonstrate our love. The heart The heart is central to every human activity. This might be why God commands us to love him with all our heart. From the heart proceeds all that defiles man. The heart conceives desires, which can entice man to sin. On the other hand, the heart conceives good things, which edify the group of people concerned and improve the system. The heart can be softened or hardened, desperately deceptive or loving. Failure and success begin in the heart. Fear and courage, the negative and positive thoughts are all bred in the heart, before they are acted out or hatched. Therefore, you need to, Watch your thoughts, they become words; Watch your words, they become actions; Watch your actions, they become habits; Watch your habits, they become character; Watch your character, it becomes destiny.

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bridges, end up isolated. We are called to a ministry of reconciliation. Relating with colleagues in workplace The role of the authority The good relationship that must exist among colleagues for a smooth running of the enterprise cannot come by chance, but by deliberate efforts of all persons concerned to avoid getting on someone else's nerves or stepping on his toes. The guide is the “Golden Rule”, which says, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” (The Holy Bible, Matthew 7:12). Certainly, you would want others to love you and do kind things to you all the time. First do the same to them. You would not want others to backbite you, speak ill of you or run you down, usurp or withhold your due, deny you an assistance they can render, etc. Likewise, you must avoid doing same to others. You want to be respected. First respect others, and you will earn respect. Flying into a rage surely ends in rough landing. Blowing your fuse leaves you in darkness. If you lose your head, do not expect to use it. The best cure for anger is to delay it. Postpone today's anger until tomorrow. Anger is a boomerang that will surely hit you harder than anyone or anything at which you throw it. Revenge - one of the worst fruits of anger - is a passion of the human heart that promises so much but pays so little. The longest odds in the world are those against getting even with someone. “In taking revenge a man is but even with his enemy; but in passing it over, he is superior” (Francis Bacon, 2004). “Time spent in getting even is better used in trying to get ahead. Revenge is like biting a dog because the dog has bitten you. When trying to get even, you will always do odd things” (John L. Mason, 2004). Forgiveness is essential for good human relationships. The weight of unforgiveness greatly drags a person down. It is a tremendous load to carry in life's race. Unforgiveness leads to bitterness, and bitterness to thoughts of revenge. Great amounts of brainpower are used up when you ponder a negative situation and plot how to get even. Build bridges, rather than burn them. People, who burn

Whenever the authority notices any sign of distressed relationship among employees, the matter should be trashed out without delay. When personal interest is ignored, it becomes an issue. If the issue is not discussed, it turns into crisis. When crisis is swept under the carpet, it assumes a dimension of conflict. When you fail to handle a conflict, it turns into war. A war does no man no good. And, the best way to win a war is avoiding it. So, be vigilant, to nip matters in the bud, before they become too costly to control. Selfishness and disunity in workplace We live in the days of selfishness. Everybody seems to mind only the things that personally affect him. Our forefathers shared a speck of kolanut among tens of men and a keg of palmwine among scores of people. They lived and slept in tens in a hut. This unity is exemplary. Today, the going thought is how to win it all and take it all to myself alone, how to humiliate the others and be honoured perpetually, how to run the others down with verbal or written words. In our villages, one house is electrified by under-loaded power generating set, but not extended to the brother next house. One man has water enough to waste, but his brother's wife and children trek 20 kilometres to fetch 20 litres of water. A person will give costly drinks to a man who calls him vain names, but cannot help him with the school fees of his child who has been driven home for lack of fees. Unhealthy rivalry and morbid jealousy have installed in us segregation and stratification. Watch out! Yet, we are all equal in the sight of the Creator. And, our needs are just the same: three meals per day, 1.5 litres of portable water per day, a set of wears at a time, one side of a bed in one corner of a room in a house, and an appropriate

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means of mobility. No one needs more than these items and only a mad man goes for more than he needs because madness is avaricious, gluttonous in nature. How will you help your colleague to succeed in his work? This is an important question because his success will contribute to the collective success, the attendant growth of the enterprise, and overall development of the society. Many entrepreneurs are selfish. Hoarding information, they avoid interaction, thereby, losing opportunities to gain from others. Turning themselves into 'islands' of some sort, they fail to improve their intake and output through effective interaction in free business fora. They work in exclusion of others, in disunity with people who would have complemented their efforts. They get no 'fresh air', and soon get choked by 'spent air' in their little world and stuffy closets. Selfishness-induced theft Some entrepreneurs want to exploit their workers, rather than show love to them, so that they can, in turn, show love to the establishment and work selflessly to sustain it. No establishment can do without the co-operation of the workers. The workers can only co-operate and put in their best when they feel loved, belonging, with the proprietor treating them kindly, rather than exploit and goad them around. As children instinctively gravitate toward loving and accepting people, so workers are committed to loving work environment. Thus, it is better to incentivise workers with kind actions than to intimidate and pull them by the nose. The latter method does not get far. At best, the proprietor loses the workers and faces a worse and costly situation of building another set of inexperienced staff. Most often, he may put up with disgruntled staffers, who simply run down the establishment and gradually grind it to a halt in a near future. When workers are well motivated, they feel they cannot do without their job, and will, therefore, ever try to impress their

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employer. They maximise their output in the atmosphere devoid of rancour and tensions. The selfishness of employees also pulls down companies. After destroying the civil service in Nigeria, this poor work attitude has progressed to destroy most government-owned companies and parastatals (Eneh, 2005: 80 - 81). Cases are, where employees looted raw materials and finished products stores, only to sell them at criminally give-away prices to undercut the enterprise. The distressed banks in Nigeria were wrecked by the workers who shared loans with borrowers and destroyed the vouchers or files to eliminate the trace of records of the transactions. Today many of these workers have been thrown out of job. The poor clients and shareholders lost their lodgements and shares with such banks to the pockets of financial wreckers, whom they once paid as staff to take care of their money. How people need to exercise some scruples. Cheating on establishment or the entrepreneur will eventually affect the workers and others in the society. A loss occasioned on a corporate body is a backward step for the entire system and the nation, even generations yet unborn. Unfortunately, love for employer, the establishment or the nation is thrown to the dogs in a corrupt society, such as Nigeria. People, even those at the top, think mostly of themselves. After all, the society is hard on them, with armed robbery, cult practices, ritual killings, child abuse and neglect, deficient infrastructure, unemployment, insurance malpractice, failed banks, advance-fee fraud, looting of public treasury, embezzlements, unpaid salaries and pensions, withheld retirement packages, corruption, nepotism, you name it. Certainly, these are not what to love the jungle society for. On the other hand, patriotism is real in advanced countries that provide unemployment packages, health insurance, and others. People pursue self-serving life of money, fame or glory, rather than a life of service to others. They need attitudinal and behavioural changes in these directions.

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The result of our selfishness and disunity in the workplace is poor productivity and dwindling enterprises, leading to perpetual underdevelopment of our society. If only we can resolve to underplay SELF, to change our creed from I believe in my belly, self-almighty, to love fellow human beings, our employer, his enterprise, our colleagues and our community, it shall be good from today. Divisive spirit has torn us to shreds and we are much worse for it. Let's be wise from today. TIME MANAGEMENT IN WORKPLACE Poor Time Management It is commonplace to see the student burn the midnight candle a few days to the examinations. He suddenly wants to cover grounds and pass. He had failed to make effective use of his time during the term or semester. Similarly, an enterprise operator, such as tailor, cabinetmaker, automobile or other technicians, struggles with time. Many deny themselves Christmas and other festivities in order to strive to meet up with delivering their services to customers. Some times, some of them work on Sundays in attempt to satisfy their customers' requests to have their jobs delivered within an agreed deadline, which might have been rescheduled many times over. In the end, they still fail to meet up, thereby making enemies of their well meaning customers and losing their joy and future business opportunities. Poor time management is the reason for this. Producers and service providers may be well trained technically to know their work very well. But, their training or apprenticeship curriculum does appear to lack in time management or time-study. Knowledge of handwork or skill is one thing, the efficient management of the limited and constant time available to an individual in a day is another thing altogether. No doubt, there are 24 hours a day. But, not all people have 24 hours a day. You certainly have as much of the 24 hours as you

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utilize effectively. Unfortunately, you do not have the time you have wasted in a day. Only the time in excess of what you have wasted becomes available to you for that day. If you waste 4 hours a day, only 20 hours become available for your use. If you 'kill' 10 hours, you have only 14 hours left for you for that day. You cannot create more time, even if you waste part of the constant 24 hours given to you in a day by your Creator. Neither can you, in any way, gain time. An average worker with a private enterprise in a Christiandominated zone works for 300 days in a year (excluding 52 Sundays, Good Friday, Easter Monday and 11 days for Christmas leave). He works 6 days in a week, and 51 hours a week (9 hours each day of Monday to Friday and 6 hours on Saturday). Every piece of work needs to be done - and there is a specific time allotted to it in the work-plan. If this time is overspent or the work is hurriedly and improperly done or not done at all, it encroaches on other pieces of work, often times disrupting the smooth running of the entire work process. Thus, in production, the person that is in charge of one stage or part of the process waits for the worker that is in charge of the stage before his to complete his work before he could start his own work. For example, the worker in charge of labeling waits for the worker in charge of packaging the product to finish his work first. A good attitude that leads to success in every field of endeavour is effective time management. Poor time management in industries is responsible for ineffectiveness of workers and the attendant low productivity that threatens the survival and growth of enterprises. The timing of an action is as important as the action itself. “Even the right direction taken at the wrong time is a bad decision”(John L. Mason, 2004). How you spend (or waste) time is crucial. In making use of time, you belong to one of the four groups of people, who: make things happen, watch things happen, wonder what's happening or stampede the way.

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Wrong value and use of the short lifetime

Time-killing factors

Nigerians have an average life span of 47.5 years (Eneh, 2005: 10). The HIV/AIDS factor has lowered it further. And poverty in the land ensures that life within this sadly short period is miserable and full of hardships. Thus, any Nigerian above the age of 47.5 years is living on injury time. And, the more he spends his time frivolously, the more he fails in life. We know that the history of a man has two dates birth and death dates. Between these two dates is a dash or hyphen (-), which represents his lifetime and his activities here on earth. Research has shown that over 90% of this time is spent on retrogressive activities involving disagreements, strife, gossip, wine, immorality, wickedness, foul thoughts/words, wars, etc., while less than 10% is spent on peace and productive activities and projects. (You can prove this by objectively analyzing how you spend the 24 hours in a day, the 7 days in a week, the 12 months in a year, the number of years you have lived.) How much have you justified your pay or life through full and effective utilization of work hours? The proverbial prodigal son has always been condemned for wasting his portion of the wealth from his father in frivolous living. Little do people think of the accompanying time, which he also wasted. When he returned to his father's home, he recouped the lost material wealth, but not the time. If somebody steals your car, you can acquire another. If he snatches your wallet, you will regain majority of your concerns with time. But you cannot regain a lost time. The misuse of time must become a crime in our law books. How you spend your time is how you spend your life. Apostle Paul enjoins you to 'make every minute count' (Eph. 5: 16, CEV of The Holy Bible, 1996). How often we burn the wick - and not the oil failing to keep the main thing. According to Apostle James, you sin if you do not what you know is right (James 4:17, CEV of The Holy Bible, 1996).

There are many factors that kill the time that should be utilized for work. They include: Lateness Lateness results in * opening the office later than schedule; ! settling down to work later than usual; ! keeping customers waiting for you; ! giving customers the impression that you and your enterprise are not serious with your business; ! creating an impression of lousiness in your business; ! cheating on your enterprise with work and income; ! lowering the productivity of your enterprise; ! robbing your enterprise of that proportion of your salary not justified because of lateness; ! giving bad example to your subordinates; poor or irresponsible image of yourself before your ! neighbours and colleagues; show of lack of self-discipline; ! A worker who comes 10 minutes late a day works for only 50 hours (instead of 51 working hours) in a week, only 42 weeks (instead of 50 working weeks) in a year, and only 250 days (instead of 300 working days) in a year. Thus, he is a wrecker, not a worker. But, oftentimes we ignore 10-minute lateness, to the detriment of the enterprise. Disorderly movement in workplace Staff can just kill time by loitering in the establishment. They idle about aimlessly. They even disrupt the smooth flow of work for other workers.

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Unnecessary discussion with colleagues Colleagues just kill time by engaging in unnecessary chat and gossip. Spending work hours with visitors Nigerians have made a habit of entertaining visitors with drinks and discussions in the office, while their official duties suffer terribly. When it is not their fiancé or fiancée, it is their relation. It is even regarded that entertaining visitors during work hours is a right. Discouraging them from doing this makes the boss look uncivilized and difficult. But, it is the worker who cannot differentiate official hours/activities from unofficial hours/activities, that tries to rob the enterprise of its work time, that is actually uncivilized and primitive. There is time for everything. Work hours must be reserved for work. Overstaying break period The average worker's attitude to time is such that he does not care a hoot if he overstays the break period. Time is a calculated and definite gift, of definite quantity. So is time allotted to break. Any overstay results in disruption of activities in the enterprise. Operate within the period meant for break, and try to use it for actual recreation, so as to fully be active on duty when you return to work. Long telephone discussions Many workers engage in telephone discussion as though it was leisure chat in their sitting room. Telephone discussions are meant to be brief and straight to the point, especially during office hours. Visit to the village Some staff form it a habit to visit the village so regularly that you begin to wonder if everyday is Christmas for them. They have varied reasons for doing this. If it is not the mother that is sick or sending for them, it is the father, brother, uncle, grandparent, etc. It could be to attend one function or another. Although, they work in the city, they are regular village champions. Meanwhile, their work is suffering, but they expect full income or salary at the end of the month, at the expense of the enterprise.

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Time spent for illness and maternity Many a time, you find a worker idle in workplace, in the name of being ill. He would not go straight for treatment, in the hope that the illness would soon disappear without a treatment action. Other times pregnant mothers take advantage of their situation to waste time and still toil with the fate of their enterprise during maternity leave. When you add the man-hours, man-days and man-years (time) wasted in one way or the other, it is staggering enough to shake the establishment to its very foundations. The result of our wrong value of lifetime is poor productivity and dwindling enterprises, leading to perpetual underdevelopment of our society. FEASIBILITY STUDY/REPORTAND BUSINESS PLAN Next to innate disposition for entrepreneurship, enterprise begins with development of an idea in the mind. After it is nursed over a time, the idea is written down for a more serious and practical consideration. A category of reports required by the entrepreneur for technical and empirical consummation of the idea is variously called technical and economic soundness analysis, feasibility report, assessment report, etc. They contain carefully considered opinions for the success of the venture. The study that aids the development of the report is called feasibility study. It examines the marketing economics, technical, managerial and financial possibilities of a proposed business idea, culminating in feasibility report, which provides an expert opinion concerning the business opportunity and a plan for its execution, and then determines whether the plan is feasible. After considering and analysing the current technology, economic realities and social needs, the feasibility report must answer yes or no to the question of implementation or otherwise of the idea. It is a documented report that provides an overview of the prime issues related to a business idea.

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The primary purpose of a feasibility study is to spot any “make or break” issues that could impinge upon the technical and marketing success of the business. It enables the entrepreneur to ensure that there are no major roadblocks facing the business idea before he makes an investment. Identifying and analysing roadblocks, if any, a feasibility study determines whether the idea is reasonable. A feasibility study generally emphasises three major areas, namely: (i) market analysis (ii) organisational and technical analysis (iii) financial analysis. The purpose of market analysis is to thoroughly acquaint the entrepreneur with all aspects of the market so that he can formulate the plan to capture a part of it. The market determines the success of an enterprise. The entrepreneur must be sure that there exists acceptable quantity of potential customers willing to spend enough money on his product to provide profitable sales revenue (McLoughlin, 2005). According to Siegel (2005), market analysis seeks answers to certain pertinent questions through some form of market research. The questions include: - is there a market for the product? - what is the current and/or potential demand for the proposed product? - how many units of the product can you reasonably expect to sell each month? - what is the target market for the product? - how many customers are there? - who are they? - what are their demographic characteristics? - what is the magnitude of your projected supply of the product? - what competition exists in the market? - how does each competitor operate? - h ow successful is he?

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- what does it take to succeed in this business? - can you establish a market niche? - what is the “competitive advantage” which will enable you to compete effectively with others in the market? - can you communicate your competitive advantage simply and believably to the market? Montguide (2005) posits that customers are creatures of habit and therefore unlikely to change their behaviour just because a new product or service enters the market. Usually, it takes a long time for people to become familiar and comfortable enough with a new product to patronise it. Studies have shown that it takes approximately 3 years for a small enterprise to break even and 5 years to begin to make profit. The entrepreneur needs the resources to outlast the inertia of his customers. Usually, market analysis is conducted first because it is critical to the success of the business. It must be established through research that adequate demand for the product exists. If the quantum of demand falls short of expected demand, then the project is not feasible. Therefore, the feasibility study may not proceed to the next step. Regarding key organisational issues, researchers have come to conclusion that personalities and individual characteristics of the entrepreneur may constitute the most important factors for success of the enterprise. Investors have come to the common knowledge that a good business plan will not necessarily guarantee a good business, but a good entrepreneur can, in spite of the temporary pitfalls of the business plan. Thus, the management team or key players in the enterprise are extremely important. The type of organisational structure appropriate for the business will be determined. The qualifications necessary to manage the type of business will be determined and the choice of members of the board of directors, managers and key personnel made. The technological issues for an enterprise differ in level with the nature of the business. A service enterprise, such as hair dressing saloon or tailoring workshop, has few equipment and technology

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related requirements. On the other hand, a manufacturing venture may have to address a number of complex technology related questions in order to assess the feasibility of the project. The cost and availability of relevant technology are of great importance to the feasibility of the venture. Research questions to address include: - what are the technology needs of the project? - what other equipment will the project require? - what are the sources of the required technology and equipment? - how soon can the relevant equipment be obtained? - what will be the cost of the technology and equipment? - how does the ability to obtain the technology and equipment affect the take-off time? Some window-shopping and comparison will be necessary to find out how users or acquaintances of similar equipment fare with the equipment and their sources. The objective of financial analysis is to determine the financial feasibility of the project. The key financial issues revolve around start-up cost or establishment cost, operational cost or working capital, revenue projections, sources of financing, and profitability. Establishment or start-up costs include the cost of capital goods, such as land, buildings and other fixed assets. Working capital covers recurrent or running costs, such as wages, rent, transport and utilities, that are incurred in the daily operation of the business, as well as interest and capital repayments of any borrowed fund. Revenue projections determine how the goods and services will be priced and the estimated monthly sales revenue. The profitability analysis is the bottom-line for the proposed venture and addresses the questions of the venture covering operating costs, break-even, suffering loss or making profit. The profitability analysis and evaluation can adopt any or all of the following approaches: break-even analysis, payback period, and annual rate of returns. The break-even analysis uses the algebraic approach, with

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formula: Break-even Point

=

FC P-VC

where FC is fixed cost P is unit selling price VC is unit variable cost Fixed cost is one that remains fixed and is not affected by changes in business activity, examples, rent, insurance, property tax, and depreciation. Variable cost is one that varies with changes in operations, examples, costs of distribution, sales commission, some wages. It can also use the less exact graphical approach to produce the graphical representation known as the break-even chart. The point of intersection of the total cost line and the sales line is the break-even point. The payback period is the number of years it will take a project to recover the investment from the net cash flows: Payback Period

=

Total Investment Net Profit + Depreciation

Bearing in mind creditor’s terms, the entrepreneur sets the time target for paying back. If the calculated payback period is shorter than the time targeted, the project is feasible. Payback periods greater than 5 years suggest the project should be dropped, as a matter of general guide. Profitability analysis and evaluation can apply the annual rate of returns, which expresses the net profit as a percentage of the capital outlay: Annual Rate of Return = Average Annual Net Profit Total Investment

x 100

The entrepreneur sets a target rate of return. For the project to be

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feasible, the calculated rate of return must be higher than the target rate. Because a feasibility report is put to various uses, its format of documentation , emphasis, depth of information, details and other features vary (Ifechukwu, 1982). The format recommended by the National Directorate of Employment, N.D.E. (1987) is reproduced below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Project Location Market analysis: nature, size, competition, strategy for prospects Management team (i) Production process (optional): how to make the product, production cost (ii) Production plan: production budget, i.e. Quantity of finished product in a year. Sources of raw-materials Estimated type and cost of facility you may need to provide at the factory. Manpower requirement: type and number of personnel needed and their wages. Estimated capital expenditure: machinery/equipment, office rent, electricity, etc. Estimated working capital requirements for the first four months. Projected income and expenditure statements for 3 to 5 years. Projected balance sheet. Depreciation of assets table. Repayment plan at 15% interest rate. Cashflow analysis. Viability tests: payback period, return on investment, internal rate of return, net present value.

Reproduced hereunder is a feasibility report the author prepared for a company based in Kaduna, Nigeria in June 1988 on

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Sorghum Malt Production Project. Summary Project: Sponsor: Location: Manpower requirement: Estimated capital expenditure: Working capital (3 months): Initial set-up capital: Annual operating cost (first 5 years): Payback period:

Sorghum Malt Production XYZ Ltd., Kaduna Enugu 33 staff N500,000.00 N325,000.00 N825,000.00 N4,542,200.00

Introduction Nigeria, with a population of 100 million, consumes 200 million cartons of beer daily (M.A.N., 1986, Sunday Vanguard of 17/8/86). Thus, each of the thirty-three (33) functional breweries in Nigeria needs to produce in excess of 6 million cartons of beer daily, if they must export their products. Barley malt is the main raw-material for beer brewing activities. Several millions of Naira was spent annually for importing this material for brewing beer in Nigeria. Up to 1984, N200 million was spent in foreign exchange on this item alone (Business Concord of 6/1/84). In attempt to conserve this huge sum of foreign exchange, the Federal Military Government of Nigeria banned the importation of barley malt with effect from January, 1988 (The Punch, 6/1/88 and the Presidential Budgetary Speech, 1/1/88). In its place, the Government had approved the use of malt from indigenous sorghum (SK 5912) for beer brewing activities (NTANetwork News, 26/5/87). This is a big challenge for the brewery industry. Some breweries had attempted brewing beer with sorghum malt and maize adjuncts. The fear is that the new products will have sensory qualities

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that differ from those of normal products. Besides, the filtration bed of the brewing plant will need to be changed in order to make it fit to filter sorghum mash, which, unlike the barley, has no husks that make filtering easier (The Guardian of 5/1/88 and Vanguard of 11/2/88). These new brands of sorghum-brew include Masters (Premier Breweries, Onitsha), Bond (Pabod Breweries, Port Harcourt), Kings (North Breweries, Kano), Choice (Rivers State Breweries), Mayor (International Breweries, Ilesha), Class (Jos International Breweries), Merit (Guinness Nigeria) and Rex (Nigerian Breweries Ltd.). Earlier on , Okafor and Aniche and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO) had differently claimed the brewing research findings that led to the production of Femos Special (a 25% sorghum malt beer) and Femos Extra (a 50% sorghum malt beer). FIIRO also recently reported a 100% sorghum malt brew (Sunday Punch, October 25, 1987). At the brewery, a 100% sorghum malt beer has been produced at the Pal Breweries, Oko (The Guardian, Jan. 5, 1988), besides Masters (Premier Breweries, Onitsha) already in the market. Unlike sorghum, maize has hitherto served as only adjuncts, since its malt has been relatively poor enzymic and colour qualities for beer brewing. This indigenous sorghum, like maize, can thrive well in all the ecological zones of Nigeria (Institute of Agricultural Research, Samaru, December, 1985). Thus, more can be grown, in addition to the much already available. In fact, virtually, all breweries in Nigeria have gone into the cultivation of sorghum and/or maize (The Mail on Sunday, May 3, 1987).

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The market for the product will be, therefore, the brewing industry. Contacts have been made by the author and many breweries are anxiously waiting for this much needed raw material. At the present installed capacity, a smallest brewery in Nigeria needs in excess of 4,000 tons of malt per annum or precisely 13 tons per day. Thus the problem is not the unavailability of the market but the ability of a Maltings to meet the quantitative needs of even a brewery. The by-product (malting loss) finds ready market in the feed mills where it contributes a high percentage of the carbohydrate and protein content of the feed. Again contacts have been made with feed mills to evacuate the by-product as soon as it is ready. Management Team Three (3) managers will constitute this team for the small-scale industry.

Product and Its Market

Plant Manager To occupy this position is a young (25 - 40 years) energetic graduate of Biological or Food Sciences or Chemistry. He must love a challenging job and must have got M.Sc. Brewing Science and Technology, and possibly stressed Malting/Brewing with Nigerian raw-materials. Familiarity with a commercial malting plant/process is essential. He must also be a member of a brewing professional body, preferably the Institute of Brewing (I. O. B), London . His duty is to take charge of the entire industry’s planning, organising, directing and control and shall particularly ensure the production of sorghum malt with qualities that will make all brewmasters smile.

The production of sorghum malt is to be embarked upon. The product has a wide range of use in the food/drinks industry, as its extract is used in making biscuits, bread, and malt drinks. Its major use is, however, in beer brewing where it constitutes over 80% of the raw material needs.

Marketing Manager This must be a holder of post-graduate diploma or B.Sc. or M.Sc. Brewing Science and Technology or B.Sc./HND in Food or Biological Sciences with emphasis on Malting/Brewing. Aged between 30 and 40, he must be pushful and able to speak fluently. He

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must also belong to a brewing professional body, especially the I.O.B. His duty includes deputising the Plant Manager, ensuring that all product and by-product are sold off before or soon after they are ready, counselling the brewery customers, and procuring the material needs of the Maltings. He reports to the Plant Manager. Accountant This must be a holder of B.Sc./HND Finance or Accountancy. He takes charge of the finances of the Maltings, pays salaries to staff, and gives financial guide to the Plant Manager. He reports to the Plant Manager. Production Process and Plan Process The screened grains are steeped in vats at room temperature (28 30oC) for 48 hours, couched for 24 hours, floor-malted for 96 hours, kilned at 55oC for 24 - 48 hours, de-rooted, and packaged in 50kg bags. The by-product (malting loss) is also packaged in 50kg bags. Raw Material The sole raw material for this industry is the sorghum grain. This crop can grow in most parts of the country. To ensure a steady supply, a co-operative farmers organisation could be commissioned to grow the crop for the Maltings. As part of its expansion programme, the Maltings could integrate backward in no distant future into the growing of the crop. Meanwhile, the grains are available locally in large quantities. The little quantities of sodium compounds sometimes used for the treatment of the malting grains are also manufactured locally. Thus, there will be no problem of the importation of the materials. Machinery and Equipment

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The malting plant designed by the PRODA, Enugu or FIIRO will serve the Maltings. Thus, the problems associated with Plant/Machinery importation or the servicing of imported plant will be avoided. The components of the locally designed plant are Steeping Tanks, Kiln and Culms Remover. Since floor-malting technique will be adopted, germination beds will not be necessary. This minimises cost and maximises output. By careful and selective sourcing of the grains, the need for grains graders will be eliminated. Other plant/machinery needed are weighing balance (range 1.0 to 200kg), grain preserver (silos, cold room or any other device) and a stand-by electric power generating plant. Production Plan Although the aim is to meet at least one brewery’s need, production will start with a target output of 80 tons per month until it ascends to the ultimate first year target of 390 tons per month which is the need of the smallest brewery in the country. This output will be doubled the second year with doubling of the capacity of the steeping tanks and the running costs. Credit facilities will also be employed. The third year is expected to witness a 50% increase in production output through a corresponding increase of the capacity of the steeping tanks and the running costs, using credit facilities. Location For purposes of this analysis, I have chosen the regionally representative States of Kaduna (North), Lagos (West) and Anambra (East) for relevant comparison. Kaduna State: That the sorghum grain (the raw material) is more available and grows best in the north informs the temptation to site a sorghum Maltings in Kaduna State. Besides, the Nigerian Grains Board, Kaduna, which operates with grains facilities (silos), could ensure a regular supply of healthy grains to the Maltings in Kaduna area at the shortest time and minimum cost (of conveyance).

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However, there are only five (5) functional breweries in the North region, as opposed to thirteen (13) in the East and eleven (11) in the West (see Appendix I). What is more, a pilot sorghum Maltings is functioning in Zaria (Kaduna State), thus a new Maltings in the same region, nay State, will face competition in the already relatively thin market for sorghum malt in the North region. On the other hand, it is safer to convey the raw material from the north to a wiser location. Besides, it has been pointed out that sorghum also grows well in southern Nigeria. Its cultivation has hitherto been neglected in the South because it is not a staple food for southern Nigerians. Lagos State: The presence of eleven (11) breweries in western Nigeria would seem to guarantee a market for the product of any sorghum Maltings sited in that region. It is noteworthy, however, that the Nigerian Breweries Ltd (NBL) Iganmu and the Guiness Nigeria, Ikeja have each got a pilot Maltings for the production of local malts for their use. Besides, the FIIRO Sorghum Maltings was recently commercialised (Business Concord, June 12, 1987). Anambra State: The eastern region bears the highest number (13) of breweries, yet there is only one pilot Sorghum Maltings at Nsukka which has been accused of producing poor quality mouldy sorghum malt. The only three universities in the country - ESUT, Enugu; University of Nigeria and Cross River State University, Calabar - that run Degree programmes in Brewing Science are all within the region. Thus, any Maltings in the region will enjoy handy consultancy services and a ready largest market.

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Packaging 50kg of the malt will be bagged in medium-sized sacks with inner cellophane lining and an attractive outlook. The product name and net-weight, as well as the producer’s name and address will be catchily inscribed on the sack for attraction and advertisement. Pricing The product from the Zaria Sorghum Malting is priced at N1,900 per ton. That from Nsukka sells for N1,600 per ton. Neither product meets the demand, even though experts are not involved in the production. A price of N1,800 per ton of malt will be adopted for the proposed sorghum Maltings’ high quality product. This will beat (in price) the Zaria malts and (in quality) the Nsukka mouldy malts. The by-product will be sold at the give-away price of N7.50 per bag because it has ready substitutes. Distribution and Sales Direct sales will be maintained to the consumer-breweries and feed mills who will purchase the malt and by-product ex-factory and convey them to their location. Expensive conventional advertisement and greedy middlemen who constitute avoidable bottlenecks, are just unnecessary here. Manpower Requirements

Marketing Plan

The following will be the pioneer staff of the Maltings, their qualifications/experiences, duties and wages.

The eagerness of available, large and anxious market for Sorghum Malts renders elaborate strategic marketing planning unnecessary, especially within a foreseeable future. Nevertheless, the following strategies will be adopted.

Plant Manager B.Sc/M.Sc. Brewing with laboratory and commercial malting experience. In charge of the industry’s planning, organising, directing and control. Wages: N 9,000 per annum.

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Technical Supervisor Two (2) sharp School Certificate holders (male) to be in charge of the production process. Wages at N2,400 per worker: N4,800 per annum.

Receptionist/Secretary/Typist A pretty girl with a credit in English Language and the ability to type 50 words per minute by qualification/experience and demonstration. Wages: N1,800 per annum.

Production Officer Fourteen (14) healthy able-bodied men with a minimum of F.S.L.C. Three (3) will take charge of the steeping process, three (3) the germination process, two (2) the culms removal, two (2) the kilning and four (4) the weighing/bagging processes. Wages at N1,500 per worker: N21,000 per annum.

Drivers Two (2) experienced drivers with ‘E’ license to drive the company’s car and van. Wages at N1,500 per staff: N3,000 per annum.

Marketing Manager As in qualifications and duties for technical supervisor above. Wages N7,800 per annum. Marketing Officers Two (2) personable School Certificate holders that speak fluently and persuasively, to assist in the marketing of the product. Wages at N1,800 per worker: N3,600 per annum. Labourers Four (4) healthy able-bodied men to move materials as directed by the Technical supervisors or Marketing Officers. Wages at N1,500 per staff: N6,000 per annum. Accountant As in qualifications for the third member of management team. Wages: N6,600 per annum. Accounts Clerk A female school-leaver with a credit in Book-Keeping or Business Method or Commerce to assist the Accountant. Wages: N1,800 per annum.

Guards Four (4) healthy and experienced guards to guard the company premises day and night. Wages at N1,500 per guard: N6,000 per annum. Strength of staff: thirty three (33) Total annual wages: N72,000 Total monthly wages: N6,000 Estimated Capital Expenditure (seeAppendix II) N K Land (Four plots) 95,000. 00 Site fence, factory/office construction and furniture 80,000.00 Plant components and floor 180,000.00 Weighing balance and one (1) typewriter 5,000.00 One (1) car and one (1) van (fairly used) 40,000.00 Grains preserver * 25,000.00 Stand-by electric power generating set 75,000.00 Working Capital (3 months): (seeAppendix III) 300 tons of grains + transportation at N750.00 Power, chemicals, water and other utilities Salaries Marketing costs 6000 packages (for product and by-product) at N2

N K 225,000.00 25,000.00 18,000.00 15,000.00 12,000.00

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Contingency (10% of capital)

30,000.00 N825,000.00

Initial Set-up Cost (N) (seeAppendix IV)

( N ‘000)

Annual Operating Cost 4,680 tons of grains + transportation at N750.00 Power, chemicals and utilities Salaries Marketing Costs 93,600 Packages (for product and by-product) at N2 Contingency (10% of cost)

3,510.00 300.00 72.00 60.00 187.2.00 433.00 4,542.2.00

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Entrepreneurship

Utilities & Chemicals 300.00 Insurance 8.25 Medical Expenses 10.00 Equipment repairs 20.00 Marketing costs 60.00 Audit & Legal 2.00 Loan repayment & Interest (20%) Depreciation 50.00 Contingency (10% of cash outflow) 472.00 Tax (50% on profit) 774.63 6,379.71 Total Expenses Cash surplus/(Deficit) 1,599.13

600.00 10.00 25.00 30.00 120.00 2.50

900.00 12.50 40.00 50.00 180.00 3.00

495.00 50.00

495.00 50.00

839.59 2,429.78 12,160.66 2,924.78

1,255.31 4,424.75 18,728.16 4,424.75

Amount of Local Raw Materials Involved: 100% Expected Sales (1st Three Years) (N’000) Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

Malt 6,739.20 13,478.40 20,217.60

By-product 3.51 7.02 10.53

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Total Revenue 6,742.71 13,485.42 30,228.13

Cashflow Projection (Ist Three Years) Year 1 Year 2 (N’000) (N’000) Cash Inflow: Loan and Capital 825.00 1,599.63 6,742.71 13,485.42 Sales 7,567.71 15,085.02 Total Cash Outflow: FixedAssets Raw Materials Wages & Salaries

500.00 3,697.20 72.00

20.00 7,394.00 144.00

Year 3 (N’000) 2,924.78 20,228.13 23.152.91 10.00 11.091.60 216.00

Success has more to do with timing and direction than speed. What benefit is running, if you are on the wrong road? “The lame man who keeps the right road outstrips the runner who takes the wrong one … The more active and swift the latter is, the further he will go astray” (Francis Bacon, 2004). Do the right thing at the right time. When you are outside the right timing, you will sow hurry and reap frustration. The trouble with life in the fast lane is getting to the other end too soon. Haste makes waste. Adopt the right pace. If you go too fast, you will catch up with misfortune. If you go too slowly, misfortune will catch up with you. Let God be your guide, and you will miss all the wrong places. Resolve today to change your attitude to time and that of the workers under you. You and the society would be better for it. Set goals in writing for every workday and develop a plan of work, allotting time to every piece of work to be done. Follow the plan religiously during the day. At the end of the day's work, measure

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your progress. Graduate to weekly, monthly and yearly goal setting, workplan development and progress measurement. To do your work well, you certainly have to give up many things, which have hitherto taken your time unprofitably.

Chapter Two

GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICE INTRODUCTION Globally, processed foods, drugs and cosmetics are products regulated by the respective national regulatory authority. These products are essential to life. Helpless consumers, who have no means of assessing their suitability and effectiveness, take them on trust. Yet, they contain biologically active substances, which have varying degrees of potential to induce unwanted effects. The rate of therapeutic failure is high when they are produced under substandard conditions or good manufacturing practice (GMP). In Nigeria, the regulatory functions and authority belong to National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) established by Decree No. 15 of 1993 as amended by Decree No. 19 of 1999. It is the responsibility of NAFDAC to ensure that: ! ! ! ! !

cosmetic products are not harmful to the body; food is safe, wholesome and nutritive; drugs and pharmaceuticals, including medical devices, are safe, efficacious and of good quality; no fake, counterfeit and adulterated food and drug products, locally produced or imported, are consumed in Nigeria; Health of the consumers is protected.

Good manufacturing practice has to do with effective employment and management of standard production process to forestall failure at various stages of the manufacturing process. It is that part of quality assurance which ensures that products are consistently produced and controlled to the quality standards appropriate to their intended use and as required by the product specifications. 79

81

80 GMP is the most important element of safety of regulated products, without which a potentially good product can become ineffective, toxic or lethal. GMP is, therefore, binding on all relevant industries, and regulatory bodies all over the world to pay first attention to it in product registration. To this effect, product identity must be maintained; ! product must be protected from contamination; ! process instructions must be followed carefully; ! work must be documented accurately., ! All these measures are taken to ensure that the product: contains the proper ingredients in the correct amounts; 1. has been correctly processed according to approved Standard 2. Operating Procedure (SOP); is correctly labeled; 3. is enclosed in suitable container and stored properly to retain 4. quality; is safe, efficacious and suitable for its intended use. 5. Attention must be given to planning, premises, equipment sourcing and installation, raw materials acquisition, specifications, storage, in-process operations, finished product, laboratory control, labeling, packaging, advertisement, distribution, and sale to the consumer. The scope of GMP is, therefore, very wide, covering all aspects of manufacturing process, including suitable premises ! validated critical steps ! equipment ! sanitation and hygiene ! ! storage ! starting materials ! transport ! qualified and trained production and quality control

! ! !

personnel adequate laboratory facilities full traceability of product through batch processing records Distribution records and systems for investigations of complaints and recall of products

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF GMP Location of premises For the premises to be acceptable, it must: ! be compatible with neighboring environment, as ensured through assessment of impact on environment (AIE); ! be compatible with other manufacturing operations that may be carried out in the same or adjacent premises; ! eliminate the risk of cross-contamination - air, fumes or even noise pollution; ! not be located near refuse dump, abattoir, public urinal/toilet, quarry site, cement factory, etc; ! in production area, the surface of the floor should be impervious, durable, cleanable and non-shedding; ! service penetrations and special fittings should have perfect finishing; ! have clean environment. Factory building The factory space must be: ! adequate in size to permit effective cleaning and maintenance and to minimize errors; ! fenced to avoid external interference; ! properly partitioned to include cloakroom, raw material store, finished product store, production site, quality control laboratory, and convenience; and ! designed to prevent entry and harbouring of insects, pests,

83

82 birds and other animals. Validation Validation establishes the documented evidence providing a high degree of assurance that a planned process will consistently perform according to the intended specific outcomes. Analytical tests, equipment, facility systems, such as air, water and steam are examined. Also looked into are processes for manufacturing, cleaning, sterilization, sterile filling, lypholisation, etc. Equipment Considerations for equipment include: ! being suitably designed, constructed, located and maintained; ! parts of the equipment in contact with product must be made of non-reactive materials to avoid leaching into the product or getting rusty; ! making for easy and thorough cleaning; and ! proper installation to avoid overcrowding and giving room for free movement.

Storage and warehouse To be considered include: adequate, well ventilated and illuminated space; ! provision of pallets for good procedure for inwards and ! issuance of goods; orderly storage arrangement ; ! storage conditions that minimize deterioration, ! contamination, spillage or breakage; provision of quarantine for raw materials and finished ! products; provision of temperature control for thermo-labile goods, e.g. ! fragrance. Personnel Considerations for personnel include: relevant qualifications, experience and training for the ! positions they occupy; experts being in charge of production and quality control; ! medical fitness of every staff and educated on the importance ! of total hygiene and GMP; organogram of the company. !

Sanitation and hygiene Starting materials To be watched for include: ! general and specific arrangement for sanitation/hygiene; ! written detailed sanitation/hygiene programme for premises, equipment, manufacturing and handling process; ! procedure relating to health; ! protective apparel for all operators; ! avoidance of smoking, eating, drinking or chewing within production, quality control and packaging areas; ! provision of toilets, cloakroom and washing facilities suitably located, equipped and maintained.

Inputs should: be quarantined, sampled, identified, examined for ! compliance with established specifications, released or rejected, stored, labeled or dispensing or dispensed according to written instructions; not have unauthorized abbreviations for names; ! Have details of source BN, manufacture and expiry dates ! documented.

85 59

84 58 Production and in-process quality control It must be ensured that: arrangement of equipment does not affect the free flow of ! materials and personnel; floors, walls and ceiling surfaces are impervious, durable, ! cleanable and non-shedding; adequate ventilation and illumination are used; ! ingredients for batch formulation contain no disallowed ! colour, chemical, etc; conditions of operation are appropriate; ! experts must be in control; ! step must be followed. !

! ! ! !

manufacturing date; expiry date; net weight or volume of product content; NAFDAC Registration No. (for Nigeria).

Packaging Considerations include: suitable packaging materials, checked and properly stored ! before lease for use; access to storage rooms for packaging materials must be ! restricted to authorized persons. Transport and handling

Quality control Quality control laboratory must be available and adequately staffed and equipped. The main laboratory should be separated from the production area. There should be separate areas for physiochemical, microbiological and pharmacological sections. The design of the floors, walls, ceilings and service penetration should meet requirements stated for production. Arrangements could be made for the services of public laboratories where the industry does not have its own laboratory. For in-house quality control, records of analysis and laboratory reports should be kept, and ! product release/reject procedure should be in place. ! Labeling Adequate labeling information must include: brand name of product; ! name of manufacturer; ! location address of manufacturer; ! ingredients list; !

All the skills and quality built into a product during manufacturing can be lost if adequate care is not exercised during delivery to consumers. Products should be handled and transported under conditions that minimize deterioration, contamination, spoilage or breakage. Water source Borehole source must be at least 46 metres deep and positioned not less than 30 metres away from sewage. Documentation Document is the key to efficient operation of a standard regulated products. Documentation is categorized into: Commitment documentation that describes the commitment ! of a factory to adhere to GMP. It could be Master Validation Plan, Quality Manual, Sample Collection, Routine Analysis and Analysis for Stability Studies. Directive documentation that directs the technical staff on !

87

86 how to remain in compliance. Examples include Batch Record, Standard Operating Procedure (S.O.P), Protocol (for safety studies), Master Formula/Manufacturing Instructions. ! Procedural documentation that describes the procedure for production, quality control, validation, cleaning, etc. All relevant documents of production and quality control, including master batch record for traceability and recall, should be kept. Basic documents include: ! company organogram; ! store cards/records of goods inwards and outwards; ! master batch formulations; ! standard operating procedure for production, quality control and cleaning; ! batch manufacturing and validation records; ! master packaging instructions; ! product complaints procedure; ! product recall procedure; ! distribution procedure for shipment; ! product complaints from trade and reactions to each of them; ! instruction for disposal of rejected materials; ! identified rejected material / expired product (which must be stored separately, pending return to supplier, reprocessing or destruction). Records should be kept for at least 4-6 years after production has been completed or at least one year after products expiry date. Staff welfare There should be staff welfare programme, covering: 1. regular medical check-up; 2. in-house sickbay / first aid; 3. canteen facilities; 4. facilities, such as cloakroom, toilet, and protective gloves,

masks, robes, etc. as applicable. Self audit Responsibility for the quality, efficacy, safety, wholesomeness and nutritional qualities of foods and drugs rest with the industries. It becomes wise that self auditing arrangement must be installed to give additional confidence in the manufacturing process.

Chapter Three

FOODS AND BEVERAGES INTRODUCTION Water is an indispensable need of man. Potable water is thinning out in availability, especially with growing population and industrial pollution. Most agricultural products are seasonal and perishable. Over 50% of all agricultural products in Nigeria are wasted for lack of preservation and processing. This makes preservation and processing more of the worrying issue than agricultural production. Subsequent to each bumper harvest, prices of agricultural products usually fall because the farmer pushes all his perishable goods to the market to forestall losses resulting from deterioration of the unpreserved and unprocessed products. These prices soon pick as the products disappear from the market, till the next season. This occasions a lot of economic losses and wastes, which can be addressed by processing or preservation of agricultural products to keep them in consumable state as they travel long distances from farms to consumers and last in time between harvest and consumption. Thus, food security and freedom from poverty and hunger lean heavily on limiting waste of agricultural products through postharvest preservation and processing. Chapter 3 of this book deals with table water, foods and beverages. TABLE WATER Introduction Water is essential to life in many obvious ways. Potable water is

88

89


indispensable. It is expected to be colourless, odourless, tasteless, and free from extraneous particles and pathogenic bacteria. It is presented in different containers. Drinking (table) water packaged in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles came into Nigerian market as 'Natural Spring Water' in mid-1980s. It was well accepted and commonly served to very special people on occasions and in hotels. In 1990, water packaged in polyethylene sachet ('Sachet Water') came on board to serve the demand for handy water by low-income group. This 'Pure Water' business has remained a booming one. General treatments of water To obtain potable water, it is very necessary to treat the water from lake, river, stream, well, borehole, etc., in order to remove pathogenic organisms, taste, odour, colour, turbidity, certain dissolved minerals and a variety of potentially harmful chemical substances contained therein. Major treatments include storage and plain sedimentation, chemical coagulation, filtration, aeration, chemical oxidation, adsorption, chlorination, and oxonation. Alum may be added to effect precipitation of impurities, which get filtered off. For further elimination of microorganisms (including algae) to produce bettertasting water, treatment with copper sulphate and/or chlorine is needed. Actually, the treatment steps adopted depend on the water source and characteristics. Surface water (found in rivers, swamps and lakes) is likely to be bacteriologically contaminated and turbid. Thus, it will generally require coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Ground water (from borehole, well, spring) is usually clear and may not require coagulation and filtration. Taste and odour problems may arise from high metallic ion content or dissolved hydrogen sulphide. Following lime softening or iron and manganese removal, filtration may become desirable. To treat water from public supply, boil, allow to sediment,

Foods and Beverages

90

filter using muslin cloth or candle filter. If turbidity is high, add alum and minute quantity of commercial sterilants and then filter. To treat water from stream, add alum, allow to settle, boil, cool and filter. Actually, proper laboratory analysis is necessary to determine which treatment steps should be taken for water from a particular source. Table 3.1 displays the quantity of chemical required for control of different micro-organisms. In the final analysis, sealed packaged drinking water must pass: chemical tests to ensure that it is colourless, odourless, ! tasteless, and free from extraneous particles as well as meet the quality parameters in Table 3.1; microbiological tests to ensure that it does not contain ! pathogenic bacteria and satisfies Table 3.2; packaging/labelling requirements to ensure that it is tamper! proof and leak-free and that the label contains all required information; and storage/shelf life tests to ensure that bottled product has a ! minimum of one year shelf life, and three months for sachet product, when stored in a dry place at room temperature (2530oC) and away from direct sunlight. For this level of quality assurance: the factory building should be preferably purposively built, ! free from pollution and away from refuse dump, abattoir, graveyard, sock-away pit, oil depot and any possible source of contamination. If the site is commercial or residential, instead of industrial, the factory building must be detached, fenced and used solely for water production; the water source should be borehole (150 feet minimum ! depth), public mains or spring; the water treatment will depend on the result of the analysis of ! the raw water from the source, and may combine aeration,

91

!

! !

! !

! ! ! !


chemical treatments for disinfection (chlorine dosing) and pH adjustment (soda ash dosing), ozonation, filtration (sandbed, charcoal, gravel, aldolite or 2-5 micron filter thread sizes), and ultra violet light sterilization; polyvinyl chloride (pvc) or stainless steel water pipes, taps, storage tanks and wash hand basins (sinks) should be used, since iron materials tend to rust and contaminate the water; packages must be made from food grade materials and leaching test must ascertain that the product is leach-free; production room should be well lit and ventilated (preferably airconditioned fans are not allowed), floor well cemented (preferably tiled), wall around the taps tiled from the floor to a height of about one foot from the taps, there should be u.v. fluorescent light for air sterilization, all demarcations should be done with cement blocks and plastered, every member of filling staff should occupy a separate compartment or adequately separated from other staff and checked to ensure that he does not have fresh open wound or cold (running nose, cough) and wears protective apparels (head gear, nose mask and hand gloves) as well as pass annual food handlers test, and restricted movement in the production room; production manager should possess a minimum of Ordinary National Diploma (OND) in related science subject; quality control measures should include provision of inhouse laboratory or engagement of the services of a recognized public analyst for raw water analysis, regular analysis of treated water and documentation of laboratory reports; packages and products should be well arranged in well lit and ventilated stores; fumigation of premises should be done quarterly and documented; waste bins should be kept covered and disposed hygienically by approved local authority; fire extinguishers should be available and strategically

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92

located; first aid box should be provided; and standard operating procedure (S.O.P.) for production, cleaning, and quality control should be spelt out in writing.

! !

Table 3.1: Quantity of chemical required for control of different microorganisms Organism

Odour

CuSO4 mg/l

Chlorine mg/l

Chrysophyta Asterionela

Aromatic, fishy, geranium.

Melosiiria

-

0.3

0.5-1.00

Synedra

Earthly

1

2

Navicula

-

0.7

1

Conferva

-

1

Scenedesmus

-

0.3

Spirogyra

-

0.2

0.7-1.50

Volvox

Fishy

0.25

0.3-1.00

Anabaena

Moldy, grassy, vile.

0.1

0.5-1.0

Clathrocystis

Grassy, vile.

0.1

0.5-1.0

Alphanizomenon

Moldy, grassy, vile.

0.15

0.5-1.0

Uroglena

Fishy, oily

0.08

0.3-1.00

Peridinium

Fishy

2

-

Chlamydomonas

-

0.5

-

Dinobryon

Aromatic, violet, fishy.

0.3

0.3-1.00

Synura

Cucumber, fishy, bitter.

0.1

0.3-1.00

Beggaiatoa

Putrefactive

5

-

Crenothrix

Putrefactive

0.3

0.5

0.1

Chlorophyta

-

Cyanophyta

Protozoa

Schizomycetes

Sources:(1) Journal of American Water Works Association, March 1975 (2) Agriculture Western Australia Farm Note No. 43/94

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Table 3.2: Maximum acceptable levels of different parameters in drinking water S/No.

Test

2 pH Range

5 TCU2 7-8.5

4 Odour

5 NTU2 Unobjectionable

5 Taste

Unobjectionable

3 Turbidity Units

Inorganic Constituents 6 Total solids

1000 mg/l

7 Total alkalinity

100 mg/l

8 Phenolphthalene alkalinity

100 mg/l

9 Iron (Fe)

0.05-0.3 mg/l

10 Sulphate (SO4)

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MINERALWATER

Max. Acceptable Conc. (WHO)

Physical Parameter 1 Colour

Foods and Beverages

200 mg/l

11 Magnesium (Mg)

50 mg/l

12 Calcium (Ca)

50 mg/l (Max.)

13 Chloride (Cl)

200 mg/l

14 Fluoride (F)

150 mg/l

15 Zinc (Zn)

1.0 mg/l

16 Copper (Cu)

1.0 mg/l

17 Aluminum (Al)

0.5 mg/l

18 Manganese(Mn)

0.5 mg/l

19 Nitrate (as NO3)

50 mg/l

20 Nitrite (as NO 2)

3 mg/l

21 Potassium (K)

1-2 mg/l

22 Arsenic (As)

0.01 mg/l

23 Barium (Ba)

0.7 mg/l

24 Cadmium (Cd)

0.02 mg/l

25 Chromium (Cr)

0.05 mg/l

26 Cyanide (CN)

0.07 mg/l

27 Lead (Pb)

0.01 mg/l

28 Selenium (Se)

0.01 mg/l

29 Silver (Ag)

-

30 Mercury (Hg)

0.001 mg/l

31 Silica (Si)

100 mg/l

32 Carbon dioxide (CO 2)

50 mg/l

Introduction Mineral water is portable water that contains appropriate quantities of dissolved mineral and/or gases, which may include calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, carbonate, sulphate, etc. (RMRDC, 2001: 1). Until the advent of the commercial bottled water, it was believed to be the purest water available commercially. The consumption of mineral water in Nigeria dates back to the colonial era and increased during the oil boom of the 1970s. Local market demand for mineral water was put at 120 million litres for the 88.5 million Nigeria’s population in 1991 (RMRDC, 2000: 1). Raw Materials Table water and small quantities of minerals and/or gases. Machinery and Equipment Water treatment tanks, sterilisers, air release water tanks, micro filters, uv-steriliser, filling and capping equipment, bottles and caps, blow moulding machine, injection moulding machine.

Organic Constituents 33 Vinyl chloride

0.005 mg/l

34 Endrin

-

35 Lindane

0.002 mg/l

36 Methoxy chlo

0.02 mg/l

37 Toxaphene

-

38 Chlorophenoxy

-

39 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy

0.03 mg/l

40 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid

0.009 mg/l

Microbiological standards 41 Aerobic mesophylic count/ml

-

42 Coliform count/ml

Must not be detectable in any 100ml per sample. Must not be present in 95% of samples taken throughout any 12 months period. Must not be detectable in any 100ml per sample.

43 E. coli enumeration/ml

Source:NAFDAC Consumer Safety Bulletin, Oct-Dec, 2001

Production Process Mineral water is mainly produced from deep well or spring water drawn with pumps into storage reservoirs, which the colloidal and suspended materials in the water settle and are removed by addition of chemical coagulants. The water is next sterilised with chlorine or related chemicals to kill large portion of bacterial and microorganisms. The suspended matters are removed and the water transferred to air release trucks for the removal of residual chemicals, reduction of odours, etc. It is then filtered to eliminate suspended solids.

95


The water is next treated with activated carbon to adsorb most pollutants, including unwanted odiferous and flavour materials dissolved in the water. The micro pollutants are removed by passing the water through the micro-filter. A final safety filter removes extremely fine pollutants and micro toxic substances. Disease producing bacteria and micro-organisms are destroyed by transferring the water into an ultra-voilet (uv) system. The water is then augmented with the required amounts of minerals and gases, and filled into approved containers and packaged in cartons for sale. MALTING Introduction Malts are malted cereals used for production of malt extracts, malt drinks, biscuits and other beverages. Its demand increases worldwide with that of the many social products made from it. Hence, its production should be worldwide. More so, as its major raw materials, cereals, are planted all over the world. The simplified information provided hereunder is meant to stimulate growth and development of maltings, especially in developing countries. Malting Malting is the conversion of a cereal seed into malt form by steeping it in water, allowing it to germinate and kilning it. It involves stopping the growth of the cereal seedling at a time when enzymes have been produced for degradation of starch and proteins in the cereal grain for nourishment of the young seedling but before the exhaustion of this polysaccharide. Malting process produces malt by steeping previously cleaned and sized cereal grains at predetermined temperature and

Foods and Beverages

96

time duration to increase the moisture content to induce sprouting controlled to limit rootlet development. This develops or activates enzyme systems, such as amylase (diastase), in the cereal, which are important in subsequent commercial uses of malt. Modification of the seedlings shows in their sweet taste. The green malt is kilned at controlled temperature and time to reduce the moisture content to 4-6% and stop further growth of the seedling. It also results in the development of a controllable degree of colour and aroma. Maillard reaction results in the formation of amino acid-carbonyl compounds which undergo further transformations to yield the coloured, aromatic mellanoidins (Preece, 1954). The rootlets and other unwanted matters are removed from the malt. The fuel used for direct kilning influences malt character. Barley, which is produced in commercial quantities only in Europe, Asia and part of Africa, used to constitute about 80% of the materials for the production of beer until breweries in the countries importing barley for beer brewing were compelled to seek substitutes for it. Other carbohydrate sources than barley for brewing activities, as reported by various workers, include maize, rice, cassava, sweet potato, whey, millet (bajra), raji, starch syrup, sorghum, wheat, rye, oats, and cocoyam (Ude, 1984; Pomeranz, 1972: 433-446; Rajagopal, 1977: 532-533; Rothschild, 1972: 19; Noort, 1971: 7; Skinner, 1976: 26-27; Okafor and Aniche, 1980: 32-35; Onwuka and Eneh, 1996: 1-12; Onwuka and Eneh, 1998: 79-86). Barley, wheat and rye, when malted, produce the two known starch-splitting enzymes, alpha-amylase and beta-amylase, in relatively large quantities. Oats, sorghum, corn and rice produce essentially only alpha-amylase. Since the combination of alpha- and beta-amylases results in more rapid and complete hydrolysis of starch to dextrins and fermentable sugars (Kleen, 1944: 304-314), malts from barley, wheat and rye are more efficient for most uses of malt than malts of other cereal grains. Malting additives and their functions are tabulated in Table 3.3 below.

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Table 3.3: Malting additives and their functions S/No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Malting additive Hypochlorites, alkalis, formaldehyde. Sodium carbonate, formaldehyde. Hydrogen peroxide, ozone, gibberellic acid. Glucose. Bromates, salts of octanoic acid.

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Foods and Beverages

Figure 3.1: Outline of Malting Process

Function Reduction of microbial population on grain. Reduction of soluble polyphenol content of malt. Rapid and even germination of grain. Augmentation of extract. Control of development of soluble nitrogen.

CEREAL GRAINS SCREENING

Other additives used for various reasons include benzoxazolone, naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), lactic acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, acid phosphate salts, coumarin, copper sulphate, urea nitrate, organic solvents (methanol, acetone, etc.), ammonia (gas or solution), sulphur dioxide (gas or solution), and ethylene gas. Additives have their side-effects (Agu, 1985). Different types of malt result from different cereals and malting conditions. Rye and oat malts are used in the brewing of stout beer. Malted wheat constitutes 75% of grist for Weiss beer. Wheat malt gives beer with outstanding head retention. Higher extract is obtained from equal weight of wheat malt than barley malt due to absence of husks in the former. Extreme variations of malting conditions result to coloured, special and graded malts, such as chocolate and black malts, roasted barley, European brew malt, crystal and caramel malts, amber malts, and brown malts. Figure 3.1 outlines malting process.

STEEPING

COUCHING

SPREADING OF SEEDLINGS

KILNING

REMOVAL OF ROOLTES BEER BREWING Introduction Beer is an alcoholic beverage made by yeast fermentation of aqueous extract of starchy material and flavoured with hops. There is ever increasing demand for this social product, even during economic hardships. Beer brewing activities must, therefore, grow in proportion to the increasing demand for beer. The simplified information

99


hereunder is aimed at providing basic knowledge to stimulate brewing activities. Beer Brewing Modern beer brewing involves malting the cereal source of carbohydrate and enzyme, mashing the malted cereal with or without adjunct to extract wort, boiling the wort from the mash, fermentation of the wort, treatment of resulting “green beer,” and packaging the beer product. Malting has been described in the section above. Mashing Mashing involves the grinding of the materials to provide a suitable mixture of husks, flour and grists. The crushed materials are mixed with water at temperatures of up to 670C. The “liquor” usually contains large amounts of calcium, and frequently magnesium, salts. Rapid degradation of solubilized starch and proteins, and less extensive hydrolysis of other molecular substances occur. The wort is separated from the spent grains by filtration after centrifugation. Wort collection is completed by freeing the spent grain from adherent wort by “sparging” with hot liquor. The resulting sweet wort is boiled with hops for up to 2.5 hours in large “kettles” by oil firing. The main role of hops is to impart an agreeable bitterness. Spent hops and precipitated highmolecular materials (trub) are separated from hopped wort, which is then cooled. The bittered wort is brought to a selected temperature and transferred into large vessels and “pitched” with selected yeast for fermentation. The resulting beer is lagered to get lager beer or primed to get ale beer, which is subjected to filtration, carbonation and pasteurization before dispatching it as draught (or tank) beer or

100

Foods and Beverages

packaging it in kegs, bottles or cans. In stout beer brewing, very high quality malt is used. Part of the malt is roasted to impart the characteristic dark colour and burnt taste. Stout is strongly hopped for stronger bitter taste and the lagering time is longer (up to six times that of beer). More water is boiled off during wort boiling to obtain the usually viscous product (Cook, 1973; Briggs et al, 1981; Hoyrup, 1964; MacLeod, 1977). Mashing involves mixing of proper proportions of malt and adjuncts in water. Heating and resting cycles lead to dissolution of water-soluble substances, enzymic breakdown and solution of a series of substances important for the type and character of beer. Factors influencing mashing include time, temperature, pH, physical state of the ingredient material, mash consistency, and enzymatic activity. Others are absence or presence of the activities of activators (co-enzymes), inhibitors (metals, strong acids, or alkalis) or enzyme poisons (Briggs et al, 1981; Dougherty,J.J. (1977). Enzymatic systems involved in the breakdown of different larger molecules in the mash into smaller compounds include phosphatases, carbohydratases, proteases, maltases, lipases, betaglucanases, etc. The three principal processes involved in mashing: ionic interactions, breakdown of carbohydrates to fermentable sugars, and protein degradation, are brought about by the first three enzymes respectively. Under peptonizing conditions, malt enzymes, phytases and nucleases, cause the release of phosphate ion from the organic phosphates of the malt. The resulting mixture of phosphates is composed mainly of the alkaline K2HPO4 (pH 8.4) and acidic KH2PO4 (pH 4.7). The compromise pH for mashing enzyme is 5.2 to 5.7. In the presence of adequate hardness salt, such as CaSO4, in the mashing water, a reaction takes place between the salt and the alkaline phosphates as follows: 3CaSO4 + 4K2HPO4

Ca3(PO4) 2 +2K2HPO4 +3K2SO4

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The Ca3(PO4) 2 is insoluble and is precipitated out of solution. The equilibrium of the reaction is disturbed. The reaction is forced to the right. The alkaline K2HPO4 is very rapidly brought into reaction and converted to acidic KH2PO4. The pH is thus naturally adjusted to the optimum acidic range of 5.2 to 5.7. Amylase (alpha- and beta-) and dextrinase are the principal carbohydrases. Amylase hydrolyses starch, the principal carbohydrate present in the mash, as expressed below: 2C6H10O5 +H 2O Hydrolysis C12H22O11 starch maltose (acid or diastase) (a sugar) Basically all starches are made up of two parts, namely, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose has a straight-chain structure composed of D-glucopyranose units joined through alpha-1.4 glucosidic linkages. Amylopectin consists of branch-chains, each branch being made up of glucose units linked by alpha-1.4 bonds. The branches are interlinked by alpha-1.6 glucosidic bonds to other chains. Alpha-amylase attacks the alpha-1.4 glucosidic link, producing a mixture of glucose, maltose, and unfermentable alphalimit dextrins that may contain alpha-1.6 links and persist to the finished beer. Beta-amylase attacks the alternate 1.4 alpha-links, “ releasing maltose and beta-limit dextrins. R-enzyme” may hydrolyse the branch-points in amylopectin. “Z-enzyme” hydrolyses the branches in amylose, while limit-dextrinase hydrolyses the branches in alpha- and beta-dextirns (Preece, 1954). Proteases are proteoplytic enzymes that break down large protein molecules into smaller sub-units. The breakdown of proteins, albumins, globulins, hordeins and gluteins by proteases and peptidases actually starts during malting and continues during mashing. The three types of proteolytic activity taking place concurrently during mashing are solubilization of previously

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insoluble proteins, breakdown of soluble protein, and further degradation of peptone group. There are basically two methods of mashing: decoction mashing and infusion mashing. Decoction Mashing In decoction mashing, a portion of the mash is boiled and returned to the rest of the mash in the mash-tun. Three-mash decoction method boils one-third of the mash and returns it to the mash-tun at three points in time during the mashing process. Double-mash decoction method boils one-half of the mash and returns it to the mash-tun at two points in time during the mashing process. One-mash decoction method boils a part of the mash and returns it to the mash-tun (Hoyrup, 1964; Owuama, 1982). Infusion Mashing Infusion mashing involves only one mash-tun. The temperature is carefully raised (upward infusion) or lowered (downward infusion) from mash-in to mash-off. Mashing additives are formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide and charcoal. Adjuncts Malts may contain more enzymes than necessary for splitting available starch. Larger and small amounts of starchy unmalted materials are mixed with the malt as adjuncts. Apart from substitutes for barley earlier mentioned under malting, soyabeans and sugars (sucrose, etc.) are now used as adjuncts. Wort Boiling Wort boiling achieves up to twelve objectives listed by Eneh (1987) and leads to characteristic flavour and aroma. Salts mixture (yeast

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food) or synthetic media may be introduced into the boiling wort. The duration of boiling is 1.5 to 3 hours. Fermentation Brewery fermentation is anaerobic process in which yeast converts glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide, as follows: Yeast 2C2H5OH + 2C0 2 +Heat 2C6H12O6 Glucose (zymase) ethanol The wort contains more of disaccharides, maltose and saccharose. The yeast hydrolyses them to simple hexoses (glucose), as follows: C12H22O11 + H2O maltose (a disaccharide sugar)

2C6H12O6 glucose (zymase) (a monosaccharide sugar) Yeast

Fermentation process follows a complex pathway involving numerous enzymes and co-enzymes. It is mainly dependent upon wort composition, the yeast, and the processing conditions (time, temperature, volume, pressure, vessel shape and size, agitation, and currents in the fermenting wort). Brewer's yeast generates alcohol from wort in a typical pathway. In the presence of enzyme, kinase (hexokinase or glucosekinase), and ATP, glucose is converted into glucose-6phosphate (G-6-P), and the ATP degraded to ADP. Thus, there is a loss of energy from the system. Phosphoglucose isomerase forms an equilibrium mixture of G-6-P and fructose-6-phosphate (F-6-P). The latter, with ATP and phosphofructose kinase, forms fructose-1.6-diphospphate (F-1.6diP), which is split by enzyme adolase or zymase in presence of triose phosphate isomerase to give a mixture of triose monophosphates,

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glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G-3-P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. In the presence of inorganic phosphate and triose phosphate (or G-3-P) dehydrogenase, G-3-P yields 1.3-diphosphoglycerate in which one phosphate molecule is attached to the carbonyl group by an energy-rich bond. This bond and the phosphate are transferred to a molecule ofADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, thus regeneratingATP. The remaining phosphate radical is transferred, through loss of water, to energy-rich union with the alpha-carbon atom of enol pyruvic acid. This phosphate is likewise transferred with the associated energy to ADP, giving a further molecule of ATP and producing ultimately pyruvic acid. The pyruvate is decarboxylated to yield acetaldehyde by pyruvate decarboxylase. Finally, NADH reduces the acetaldehyde to ethanol, and NAD+ is regenerated in presence of alcohol dehydrogenase. In top-fermentation, most of the yeast rises to the surface of the beer, whereas in bottom-fermentation, most of the yeast sinks to the bottom of the fermenting vessel, when multiplication is completed. The process is divided into primary fermentation and secondary fermentation (carbonation and lagering). During fermentation, the gravity of the wort decreases because the extract is disappearing. Alcohol, with lower specific gravity than water, is being formed, lowering the specific gravity of the wort even further. Therefore, the saccharometric reading of the fermenting wort can only show apparent extract, which is always lower than the real extract. The strength or specific gravity of the fermenting wort may be measured as 0Balling (0B) or 0Plato (0P), which refers to the per cent of extracts (sugar) in the wort, or it may be given as original specific gravity. The apparent degree of attenuation is higher than the real degree of attenuation, degree of attenuation being expression of the amount of fermented extract as a per cent of the total extract.

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Figure 3.2: Outline of Beer Brewing Process Beer Treatment The “green beer” (product of primary fermentation) contains little carbon dioxide and has unharmonious, harsh and bitter taste. It has yeasty aroma and unsatisfactory biological and physico-chemical stabilities. Priming and lagering correct these off-qualities of the “green beer.” Priming is the addition of small amount of a strong sugar solution mixed with caramel. The beer is then racked and a small amount of isinglass added to it. Lagering effects sedimentation and clarification and improves flavour. Secondary fermentation (carbonation) also helps in changing the taste and aroma of the beer. Packaging Beer may be bottled or canned. The bottling plant includes bottlewashing machine, bottling or canning machine, crowner, pasteurizer, and labelling machine. In pasteurization, the bottled or canned beer is raised to certain high temperature maintained for a time in order to kill or inactivate the micro-organisms contained therein. Pasteurized beers are “cleaner” and have a much longer shelf-life than unpasteurized beer. Figure 3.2 outlines the beer brewing process.

SUBSTRATE CRUSHING + CRUSHED MALT + WATER O + HEAT (67 C) FILTRATION AND SPARGING FILTRATE (SWEET WORT)

RESIDUE (SPENT GRAINS)

+ HOPS O + HEAT (100 C, BOILING) FILTRATION RESIDUE (SPENT HOPS + TRUB OR SLUDGE)

FILTRATE (HOPPED WORT) COOLING + YEAST FERMENTATION PRIMING

ALE BEER

LARGERING LAGER BEER

CARBONATION BOTTLING/CANNING PASTEURISATION LABELLING

Source: Eneh (1987)

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MALT DRINKS Table 3.4 First two alcohols Composition Malt drink is a non-alcoholic beverage containing i. Ii. iii. iv. v.

5mg Thyamine Hydrochloride 2.5mg Riboflavin 0.8mg calcium panthotenate 25mg Nicotinamide, and 0.5mg Pyridoxine Hydrochloride

made up to 300ml with malt extract (sweet wort). Food grade foam agent and caramel food colourant may be added (to taste). Materials, Equipment and Procedure Materials and equipment for mashing (wort production) described under Brewing apply here. Storage may last two (2) weeks. Bottling practice (bottling, crowing, pasteurization and labeling) is the same as in Brewing. GINS (SPIRITS) Introduction Alcohols are a group of organic compounds made up of an alkyl group, R, and a functional group, OH, to give the general formula R OH. Each member of the homologous series is identified by the number and structural positions of carbon atoms contained in R. Table 3.4 outlines the first two alcohols in the series.

Name of Alcohol No. of Carbon Atom Molecular Formula Methanol 1 CH3OH Ethanol 2 C2H5OH

Alkyl Group Methyl, CH3 Ethyl, C2H5

Manufacture of Methanol Methanol is manufactured by heating a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the approximate ratio of 1:2 (synthesis gas) at about 300oC and 200/350 atmospheric pressure in the presence of a catalyst (mostly silver or copper) promoted with oxides of zinc, chromium, manganese or aluminum. To avoid contact of the gas with hot iron, copper-lined reactors are used. After oil purification, the gases go to the reactor, where, at 300oC, the equilibrium yield is about 60%. The gaseous products then pass through heat exchangers to high-pressure condensers, where the methanol is condensed. The unreacted synthesis gas is recirculated over again. Figure 3.3 shows the flowchart of the reaction.

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organic base, such as pyridine, with a catalytic amount of copper chromite, Cu0.Cr203, yields methane. Fig. 3.3: Flowchart for the conversion of synthesis gas to methanol Cu0.Cr203 CH3C00H

CH4 in pyridine

Treatment of a carboxylic acid with a base, such as sodium hydroxide, Na0H, gives the corresponding salt. If this salt is heated strongly with soda lime (a mixture of calcium oxide, Ca0, and Na0H), the next lower hydrocarbon and carbon dioxide are produced. The new hydrocarbon atom in the product is derived from the soda lime: Na0H CH3C00H

Heat CH3C00Na

CH4 + C02 Ca0.Na0H

(Rodger, W. Griffin Jr., 1969: 59). Source: Shreve and Brink (1977: 706). Manufacture of Synthesis Gas Synthesis gas is obtained by reacting methane with steam at o 700/870 C at atmospheres over a nickel catalyst. CH4 + H20

C0 + 3H2

Manufacture of Methane Methane is one of the major products of the catalytic cracking of petroleum. It is also a constituent of natural gas. Methane can also be obtained in good yields by the catalytic decarboxylation of acetic acid and its salts. Heating an acid in an

Manufacture of Ethanol Ethanol is obtained in many ways, including: 1. From Ethyne Catalytic cracking of petroleum yields small quantities of ethene which serves as the starting material for the manufacture of ethanol. The older method of converting purified ethene into ethanol consists of absorbing the gas into 90 - 98% sulphuric acid at 85oC and 12 - 30 atmospheres. This gives mono- and di-ethyl sulphates: CH2CH2 + H2S04

CH30S03CH3 (ethyl hydrogen sulphate)

2CH2CH2 + H2S04

CH3CH20S03CH2CH3 (diethyl sulphate)

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These products are heated with steam to be hydrolysed to ethanol (90% yield) and sulphuric acid together with small quantities of ether (5 - 10%):

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Fig. 3.5: Flowchart for synthesis of ethyl alcohol from ethylene by direct hydration.

H20 CH30S03CH3 + CH3CH20S03CH2CH3

3C2H50H + 2H2S04 (ethanol) (sulphuric acid)

H20 2CH30S03CH3

C2H50C2H5 + 2H2S04 (diethyl ether) H20

C2H50C2H5

2C2H50H

Direct Hydration of Ethene 2. The modern synthesis of ethanol involves the direct hydration of ethene. Ethene is compressed to 68 atmospheres and mixed with a o stream of water. The mixture is reacted in the vapour phase at 300 C over a catalyst of phosophoric acid on diatomaceous earth, aluminum hydroxide on silica gel, or tungstic acid on silica gel: H20 CH2CH2 (ethene)

C2H50H (ethanol)

Overall conversion approximates 92%. The process avoids the corrosion problem of the old process. Figure 3.5 is flowchart for synthesis of ethanol from ethene by direct hydration.

Source: Shreve and Brink (1977: 704). From Carbohydrate Source 3. Ethanol is also manufactured by yeast fermentation of carbohydrate materials, such as wheat, barley, cassava, grape, yam, apples, corn, rice, potatoes, molasses, sugar cane, banana and plantain. The most common examples of carbohydrate are starch and the various types of sugars, like glucose and maltose. (i) Molasses, a by-product of sugar production from sugar cane, has a strong concentration of sugar and does not support direct yeast fermentation. It is, therefore, first diluted to 17% sugar concentration, called the mash, which is the carbohydrate solution ready for yeast inoculation. It is pumped to a large steel fermenter, closed in modern plants to collect the carbon dioxide, C02, evolved and to avoid easier

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concentrations for cleaning and sterilising. Ammonium salt and sulphuric acid are added, the one to furnish a nutritive constituent deficient in molasses and the other the right environmental pH (4.0 to 5.0) to facilitate the activity of the selected yeast and to supress the multiplication of wild yeast or bacteria. Magnesium sulphate is also added, when deficient, as is a small amount of phosphate (usually superphosphate). The sterile mash is then pitched with a vigorously growing yeast culture. The conditions of fermentation depends on the chosen yeast strain. This selection of the inoculating yeast strain, the sterilisation of the mash, addition of nutrients, fermentation conditions (pH, temperature), and cleaning of equipment are carried out under laboratory supervision. maltose C12H22011 + H20 sucrose

Fig. 3.6: Flowchart for industrial alcohol

zymase 2C6H1206 2C2H50H + 2C02 glucose ethanol

Source: Shreve and Brink (1977: 531) (ii)

More cheaply, ethanol can be produced in West Africa from palm wine. The fresh raffia palm wine which comes from the sap of the raffia palm tree, contains about 13% of sucrose (a fermentation sugar). On standing, the sucrose is fermented by the yeast contained in the wine. This fermentation begins soon after tapping and at the end of the day, the wine contains very little sugar (about 0.58%) and 6.70% alcohol. Distillation of the resulting alcohol solution gives the required grade or concentration of alcohol.

(iii)

Starchy materials may be converted to maltose (a disaccharide) with malt or various mold processes. Fungal amylase, an enzymic material produced by the fermentation of Aspergillus has been found to be an economical replacement for the expensive malt for industrial alcohol production.

The reaction is exothermic, and cooling is used to maintain the fermentation temperature. Fermentation period of 36 - 50 hours is usually used. The yeast furnishes the maltase which splits the disaccharide, sucrose, to the monosaccharides, D-glucose and Dfrutose, which are converted to alcohol by another enzyme also supplied by the yeast. The produced alcohol is then distilled off by a method appropriate to the degree of purity required. Figure 3.6 shows the flowchart for the manufacture of industrial alcohol.

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Production of Spirits The alcohol produced is distilled by appropriate methods to obtain spirits. Commercial alcohol is a constant-boiling mixture of ethanol. Absolute alcohol is prepared industrially by azeotropic distillation of commercial alcohol with benzene. The various grades of spirit sold in the market are: Absolute alcohol, which contains 0.5% or less of water by a. volume. Rectified spirit or commercial alcohol, which is 95-96% b. ethanol and 4 - 5% water by volume. Industrial methylated spirit, which is 95% rectified spirit and c. 5% methanol by volume. The function of methanol is to “denature” the ethanol and render it unfit for drinking. Mineralised methylated spirit, which is rectified spirit d. denatured more and in addition containing dyestuff (methyl voilet) for colouring. Proportions are 90% rectified spirit, 9.5% methanol, 0.5% pyridine to which is added 0.375% of mineral naphtha and 0.025% of methyl voilet by volume. Production of Wine Wine has been produced by the fermentation of grape. The quality of the product is influenced by the grape, soil and sun, resulting in a variation of flavour, bouquet, and aroma. The colour depends largely upon the nature of the grape and whether the skins are pressed out before fermentation. Wines are classified as: Natural, 7 to 14% ethanol content i. ii. Fortified, 14 to 30% ethanol content with alcohol or brandy added iii. Sweet or dry, still contains some of the sugar iv. Sparkling or still.

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Red or black grapes are used for producing dry red wine. The grapes are run through a crusher, which macerates them but does not crush the seeds. It also removes part of the stems. Sulphurous acid is added to the resulting pulp or must contained in tanks, to check the growth of wild yeast. Potassium or sodium metabisulphite and/or sodium bisulphite may also be used. An active culture of selected and cultivated yeast equal to 3 to 5% of the volume of the juice is added. Cooling coils are needed to maintain the temperature below 30oC of the exothermic fermentation. Carbon dioxide evolved carries the stems and seeds to the top. This can be partly prevented by a grating floated in the vat. This step allows extraction of the colour and tannin from the skins and seeds. When fermentation slows down, the juice is pumped out of the bottom of the vat and back over the top. The wine is finally run into the closed storage tanks, where within 2 or 3 weeks the yeast ferments the remaining sugar. The wine is allowed to remain undisturbed for 6 weeks, to remove part of the matter in suspension. It is then racked for clarification. Bentonite or other diatomaceous earth may be added (1 to 8g in 4,000 litres of wine), to aid clearing. An insoluble precipitate with the tannin is also formed. Extra tannin may also be added, and the wine racked and filtered through diatomaceous earth, asbestos or paper pulp. These processes clear the wine, improve its taste and decrease aging time. The wine is corrected to commercial standards by blending it with other wines and by the addition of sugar, acids or tannins. It is standard procedure to chill some wines for the removal of argols or crude potassium acid tartarate, which constitute the commercial source of tartaric acid and its compounds. This treatment also gives a more stable finished wine. By quick-aging methods, which employ pasteurisation, refrigeration, sunlight, ultravoilet light, ozone, agitation and aeration, it is possible to produce a good sweet wine in 4 months. The wine is racked, clarified, and further filtered in the usual manner.

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Production of Distilled Spirits Upon distillation and aging, various fermented products yield distilled liquors, e.g. whisky and gin. . Brandy is distilled from wine or from the marc (the pulp left after racking or straining). Bourbon whisky is made by distilling and aging a beer from a grain mixture containing at least 51% corn. Similarly, rye whisky must start with at least 51% rye in the grain to be mashed and fermented for the beer. In modern liquor plants, the equipment are of steel and the stills are of copper. The aging time of bourbon or rye whisky lasts between 1 and 5 years in charred new white-oak barrels of approximately 200 litres o kept in bonded warehouse at 20 - 30 C and preferred humidity of 65 70%. An increase in the percentage of alcohol is found in the barrels contents, which leads to shrinkage that attracts in the USA shrinkage allowance of approximately 8% in the first year, 4% in the second and in the third year, and 3% in the fourth year. The distillate from the spirit is not pure alcohol, but contains small amounts of many different constituents, generally classed together as congenerics, which help greatly in imparting the whisky flavour and bouquet. The aging whisky also extracts colour from the charred white oak. Changes of a like nature occur similarly in aging brandy and rum. Here, as in other divisions of the fermentation industries, skill and scientific knowledge aid in obtaining palatable products. Whisky is fermented from whole grains, so that the germs (containing the corn oil) and the husks are suspended in the liquor from the beer still. This discharge liquor, called slop or stillage is treated to recover the values by separating the solids from the liquid slop. After vacuum evaporation of the liquid portion, it is added to

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the solids and the mixture is dried in rotating steam-heated dryers to produce distillers’ grain, a valuable cattle feed (Shreve and Brink, 1977: 525 - 540). FRUIT DRINKS Refreshing Drink A refreshing drink that tastes like 'Sprite' can be prepared as follows, using mixer, stirrer and knife: Dissolve 3 cubes of sugar (or as desired) and 1 teaspoon of sodium bicarbonate in 1 glass of chilled potable water. Add 2 tablespoons of lemon or lime juice. Pasteurization (see Brewing) lengthens the shelf-life of the drink. Sobo Drink Sobo (Hibiscus sabdariffa) extract is of higher value than the well known and more expensive orange and pineapple juices for nutrition and mineral content. The calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffais extracted by 0 boiling at about 100 C for one hour and the extract separated by filtration (Odebunmi et al, 2003:67). A refreshing fruit wine with a natural bright wine-red colour can be prepared as follows, using heater, boiler and sieve: Boil 1 gallon of potable water. Add 2 cups (medium 'Blue Band' cup) dry Sobo flower to simmer for 10 minutes. Filter the mixture, using the sieve. Add 2 cups of granulated sugar and 2 capfuls of Pineapple flavour (or Banana or any other flavour of choice). Serve chilled.

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Pasteurization (see Brewing) lengthens the shelf-life of the drink. Ginger Drink A refreshing fruit drink that also alleviates cough can be prepared as follows, using knife, mixer crusher, stirrer and strain/sieve: Peel and crush 56g of fresh ginger and soak it in 1 litre of potable water for 24 hours. Strain/sieve and add with stirring 336g of granulated sugar, 10g citric acid, 10g tartaric acid and 10g lime (or 'Epsom salt'). Serve chilled. Pasteurization (see Brewing) lengthens the shelf-life of the

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Papaw is a seasonal fruit and its juice needs to be processed/preserved in order to be available for consumption all-season. Using extractor, boiler, heater, enzyme, container (bottle), vacuum-pasteurizer, container and sealer, pawpaw juice can be preserved as follows: Clean 10kg sound mature papaw fruits. Peel (depending on the extractor). Crush and treat with enzyme to extract the juice. Add 0.6kg granulated sugar. Vacuum-pasteurize. Fill into clean sterilized bottles. Allow to cool. Store for upwards of 6 months. Serve chilled. Banana drink is similarly prepared.

drink.

Pineapple Rings and Cubes

Citrus, Pineapple and Sour-Sop Drinks

Using knife, heater, syrup, retort, container, vacuum-pasteurizer, container and sealer, pineapple rings can be prepared as follows:

Citrus (orange) is a seasonal fruit and its juice needs to be processed/preserved in order to be available for consumption allseason. Using extractor, boiler, heater, container (bottle), vacuumpasteurizer, container and sealer, citrus juice can be preserved as follows: Clean 10kg mature orange fruits. Peel (depending on the extractor). Cut into the extractor. Add 0.6kg granulated sugar. Vacuum-pasteurize. Fill into clean sterilized bottles. Allow to cool. Store for upwards of 6 months. Serve chilled.

Peel 10kg clean pineapple fruit and cut it into rings. Put the rings in cans and fill with syrup. Clinch can lids and heat to exhaust air from the can, syrup and pineapple cells. Seal 0 hermetically and sterilize at about 121 C in a retort. Cool, label and store. Serve chilled. Pineapple cube is similarly prepared. Tomato Jam Using knife, heater, container (pot), vacuum-pasteurizer, container and sealer, tomato jam can be prepared as follows:

Pineapple and Sour-sopdrinks are similarly prepared. Papaw and Banana Drinks

Cut 1kg washed tomato in quarters. Put over 1kg granulated sugar and stand overnight. Simmer gently, stirring well until sugar dissolves. Continue simmering until tomato is soft. Add

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lemon juice and boil rapidly until set. Pot and cover. DAIRYAND RELATED PRODUCTS Introduction Dairy product contains animal milk in sizeable proportion. The milk is an excellent culture medium for many kinds of micro-organisms, since it is composed of lactose (i.e. milk sugar, butterfat, proteins and amino acids) other components and high moisture content. Therefore, high standard of hygiene must be maintained in dairy production. Ice Cream With bowl, whisker, mixer/blender, fridge/freezer, wrapping tube and sealer, ice cream can be prepared as follows: Dissolve 1 cup (Blue Band medium size) of full cream milk powder, 1.5 cups of granulated sugar, 1 pinch of colourant, 20 dersertspoonfuls of dissolved stabilizer (previously prepared by dissolving 2 desertspoonfuls of stabilizer powder in 1 litre of boiled water, stirred and kept covered for 1 hour), 2 capfuls of banana or vanilla or any other chosen flavour in 3 litres of hot potable water. Package in wrapping tube, seal and freeze. Serve chilled. Lollypop This is similar to ice cream except that it does not contain animal milk. It is, therefore, not a true dairy product, but children's drink packaged like ice cream. With bowl, stirrer, fridge/freezer, wrapping tube and sealer, Lollypop can be prepared as follows:

Dissolve 0.6 kg granulated sugar (or as desired), a pinch of food colourant, 5 sachets of Jolly juice and 0.013g of citric acid in 10 litres of potable water. Package in wrapping tube, seal and freeze. Serve chilled. Soyabean Milk (Liquid) Soyabean, a universal economic crop, is rich in essential nutrients, high quality proteins and fats together with isoflavones/ phytoestrogeners. It also offers protection against cancers and osteoporosis, is high in non-heme-irons and confers reduced menopausal symptoms to female consumers. It reduces total cholesterol and triglycerides as against dairy milk products that are positively related to coronary heart diseases. It further possesses good anti-oxidant effect in the body and is rich in calcium and B group vitamins. It is the only known dietary alternative for vegetarians and those allergic to dairy milk proteins or lactose intolerant. With mill/grinder, boiler or pan, heater, bowl, muslin/cheese cloth, fridge/freezer, and bottle, soyabean milk (liquid) can be prepared as follows: Soak cleaned 6 cups (Blue Band medium size) of soyabean seeds in 1 gallon of water for 10-24 hours, changing the water every 3-6 hours. Boil the soaked beans in a boiler or pan for 12 hours or pressure cook for 30-40 minutes or treat with microwave for 5-10 minutes. Dehull (wash away the 'coat') and grind/mill. Sieve with the aid of muslin/cheese cloth. Heat the milk till boiling and continue for 10-15 minutes to sterilize, stirring as you heat, and, adding more potable water or boiling off some of it to get desired viscosity. (Frothing or foaming or overflowing may occur when it begins to boil. Scoop off as much of its foam as possible. Add flavour (vanilla,

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milk or any other of choice) and sugar/salt (to taste). Package in sterilized bottle and allow to cool. Serve chilled.

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water for 11 hours. Soak 1 cup millet or joro and other ingredients for 8 hours. Wash the sorghum and mill into paste. Divide paste into two (A & B). To A add boiling water with stirring and allow to stand. Sieve B with the aid of muslin cloth. Mill the millet and other ingredients and sieve into the main stock. Keep overnight. Add sugar and ginger to taste and bottle. Serve chilled.

Store in fridge/freezer to extend shelf-life by days and weeks. Coagulation/curdling of the milk proteins may occur after 3-4 days of storage in functional fridge/freezer. You have to sieve again or homogenize before consumption. The residue may be dried and used to thicken soup, enrich cereal meals, etc. while the hull is a poultry meal.

FAST FOODSAND RELATED PRODUCTS

Yoghurt

Caramel

Bacterial fermentation of animal milk produces lactic acid. Denaturing of the milk protein (curdling which results in thickening) reduces the pH. Fruits and flavours are used to create variety. With bowl, whisker, mixer/blender, fridge/freezer, wrapping tube and sealer, ice cream can be prepared as follows:

This is called 'browning' because it is used for giving brown colour to bread, cake, chocolate drinks, malt drinks, beer, etc. With boiler, mixer and heater, caramel can be prepared as follows:

Dissolve 2 cups (Blue Band medium size) of full cream milk powder and, 2 level-tablespoonfuls of Yoghurt starter in 2 cups of potable water. Add nearly boiling hot water and stir briskly to blend rapidly. Allow the mixture in the bowl to set for 3-4 hours. Store the set Yoghurt in the fridge. (Use 2 tablespoonfuls from the set Yoghurt for the next batch. Sour and watery Yoghurt curdles during setting, in which case you need to try again, using the curdled Yoghurt as a starter culture.) Package in wrapping tube, seal and freeze. Serve chilled. Kunu With bowl, whisker, mixer/blender, fridge/freezer, wrapping tube and sealer,kunu can be prepared as follows: Soak 2 cups (Blue Band medium size) of clean sorghum in

Heat 2 cups dry granulated sugar until it melts and darkens to brown. Add 1 cup boiling water with vigorous stirring to get dark brown viscous substance. Bread With trough, sieve, milling/kneading machine, mixer, mouldpans and oven, bread can be baked as follows: Sieve 10 kg flour into trough. Add 500 g granulated sugar, 4 g yeast, 2 g salt and Vitamin C white tablets and mix. Add 7 cupfuls (400g Baking powder size), 2 cupfuls vegetable oil, 5 desertspoonful milk, oil vanila flavour (or nutmeg or lemon or any other of choice) and browning or caramel or any other colourant of choice (to taste) and mix into a soft but non-sticky dough. Knead well (on the table or roller mill if there is no machine). Cut the dough into the required weights and mould into the appropriate cleaned and oiled pans (with shapes designed to taste).

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Keep the dough in pans to rest and be leavened by the yeast in a warm room for 3-6 hours (depending on the yeast level) to ensure 'rising'. (Boiled water or a roofing equipment can provide the warmth and moisture for a good yeast activity.) Bake in the moderately high temperature oven for 20-30 minutes. (Ovens may be electric powered or domestic gas or kerosine or coal or wood fired. Pot half-filled with clean sand and fired with wood or kerosine is a good improvisation.) Note the rise on the dough within the first few minutes of entering the oven due to increasing yeast activities resulting in higher rate of carbon dioxide production, which distends the elastic dough. As the temperature continues to increase, however, the yeast cells get denatured, the flour starch gels, and the bread-crust browns due to caramelization. Remove bread from oven to cool. Package.

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desertspoonfuls of powder milk and 4 teaspoonfuls Baking powder to the flour and mix together. Add 2 desertspoonfuls of Brown or Caramel, half a teaspoonful Egg yellow colour, flavours of choice (nutmeg, vanilla, banana, cherry, strawberry), 2 capfuls of Brandy wine (also for preservation) and mixed fruits or currant. Stir all ingredients to a homogenous mixture. Then add little water (about 250 ml) if necessary. Mix thoroughly and scoop into oiled pan. Put in a moderately heated oven to bake for upwards of 1 hour. (Do not open the oven during baking, or the leavening will be adversely affected. The baking is through when a clean dry knife cutting the cake comes out without cake particle adhering to it.) Remove from oven and cool. (Temperature control is important to avoid rapid rising to form dome on top, cracked top, burnt top, and uncooked inner part or non-uniform cooking.

Cake Decoration With trough, sieve, milling/kneading machine, mixer, mouldpans and oven, cake can be prepared as follows: Queen Cake Cream 500g fat or 1 cup vegetable oil (400g Baking powder size) and 500g granulated sugar till fluffy. Beat 10 eggs in a bowl. Sieve 750g flour into a trough. Add the flour and flavour (vanilla, nutmeg or any other) and colour (to taste) and mix thoroughly. If the mixture is very stiff, add a little water or milk. Scoop into oiled small pans and bake in oven at moderate temperature for about 20 minutes. Cool. Serve or package. Wedding Cake Cream 1.5 kg bakery fat or Magarine or butter with 6 cigarette cupfuls of granulated sugar. Beat 15-18 eggs in a bowl. Sieve 12 cigarette cupfuls of flour into a trough. Add 5

Ceremonial cake is coated with icing sugar and decorated. The equipment needed are palate knife, piping gun, cord, nozzle, turn-table, millers, chrislib, etc. The materials needed are icing sugar, food colourant, egg white, Tate & Lyle, etc. Royal Icing Beat the raw egg-white (separated from the yoke) in clean oilfree plate till it becomes stiff. Add sieved icing sugar and mix till you obtain very smooth paste of moderate viscosity. You may add a pinch of your chosen colourant and mix too. Cover the mixture with wet kitchen napkin for about 20 minutes to allow the air bubbles escape. Pour the icing sugar on the cake (on a cake cord), and use the palate knife to spread it evenly. Return any excesses to the bowel. Allow the icing sugar coat to

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dry. If you are in a hurry, you may add a little cream of tarter to the sugar mixture to hasten the hardening. For decoration proper, add sieved icing sugar to the beaten egg-white and mix till you produce a mixture which stands on sift peaks (when you lift your mixing spoon). Either lift the cake to another dry foiled board on which the cake will be presented or tidy further the edges of the board (probably foiled) on which the coating of the cake was done. Put the icing sugar into the piping gun. Screw on the nozzle of your choice and pump the sugar onto the base of the cake in your chosen design. Similarly, you may creatively design the top of the cake. Doughnut The equipment are mixing bowl, boards, table, empty curry container and frying unit. Sieve 2 kg flour into the mixing bowl. Add and mix very well ½ teaspoonful yeast, 1 milkcup granulated sugar, 1 nutmeg (powdered), ½ teaspoonful (level) salt and pinch of colour. Rub in ½ kg bakery fat. Add ¼-½ litre of water and mix to a moderate soft consistency (adding more water if necessary). Note that strong flours (e.g. from hard wheat) require more water, and are preferred for bread, doughnut, and bons, while soft flours go for cake. Knead the dough cut to sizes/weights on floured board or tabletops. Roll into circular shapes and use the empty curry container to make a hole at the centre, returning the cut-off portion to the bulk. Space the nuts on oiled trays, allowing to rest and rise for about 5 hours. (To aid drying, cover with water-proof sheets and store in a dry/warm room.) Deep fry till golden brown in colour. Strain and sprinkle granulated sugar on top. Package for sale or serve.

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(Note that use of more yeast will require less fermentation time for the same level of rising, and more sugar to offset the yeast taste.) Buns Bons differs from doughnut only in shaping. While the doughnut is flattened and cut open at the centre, bons are conventionally rolled into balls. Puff-Puff The equipment are mixing bowl, spoon and frying unit. Sieve 5 cigarette cupfuls of flour into the mixing bowl. Add and mix very well ½ teaspoonful yeast, ½ cigarette cupful of granulated sugar, 1 nutmeg (powdered), and 1 teaspoonful curry powder. Add 250-300 ml of water and mix into a viscous consistency. Add 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla essence (as alternative to 1 teaspoonful curry powder) and then ½ egg (optional). Cover with a wet material and allow to rest and rise for about 2 hours in a warm place. Using a spoon, scoop out and fry in fairly hot oil to obtain a golden brown colour. Dip the spoon in cold water or oil before scooping out the next batch. (Note: if fresh palmwine is used as a source of yeast, reduce the quantity of water and increase fermentation time.) Meatpie This snack is produced from creamy dough and filled with 'filling.’ The equipment are baking trays, table, rolling pins, pie cutter. Sieve 20 cigarette cupfuls of flour into the mixing bowl. Add 11½ cigarette cupfuls of sugar, salt (to taste), 6-8 teaspoonfuls of baking powder, and 2 nutmeg (or any other spice) and any


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other dry material and mix. Then add and rub in 200g of bakery fat and 1 bottle (7-Up) of vegetable oil till it feels creamy. Add 4-5 cupfuls (1-1¼ litres) of water and mix to get a discontinuous consistency due to high fat content. Keep to rest for 30 minutes. Filling Peel 2 kg of Irish potato, cut into cubes, and submerge fully under water. Boil the diced cubed potatoes and strain the water. Peel and chop 1 or 2 carrot (medium size) and 2 onions (standard size). Mix the treated potatoes, onion and carrot to homogeneity with little vegetable oil being heated in a sauce pan. Add mincemeat (economic size), 1 or 2 green pepper, the rest of the spices (curry, thyme and maggie), salt and a lttle crayfish. Heat up properly (without overheating). Allow to cool. Transfer the creamy dough to a clean table and cut to size. Fill the pie pieces with the filling. Seal the edge with fork to design it (or with bottle or by wetting the edge with water to seal once the wetted edges rest on each other or use a mould to cut dough and design edge). Bake in the electric (or improvised sand) oven. The upper surface of the unbaked pie may be coated with raw egg or egg-washed, using pastry brush, to give an attractive glossy golden colour when it is done. Transfer the pies in baking tray to the oven at moderate temperature for 30 minutes. Cool on racks or lined table tops. Fishpie As in meatpie except that fish replaces the meat. Eggpie As in meatpie except that boiled egg replaces the meat.

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Chin Chin The equipment for doughnut apply. 5 cigarette cupfuls of flour are sieved into a bowl. 3-5 teaspoonfuls (level) of baking powder, ½ nutmeg, and vanilla powder (if essence is not used) are added. The mix is homogenised. 250g of bakery fat is rubbed into the mix and ½ cigarette cupfuls of granulated sugar added. ½ tin (or 1 big sachet) of milk is mixed with 250 ml (¼ litre) of water. The water-milk mixture is poured into a hole made in the centre of the mix. Add 2 eggs that are well beaten. All is mixed into a hard dough. The mix is cut into two part, each of which is kneaded, to enhance mixing. Each pie is rolled into a flat material of less than ½ cm or 1 cm thick. The material is sliced into long stripes and the across to obtain small pieces of ½-1 cm pieces. It is fried to golden brown colour in deep hot oil. The oil is strained off. And product allowed to cool. Biscuit Biscuit is the British name for what the Americans call cookie. The equipment needed for biscuit production include mixing bowl, board, cutter, fork, knife, toothpick, baking tray, oven and heater. 100g of flour is sieved into a bowl. 50g of bakery fat is rubbed into the mix and 50g of granulated sugar added, and the whole mixed. A little water is added to ½ beaten egg, which is added to the mix and mixed into a very stiff dough. The dough is kneaded till it is smooth and then rolled thinly on a floured board. Biscuit cutter is used to cut it into shapes. Food colours may be used to make some marks. All pieces are placed in a baking tray and baked for 10-15 minutes in an oven at a moderate temperature (Gas mark 4). Fork, knife, toothpick, etc. are used ti pick the unbaked upper part of the

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biscuit. They are cooled. They may be sprinked with caster sugar or sieved icing sugar. Variations could be created as follows: for Coconut biscuit, 50g of desiccated sugar is added Cherry biscuit, 50g of glaze cherries is added. Sausage Roll

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dry. (The egg binds the meat particles together.) The egg is carefully wrapped all round with the sasuage meat, maintaining an even thickness and pressing out all cracks. The meat-wrapped-egg is rooled on a board covered with bread crumbs. Vegetable oil in deep pan is heated, and the coated egg is fried in it till it becomes golden in colour. It is drained on absorbent paper, and served either hot or cold.

The equipment for doughnut apply. 200g of flour is sieved into a bowl. ½ teaspoonful (level) of salt is added. 80-100 teaspoonfuls of bakery fat is rubbed into the mix. 8-10 teaspoonfuls of water is added and the whole is mixed into a dough. The past is rolled into a rectanular shape. The edges are trimmed and the pastry cut into two (lengthwise). Sausage meat (from Department store) is divided into 2 and each part is rolled in a floured board. Sausage meat is added to each part, which is either rolled or folded unto the other to seal. To obtain a better seal, one end/edge is dampened with water and folded unto the other. The roll is brushed with beaten egg and cut into even-sized pieces. The pieces are placed on baking pans or sheets and baked in a hot oven (Gas mark 7) for about 25 minutes, till golden brown colour is obtained on top, and the roll is firm underneath. They are cooled, served or packaged for sale.

Beef Burger

Scotch Egg

Ham Burger

This is boiled egg coated with sausage meat and fried. It is both delicious and nourishing. The equipment are mixer, heater, boiler, pan, absorbent paper.

As in beef burger, but beef is replaced with ham (sold in Department stores).

Egg is boiled for 10 minutes. It is cooled, de-shelled and dusted with flour. 50g sausage meat is shaped into flat circular shapes and mixed with little beaten egg if it feels too

This is a bread roll containing beef and dressed with fresh red tomato slices and green lettuce. It is appetising and nourishing. The equipment are heater, boiler. The beaf is minced, spiced and cooked, carefully binding the meat with flour mixed with some spices. It is flattened into circular shapes and fried in shallow oil. It is drained and cooled. The tomatoes and lettuce leaves are washed in clean salted water. The leaves are drained and the tomatoes sliced. The bread roll is sliced either horizontally or vertically but not into halves. The slice roll is opened, and beef tomato slices with lettuce leaf slipped in. Serve.

Egg Burger As in beef burger, but beef is replaced with egg.

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Babyfood

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redry (if not dry enough). Do same for dried fish.

At weaning stage the child's food (calorific) demand increases considerably due to increasing activities, such as sitting, walking, and growth development, such as teething. As such, the mother's breastmilk can no longer support the child, who, therefore, needs to be introduced gradually to family diet Babyfood has been formulated to excellently stand in the gap, using available Nigerian foodstuffs very rich in all essential nutrients needed for rapid growth of the child. Experiments show that the baby fed with this food grows well without teething problems or rickets. The food is easily digestible and thus prevents the child from having the common protein-energy-malnutrition problem plaguing West African countries today. What is more, the costly conventional baby food is avoided, with attendant huge savings.

Formulation 1. Maize meal 7 teaspoonfuls 2. Soyabean meal 3 teaspoonfuls 3. Plantain meal 1 teaspoonful 4. Powdered milk 1 teaspoonful 5. Blended fish and prawn 1 teaspoonful (Sealed product can store for up to one year without preservative, 2 years with it.)

Preparation of materials Maize is cleaned and soaked in warm water for at least 24 hours. Water is drained off. The maize is wet-milled, sieved, drained and the resulting paste allowed to cake. The cake in oven trays is sprinkled or sprayed with palm 0 oil and oven-dried at 60 C for one hour. It is brought out, respread and the big bigger cakes broken. It is returned to the 0 oven with temperature increased to 90 C for one hour and 0 then 125 C for ½ hour, to get a uniform drying. It is dry-milled to powder maize meal. Cleaned soyabean is parboiled for one hour. The water is changed and the seed dehauled. It is re-cooked for 1½ hours, drained and set into oven trays along with rinsed locustbeans and thinly cliced or chopped fairly ripe plantain rubbed with salt. Everything is dried together at 900C for one hour and then at 1250C for 1½ hours. It is dry-milled with grinder to get soyabean meal, plantain meal. Remove heads, legs and tails of prawn (fresh crayfish)and

6 cups of soyabeans is soaked for 24 hours, dehusked, parboiled for one hour, drained and dried. It is baked or mildly fried to golden colour, ground and sieved. 3 cups of maize is parboiled for one hour, dried, baked or fried mildly, ground and sieved. 2 cups of groundnut is ground coarsely. All ingredients are mixed.

Soylac This is a proteinous beverage for children and adults. equipment are mixer, grinder, sieve and container.

The

To serve: Add 1 cup of sugar to the mix and stir with warm water.. Custard Equipment required is bowl. Preparation of materials 1 kg corn starch poured into a bowl and a hole created in the middle. 3 wraps of colourant (yellow) is poured into the hole and rubbed into the starch until it is evenly mixed. Another

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hole is created in the middle into which is introduced 2 capfuls of flavour (banana, pineapple, vanilla, etc.), which is again rubbed in. The mix is mixed very well and packaged.

Macroni

To serve:

Macroni is a carbohydrate food made with maida, cassava starch or flour colour and sodium bicarbonate. It is a hollow tube/pipe of 1.27cm in diameter and cut to about 2.54 - 10.16cm length. The food product keeps and has aesthetic appeal, hence it enjoys increasing demand in industrialising Nigeria with growing population.

The required quantity is scooped out and dissolved in water. It is gelatinised with boiling water and stirred. Sugar is added and/or milk (to taste). It is stirred again and served.

Introduction

Popcorn

Raw Materials

Popcorn is a fast food for the youth and elderly, made by poping maize seeds of the popcorn variety.

Maida, starch, sodium bicarbonate and food colour. Machinery and Equipment

Equipment Popping machine (electrical, gas, electrical/gas or kerosine), service spoon, packages.

Vertical type powder mixer, dough mixer, cutting machine, wooden trays, water boiler, plastic buckets, furniture. Production Process

Materials Oil, sugar (granulated), corn (popping variety), colourant (optional). Process Available space and market as well as equipment variants determine 2 the scale of production, ranging from about 3m (indoor or outdoor) to giant scale. Electric machine pops up to 2.6kg of corn per hour.

The maida, starch, sodium bicarbonate and food colour are blended in a vertical mixer. The resulting satisfactory dough is transferred to the macroni making machine for extrusion into desired shape and length. It is steamed and surface-dried to make it non-sticking to and not easily crushed by hand. The product is packaged. Glucose and Frutose Introduction Glucose is one of the sugar products obtained by enzymatic saccarification of starch. It is used as sugar/energy source and in confectionery, beverages and cosmetics industries.

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Raw Materials

Production Process

Starch, activated carbon, sodium hydroxide (45% Na0H) and conc. hydrochloric acid (33% HCl), enzyme, water.

The process goes in 2 stages: 1. Production of glutamic acid from molasses. 2. Production of MSG from resulting glutamic acid. Molasses is treated with enzyme (Nina) and urea/ammonia reagents. The resulting glutamic acid is filtered through activated carbon, evaporated, crystallised and refined. It is then neutralised with 33% NaOH, decoloured by filtration through activated carbon, evaporated and dried and packaged.

Machinery and Equipment Filter, ion exchanger, dryer, mixer, boiler, saccharification tank. Production Process The powdered starch is emulsified by addition of water. Enzyme is added and the saccharified sample filtered through activated carbon, which also decolorise it. 45% Na0H and 33% Hcl are added to activate ion exchange. The liquid glucose is evaporated to obtain solid, which is powdered and packaged. The glucose may be isomerised, decoloured, filtered and evaporated to obtain fructose packaged for sale. Fructose, mild in flavour, colourless and used as sweeteners in food industries can also be made from sugarcane.

Corn Flakes Introduction Roasted cornflakes eaten with milk is a very good breakfast. Raw cornflakes are adjuncts in beer brewing. Demand for both is increasing in Nigeria with growing population and ever increasing beer brewing activities.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG)

Raw Materials

MSG is a food flavour produced by reacting glutamic acid with sodium hydroxide.

Maize grains. Machinery and Equipment

Raw Materials Molasses, urea/ammonia, potassium phosphate, magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphide, conc. hydrochloric acid (33% HCl) sodium hydroxide solution (33%), activated carbon, etc.

Pressure Cooker, separators/sifters, blocking machine, rotary steam cooker, mixer, agitator/lump breaker, cooler, oven (roaster), tanks, flaking machine, scale, sealer. Production Process

Machinery and Equipment Maize grains are cleaned, broken into large pieces, cooked under Reactor, evaporator, dryer, filter and crystalliser.

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pressure and steamed for 2 hours and mixed with flavouring materials (consisting of sugar, malt, salt and water). The grit containing about 33% moisture is adequately cooked if it has uniform translucency. The grit is passed into agitator to break the lumps and then into a dryer to reduce moisture content to 15 - 20%. It is then transferred to tempering tank, where it last a few hours to allow for uniform distribution of moisture. The tempered stock goes into machine for flaking. The flakes are packaged for the brewery or moved into the oven for roasting and packaging.

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Bone Meal Introduction Bone meals can be raw, steamed or sterilised. The raw bone meal is generally used as fertiliser, obtained by crushing steamed raw bones. The sterilised bone meal is made from raw bone or bone sinews and used in production of livestock feeds. Raw Materials

Dried Egg Powder Raw bone, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid. Egg is one of the best sources of protein, vitamins and minerals. It is a perishable, but the dried product is less bulky and keeps with slight or no loss of its organoleptic characteristics.

Machinery and Equipment Digester, disintegrator, round roller.

Raw Materials Production Process Fresh eggs. Machinery and Equipment Egg breaker, storage tank, centrifuge, heater, cyclone, filter, fan, packaging unit. Production Process The eggs are broken and filtered into a storage tank, where it is cooled to 4oC. It is fed into tubular heater to raise its temperature to 65oC, maintained for 6 minutes to effect pasteurisation. The product is atomised, cooled and packaged.

The bones are cut into pieces, transferred to digest and heated, pressed with round roller, dried and may be ground further to required mech to obtain raw bone meal. The sterilised bone meal is obtained by washing broken bones with sodium hydroxide immersing the bone in it and stirring daily for 10 - 12 days, decanting and washing in water, then, washing with 0.5% Hcl till wash liquor maintains pH 7. It is then digested and crushed to required mesh and packaged. STARCHAND FLOUR Maize Starch Maize starch is both food and industrial good for production of jellies, glucose, sweeteners, baby foods, custards and

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confectioneries, pharmaceuticals/cosmetics (toothpaste, face and body powders), toiletries, cardboard, glues and adhesives, textile/laundry starch, etc. (FEAP, 1998:13).

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body powders), toiletries, cardboard, glues and adhesives, textile/laundry starch, etc. (FEAP, 1998:21). Equipment

Equipment Aspirator, Destoner, Degerming machine, Disk mill, Centrifuge, Siever, Disintegrator/Hammer mill, Dryer, Scale, Packaging machine (with stitcher or sealer).

Scale, Peeling machine, Mechanical washing tank, Rasping machine, Setting tank, Mechanical drying belt, Hammer mill, and Packaging machine (with stitcher or sealer). Process

Process Maize grains are ! c leaned with aspirator ! destoned with destoner ! degermed (to remove oily germ for oil production) ! soaked ! wet-milled to fine powder particle-size in water (slurry), to release the starch nodles within the corn grains Starch is extracted from the slurry by screening through a 211-micro mesh sieve. The resulting starch milk is allowed to stand in a setting tank or vat-setting. Excess water is removed from (dewatering of) the sedimented starch by centrifuge or mechanical or hydraulic press. The resulting cake (containing about 15% moisture) is disintegrated in a vertical hammer mill and then dried in a rotary, tray or pneumatic dryer to about 8% moisture content. The dried starch is milled to flour of 0.027-inch particle-size, allowed to cool and packaged. Cassava Starch Cassava starch is both food and industrial good for production of jellies, glucose, sweeteners, baby foods, custards and confectioneries, pharmaceuticals/cosmetics (toothpaste, face and

Weigh cassava tubers, peel, wash, and rasp into pulp (and screen pulp into various grades). Allow the starch milk to stand in a setting tank for setting and sedimentation of the starch granules. Dry by centrifugation and evaporation. Mill to flour. Allow to cool and package. Cassava Flour Cassava flour constitutes a vital part of the daily diet in form of “lafun” and “fufu” (FEAP, 1998:23). Equipment Steeping tank, Grater, Sieve (Screen), Screw press, Hammer mill, Frying pot, Dryer, Knives, Scale, Packaging/Sealing machine. Process Peel cassava tubers, cut to smaller sizes and steep in water for 2 days to ferment. Dry and mill to flour. Cassava Chips Cassava chips are important components of animal feed. (FEAP,

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1998:26).

OILS

Equipment

Introduction

Chipper, Dryer, Packaging machine (with stitcher or sealer).

Oils and fats are important parts of the human diet. More than 90% of the world production of oils and fats from vegetable, animal and marine sources is used as food or as ingredient in food products. World demand for dietary oils and fats is steadily increasing, since they serve as a rich source of dietary energy. They contain certain fatty acid components which are essential for nutrients and their functional and textural characteristics contribute to the flavour and palatability of many natural and prepared foods (Pearson, 1986; Formo, 1979; FAO, 1978; Paul and Southgate, 1978; Slover and Lanza, 1979).

Process Wash and peel cassava tubers, slice or chip to various sizes, dry, allow to cool and package. Garri Garri from cassava is one of the staple foods in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Nigeria an some parts of West Africa and Centrla Africa (FEAP, 1998:29). Equipment Steering tank, Grater, Shaker-sieve (Screen), Semi-permeable bags, Screw press, Hammer mill, Frying pan, Knives, Scale, Packaging machine (with stitcher or sealer). Process Peel cassava tubers, wash and grate. Put the slurry into semipermeable bags and press with screw press to dewater it. Leave it to ferment for 3 days. The pressure is increased thereafter to expel much of the water left in it. The lumps are broken and sieved and fired to obtain garri, which is packaged for market. (Palm oil may be added to the slurry before bagging or during frying.)

Palm Kernel Oil Extraction Many agricultural produces are rich in oils used for different domestic and industrial purposes. Thus, oils are sourced from olive plant, castor plant, groundnut, coconut, oil palm and other crops. Oils are also obtained from livestock: turkey, fish, etc. Palm kernel oil (pko) is used in bakery, fat and magarine industry, vegetable oil refineries, soap, detergent and animal feeds. Its estimated demand is 149,546 metric tonnes per annum, while its suppy is 81,440 metric tonnes per annum (FEAP, 1998:50). The kernel of oil palm is a rich source of palm kernel oil (pko) used in soap production or refined to obtain vegetable oil. The extraction is by either solvent or mechanical method. The kernel is first cracked, separated from shell chaff and crushed. The solvent method treats the crushed kernel with either petroleum spirit or n-hexane. The solvent is distilled (and recovered) from the extract, to give palm kernel oil. The mechanical method integrates the crusher with a press, which expels the oil from the crushed kernel, leaving palm kernel

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cake (pkc) on one side. When cooked in water, the pkc from mechanical press gives a further yield of pko, which is separated. The pure oil, the dregs (sludge), and the cake are all valuable and are in demand. The dregs are fatteners for pig farmers. The cake is incorporated into livestock feeds. Quality Control Tests Some of the laboratory tests carried out on the oil for quality control include: ! Moisture and Volatiles ! Free Fatty Acid ! Acid Value ! Colour ! Peroxide Value ! Saponification Value ! Unsaponifiable Materials ! Iodine Value ! Impurities and Insolubles, and ! Acetyl Value. ! The pkc is analysed for oil , moisture, ash, fibre and protein content. Vegetable Oils Vegetable oils are 'cooking oils' of plant origin, including refined groundnut, soyabean, palm kernel and other oils from plants. The oil is bleached to obtain appealing colour by heating 4:1 by weigh oil: o activated earth mixture at 80 100 C for 40 minutes and filtering at pump. To remove undesirable odour from the oil, blow superheated steam through it under a high vacuum pressure of about 57mmHg and o at 205 260 C (Shreve and Brink, 1977: 472).

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Minerals may be added to oil for enrichment. Unsaturated foods (including fats and oils) are particularly vulnerable to oxidation which results in off-odour development and deterioration of the commodity. Chemical additives are used to prevent this development. Antioxidants used include propyl, acetyl and dodecyl gallates; butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT); butylated hydroxyanisated (BHA), any combination of gallates with BHA or BHT or both; ascorbyl palmitate or stearate; synthetic tocopherols (vitamin E); and dilauryl thiodipropionte. Other compounds that exhibit antioxidant characteristics and therefore, used to preserve oils/fats include ethoxyquin, L-ascorbic acid, stannous chloride, sulphurdioxide, and nordihydroguiaretic acid (NDGA). The process of rancidity in oil and fats is stimulated, in part, by the presence of metallic ions, such as iron and copper ions. They come in contact with lipids during processing or storage of oil or fat in metallic containers or may be part of the food system. In order to prevent contact of these metal catalysts with the unsaturated fats/oils and thus hinder their catalytic action that lead to oil spoilage, chemical compounds may be used to inactivate the metal ions. A group of these compounds, called sequestering agents (sequestrants) form with the ion a complex (usually water soluble) in which at least one covalent or coordinate covalent bond holds the ion in the complex, thereby inactivating it. Another group, called chelating agents, contains two or more donor groups which can combine with a metal to form one or more inner ring structure or complex thereby inactivating the metal. These chelated complexes are sometimes referred to as sequestered compounds. Examples of sequestrants used in foods include ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), polyphosphates and citric acid. Haemoglobin, myoglobin and chlorophyll are naturally chelates in food compounds (Awan and Okaka, 1985: 183 184). Antioxidant synergists used in fats and oils include sodium

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citrate, isopropyl citrate mixture, monoglyceride citrate, and phosphoric acid. Most natural oils and fats contain substances which prevent oxidative changes leading to rancidity (spoilage of fats/oils). The best known of these are the tocopherols (Vitamin E). Such substances are often removed or destroyed during processing. Hence, artificial antioxidants are added to the refined products to prevent rancidity. Fats used for biscuits and cake making often contain small amounts of esters of gallic acid (gallates) added for this purpose (Davidson et al, 1975: 266). Tocopherol and citric acid would make a good combination of additives to bleached oils. The former replaces the process, destroyed Vitamin E, while the latter imparts fruiting odour, both preserving the oil. Sodium citrate has a better but weaker odour than citric acid powder. A mixture of citric acid and sodium citrate may be better than either of them. Antifoaming agents for oils/fats include dimethyl polysiloxane and dimethyl silicone, added singly or in combination with silicone dioxide. Castor Oil Production Castor oil (obtained by milling castor seeds, Ricinus commuins) has higher viscosity, higher specific gravity (0.956-0.970) and greater solubility in alcohol and polar solvents (FEAP, 1998:45). Equipment Cleaning machine, Mill, Shaker-sieve, Package and Packaging device.

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Foods and Beverages

FRUIT JUICE/PASTE Introduction Citrus, pineapple, mango, water melon and other fruits in abundance in all the States of Nigeria can be turned into fruit juice and paste for availability all year round and for their preference by Nigerians over and above carbonated drinks. These fruit juices are still largely imported into Nigeria, hence the wisdom in the choice of this project in Nigeria with 140 million population demanding over 14,000 tonnes of fruit juice per year. Raw Materials Fruits (of choice), sugar/sweetner, citric acid, preservative (optional). Estimated production levels for some fruits are given in the table below: Table 3.5: Levels of Production of Some Fruits in Nigeria Fruits Tonnes/Annum Citrus 7,500,000 Mango 3,000,000 Tomato 32,000,000 Guava 8,000,000 Pawpaw 7,000,000 Pineapple 5,000,000 Source: RMRDC (2003: 23).

Process Production Process Clean castor seeds, mill and sieve to obtain oil, which is packaged. The production of single-strength (not concentrate) fruit juice follows the process below:

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i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

Sorting and washing of fruits Scalding to facilitate peeling Peeling Juice extraction and separation from pulp Homogeinisation or stabilization with necessary thickener or syrup De-aeration and clarification of extract to prevent oxidation of the oil in the juice and loss of vitamin C, flavour and colour Bottling and pasteurization in situ.

To produce the paste (concentrated fruit juice), the de-aerated and clarified fruit juice is pasteurized and passed into a falling film evaporator for vacuum concentration before packing into plastic containers for freezing if so desired. In fruit juice and paste manufacturing, the technology must ensure the preservation of the natural colour, flavour, colour and taste of the fruit by either pasteurization or freezing. Machinery/Equipment Boiler, washing tanks, grading machine, hydraulic press, pulper, blending tanks (stainless steel), jacketed tilting vessel (stainless steel), crowner, filter, bottle press, vacuum pump, scale, vacuum evaporator, reforming unit, can sealing unit, lid embrossing machine, retort, etc.

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on pectin have been used in the preparation of jams, jellies, preservatives, canned fruits, fruit juices and confectionery products. It is also used in pharmaceutical industries. Raw Materials Apple pomace or peels and pulp of citrus fruits, chemicals (aluminum chloride, alcohol), etc. Pomace is obtained from fruit juice extraction. Hence, pectin production factory needs to be attached to fruit juice extraction factory. Production Process i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

Boiling pulped fruit materials (fruit wastes) in neutral 95% alcohol (or acidified water, pH. 2) and steamed for 10 to 20 minutes to activate pectin enzymes. Grinding materials in water Filtering Precipitation of pectin, using acidified alcohol Centrifugation of precipitate Filtering of precipitate and washing with 70% alcohol Dehydration of product, using acetone 0 Vacuum drying of product or oven-drying at 50 C for 4 hours Milling to powder

PECTIN

Machinery/Equipment

Introduction

Hydraulic press, vibrating sieve, fermentation vessels, centrifuge, filter, pulveriser/ball mill, trays, scale, knives, etc.

Pectin is a polysaccharide extracted from fruit pulp or the peel of citrus fruits, such as lemon, lime, orange and grape abounding in Nigeria. It has a high gel-forming ability and is widely used in the food industry, principally sin the preparation of gel. Food gels based

Chapter Four

COSMETICS AND PHARMACEUTICALS COSMETIC PRODUCTS Introduction According to Harry Isacoff (1969), Cosmetic is any substance, preparation, or treatment applied to a human body to ! cleanse ! alter the appearance, or ! promote the attractiveness. Thus, cosmetics include creams, powder, lotions, and colouring agents applied to the face, scalp, hair, and hands, and many borderline products, such as deodourants, depilatories, and oral suntan preparations. CREAMS Creams are classified into three large general classes with many subclasses as in Table 4.1 below. These are cold creams, vanishing creams, water-free creams. There are also certain special creams, which may be practically any of the above made in liquid form. Table 4.1: Classification of Creams Cold Cream

Vanishing Creams

Water-free Creams

(Oil-in-Water, O-W, and Water-inOil, W-O, Types)

Cleansing Emollient Lubricating Massage Hornone Vitamin

Facial and hand Medicated Powder-base foundation Antiperspirant-Deodourant All-purpose Powder creams

Source: Ryner (1969)

151

Liquefying Deodourant-antiperspirant Hair and scalp Rouge paste Massage-emollient Eye cream-mascara

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The designation, cold, was used because of the sensation produced on the skin as the water evaporated. All creams (and any other cosmetic products) are emulsions. The emulsion is either oil-in-water or water-in-oil type. In general, oil-in-water emulsions give a less oily feel and they are “washable” (i.e. they can be removed more easily by the ordinary process of washing the surface to which it had been applied). This is a major factor in their popularity in cosmetic formulations. Cold cleansing cream is satisfactory for normal skin as well as for skin that tends to dryness. Before the global oil glut of early 1980s, the Nigerian government operated a public sector dominated economy with lots of large-scale production and service enterprises mainly depending on imported machinery, spare-parts and raw materials. In the mid-1980s the Structural Adjustment Programme of the federal government shifted emphasis to development and growth of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) with local substitutes of imported machinery and raw materials. Thus, it becomes necessary that research works seek to substitute as many foreign raw materials as possible with local ones. Creams’Raw Materials and Formulations Cold Creams According to Isacoff (1969:346-375), typically, cold creams consist of: ! almond oil ! beeswax ! rose water (or distilled or deionized water) ! spermacetic ! borax ! emulsifying agents ! mineral oil or vegetable oil ! paraffin oil

Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals

153

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

castor oil ceresin cocoa butter olive oil oleic acid peanut oil sesame oil stearic acid certain synthetic fats and waxes, and Perfume. Practically, all cleansing creams are delicately perfumed. Emulsifying agents include aminoglycol, alkanolamines, and polyhydric alcohols. The substitution of vegetable oil for part of the mineral oil will produce a cream that is softer and not as white. Table 4.2: Typical composition of cleansing cream Ingredient

Typical Formula, % by weight

Beeswax Mineral oil Spermaceti Borax Distilled water

13 45 16 1 35

Source: Ryner (1969) Emollient, Lubricating, and Tissue Creams Emollient, Lubricating, and Tissue Creams are cold creams of basically water-in-oil (W-O) type to which the following ingredients may be added: Lanolin and derivatives (about 3-5% present in creams) ! Absorption bases (about 5-20% present in creams) ! Lecithin (about 2% present in creams) ! Cholesterol and derivatives (emulsifiers) ! Unsaturated oils (soya, corn, etc., about 1-2% present in !


154

! ! ! !

formulae for dry skin) Hydrogenated oils (soften and lubricate) Cocoa butter (softens and lubricates) Hormones (principally natural estrogenic hormones) Antiseptic materials (quaternaries and bacteriostats in low percentages).

Table 4.3: Typical composition of vanishing foundation cream Ingredient


Cetyl alcohol Glycerol Lanolin Mineral oil Stearic acid Triethanolamine Perfume Water

0.5 5 5 5 20 2 0.5 62


Waterless Creams Waterless creams are cleansers of cream consistency that contain water. The term, waterless, indicates the favourite method of use, which is rubbing the cream into the skin and then towelling off the cream without the use of water. Fundamentally, this is an oil-in-water type of cream containing a detergent cleanser plus a suitable emulsifier. Often a bodying agent, such as poly(vinyl alcohol) or paraffin, is added to give the cream rigidity and a “rolling dirt” effect when rubbed into the skin. Vanishing Cream Vanishing Cream is essentially an oil-in-water emulsion of stearic acid and water in which a small amount of a suitable emulsifier serves as the binder. The latter may be formed in situ by first mixing a


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portion of the stearic acid with sodium or potassium hydroxide, triethanolamine, aminoglycol, etc. This type of product is readily recognizable by its pearly lustre. Sodium stearate produces a relatively harder, and potassium stearate a relatively softer, cream. The latter is usually preferable. The so-called vanishing creams do not actually disappear into the skin, but simply spread a thin smooth film over it, which temporarily conceals roughness and enhances the effect of face powder. Because some skins are appreciably dry, modifying substances are usually added to the basic emulsion. Thus, glycerol is often present as humectant. Among the substances used to vary the properties of vanishing creams are cocoa butter, lanolin, cetyl alcohol, mineral oil (for superficial oiliness), and certain synthetic waxes. Table 4.4: Composition of quick-liquifying creams Ingredient


Beeswax 7 Ceresin 12 Mineral oil 43 Petrolatum 38 Source: British Patent, No. 354,370.

Water-Free Creams Water-free creams are not actually creams, i.e. emulsions, but simply mixtures of liquid and solid hydrocarbons melted to together and perfumed. The principal purpose of this type of product is to melt and spread rapidly. It is satisfactory for skins that tend toward oiliness. It is not effective in removing all kinds of dirts. Hence, some compositions of cleansers of this type have been modified to contain animal and vegetable fats and waxes, and even to produce them as emulsions.

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Balm is in this class and can be obtained by melting 20g of wax on a mild heat. Add 150g of jelly to melt. Add 12g of camphor. (You may need to increase the heat to 120-1700C.) Add 23g of paraffin oil and 27g of peppermint oil. At the temperature of 50-600C add 10g of menthol to melt. Put in container at the temperature of about 400C. Allow to set. Local Raw Materials and Formulation of Creams Foreign raw materials and their local substitutes are given in Table 4.5 below: Table 4.5: Foreign raw materials and their local substitutes for preparation of water-free creams S/No 1. 2.

Class Wax Base

Foreign Ozokerite, Ceresin, Spermaceti, Beeswax Refined lard, Hydrogenated lard, Lard compound, Hydrogenated vegetable oil or fat, Petrolatum

Local Paraffin wax, Beeswax Petroleum jelly


157

Zinc oxide and bismuth subnitrate reduce irritation when ammoniated mercury is used. Hydroquinone is allowed only up to 2% as active ingredients in bleaching creams in Nigeria. Some Important CosmeticAdditives Antioxidants: Cosmetic products containing fats and oils are subject to oxidative deterioration and must be protected by the use of suitable antioxidants. The principal approved antioxidants for the cosmetics industry include butylated hydroxyaniso l e, butylated 1 hydroxytoluene, propyl gallate, and dilauryl and distearyl 3,3 thiodipropionates, S(CH2CH2COOR)2. Sequestering agents: Chelating or sequestering agents are being used increasingly as stabilizers in cosmetics to prevent deterioration and increase shelf-life and stability. EDTA is popular for the inactivation of trace-metal ion and other contaminants. Manufacture of Creams

Three (A,B,C) formulations of Water-free Bleaching Creams were adapted from previous works (Eneh, 1998:10; British Patent No.496893) as in Table 4.6 below: Table 4.6: Formulations of 3 Samples of Water-free Bleaching Cream Ingredient 1. Zinc oxide 2. ZnO or Bismuth subnitrate 3. Zinc Peroxide 4. Petroleum jelly 5. Hydroquinone 6. Mercurial (Mercuric iodide or Ammoniated mercury) 7. Perfume 8. Colourant

Formula A

Formula B

Formula C

(% by weight)

(% by weight)

(% by weight)

5 10 80 -

8 85 2

5 85 -

5 trace

5 trace

5 5 trace

Source: British Patent, No. 496,893.

General equipment for cream manufacture include (Eneh, 1998:10) kettle ! thermometer (or thermostat) ! ! agitator ! heat source (steam or water in jacket of kettle) ! melting container for fats, or an immersion heater for removing small amounts of solid fats from drums ! colloidal mill or homogenizer for fatty mixtures, paste and ointment For small batches household equipment (boiler-mixer, heater, thermometer, scale and containers) may be used. All fatty and fat-soluble ingredients are melted together in kettle. All water-soluble ingredients are dissolved in distilled (or deionized) water. When the temperature of both mixtures has reached about 70-800C, the aqueous portion is added slowly to the fatty mixture with stirring.

158


Agitation must be constant and regular to ensure the most intimate contact of the two phases of the emulsion. The mixture is allowed to cool to about 500C, while still stirring, before perfume is added. Precautions include: vanishing creams are not agitated when cold, else reduction ! of the pearly lustre of the cream may result through the breaking of the crystalline structure of the stearic acid; Avoidance of air pockets in the tubes or jars, the effecting of a ! neat smooth surface on the cream, and complete cooling of the jar before capping; all jars, bottles and closures must be perfectly clean before ! they are filled and kept free from all contamination during the entire manufacturing practice; 0 ! if zinc oxide is involved, 50 C must not be exceeded during heating or it will break down. LOTION Lotion (from the Latin word, lotum, meaning wash) is an aqueous or alcoholic-aqueous solution of substances intended to have some special effect on the skin. The term also has been applied loosely to liquid creams, to solutions for permanent waving, and to wavesetting fluids. Lotions are of two classes:

159


Table 4.7: Classification of lotions I Emulsified lotions

Non-emulsified lotions

Hand and face (lubricating and Hand and face (aqueous type) lotions cleansing) lotion Hair dressing, tonics, rinses Astringent and skin fresheners Foot lotions Hair dressing, tonics, brilliantines Hair lacquers Medicated lotions Wave set, aerosols Baby lotions Deodorants and antiperspirants body rubs Suntan lotions Splashes Insect repellant Medicated eye, foot, skin lotions Polishes (industrial lotions) Suntan lotions Liquid cream satchels. Aftershave, preshave, colognes Toilet waters, insect repellents, cold waves.

Source: Ryner (1969) Table 4.8: Classification of lotions II Non-alcoholic lotion (with or without gum) Hand and face lotions Hair dressings Foot lotions Medicated eye lotions Baby lotions Suntan lotions Deodorants and antiperspirants

! Emulsified lotions (usually milky or creamy) and non-emulsified lotions (usually transparent solutions sometimes made translucent or opaque with clouding or opacifying agents ! Nonalcoholic, mildly-alcoholic, and strongly alcoholic lotions.

Mildly alcoholic lotion Astringent (skin freshener) Aftershave Deodorants Strongly alcoholic Hair and scalp lotions Body rubs Splashes Colognes Toilet waters Aerosols Deodorants.


SHAMPOOS

160


Shampoos are classified according to their physical appearance, or their special ingredients. Thus, there are liquid clear shampoos, liquid cream or cream lotion shampoos, colour shampoos, cream paste shampoos, egg shampoos, herbal shampoos, dry shampoos, liquid dry shampoos, and aerosol shampoos. One or several of these types may be based on special raw materials or have special additives that would make a given product an antiseptic or antidandruff shampoo, or that would render it particularly suitable for use on infants and young children, and hence permit it to be called a baby shampoo. Cream shampoos require opacifying agents such as stearates, polyethylene glycol stearates, or magnesium silicate. Sparkling clear shampoos require solubilizing agents to prevent turbidity due to soluble organic constituents. Some inorganic insolubles are dissolved and sequestered by metal-complexing agents, such as EDTA. Organic materials causing cloudiness may be highmolecular-weight alkyl sulphates or high-titre soaps, but are more likely to come out of solution in some cases as the temperature decreases, or occasionally, as the temperature increases. Such problems are best solved by the addition of solvents or surface-active solubilizing agents and hydrotropes. Included in the latter group are the polyethylene oxide fatty derivatives, fatty alkanolamides, sodium xylenesulphonate, short-chain alkylnaphthalensulphonates, benzoates, and phthalates. Body (or viscosity) in shampoos is generally desirable. Gum and cellulose derivatives have been used for such purposes. The diethanolamine lauric acid condensates are also used either as 2:1 or 1:1 amides. A special problem in soap-shampoo formulation is that of building in hard-water resistance. This can be done reasonably well by the use of sequestrants, or better by use of lime-soap dispersants. EDTA is incorporated in relatively small quantities to prevent deposition of lime soap on the hair during the rinse operation, and alkanolamides and ethyleneoxide condensates are incorporated to enhance lather during the actual shampooing.


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In shampoo using synthetic detergents a special problem is posed by their drying action, due probably both to excessive defatting and to adsorption of scroop-producing surface-active agents on the hair and scalp. A variety of materials have been suggested as useful in this connection. These include products such as sulphonated vegetable oil, carboxymethylcellulose, lanolin, lecithin, polypeptide, amino acids, and their fatty acid condensates. The foam-stabilizing agents are added as 2-10% of the weight of the syndet or soap to obtain flash foam and quick lathering for oily scalps. The alkanolamides, particularly monoethanolamine, monoisopropanolamine, and high-purity diethanolamine condensates of lauric acid, are satisfactory. Germicidal agents have been added, but there is the question as to how effective these may be in view of the fact that shampoos are not usually used daily. Chlorinated derivatives of phenols and bis-phenols have been prominently applied here. Table 4.9: Formula for Shampoo Item Quantity Park R 1.2 kg Distilled deionized water 99.5 litres Sulphonic acid 5 litres Soda ash 1.1 kg Formalin 250g Colour/ Fragrance 230g Source: Eneh (1998) SHAVING LOTIONS These are either pre-shave or after-shave. Pre-shave lotions may be 1. those intended primarily to soften the beard, usually having a wetting agent as the active ingredient, in a base of alcohol, water, and glycerin, and perfumed and tinted

162


alcohol solutions to be applied before using an electric razor, acting like strong astringents which contract the skin, making the hair stand up straight. After-shave lotions are usually similar in composition to astringent lotions, with a higher percentage of alcohol, which serves to cool the skin and to counteract any irritation. The alcohol also acts as a mild antiseptic to aid against infection. After-shave lotions consist of a solution of perfume (0.51.5%) in water and alcohol (50-70%). Additional materials are frequently incorporated, such as Humectant up to 3% of glycerin, propylene glycol, or ! sorbitol solution Saccharin to overcome bitter taste of alcohol denaturant ! Menthol cooling and anaesthetic. ! After-shaves are manufactured by mixing a solution of perfume in alcohol, to which all other alcohol-soluble materials have been added. The water-soluble materials are dissolved in water. The water solution is added to the alcohol solution with constant agitation. The solution is chilled and filtered (using a filter aid). Pre-shaves are manufactured with same procedure. Preshave lotions for electric razor use are clear solutions of variety of lubricant materials in alcohol. The percentage of lubricant in the product depends on the amount of film desired to be left on the skin. Popular brands contain 8-12% of lubricant in alcohol. The lubricant materials used most frequently are: dioctyl sebacate ! dibutyl sebacate ! isopropyl palmitate ! isopropyl myristate ! mixtures of the above ! Silicones. ! These lotions are used to lubricate the face for easy movement of the razor, lubricate the moving parts of the electric razor, and dry the skin in humid weather by means of the drying action of the alcohol.

2.


163

Relaxer Sodium hydroxide relaxes the hair. A good mixture of oil-soluble (O) and water-soluble (W) ingredients gives paste relaxer. The oil-soluble ingredients are dissolved together by heating mildly. The water-soluble ingredients are also dissolved together in another mixer. The latter mixture is transferred into the former mixture with vigorous stirring. Allow to cool to room temperature and then package. (See details on this product on page 178.) DEODORANTSANDANTIPERSPIRANTS Deodorants and antiperspirant preparations are prepared as ! creams ! lotions clear and emulsified ! sticks clear and opaque ! powders ! gels ! aerosols ! soaps CreamAntiperspirants The greasy type is a mixture of waxes and oils with acid-stable emulsifiers and antiperspirant chemicals. The non-greasy type is basically a varnishing cream made with acid-stable emulsifiers. Antiperspirant Lotions The clear lotion is a water-and-alcohol solution of antiperspirant salts. The opaque lotion is similar to the clear lotion, with added opacifying materials. Antiperspirant Pads Pads are basically cloth or non-woven material moistened with an

164


antiperspirant solution and packed in tightly covered containers. Stick products These are deodorants or antiperspirants. Stick deodorants are alcohol solutions of deodorant chemicals solidified with soap. Stick antiperspirants are made with modified aluminum salts (basic chlorides partially complexed with lactic acid) and contain less alcohol than the deodorant stick formulations. Chemical agents that provide deodorant properties are usually chlorophenols, such as hexachlorophene, 2,2 1 methylenebis(3,4,6-trichlorophenol), actamer, 2,21-thiobis(4,6dichlorophenol), p-chloro-m-xylenol, dichloro-m-xylenol. Chemical agents that provide antiperspirant properties are the chloride and sulphate of aluminum, zirconium salts, and some zinc salts. These salts yield a somewhat acid solution. Aluminum chloride, which is probably one of the better antiperspirant agents, has a pH of about 2.25 in solution. It is successfully used in some antiperspirants, but must, however, be buffered, to reduce both irritation to the skin and its effect on clothing. The most common buffer used is urea. Aluminum sulphate with a pH of 2.7 or 2.9 is not quite as acidic, but still acidic enough to require a buffer. “Aluminum chlorohydroxide complex” (approximately Al2(OH)5Cl, a basic aluminum chloride complex) with a pH of about 4.3 does not require a buffer, which is a great advantage. However, it is not as good an antiperspirant as aluminum chloride or sulphate. Suntan These are sunscreen products not quite relevant to this work. DEPILATORIES These should be: ! non-irritating and innocuous;


165

! !

efficient in action, removing hair within a 10-minute period; odourless or have the pleasant odour of the perfume. The activity of the depilatory substance depends upon the: ! nature of the depilatory or denaturing agent; ! duration of the action; ! pH of the cosmetic medium; ! Temperature of the reaction. The depilatory most widely used today is based on the use of calcium thioglycolate in a strongly alkaline medium having a pH of approximately 12.3. In addition to the the calcium thioglycolate, there is present a small amount of a wetting agent, a considerable amount of a filler such as calcium carbonate, an adequate amount of slaked lime to bring the pH up to the required value, and alkali-stable perfume. POWDERS Face Powder Face powder was, at an early period, essentially a rice starch vehicle into which a colour was incorporated, intending that it compliments the skin colour. Further developments included a substitution of talc for the rice starch, the introduction of substances such as zinc oxide and titanium oxide as opacifying agents, and the use of insoluble pigments as colourants. A more convenient product to use was made possible by the introduction of modern pressed powder, and paralleling the development were several different types of vehicles designed to improve the appearance by causing the film to assume a more homogenous appearance than was possible with the powder alone. Face powder, both the loose and the now-popular cake or pressed powder, is a blend of white pigments, tinted and perfumed, to be applied to the face. The function of a face powder is to impart a smooth, velvet-like finish to the skin by masking any shine due to the secretions of the sebaceous and sweat glands. To obtain this effect, the powder must be opaque enough to mask the shine, but not so

166


opaque that it gives a mask-like appearance. In addition, it must possess reasonably lasting properties in order to avoid the necessity of frequent repowdering, or, in other words, it must be adherent to the skin and reasonably resistant to the mixed secretions of the skin. Finally, through intimate contact of its perfume-laden particles over a warm and relatively large area, it should disseminate a pleasing odour. No single substance possesses all the desired properties: covering power, slip, absorbency, adhessiveness, and bloom. Therefore, a modern face powder is a blend of several constituents, each one chosen for some specific quality. The materials most commonly used can be grouped according to their functions as follows: Covering power: To cover skin defects, such as enlarged pores and skin shine. Examples: titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, kaolin, and magnesium oxide. Slip: To assist in spreading and to give the characteristic smooth feeling. Examples: talc, zinc stearate, magnesium stearate, and starch. Absorbency: To absorb sebaceous or oily secretions and perspiration, and thus reduce shine. Examples: precipitated chalk, magnesium carbonate, starch, and kaolin. Adherence: To improve clinging to the face. Example: metallic soaps such as magnesium and zinc stearates and, in addition, the incorporation of small quantities of oil or fatty materials with the powder base. Bloom: To give a smooth, velvet-like appearance to the skin. A matte effect. Example: chalk, starch. Functions of Face Powder


167

The basic function of the face powder is to conceal, shine and endow the skin with a new and better-looking colour or tint. The finer the particle size of face powder, the greater the diffusion of light, and the bloom, with correspondingly less shine. The reason for this is that the light is reflected in many different angles, somewhat like reflections from the surface of frosted glass, which seems whiter and less shiny than regular glass because of greater light diffusion. Within certain limits, the smaller the powder particles, the higher the covering power and the better the tinting. The materials used in a face powder should, therefore, be passed through at least a 300-mesh sieve or, more properly, through a micronizing or micropulverizing machine. Powder is particularly bad medium for holding perfume, since the perfume is distributed over a very large surface permitting maximum contact with air. Powder also provides the optimum condition for other deleterious chemical reactions, for many perfume materials tend to oxidize or polymerize. Even the best designed fragrance is soon altered after contact with powder. Manufacture of Face Powder If water is used in the moistening of the base material, the powder should be dried to 2.5-3% water content. Drying lengthens the manufacturing process time and the use of water may also cause “bleeding” or extending of some of the lakes used in colouring the batch. The stability of the pigment is of great concern to every manufacturer of face powder. Not all shades can be produced with earth colours (iron oxides) exhaustively, and it is necessary to use some organic lakes and toners. These should be used very sparingly because they are not light-stable for any length of time. A simple stability test to check the light stability is to place a puff over part of a smoothened surface to loose face powder and then put the sample into bright sunlight for about thirty minutes. Any appreciable bleaching action of the unprotected area will indicate possible trouble. Zinc stearate may develop an odour on ageing, and it is

168


therefore necessary to use a good grade of zinc stearate for face powder. Kaolin may develop a clay-like odour when moistened, and magnesium carbonate may have a deleterious effect on the perfume. All materials used in the preparation of face powders must be carefully tested to prevent the inclusion of impurities. The same precautionary measures must be observed in the manufacture of pressed or compact face powder. In addition, care must be taken in the choice of ingredients because the compact face powder usually contains moistening ingredients. Toilet Powders Toilet powders include talcum powder, after-shave talcum, body powder, dusting powder, and baby powder. Most of the information on the manufacture of face powders apply to the toilet powders. In some cases, a good grade of talcum is all that is necessary for the formulations for after-shave talcum and dusting powder. Boric acid is a very common ingredient in toilet powders, since it possesses slight antiseptic properties and is somewhat soothing to the skin. Medicated Powders Medicated Powders contain germicidal compounds or antiseptics, including such materials as the quaternary ammonium salts and the phenols, oxyquinoline sulphate, oxyquinoline benzoate, hydroxyquinoline salts, hexachlorophene, and many other germicidal and antiseptic compounds. In some cases, antiseptics are added to baby powders, which are also usually slightly perfumed (not more than 0.25%).

169


Powder Formulae Table 4.10: Formula for loose face powder Ingredients Kaolin Talc Magnesium stearate Magnesium carbonate D & C Red No. 2 (lake), 20% in talc D & C Red No. 3 (lake), 10% in talc D & C Orange No. 4 (lake), 10% in talc Yellow iron oxide, 20% in talc Brown iron oxide, 20% in talc Perfume Total

} } } } }

% by Weight 3.0 } 74.0 } base 1.5 } 15.0 } } } 5.0 } Colour } dilutions } 1.0 100.0

Table 4.11: Formula for cake or pressed powder Ingredients % by Weight Kaolin 10.0 } Zinc oxide 10.0 } Zinc stearate 5.0 } base Magnesium carbonate 5.0 } Talc (French) 61.4 } Mineral oil, light 2.0 } Cetyl alcohol 1.0 } binding Lanolin 0.3 } agent D & C Red No. 2 (lake), 20% in talc 0.8 } D & C Orange No. 4 (lake), 10% in talc 2.7 } Colour Brown iron oxide, 20% in talc 1.0 }dilutions Perfume 1.0 Total 100.2

170



171

MANICURE PREPARATIONS Table 4.12: Formula for face powder Ingredients Zinc oxide Talc Zinc stearate Kaolin Titanium dioxide Perfume Total

% by Weight Grade: Light Medium Heavy 15 20 30 74 61 50 5 5 4 5 10 10 3 5 1 1 1 100 100 100

Table 4.13: Formula for talcum powder Ingredients

% by Weight Grade: Dusting powder Boric acid 10 Talc 84 Magnesium stearate 5 Precipitated chalk Titanium dioxide Perfume 1 Total 100

Table 4.14: Formula for body powder Ingredients Boric acid Talc Zinc stearate Perfume

% by Weight 5 84.75 10 0.25 Total 100

After-shave talcum 10 69 5 10 5 1 100

Nail Enamels These contain four different components: the solvent, film former, resins and plasticizer, and pigment. The solvents must consist of a mixture in which all components (solutes) are soluble and should dry within the required time. Butyl acetate is the solvent that is preferred since its boiling point and evaporation rate are at an optimum. Lower-boiling-point solvents, such as ethyl acetate, acetone, and methyl ethyl ketone, may be used in smaller amounts. The higher-boiling-point solvents, such as ethylene glycol esters and others, may be chosen from a long list. The predominant film former has been cellulose nitrate, the low-viscosity grades are best for nail-polish lacquer. Plasticizers used are camphor, diehtyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate, castor oil, and many others. Each of these imparts slightly different properties to the dried film, but all of them increase its flexibility, and usually cause it to adhere more firmly to the nail. Resins, such as dammar, are added to improve lustre and adhesion of the nail-polish lacquer. Resins of sulphonamideformaldehyde type are used in modern nail lacquers to give good lustre and increase its resistance to soapy water. Its flexibility, adhesion, gloss, and compatibility with solvents, and its colour, hardness, and effect upon the nails or cuticle determine the success or failure of a nail lacquer. The colourless portion of a modern nail lacquer may contain about 10% of cellulose nitrate, about 10% of resin, and about 5% of plasticizer. The solvent portion is made of solvents for cellulose nitrate, such as ethyl or amyl acetates together with ethyl alcohol or a hydrocarbon diluent, such as toluene. A typical combination would be 5 parts alcohol, 20 parts ethyl acetate, 15 parts butyl acetate, and 35 parts toluene. Dyes were used to achieve colouring. Opaque and creamy lacquers of today contain pigment colours instead of dyes. Only

172


certified colours or inorganic colours of the proper degree of purity should be used in nail lacquers. Maroon, red, and a yellow certified colour, together with cosmetic grades of iron oxide, titanium dioxide, and an iron blue have been in use. The certified colours are the insoluble lacquer colours. It is necessary to grind or disperse the colours and the titanium dioxide, in such a manner that the particles will be as fine as possible to produce a stable dispersion that will show a low order of precipitation and colour throw-out upon storage. The dispersion of the solids in the lacquer solvents requires great care because of the flammable nature of the solvents used. Nail lacquers are tested for: * ease of application ! rate of drying ! gloss ! wear resistance ! abrasion resistance, and ! adhesion. Perfume (1-4%) may be used to cover the unpleasant odour of the solvents, but its stability in the product, its effect upon the colour of the finished enamel, and its effect on the applied film should be carefully studied first. Table 4.15 Basic nail lacquer formulation Materials Cellulose nitrate Tricresyl phosphate } Dibutyl phthalate } Ethyl acetate } Butyl acetate } Ethyl alcohol } D & C Red No. 19 Perfume

Function Film former


173

as the sulphonamide-formaldehyde, polystyrene, and polyvinyl resins, are replacing cellulose nitrate. The ester-type solvents are good for the newer synthetic resins. Poly(vinyl chloride)-acetate copolymers, the polymethacrilates, and hundreds of other resin-type materials are being evaluated as partial or total replacements for cellulose nitrate. New plasticizers are taking the place of tricresyl phosphate, dibutyl phosphate, and others. New nail enamel formulations are in the making. Lacquer Removers The fastest-acting lacquer removers seem to be acetone, but because of the high volatility of acetone, ethyl acetate has come into favour as well. Various oils and emollient compounds, such as castor oil, lanolins, and lanolin derivatives, are added to the lacquer removers to leave a film on the nail. Cuticle Removers and Softeners These consist of a dilute solution of alkali in water with some glycerin or other humectant added to keep the water from evaporating too easily. The constantly used potassium hydroxide gives an effective but somewhat harsh preparation. Trisodium phosphate, triethanolamine, and some of the quaternary ammonium salts, have been used as replacements for potassium hydroxide. These are not as effective as the alkali, but do a fair job of softening the cuticle.

Plasticizer Some Important CosmeticAdditives Solvents Colour Fragrance

The new synthetic resins, or very high modified resins, such

Antioxidants Cosmetic products containing fats and oils are subject to oxidative deterioration and must be protected by the use of suitable antioxidants. The principal approved antioxidants for the cosmetics industry include butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated

174


1

hydroxytoluene, propyl gallate, and dilauryl and distearyl 3,3 thiodipropionates, S(CH2CH2COOR)2. Sequestering agents Chelating or sequestering agents are being used increasingly as stabilizers in cosmetics to prevent deterioration and increase shelflife and stability. EDTA is popular for the inactivation of trace-metal ion and other contaminants. LABORATORY EVALUATION OF COSMETICS The table below contains laboratory evaluations of various cosmetics for conformity to standards. Microbial analysis is also performed on cosmetic products.

175


Table 4.16: Laboratory evaluation ofcosmetics S/No

Parameter

Creams/ Pomade/ Ointment Yes

Lotion

Powder

Perfume

Toothpaste

Soap

Yes

Yes

Yes

Relaxer

Shampoo

Yes

-

Yes

-

-

-

Conditioner/Activ ator

Hair Fixative

Yes

Yes

-

Yes

Cold Wave Solution

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

-

Yes

-

Yes

1

Net weight

2

Homogeneity

3

Type of emulsion

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

-

4

pH

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

5

Non-volatile

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

-

-

6

Oil content

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

7

Active ingredient

Yes

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

-

8

Lanolin in Baby Product

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

9

Boric acid

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

10

Specific gravity / Weight per ml

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

Yes

-

11

Viscosity

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12

Fineness

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

13

Bulk density

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

14

Moisture content

-

-

Yes

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

15

Acid solubility

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

16

Refractive index

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

17

Alcohol index

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

18

Volatile matter

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

19

Saccharin content

-

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

20

Sodium lauryl sulphate

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

21

Calcium carbonate

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

22

Total fluoride content

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

-

23

Chloride content

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

Yes

-

-

-

24

Total fatty matter

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

Yes

-

-

-

25

Water-soluble matter

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

-

-

26

Soap shampoo

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

27

Free caustic alkali

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

-

-

-

28

Filling volume

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

Yes

-

29

Thioglycolic acid

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Yes

Source: NAFDAC Consumer Safety Bulletin, Vol. 1, Number 3, Oct - Dec. 2002, pp. 11-12.

176



177

PHARMACEUTICALSAND DRUGS

Production Process

INTRAVENOUS FLUIDS (DRIPS)

Dissolve and dilute the injectable in water previously treated and demineralised. Package.

Introduction ANTIDERMATITIS PREPARATION Intravenous fluid consists of salts or sugar or both dissolved in distilled and demineralised water. It is used on patients who have lost large amounts of body fluids or who are too weak to be fed by normal modes. The solution is injected into the vein or tissue of the patient. It comes in various solutions or mixtures with varying concentrations for particular functions: i. Dextrose solution - used for surgery and on dehydrated patients. ii. Normal saline solution - used on patients for fluid replenishment. iii. Normal solution - used on patients with electrolyte imbalance iv. Amini plasma solution - used on patients with protein deficiency. v. Haemace/dextran solution - use to build up low blood pressure.

Introduction A topical antidermatitis preparation indicated for dandruff, seborrhoec conditions and common skin scaly disorder can be made for weekly or daily (if acute) application (NIMSAfrica, 1995). Raw Materials Cetyl alcohol, salicylic acid, sulphur, paraffin oil, paraffin wax, perfume. Machinery and Equipment Boiler, mixer.

Raw Materials

Production Process

Pharmaceutical grade LDPE, MDPE, dextrose monohydrate, sodium chloride, sodium acetate, manitol, potassium chloride, dextran, calcium chloride, sodium lactate, etc.

Melt appropriate quantity of paraffin wax (20%) in a mixer by gentle heating. Add cetyl alcohol (4%) to melt, then paraffin oil (70%). o Discontinue heat and at temperature below 60 C, add salicylic acid (3%) and sulphur (3%), with stirring. Package before it hardens.

Machinery and Equipment TRIS SOLUTION Water treatments, plant, demineraliser, filter, air circulator, blower, filling and sealing machine, scale, etc.

Introduction Tris solution is used for genotype test using electrophoresis tank.

178



179

Raw Materials

ASPIRIN

Tris powder, boric acid, EDTA, distilled deionised water.

Aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid, a white solid, with melting point of 1350C, an important analgesic and antipyretic compound. It is an ingredient of various medicines used in relieving certain types of pains, e.g. headache, toothaches, neuralgia and rheumatism. It passes through the stomach and is hydrolysed to salicylic acid in the intestiner (Tewari et al, 1977: 1162).

Machinery and Equipment Dissolution tank, stirrer, filler. Production Process

Raw Materials Dissolve 5.04kg Tris powder, 0.38kg boric acid and 0.5kg disodium EDTA in 10 litres of water. Package and label with a dilution direction of 1:10 for use.

Salicylic acids, acetic anhydride and acetic acid. Manufacturing Process

RELAXER Relaxer is used extensively in hair dressing salons to relax the hair.

Acetylation of salicylic acid with a mixture of acetic anhydride and acetic acid yields aspirin thus:

Raw Materials Paraffin oil (14.5kg), petroleum jelly (10.4kg), propylene glycol (5.4kg), emulsifying wax (6.4kg), paraffin wax (1.8kg), sodium hydroxide (4.2kg), water (9.5kg) and perfume (to taste).

(CH3C0)20 acetic anhydride H0C6H4C00H salicylic acid

Machinery and Equipment Mixer (plastic), stirrer (non-metal), boiler. Production Process Melt paraffin wax by heating in the mixer. Add jelly, oil and emulsifying wax. Keep mixture as A. Dissolve sodium hydroxide in water in a plastic mixer, add propylene glycol. Keep as B mixture. With stirring, add B toA, perfume, blend well and package.

Ch3C00C6H4C00H CH3C00H) acetic acid

acetyl salicylic acid (Aspirin)

PARACETAMOLAND PARAMINOPHENOL Paracetamol is an analgesic drug used as a pain reliever, while paraminophenol is used for the production of hair dyes. Raw Materials Paranitrochlorobenze, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid.

180

Chapter Five


SOAPS AND CHEMICALS

Production Process The hydrolysis of paranitrochlorobenzene with caustic soda, followed by reduction of the product with dilute hydrochloric acid gives paracetamol as the product and paraminophenol as by-product. i. Reduction of paranitrobenzene with caustic soda in a o 1 reactor, by heating the mixture to about 150 C for 5 /2 hours. (Cool the reactor carefully and gently.) ii. Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the resulting sodium salt of nitrophenol to neutralize the solution and precipitate paranitrophenol. iii. Centrifuge the mixture. iv. Filter and wash the filter cake to remove the free salts. v. Reduction of the paranitrophenol cake with dilute hydrochloric acid and iron to paraminophenol. vi. Acetylation of paraminophenol with acetic anhydride and acetic acid. Na0H

dil. HCl

C6H5N02

C6H5N0Na

Heat paranitrobenzene

sodium nitrophenol

dil. HCl H0C6H4N02 Fe

H0C6H4N02 H20 paranitrophenol

acetic anhydride (CH3C0)20 H0C6H4NH2 CH3C00C6H4NH2 paraminophenol paracetamol

Machinery/Equipment Reactor, cone bottom settler, plate filter press, neutralizer, batch agitated crystalliser, centrifuge, vacuum drying chamber, acetylator and reducer, storage tanks.

SOAPPRODUCTS Introduction Fewer products are as widely and regularly used as soap. In its various forms, soap is used for cleaning humans, belongings and surroundings. Without this cleanliness, which is said to be next to godliness, life would be shorter and more miserable. From his birth to death, soap forms part of a man's daily life. Lye and soap are mentioned for washing selves in ancient times. The Bompeii escarvations revealed that soap manufacture th dates back to over 2000 years ago. A 12 -century compilation of trade secrets for artisans contained one of the first detailed recipes for soap. th For generations the use of soap increased until the 18 Century by which its manufacture had become an industry essential for the comfort and health of civilized man. Modern civilization may th be gauged by the per capita consumption of soap. Hence, one 19 century chemist declared that the quantity of soap consumed by a nation was an accurate measure of its wealth, civilization, hygiene and good health. SOAP From obscure past soap has been produced from alkaline and fatty or oily mixtures. The alkaline was obtained by leaching of ashes of select plants or from evaporation of water from salty river, until the production of caustic was established. The alkaline solution was boiled in open pans with oils and fats from various sources to produce soap in batch-wise processes.

181


182

A French chemist, Chevreul, showed that soap formation was actually a chemical reaction called saponification. Fats and oils contain mainly esters compounds of organic acids with alcohols. These acids are called fatty acids with glycerol as the alcohol base. The lauric acid, C11H23COOH, existing in coconut or palm kernel oil in triester form called trilaurin, reacts with alkaline to form sodium laureate (a soap) with glycerol by-product: CH2COOC11H23

CH2OH

CH2COOC11H23 + 3NaOH 3C11H23COONa + CHOH sodium laureate (a soap) CH2COOC11H23 CH2OH trilaurin glycerin Domeier completed Chevreul's research on the recovery of glycerol from saponification mixtures. The quality of resulting soap depends on the type of oil or fat. A list of fatty materials and the characteristics of their soap products is given in the table. Soap Manufacturing Process Soap manufacturing process of today involves five general steps outlined below: Chart 2: Steps in Soap Manufacturing Process Pre-treatment of raw materials

Preparation of raw materials

Saponification

Separation of products

Finishing

High quality raw materials have resulted from pre-treatment, involving solvent crystallization, liquid extraction and hydrolysis hygrogenation of various fats and oils. Because of agricultural and storage variations, oils are assessed for their iodine value, acid value,

Soaps and Chemicals

183

acetyl value and saponification value for effective quality control. The solid raw materials are next prepared in appropriate solvents. Saponification involves reacting the oil or fat with the alkali. It could be hot, semi-hot or cold kettle or computerized process. Soap is next separated from the mix (and dried to 12% water content in some cases). Finishing involves treating the soap with additives, extruding it to desired shape and stamping in a soap press, and packaging. Additives Additives in soap manufacture include sodium chloride, perfume, colourant, sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, borax, citric acid, magnesium sulphate and butylated hydroxytoluene (Eneh, 2000). Each of them has role or roles to play in improving the soap product quality. Aluminum sulphate and hydrochloric acid are required for glycerol recovery. Equipment Equipment for soap manufacture include dissolution tanks, heater, thermometer, hydrometer, reactor, storage tanks, stirrer, mould, dryer, cutter and stamper. Dynamics of Soap Manufacture Pre-treatment of oils and fats, plant procedure, and processing of finished soap products are changes that have been introduced in soapmaking industry. By blending caustics and oils, introducing additives and modifying soapmaking process, many types of soap and soap-related products have resulted. They include washing soap, transluscent soap, transparent soap, scouring soap and synthetic detergents, including shampoo, dental powder, toothpaste, cleansing creams, hair relaxer, hair conditioner, hair gel, and disinfectant.

184


Table5.1: Fatty Materials and the Characteristics of their Soap Products S/No

Oil/Fat

Consi-stency

1

Coconut

Very hard,

2

Palm kernel

”

3

Oil palm

Very hard

Orig-inal oil

4

Ground-nut

Firm

”

brittle

Odour

Foam

Detergent Quality

Mean Average Caustic Saponifica Soda / Per 100 tion Value Parts Oil/Fats

Soaps and Chemicals

conveyor system. Raw Materials

Skin Reaction

Use

Quick big Good also Slight bubbles, odour of in cold short lasting nut water ” ” ”

Makes skin rough

253

18.1

”

All kinds of soap especially toilet Household and toilet soap, soap powder

248

17.7

Machinery and Equipment

Slow small Very good bubbles, lasting Fairly good Fairly good

Very mild

”

199

14.2

Boiler, mixer, stirrer, distillation apparatus.

”

193

13.8

Production Process

5

Soyabean

Soft

”

Mediocre

Mediocre

”

Household, textile and toilet soap ”

192

13.7

6

Cotton-seed

Fairly soft

”

”

Good

Mild

Household soap

194

13.9

7

Tallow

Very hard

Neut-ral

Slow small bubbles, lasting

”

Very mild

Household, textile, toilet soap

198

14.1

8

Lard

”

”

”

”

”

”

198

14.1

9

Fish

Fairly soft

Fishy

Greasy

Fairly good

Mild

Soft soap

188

13.4

Source: Eneh (2000)

TOOTHPASTE Toothpaste is used to clean teeth, polish them, prevent carries and give fresh breath. It is usually made of abrasives (kaolin, calcium, aluminum), fluoride (for prevention of tooth decay) and saccharin or other artificial flavours and colours for consumer acceptability. LIQUID DETERGENTS Introduction Liquid detergent has a vast and unseasonal domestic and industrial demands. It is preferred to other soap products in domestic and commercial catering services for dish and hands washing because of its pleasant perfume. Manufacturing concerns use it to lubricate

185

Caustic potash, palm kernel oil, ethanol, water, perfume, colourant.

Dissolve 0.75kg caustic potash in 10 litres of ethanol in a plastic mixer. Add, with stirring, 1.5 litres of palm kernel oil (or bleached palm oil). Heat to boil, till no more oil globules result when a drop of the mixture is mixed with a little water. Note the volume. Boil off (or recover by distillation) as much ethanol as possible (to get molten soap paste). Allow 3-hour rest. Add, with stirring, as much hot water as the removed (or recovered) ethanol. Dilute further (if need be) to viscosity of choice with hot water. Perfume and/or to taste. Store for 2 weeks (if bleached palm oil was used) and package (Eneh, 2000: 50). DETERGENT POWDER Introduction Detergent powder is designed primarily for washing. It can be heavy-duty powder, used for main wash or white and heavily soiled articles and most coloured items, or light-duty powder for washing woolens, sensitive coloured items and more delicate fabrics. Proteolytic enzymes are now included in the formulations to break down proteinaceous stains, e.g. blood, during the soak.

186


Soaps and Chemicals

187

Raw Materials

Production Process

Alkyl benzene sulphonate (8kg), polyoxyethyl sulphate ester (8kg), alkyl sulphate (8kg), alkylolamide (3kg), sodium tripolysulphate (40kg), sodium sulphate (25kg), sodium silicate (3kg), carboxymethlyl cellulose (1.9kg), optical bleach (0.03kg) and colourant/perfume/water (3.07 litres).

Dissolve the caustic soda and soda ash in the water and keep for 48 hours. Warm the oil to which has been added the oil-soluble colourant. (Dissolve the colourant in caustic/ash mixture, if it is water-soluble type). Add the caustic/ash solution to the oil and stir continuously. Before it thickens and when the temperature of the o exothermic saponification reaction has reduced to 40 50 C, add the perfume and blend. Spread the hardening soap or send it to dryer. Grind, sieve and air-dry for 2 3 days, and package.

Machinery and Equipment Mixer, packaging machine.

SCOURING (SCRUBBING) SOAPPOWDER Production Process Introduction Dissolve colourant/perfume in the water and add other ingredients. Mix very well and package. SOAPPOWDER Introduction

Scouring or scrubbing soap powder is used in homes and industries for scrubbing ornamental, kitchen utensils, floor/wall and other appliances. It cleans them satisfactorily, imparts a lasting pleasant odour on them and removes rigors and drudgery from cleaning exercises. It is, therefore, a regular feature in domestic and industrial budgets.

For ease of washing application, soap powder is gaining demand over bar type of laundry soap.

Raw Materials

Raw Materials

Soap powder (see before) (10kg), dry sand grains or egg shells (90 kg), light soda ash (2kg).

Palm kernel oil (or bleached palm oil) (16.5 litres), caustic soda (3kg), soda ash (2kg), water (2 litres), and colourant/perfume (to taste).

Machinery and Equipment Grinder, mixer.

Machinery and Equipment Production Process Mixer, stirrer, package equipment. Grind a mixture of soap powder and sand/shell, air-dry for 2 3 days and package. (Light soda ash is alternative to sand/shell).


188

189

Soaps and Chemicals

CHEMICALS

CALCIUM CARBIDE

SODIUM SULPHIDE

Introduction

Introduction

Calcium carbide reacts with water to yield acetylene (ethylene) gas, which mixes with oxygen gas to produce a high-temperature oxyacetylene flame used in welding metals, even by road-side welders, auto panel beaters, etc:

Sodium sulphide is a depilatory that retards the growth of hair and causes hairs to fall off. It is used in leather industry for inhering of hides. It is also used in the synthesis of rubber, amino compounds and sulphur dyes, in paper industry, lithography, metallurgy, photographic, rayon and engraving industries.

CaC2 + 2 H20 Calcium carbide

C2H2 + Ca(0H)2 acetylene (ethyne)

DH = -30kcal

Raw Materials Raw Materials Baryte, soda ash. Quicklime, carbonaceous reductant or coke. Machinery and Equipment Machinery and Equipment Jaw crusher, vibratory screen, grinding mill, hopper, disintegrator, rotary furnace, leaching tank, drier and tanks.

Kiln, arc furnace.

Production Process for Sodium Sulphide and Barium Carbonate

Production Process

o

Baryte, BaS04, in a furnace is reduced at above 900 C to barium sulphide. Soda ash, Na2C03, is reacted with 17% barium sulphide solution for leaching and double decomposition to precipitate sodium sulphide. The sodium sulphide is separated from the by-product, barium carbonate. The product and by-product are filtered, washed, dried, pulverised and packaged. BaS04 + 4C BaS04 + 4C0 BaS + Na2C03

BaS + 4C0 BaS + 4C02 Na2S + BaC03

The limestone (quicklime) is calcined in a kiln, introduced in the arc furnace (at 2000 - 2200oC) along with reductants to yield calcium carbide packaged for sale. Ca0 + 3C

CaC2 + C0

DH = +103kcal

The quicklime is obtained by burning limestone containing at least 97% calcium carbonate, CaCo3. The impurities, such as magnesium, silica and iron, hamper production and give a less pure carbide. The source of carbon, C, is usually coke, anthracite, or

190


petroleum. The preferred coke is compact with low ash content, a low ignition point and high electrical resistivity. METALLIC STEARATES

Soaps and Chemicals

191

The resulting product is packaged. ZINC NITRATE Introduction

Introduction Metallic stearates include calcium stearate, zinc stearate, magnesium stearate, and aluminum stearate. They are additives in paints, varnishes, cosmetics, pipes, pharmaceutical, soaps, toothpaste, rubber, etc. With increasing number of chemical industries in the country, the metallic stearates are increasingly demanded. Raw Materials

Zinc nitrate is used in industries and in agriculture for sustaining soil fertility. Its demand is increasing in Nigeria now promoting increasing productivity for agriculture and export in non-oil sectors. Raw Materials Zinc ash, nitric acid. Machinery and Equipment

Stearic acid, soda, ash, zinc chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride and aluminum sulphate.

Stainless steel digester, centrifuge, evaporator, oven.


Production Process

Stainless steel reaction vessel, filter press plate, drier, boiler, scale, pulveriser, etc.

Zinc ash is reacted with nitric acid, centrifugal and the clear solution evaporated. The digested impurities are washed with water and the washing recycled to the system to minimise waste. On cooling, the evaporation liquid yields hexahydrate crystals of zinc nitrate. Dry and package.

Production Process React stearic acid with soda ash to get sodium stearate. The sodium stearate produced reacts with a metallic salt to form the corresponding metallic stearate, i.e. Soda ash + stearic acid Sodium stearate + zinc chloride Sodium stearate + magnesium chloride Sodium stearate + calcium chloride Sodium steate + aluminum sulphate

sodium stearate zinc stearate magnesium stearate calcium stearate aluminum stearate

SODIUM/POTASSIUM CITRATEAND IODIDES Introduction The iodides of sodium and potassium are used for iodometric analysis in the laboratory and in pharmaceutical industry as tincture and ointments. The critrates of sodium and potassium are used in pharmaceutical industry for the manufacture of syrups and related

192


Soaps and Chemicals

items.

COPPER SALTS

These citrate and iodides have high demands in education sector as well as chemical and pharmaceutical industries.

Introduction

Raw Materials Caustic potash/soda, activated carbon, iodine, citric acid, potassium carbonate (anhydrous). Machinery and Equipment Stainless steel reactor, boiler, tank, vacuum pump, cylinders with pump, scale, testing kit. Production Process Sodium/Potassum Iodides To water-solution of caustic soda/potash, add slowly with stirring calculated quantity of iodine until sodium/potassium iodate iodide are formed. Add activated carbon to the solution and heat the mixture o up to 80 C to reduce the iodate to iodide. Filter the solution and heat to saturation, cool, centrifuge and filter again to obtain crystals, o which are dried at 90 C, cooled and packaged. Sodium/Potassium Citrate Neutralise water-solution of citric acid with potassium carbonate or caustic potash till effervescence. Filter and concentrate solution by evaporation, allow to cool, centrifuge the resulting crystals, then o filter and dry at 60 C. Package.

193

Copper nitrate, Cu(N03)2, is used as a mordant and oxidant in textile dyeing and ceramic colour in printing, as well as in electroplating in paints, varnishes and dyes because it gives black antique finish to copper. Copper chloride, CuCl2, is used as a catalyst for organic reactions, desulphurising agent in petroleum industry, denitration of cellulose, the manufacture of phothalocyanines and as mordant in the dyeing and printing of fabrics. Copper carbonate, CuC03, is used in pyrotechniques, paints and varnishes, pigments, as a source of copper in poultry, and in agriculture as a fungicide. Copper sulphate, CuS04 is commonly known as blue vitriol. Its poisonous nature is utilised in the fungicide, Bordeaux mixture of copper sulphate solution with milk of lime. The sulphate is added to water reserviours occasionally to kill algae. It is used in electroplating, as mordant, germicide and agent in engraving. Manufacture It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on cupric oxide or sulphide ores. H2S04 + Cu0

CuS04 + H20

With growing emphasis on agriculture and the use of fungicide and the growth in paint and varnishes industries, the demand for copper salts is increasing. Certain copper compounds are added to antifouling paints used on ship buttons.

194


Raw Materials Copper scrap, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, soda ash, copper sulphate, copper carbonate.

Soaps and Chemicals

195

used in the manufacture of vulcanised fibres and also as a dehydrating agents, as well as for sizing cotton yarns before weaving. It is also an important component of fertilisers. With its numerous uses cutting across almost all spheres of industrial activities.

Machinery and Equipment Raw Materials Boilers, vacuum pump, nitric acid, glass reactor, fume vent, crystalliser, centrifuge, stainless steel, buckner funnel, evaporator, centrifuge rubber, etc.

Zinc ash , hydrochloric acid. Machinery and Equipment

Production Process Copper Nitrate, Cu(N03)2.6H20 To copper in a reaction vessel, add calculated quantity of nitric acid. Evaporate the resulting copper nitrate solution, crystallise. Dry and package. Copper chloride, CuCl2.2H20 Copper carbonate is treated with hydrochloric acid, evaporate the resulting copper chloride solution and crystallise the copper chloride. Dry and package. Copper Carbonate, CuC03 To water-solution of copper sulphate, add sodium carbonate, filter, dry the resulting copper carbonate and package. ZINC CHLORIDE Introduction Zinc chloride is used in agriculture as micro nutrient for different crops, in timber industry for impregnating timber to prevent “dry rot,” and for cleaning the surface of metals before soldering. It is also

Digestion tank, cistern, oven, evaporator, etc. Production Process Calculated quantity of hydrochloric acid is slowly added to about 70% of zinc ash, the mixture is transferred to cistern for sedimentation of impurities, filtered and transferred to evaporator. The mixture is fixed and after it solidifies, the product, zinc chloride is removed and package. ZINC SULPHATE Introduction Zinc sulphate is a micro-nutrient for certain cash crops. With current efforts to diversify the productive base of the economy, the demand for zinc sulphate is certainty rising. Raw Materials Zinc dust, sulphuric acid.

196


Soaps and Chemicals

197


washed thoroughly with water to remove any extra untreated sodium cyanide, centrifuged, filtered, dried and packaged.

Reactor lead, vacuum concentration, vacuum pump, cooling tower, etc.

PRECIPITATED CALCIUM CARBONATE

Production Process

Introduction

To zinc dust suspended in small quantity of water, sulphuric acid is slowly added to dissolve the zinc with evolution of hydrogen gas. Check the pH of the solution. Being in the acid range confirms the reaction is complete. Remove unwanted impurities and concentrate the solution to 1.5 - 1.6 density, crystallise, centrifuge, filter, dry and package.

Calcium carbonate occurs naturally in impure form as limestone, widely used in cement industries for the production of lime and cement. It is also widely used in rubber, plastic, toothpaste and paint industries.

ZINC CYANIDE

Limestone, coke.

Introduction


Zinc cyanide is used for electroplating, production of insecticide and as a laboratory reagent. The education, chemical and metallurgical industries are growing, so is the demand for zinc cyanide.

Kiln, compressor, dryer, crusher, screen, package, etc.

Raw Materials

Production Process

Sodium cyanide, zinc oxide, hydrochloric acid, packages.

Limestone and coke are fed into the kiln. Screen the resulting solid and add water to it to form emulsion. Mix the emulsion with compressed carbon dioxide to obtain precipitate, separated, dried and packaged.


GLUEAND GELATINE

Reactor, stirrer, hydro extractor, filtering unit, etc.

Introduction

Production Process

Glue and gelatine are hydrolytic products of collagen, which is found in bones and connective vertebrate tissues. Glue is an impure form of gelatin and is mainly used as adhesive. Gelatin is used in pharmaceutical preparations, in photographic films and allied

Raw Materials

Zinc oxide, sodium cyanide and hydrochloric acid are mixed together. The resulting zinc cyanide precipitate is filtered out,

198


Soaps and Chemicals

199

products, as digestibles in the manufacture of ice cream, and in food and confectionary industry. Thus, glue and gelatine has vast demand and application as industrial goods.

RUBBER ERASER

Raw Materials

Eraser is used to delete pencil impressions. Growing educational development demands more of this product.

Bone, sinews, raw hide cutting, tannery scrap, limed and unlimed fleshings and trimmings, tendons, waste from loom pickers, fish offals, sodium hydrogen sulphite.

Raw Materials

Machinery and Equipment Water pump, overhead tank, cellulose filter, digester, wire mesh belt. Production Process Lime is treated to remove excess lime, hair and other collagen water. o The stock is immersed in water and digested at 60 C for 2 - 3 hours. The liquid glue is filtered through cellulose filters to remove suspended impurities. It is next decolourised by use of sodium hydrogen sulphite, concentrated, bleached, cooled and allowed to set, and packaged. Gelatine production involves pretreatment of the green stock by washing with water to remove outer contaminants like blood, etc. The washed stock is cured by use of milk of lime 1 - 6 months at 10 o 20 C. The cured stock is washed with water and extracted to reduce the thermal degradation to a limit. The viscous solution is then chilled o and dried at 30 - 60 C on a wire mesh belt to concentrate it, and packaged.

Introduction

Palecrepe rubber, frailties, eraser crumbs, sulphur, etc. Machinery and Equipment Mixing mill roll, hydraulic press, grinder, bowl, boiler, mold, etc. Production Process Masticate a mixture of all ingredients, except sulphur, with palecrepe. Add sulphur and draw the rubber compound in form of sheet of desired thickness. Place sheet in mold and cut to desired shape and size, stamp with brand name and package. INKS (WRITING) Introduction Writing instruments use ink in many colours. Growing educational and mass literacy programmes lend writing inks to great demand. Raw Materials Tannic acid, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, ferrous ammonium sulphate, ink blue, gallic acid, hydrochloride acid, diethylene glycol, glycerol, denatured spirit, acetone.

200


Soaps and Chemicals

201



Wooden vats, sparkler filter, bottle washing machine, cap sealer, ink filling machine, boiler, etc.

Extruder, grinder, mixer, water pump, overhead tank, testing kits, etc.

Production Process Ink is obtained when an iron salt (ferrous sulphate, ferrous ammonium sulphate, ferric chloride) reacts with a mixture of tannic acid and gallic acid. Hydrochloric acid is added to avoid growth of fungus. The ink base is kept for at least 2 months. Maturation solvents, like diethylene glycol and acetone, are added a day or two before the ink is filtered and packaged.

Production Process To the paste of PVC resin in a mixer add the required quantity of plasticiser, lubricants, chlorinated paraffin wax, pigments, kaolin and stabiliser in that order with continuous stirring at high temperature (due to the rotation of the stirrer). Package the resulting granules or powder before packaging. POLYESTER RESIN (UNSATURATED)

PVC

Introduction

Introduction

Polyester resin is a mixture of unsaturated polyester and monomers like styrene or diallyl phthalate to serve as a cross-link. The unsaturated polyester is produced by the condensation process of a mixture of maleic anhydride or isophthalic acid with a glycol. A crosslinking is done to improve the properties of the resin formed. During the production, silica is added as a thixotropic agent. Paraffin wax is also added for minimising inhibition of the surface where the resin is applied during usage. Unsaturated polyester resins are the major raw materials used for the production of glass reinforced plastic and also for buttons, coatings, paints and sheets. Demand for polyester is high due to its numerous uses.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic material with a very wide range of application due to toughness and its high water/chemical resistance. It is a self-extinguishing material that does not support combustion. It is usually compounded with additives to enhance its qualities. It is presented in granulated pellets or powder as a raw material for numerous products, including PVC pipes, tubings and cables, shoes, films and sheetings, plastics, etc. hence its high demand. Raw Materials PVC resin, lubricants, chlorinated paraffin wax, plasticiser, pigments, fillers (kaolin, calcium carbonate), stabiliser.

Raw Materials Maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride or adipic acid, propyleneglycol, dially phthalate, hydroquinone and methyl ketone peroxide.

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Machinery and Equipment Circulation pump, stainless steel mixer, stainless steel storage tank, water pump, overhead tank, testing kit, etc. Production Process Mix in correct proportion maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride (or adipic acid). Cross link the mixture with styrene (or methyl styrene). Add propylene glycol for a condensation reaction in the mixture. Add hydroquinone as an inhibitor. Add methyl ketone peroxide as an activator at room temperature.

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wood, water may be first added). Add wax to the wood to act as antiswelling agent. Dry to reduce moisture content. Blend the wood and glue mix. Pass mix to gamma ray density control unit installed in the wood material feeding bin for formation of particle board uniform mat. By application of heat and pressure, cure the adhesive binder and evaporate the water from the mat. (Pressing time i.e. the period of time the mat will be under the sustained pressure maximum prescribed pressure, depends on the thickness and densities of the board, particle used and the temperature of the platens). COATEDABRASIVES Introduction

PARTICLE BOARD Introduction Particle board is used in furniture and building industries, and thus has high demand. Raw Materials Groundnut shell, rice husks, beans husks, bagasse, sawdust, adhesive, water, preservative, wood and other ligno-cellulosic materials.

Coated abrasives are papers or cloths and covered with abrasive grains using cattle hide glue, shellac or technical gelatine or other glues as adhesives. They include sandpaper, emery paper, emery cloth, gasket aper (garner cloth), fused crystalline silicon carbide papers, silicon carbide cloth and flint paper. They are used by carpenters, shoemakers, mechanics and a host of others for removing rust or worn-out paint from metal surfaces, sizing of metals and woods, and smoothening wooden or metallic surfaces. Their demand is, therefore, high. Raw Materials

Machinery and Equipment Particle board mill, chain saw, overhead crane, blender, gamma ray density control unit.

Abrasives based 110 system flexible, technical gelating and flint grains or silicon carbide. Machinery and Equipment

Production Process Add urea formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde to act as adhesive and to impart moisture resistance to the ground wood or lignocellulosic materials. (Depending on the degree of dryness of the

Abrasive coating plant, cutting machine, sieves, glue coated roller.

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Production Process Fix the ream of paper and connect the other end to the abrasive coating machine. Pass the sheet through the glue coated ruler. Heat glue and pass through a trimmer to remove excess glue. Pass grift paper through a hot zone for a second coating on the grift. Cut into required sizes and package. GUMS Introduction Gums are industrial adhesive based on starch made from corn, cassava, wheat, or potato. Starch adhesives are applied cold, have no undesirable colour of animal glues and are less expensive. Dextrin is obtained by the degradation of starch. Dextrinbased gums are used for envelopes, gummed papers, postage stamps, etc. They are more soluble and set more rapidly than the starch-based gums, which are stronger. Silicate-based adhesive are generally lower colloidal silicates used for corrugated containers, plywoods, wall board, flooring and metal foils.

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quick-drying and stable over prolonged period of storage. Filter the mucitage and store in wooden cases for further clarification. The water: gum ratio is between 2:1 and 3:1. Preservatives (e.g. sodium benzoate) are added. Package. Starch-based gums are derived mainly from corn, cassava, irish or sweet potato and dextrin. Starch is rarely used alone, but is combined with borax for stronger adhesive quality, viscosity, track rate and speed of production; sodium hydroxide to accelerate borax action and improve penetration; urea to act in opposite direction as borax, thus enabling manufacturers to use gummy products. Plasticisers, defoaming agents, preservatives, fluiding agents, colouring and emulsifying agents may also be added. SULPHURICACID Introduction Sulphuric acid is used widely in the manufacture of different chemicals, fertilisers, leathers, tin plate, refining petroleum, dyeing of textiles, and production of activated clay and silica gel. It is a strong dibasic acid, an oxidizing and dehydrating agent, also used in cells. Thus, its demand is high.

Raw Materials

Raw Materials

Corn, cassava or potato starch, gum arabic and sodium silicate.

Sulphur, oxygen, water, catalyst.



Reactor, wooden vat, tank, boiler, wooden cases, plastic drums, scale, filter, water pump, overhead tank, testing kit, etc.

Melter-settler, sulphur burner, water boiler, cold and hot heat exchangers, economiser, oleum tower, absorbing tower, preheating furnace, etc.

Production Process Mix gum arabic in cold water to obtain a pale coloured paste that is

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Production Process

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sugar or citrus fruit wastes. It is extensively used in the mineral water industry, hence its high demand.

Burn the sulphur to obtain sulphur dioxide (S02). Oxidise to trioxide, S03, which is hydrolysed to obtain sulphuric acid, H2S04: S03 + H20 S02 + 1/202

Soaps and Chemicals

H2S04 S03

DH=-70.9kcal DH=-23.49kcal

Purify and concentrate the acid and package the corrosive product in PVC containers. With the contact-process plant, the steps of manufacture are: 1. transportation of sulphur to the plant 2. melting/filtering of sulphur (to remove traces of ash) 3. pumping and atomizing of melted/filtered sulphur 4. drying of combustion air 5. burning of sulphur to get sulphur dioxide 6. recovery of heat from and cooling of hot sulphur dioxide gas 7. purification of sulphur dioxide gas by hot filtration 8. oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide in converters 9. temperature control with heat transfer, to secure light yields of sulphur trioxide 10. absorption of sulphur trioxide in strong acid, 98.5 to 99% 11. cooling of acid from absorbers 12. pumping of acid over absorption towers. CITRICACID Introduction Citric acid is an organic acid used as acidulant in carbonated beverages, jams, marmalades, jellies, and as a plasticiser in the form of acetyl tributyl citrate. It is produced from crude sugar or corn

Raw Materials Cassava starch, rice bra, niger enzyme, calcium oxide and water. Machinery and Equipment Fermenter, crystalliser, dryer, boiler, evaporator. Production Process Ferment prepared cassava starch or rice bra, using the enzyme. Extract the formed citric acid by evaporation, crystallisation, filtering and drying. Package. ACTIVATED CARBON Introduction Activated carbon, active carbon or active charcoal is amorphous carbon possessing higher adsorption capacities than wood or animal charcoal. It is used in various industries, mostly in decolourisation of sugar solutions, glycerine, vegetable oils, in the purification of gases and vapours, etc. Raw Materials Bituminous coal, charcoal, animal bones, nutshells, rice husks, fruit pits, lignite, coconut shell, wood (sawdust), petroleum residue, soda ash, caustic lye.

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domestic animals.

Vibratory screen, retorts, dryers, activation chamber, pulveriser, pethertising machine, boiler, storage tanks, etc.

Raw Materials

Production Process

Saw dust, soluble starch, perfume, insecticide, wood skin powder, dinithrophenol, allethrin, water, dye, malachite green. o

Seal tightly the retort containing coconut shell and heat to 700 - 800 C o to obtain carbon. Activate by heating to 800 - 900 C with steam or caron dioxide or boil with concentrated sulphuric acid. Destructive distillation (as in coconut shell) of wood chips with zinc chloride as the moisture absorbing gent gives carbon. Wash and dry it and transfer it to activation chamber. Carbon dioxide is o passed into the chamber at 800 - 900 C to activate the charcoal. Cool the mass crush, pulverise to desired mesh (80 mesh), screen and package in air-tight containers. o Risk husk is treated with caustic lye or soda ash at 750 - 900 C for several hours to convert the husk’s silica into sodium silicate. Add fresh water to dissolve the sodium silicate. Sand settles at the bottom, while floats on the top. Filter, wash, dry in try dryers to get pure activated carbon of pharmaceutical grade.


MOSQUITO COIL

Introduction

Introduction

Phosphoric acid is a non-metallic acid used in the production of superphosphate, triple superphosphate, ammonium and dicalcium phosphate fertilizers, as well as livestock feed, food, beverage, dentrifice and detergent. This extensive range of application dictates high demand for phosphoric acid.

Mosquito is an insect pest that feed on humans, disturbing their evening relaxation and night rest/sleep, and giving them malaria parasites. Aerosol spray, window netting, bed netting, and use of pestoff body cream are some means of controlling mosquito attack. The cheapest way, however, remains the use of mosquito coils which is affordable to an average citizen and students. When burnt, mosquito coil produces a smoke that kills and repels mosquitoes, and other insects but it is harmless to humans and

Kneader, extruder, rotary punching machine, dryer, cutting machine, mixer. Production Process Mix sawdust, wood skin powder and soluble starch. To the slurry add appropriate quantities of dye, perfume, insecticide, malachite green, dinithrophenol, allethrin and water in a kneader. Extrude the mixture to form coils using rotary punching machine. Dry to 10% moisture content and package. PHOSPHORICACIDAND GYPSUM

Raw Materials Phosphate rock (37%), sulphuric acid (98%).

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CHLORINATED PARAFFIN WAX

Crusher, crystalliser, filtration equipment, evaporator, water pump, overhead tank, test kits, etc.

Introduction

Production Process To the crushed phosphate rock add sulphuric acid. Crystallise gypsum from the aqueous acid, leaving behind 0% phosphoric acid, which is refined and evaporated to 50% concentration and packaged. Package gypsum for cement production.

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Although paraffin wax is produced in Nigeria by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), chlorinated paraffin wax is imported for use as a secondary platiciser for PVC resins and extender in synthetic rubber, chlorinated rubber, nitrocellulose, impregnated textiles and fabrics of all kinds as a flame retardant. It is also used in the manufacture of fire-proof paint, foundry core binder, flame-proof electric wire. These uses lend chlorinated paraffic wax to extensive demand.

SOLDERING WIRE Raw Materials Introduction Soldering wire is used in electrical/electronic and telephone industries for soldering radio, transistor and television circuits as well as connections. The demand for this product in Nigeria and WestAfrican market is high.

Paraffin wax, chlorine gas, stabiliser (epichlorihydrin). Machinery and Equipment Wax melting tank, air compressor, lead rector, absorber, filter, dryer, boiler, degassification vessel.

Raw Materials Production Process Tin, lead, antimony, rosin, glycerin and hard coke. Machinery and Equipment Coke fire furnace, bar rolling plants, wire cutting machines, wire winding (coiling) machine, chemical test kits, mold. Production Process Melt a mixture of the appropriate quantities of the raw materials, pour into mold, file the flux, roll the bar, roll the wire, coil and package.

Chlorine gas is passed into the melted wax. The heat of reaction is maintained in the presence of ultravoilet light for 8 - 10 hours till the desired gravity of the product is obtained. Blow air through the mass to remove unreacted chlorine or hydrochloric acid, which is absorbed by water sprang in a porcelain. Stabilise the product with epichlorihydrin and package.

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ABRASIVE WHEELS Introduction Abrasive wheels are hard, tough and sharp wheels used for drilling, cutting, grinding and polishing metal, wood, cement, glass marble, granite and other products for good finishing appearance that many local products lack in Nigeria. Natural abrasive materials include diamond, currudum, emery, garact, quartz sand, flint, granite, talc, feldspar, diatomite, pumice, siliceous clay, etc. Common synthetic abrasives include silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, etc. The extensive use of abrasive wheels in tool and cutter sharpening (cutlasses, hoes, chisels, etc), cylindrical grinding, roll grinding, general surface grinding in many industrial concerns (metallic, non-metallic, leather cereal grinding, etc) sustains a large demand for the wheels.

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Resinoid Process. Abrasive grits are mixed intimately with liquid phenolic resin, coated and finally mixed with bone-dry resins. It is sent to the mold for appropriate shape exerted by pressure from hydraulic arms. It is removed and transferred on pallets to the o furnace to cure or irreversibly harden at 150 200 C. Allow to cool. Dress to appropriate shape, using special lathe machine and bell cutter. Test and package. GRAPHITE CRUCIBLE Introduction Graphite crucible is a special container used in foundry for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys. It has inherent properties, including good thermal metals conductivity, resistance to melting by molten metals, etc. which lend it to this use and demand.

Raw Materials

Raw Materials

Abrasives (silicon carbide and fused alumina), binders, fire clay, magnetic, plaster of Paris, sodium silicate, phenolic resin.

Graphite (flake and lump), silicon carbide, crucible scrap/grog, glaze materials, etc.



Mixer, press, mold, pallet, turntable, cabinel oven, facing lathe, speed tester, etc.

Disintegrator, electromagnet, press mold, jigger and jolly, etc. Production Process

Production Process Vitrified Process. Intimate moisture mixture of abrasive grains and clay bonding is put in versized mold and pressed into wheels in hydraulic and hand process. The wheels are vitrified and finally dressed to dimensions on specially designed machines.

A mixture of crushed, sieved and weighed material is passed through a powerful permanent magnet to remove iron particles. Water is added and the wet mass extruded several times, stored for 2 months o molded into desired shapes, dried, coated, baked at 1,000 C, fired for 6 days and packaged.

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Soaps and Chemicals

SILICAGEL

a binder or shaping the hydrogel during drying.

Introduction

COALBRIQUETTES

Silica gel consists of amorphous silica with regenerative absorptive property applied industrially as dehymidifying and dehydrating agents in: i. drying compressed air and other gases, liquids (e.g. refrigerants and oils containing water in suspension) ii. recovery of natural gasoline from natural gas iii. bleaching of petroleum oils iv. catalyst and catalyst carrier v. chromatography vi. anti-caking formulations of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals vii. prevention of slipping in waxes

Introduction

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Coal briquettes are hard and nut-shaped coal, bentonite or molasses materials used as fuel in kitchen, oven, restaurants and hotels, as substitutes for costly solid fuel, such as coke briquettes, charcoal, firewood, etc. With spasmodic acute scarcity of cooking gas and kerosene in Nigeria, throwing homes, fish-smokers, suya-makers, yam-roasters, cooks, hotels, etc. in stress, coal briquettes are gaining demand. Raw Materials Slack coal, bentonite, sodium silicate, molasses, washery sink.

Raw Materials Machinery and Equipment Sodium silicate, sulphuric acid Machinery and Equipment

Disintegrator, coal briquetting machine (smoke type), scale (platform type), muller, mixer, carbonizing furnace, etc.

Mixer, mold, grinder, storage tanks, etc.

Production Process

Production Process

Crush slack coal and washery sink into powder, mix with appropriate quantities of molasses, bentointe and sodium silicate, press the powder into briquettes, charge briquettes into furnace for carbonization. (The carbonization furnace is charged with green briquettes at regular intervals). Unload properly carbonized briquettes from chamber, cool by sprinkling with water, sort them out and package.

Mix sodium silicate with sulphuric acid. Allow to set to get a rigid mass of silica hydrosol. Break the mass mechanically, wash the gel free of electrolytes, dry and activate. (The silica concentration, temperature and pH affect gel time and fine gel characteristics, such as density, strength, hardness, surface area and pore volume.). Batch and semi-continuous process to produce a gelatinous recipitate, washed and often spray-dried may be adopted. The silica gel may be pelleted or granulated by extruding the pulverized gel with

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Soaps and Chemicals

SILICON CARBIDE CRUCIBLE

Raw Materials

Silicon carbide crucible has inherent thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, resistance to thermal shock, resistance to wetting and to molten metals, etc. that lend it to use in foundries for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals, such as copper, nickel, chromium, brass and other alloys.

Electrolytic copper bar, mineral acid.

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Machinery and Equipment Wire drawing machine, welding machine, stainless steel tank, annealing furnace, test kits, etc.

Raw Materials Production Process Graphite, silicon carbide, ferro manganese, bonding materials. Machinery and Equipment

The bar is picked in acid to remove dry oxide, cleaned and washed to remove traces of acid, drawn, annealed into copper wire rolls and packaged.

Jaw crusher, hydraulic press, mixer/kneader, vibrating screen, ejection steel, kilns, test kits, etc.

BAKELITEACCESSORIES

Production Process

Introduction

Grade raw materials to required sizes and mix with bonding materials. Charge mixture into ejection type crucible and press. Leave/allow a few days, inspect shaped article for laminations and cracks. Load into o kiln and fire at 1,350 C. Cool fired ware and coat with suitable glaze. Charge glazed ware into flashing furnace at red hot temperature utilizing coke, cool and package.

Bakelite accessories are electric household appliances, including electric switches, plugs, sockets, lampholders, etc. Their demand is increasing with widening rural electrification projects.

COPPER WIRE Copper wire is a non-ferrous wire that has very high electrical conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and good mechanical properties, including malleability for easy fabrication. It is used mostly in household wiring, at industrial electric motors and electric/electronic appliances.

Raw Materials Phenol formaldehyde powder, brass components, brass and bronze sheets, iron strip and spring, porcelain parts and screws. Machinery and Equipment Bakelite molding press, hand sheating machine, ball press, bench drill machine, bench grinder, buffing machine, testing equipment, etc.

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Soaps and Chemicals

Production Process

bench grinder. Fit lead in lead fixing machine. Package.

Melt bakelite powder in molding press to give desired shape. Phenol formaldehyde powder is previously powdered into the molding holes of the press. Manipulate the handle of the press to facilitate action. Prepare the desired item and fix brass and other ceramics parts inside the molder. Buff the accessory in buffing machine. Test and package.

HOT DIPGALVANISING

CARBON BRUSHES Introduction

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Introduction This industry coats a steel surface with a layer of pure zinc with a few alloying metals, like tin, aluminum, etc. in molten condition by immersing the steel component in a bath of molten zinc. It is convenient and economic method of surface protection for metallic buckets, drums, wires, plates, cans, corrugated sheets, bolts, nuts, nails, trunks, industrial fasteners, etc.

Carbon brushes are used as conductors in the rotation of electrical machines. They maintain electrical connection between stationery and moving parts.

Raw Materials

Raw Materials


Electrographite carbon block, hard carbon, natural graphite carbon, copper flexible, lead fixing powder, copper and brass sheet, etc.

Oil-fired furnace, cement tank, galvanized tank, electrical hoits, immersion pyrometer, bench drilling, flexible shaft grinder, handling tools, etc.

Zinc ingots, acids, fluxes, etc,

Machinery and Equipment Production Process Carbon block cutting machine, double edged bench grinder (with 12inch wheels 1400/1500, 6-inc wheel bench drilling machine, lead fixing machine, ball press, dust collector, millivolt drop testing machine, pellout testing machine, conductivity bridge, etc).

Melt the zinc ingots, flux, dip materials into molten zinc, quench in water to reduce surface oxidation, package. BLEACHING EARTH

Production Process 1

1

The proposed size of carbon brush to be produced range from /4 ”x /4" 1 1 7 1 x /8" to /8" x /8" x /8", materials are first inspected. Cut carbon blocks into varying sizes in carbon block cutting machine. Grind ends in

Activated or bleaching earth is used for bleaching edible oil. It is made by activating suitable clay.

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Raw Materials Clay, sulphuric acid. Machinery and Equipment Boiler, reflux, vacuum pump, water pump, pulveriser, oven. Production Process Mix 1kg of clay with 2 litres of 25% H2S04. Boil the mixture under reflux for 2 hours, filter at pump and wash with enough water (still at o pump) to remove any trace of acid. Dry in over at 120 C for 4 hour, pulverize to required texture (the finer the more surface area and better) and package. MATCHES The match is a common household daily need for quick ignition of fire for cooking, smoking and other purposes. th Phosphorous, the 15 element, is a waxy solid, of yellow and red allotropic forms, igniting with great ease and burning violently, on account of its great affinity for oxygen. Thus, friction matches contain phosphorous. In fact, the match of the decade of 1890s consisted of a stick of wood upon the end of which a bit of yellow phosphorous was placed. Hence, it glowed in the dark, after the manner of yellow phosphorous. When rubbed, the heat of the friction was sufficient to ignite the phosphorous, and the combustion was communicated to the wood by a means of a coating of sulphur, which gave off the disagreeable odour of sulphur dioxide as it burned (Gruener, 1933). The modern match involves the following features: the tip consisting of a phosphorous compound (e.g. phosphorous sulphide) held by means of glue to the stick a layer of paraffin that carries the fire to the wood

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-

the wood powdered with a mineral substance to quench any spark after the match is extinguished. The safety match is based upon the fact that red phosphorous, P, and potassium chlorate, KCl03, form a very inflammable mix. For the purpose of safety, the red phosphorous is placed upon the friction surface of the box and the KCl03 mixed with some combustible substances, such as antimony sulphide, is placed upon the match. The match therefore, ignites only when rubbed on the special surface. Today, technology has advanced. There are 2 types of matches: 1. Strike-anywhere match, and 2. Strike-on-the-box match Strike-anywhere match consist of first tip and second tip. The first tip consists of: i. an oxidizer - potassium chlorate, KCl03 ii. an oxidisable material antimony sulphide, Sb2S3; sulphur, S; and ferrous sulphide, FeS iii. frictional material, such as ground glass, and a binder glue or starch. The second tip is similar in composition to the first tip, but also contains some phosphorous sulphide, P4S3. Strike-on-the-box match consists of wood, such as gmelina and cassava-like type of wood. Raw Materials Potassium chlorate, antimony sulphide, glass (ground powder), zinc, oxide, starch, red phosphorous, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, paraffin wax, sticks, copper sulphate, diesel. The tables below show the proportions of the active materials for match production.

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Table 5.2: Proportion of materials for striking surface match Sb2S3 Red Phosphorous Glass 10 20 8 Table 5.3: Proportion of materials for strike-anywhere match Sb2S3 kCl03 Glass Zinc Oxide 10 12 3 1.5 Machinery and Equipment Scale, spatula or spoon, glass rod, boiler, mixer. Production Process Grind 1.2kg potassium chlorate to fine powder. Add 0.3kg glass and 0.15kg zinc oxide and mix. Add antimony sulphide and mix gently with spatula, then mix thoroughly with a pestle to ensure homogeneity. Dissolve 1kg starch powder in 1 litre of water. Boil 9 litres of water. Add 1,200 - 1,400 drops of the starch solution, using glass rod, to the hot water, then mix thoroughly with pestle to get a paste you can apply to the stick. Use 5% water solution of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate to prevent explosion. Immerse in very hot molten paraffin wax to prevent sagging. Make sticks from gmelina or cassava by splitting the wood to small sizes (about 1.5mm), immersing them in copper sulphate solution to prevent fungus and drying them, dyeing them to chosen colour, frying them in a solvent (2:8 mixture of paraffin wax and diesel), and spreading them to dry. Apply the starch paste and match mixture to stick tip with brush, noting ideal match tip and sagged match tip. For striking surface mixture, the match mixture is 1kg antimony sulphide, 2kg red phosphorous, 0.8kg glass powder to increase friction and 10% starch.

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Start by weighing the red phosphorous for friction. FERTILISER Fertilizer is used to enhance crop production. As the soil nutrients are depleted by man's activities, the use of fertilizer becomes necessary, if cropping efforts must not be majorly wasted. Fertilizer can be solid or liquid, for ease of application. The solid fertilizer may be natural and sourced as compost manure from the waste management and recycling for agriculture. Three important elements from fertilizer: nitrogen (N), phosphate (P) and potassium (K). The form various divisions of NPK fertilizer industry. In the phosphate division, calcium phosphate, Ca3 (P04)2, which occurs in a nature as phosphate rock in a form that is so insoluble that plants cannot utilize it, is ground to fine powder and mixed with sulphuric acid, H2S04, to give slightly soluble products valuable as fertilizers, as expressed in chemical equation below: Ca3 (P04)2 + 2H2S04

CaH4 (P04)2 + 2CaS04

The phosphorous can be converted into superphosphate, triple superphosphates and acid phosphate. This acid can then be converted into ammonium phosphate. Other sources of phosphate (P) for fertilizer are bone products (since bone is mainly calcium phosphate), the phosphate slags of steel making obtained in the lining of steel converters when the iron is rich in phosphrous. For agricultural purposes, most nitrogen (N) compounds will serve the purpose of supplying the plants with N because in the end, N in any combined form is oxidized to the nitrates necessary for plants. Industrially, N is supplied for agriculture as ammonium salts obtained from the products of soft coal distillation (fossil fuels), sodium nitrate obtained from niter beds (of Chile) and any nitrogenous refuse, such as slaughterhouse waste or garbage residue

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used as such or mixed with other substances of fertilizer value (Gruener, 1933). Potassium salts are mined from underground deposits. The nitrogen compounds, phosphorous compounds and potassium compounds, are mixed in proportions given as NPK value in most solid fertilizers in use today. These proportion are based on crop demand. In many cases, small quantities of trace elements (such as zinc, boron, copper and molybdenum) are added, depending on their need in certain regions (Ababio, 2005: 574: 575).

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Soaps and Chemicals

SODIUM SULPHATE Introduction After reduction to sodium sulphide or hydrolysis to caustic soda, sodium sulphate is used as an aid in digesting pulpwood and dissolving the lignin. Sodium sulphate is also part of household detergents, glass, stock feeds, dyes, textiles and medicine. Manufacture of Sodium Sulphate and HydrochloricAcid

SODIUM CHLORIDE (OR COMMON OR TABLE SALT) Introduction Salt is a vital part of human diet and a source of many industrial chemical raw materials, including sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), sodium carbonate (soda ash), sodium sulphate, hydrochloric acid, sodium phosphate, sodium chlorate, sodium chlorite, as well as many others through its derivatives. All the chlorine produced in the world is by electrolysis of sodium chloride. Salt is also used in the regeneration of sodium zeolite water softeners and in the manufacture of organic acids (Shreve and Brink, 1977: 199). Salt is obtained in 3 ways: solar evaporation of sea water (gives 98 - 99% purity), from mining rock salt (gives up to 99.5% purity) and from well brines (gives up to 98% purity). Raw Materials, Machinery/Equipment and Production Process The applicable raw materials, machinery/equipment and production process will depend on the location. In Nigeria, there are salty water bodies for sourcing brine to evaporate for salt. In this case, machinery/equipment and production process will be those of sourcing, storage, evaporation and packaging.

Natural salt brines (obtained directly from salty water bodies or by pumping water into a salt deposit and bringing the brine to the surface) account for over half sodium sulphate produced. The brine is treated with sulphuric acid or sulphur dioxide to obtain sodium sulphate, as in the equations below: NaCl + H2S04 brine

NaHS04 + HCl sodium bisulphate

NaHS04 + NaCl

Na2S04 + HCl

Or 4NaCl + 2S02 + 2H20 + 02 Sulphur dioxide

2Na2S04 + 4HCl

The reactions of salt and sulphuric acid are endothermic and requires to be heated. The first reaction goes to completion at relatively low temperatures, while the second approaches completion at elevated temperatures. 2NaCl(s) + H2S04 (l)

2HCl(g) + Na2S04 (s)

o

DH25 C = + 15.7kcal

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As the formed gas (HCl) escapes, the reaction is forced to the right. This gas can be channelled into production of hydrochloric acid. The commercial process for the production of Na2S04 and HCl(l) involves: roasting sulphuric acid and brine in Mannheim furnace to form HCl(g) and Na2S04 cooling the hot Hcl(g) (contaminated with droplets of H2S04 and particles of Na2S04) by passing it through coolers cooled externally by water removal of suspended foreign particles from the cooled gas by passing it upward through a coke tower. (This step is omitted in some plants) absorbing the gas in water in a tantalum or karbate absorber withdrawal of the acid, Hcl(l) from the bottom of the absorber. The Mannheim furnace consists pf a cast-iron muffle, composed of a dish-shaped top and bottom bolted together and equipped with plows to agitate the reaction mixture for continuous mixing and heating. SODIUM BISULPHITE Introduction The commercial anhydrous sodium bisulphate, NaHS03 consists almost entirely of Na2S205 (sodium pyrosulphite or sodium metabisulphite, the dehydrated derivative of 2 molecules of sodium bisulphate. It is industrial major demands as liquid or solid are as intermediates in pharmaceuticals and in food preservatives, while its minor uses are found in the pulp and paper, textile, water treatment, pollution control, tanning, photographic and organic chemical industries.

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Soaps and Chemicals

Manufacture A mixture of considerable amount of soda ash in suspension and mother liquors from previous process containing in solution small amounts of sodium bisulphate is treated by passing 7 8% sulphur dioxide to get NaHS04. 2NaHS03 + 2Na2C03 + 2H20 + 4S02

6NaHS03 + 2C02

The product is obtained as a suspension, which is removed from the solution by centrifuging. The dried product is really sodium metabisulphite, Na2S205. SODIUM HYDROSULPHITE ("HYDRO”) Introduction Sodium hydrosulphite, Na2S204, is a very powerful reducing agent with a specific action on many dyes, particularly vat dyes, reducing them to the soluble form. It is used to strip certain dyes from fabrics and for bleaching straws and soaps. It is replacing zinc for bleaching in paper and pulp industry, and is demanded in the clay industry for removal of the red iron colour from clay used in manufacturing coated papers and china. Manufacture Two methods requiring zinc dust are available. In the first process, the zinc dust is allowed to reduce sodium bisulphate at room temperature. 2NaHS03 + H2S03 + Zn

ZnS03 + Na2S204 + 2H20

The products of the reaction are treated with milk of lime to

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neutralize any free acid, and this reduces the solubility of the ZnS03, which is filtered off. Sodium chloride is added to salt out the Na2S204.2H20, which is dehydrated with alcohol and dried. The crystals are stable only in dry state. The second process consists of treating an aqueous o suspension of zinc dust in formaldehyde with sulphur dioxide at 80 C. A double decomposition reaction is then carried out with soda ash to form the sodium salt. Apure product is obtained under vacuum. Rising costs of zinc metal and adverse pollution regulations will shit manufacture away from the zinc process to the amalgam process consisting of reducing sodium sulphite solution with sodium amalgam (formed in the production of chlorine using a mercury cell at a controlled pH (5 - 7)). Sodium hydrosulphite can also be produced from sodium formate (formed as a by-product in the manufacture of pentaerythritol). The sodium foramte in an alkaline alcoholic solution is reacted with sulphur dioxide:

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Soaps and Chemicals

NaN03 + Pb

NaN02 + Pb0

It is now manufactured by passing the oxidation product of ammonia into a soda ash solution: 1

Na2C03 + 2N0 + /202

2NaN02 + C02

Any NaN03 formed may be separated by crystallization. SODIUM SILICATE Introduction Sodium silicate, Na2Si03, is used in the production of soaps, detergents, pigments, adhesives, silica gels and silicate-based catalysts, as well as in metal cleaning and water and paper treatment. Manufacture

HC00Na + 2S02 + Na0H

Na2S204 + C02 + H20

SODIUM NITRITE Introduction Sodium nitrite, NaN02, is used in the diazotisation of amines in making azo dyes. It is used in meat processing as a preservative to prevent bolulism, and when mixed with sodium nitrate, it is employed in metal treatment. It is also used as a bleach for fibres, in photography and in medicine. Manufacture Formerly, sodium nitrite, was prepared by reacting sodium nitrate with lead:

Fusing sodium carbonate, Na2C03 and sand (silica) in a furnace yields sodium silicate: Na2C03 + Si02

Na2Si03 + C02

On cooling, the product forms a clear, light-bluish-green glass. If it is to be sold as a solution, it is ground and dissolved in water or by steam under pressure when the ratio of silica to alkali is above 2. Concentration of final product is between 40% and 54%. Sodium hydroxide or caustic soda, Na0H, can replace soda ash in sodium silicate production. In another process, sodium hydroxide, sand, water and recycle sand slurry are reacted under pressure and moderate temperature to obtain sodium silicate. The process involves: (i) thorough mixing of appropriate proportions of Soda ash and

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(ii)


sand melting the mixture in a furnace at 1,200-1,300 degree Celsius

Machinery/Equipment Digester with agitators, Tank furnace complete with flue channels and chimney, Storage tanks, Boiler complete with attachments, Water pump, Overhead tank, Testing equipment, etc. SODIUM PEROXIDE

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Soaps and Chemicals

Care must be exercised in handling, since the heat of hydration of the material is enough to cause ignition when it is placed on paper. Fused sodium peroxide reacts with platinum, iron, copper, tin, and brass, but not with nickel. Sodium peroxide reacts violently with ether, glycerin, and acetic acid. SODIUM PERBORATE Sodium perborate, NaB03, is a mild oxidizing agent used in the medical and dental fields. It is recommended as a mouthwash because of its oxidizing and cleansing effects. It is also used as an oxidizing and bleaching agent for cosmetics, soaps and textiles.

Introduction Manufacture Sodium peroxide, Na202, is a pale-yellow, hygroscopic powder that absorbs moisture from the air to form a snow-white octahydrate, Na202.8H20. When added to water, it forms sodium hydroxide and oxygen. Its principal use is as a powerful oxidizing agent. Its next most important use is in the bleaching of wool, silk, and fine cotton articles and in chemical synthesis. Sodium peroxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form sodium carbonate, and with carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate with the liberation of oxygen, leading to its use in regeneration of air in enclosed spaces. Na202 + C0 Na202 + C02

Na2C03 Na2C03 + 1/202

Mix solutions of borax, Na2B407, sodium peroxide and hydrogen peroxide. Heat the mixture slightly and allow it to crystalise. Na2B407+ Na202 + H202

4NaB03 + 3H20

SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE Sodium hypochlorite, Na0Cl, is a disinfectant and deodorant in dairies, creameries and water supplies, sewage disposal and for house purposes. It is also used as a bleach in laundries (of cotton, linen, jute, and artificial silk) in paper pulp and oranges. During World War I, it was used to treat wounds as a stabilized isotonic solution.

Manufacture

Manufacture

Burning sodium in excess of air (or oxygen) yields sodium peroxide of about 96% purity.

Treat sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), Na0H, solution with gaseous chlorine.

2Na + 02

Na202

Cl2 = 2Na0H

NaCl + H20 + Na0Cl

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Soaps and Chemicals

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PIGMENTS

Manufacture

Introduction

Ti02 is manufactured by the hot sulphuric acid leaching process consisting of the following sequence: 1. hot digestion of ground ilmenite ore in large, conical, concrete or heavy-steel tanks with sulphuric acid 2. agitation and steam-heating at 110oC of the mixture. (The heat evaporates the water in this exothermic reaction). 3. dissolution in water of solid reaction mass to get solution of soluble titanium, ferrous and ferric sulphates. 4. reduction of ferric sulphate by scrap iron 5. clarification of solution in thickeners 6. cooling, crystalliosation and centrifugation to remove 50% of the iron as crystallized ferrous sulphate. 7. clarification to remove the last traces of residues, 8. concentration of solution in a continuous lead-lined evaporator to equivalent of about 200g/litre Ti02 as soluble sulphate 9. hydrolysis of the strong acid-soluble titanyl sulphate (probably Ti0S04), the reaction depending on many factors: quantity and quality of seeds (colloidal suspension Ti02), concentration, rate of heating and pH. (Using anatase seeds requires 6 hours of boiling, but 3 hours for rutile seeds) 10. vacuum-filtering, repulping and refiltering of the precipitate to remove the rest of the iron sulphate. 11. repulping the filter cake, treating it with conditioning agent, and calcining it to Ti02 for 24 hours. (Use 0.75% k2C03 as nonfritting conditioning agent for anatase production, to develop the greatest tinting strength and good colour. In rutile production, certain carbonates, such as sodium, potassium, lithium, zinc and magnesium carbonates, may be used to promote rutilisation). 12. pulverization, quenching (dispersing) in water, wet-

Pigments are white and coloured substances used widely in coatings and also in ink, plastic, rubber, ceramic, paper and linoleum industries to impart colour. White Pigments Titanium dioxide, Ti02, in many varieties is almost the only white pigment used today because of its low cost per unit of hiding power. (White lead, zinc oxide and lithopone are older white pigments now sidelined for now reason or another.). It is marketed in the rutile and anatase crystal forms, and is widely used in exterior paints and also in enamels and lacquers. A typical exterior white paint contains about 40% pigment, comprising: 60% 5% 25%

Ti02 Zn0 (zinc oxide) fillers (such as mica, silica, silicates or calcium carbonate)

Such a formulation has long life through controlled chalking (selfcleaning) and presents a good surface for subsequent repainting. Approximately 50% of produced Ti02 goes into paints, varnishes, and lacquers. About 15% is consumed by paper industry. Ti02 is the most widely used pigment for colouring plastics, and its use is increasing steadily. The excellent hiding power of Ti02 is ascribed to its high index of refraction (2.55 for anatase, 2.76 for rutile). The more stable rutile form has less chalking tendency and greater hiding power.

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grinding, hydroseparation, thickening, filtering, drying and regrinding of the hot Ti02. The new chloride process produces the superior flameformed rutile crystal by converting titanium rutile or slag into titanium tetrachloride, TiCl4, which is hydrolysed to Ti02 in a flame of oxygen and fuel gas: Ti + 2Cl2 TiCl4 + 02

TiCl4 Ti02 + 2Cl20

Coloured Pigments Coloured pigments consist of prussian blue, lead chromates, various iron oxides, and a few lake colours. The only major black pigment is carbon black, which comes in several shades. Lampblack is occasionally used where its peculiar shade is required. It retards the oxidation of linseed oil (used in paints) and causes a slow-drying film which under many conditions, prolongs the life of paint. Carbon pigments stimulate metal corrosion, and should not be used in direct contact with iron and steel in primer coatings. Production of activated carbon has been discussed. The blue pigments include ultramarine blue, phthalocyanine blue, and ferrocyanide blue known as Prussian blue, Chinese blue, milori blue, bronze blue, Antwerp blue and Turnbull's blue (or iron blue - the more general term for all ferrocyanide blues). Ultramarine blue is a complex sodium aluminum silicate and sulphide made synthetically and widely used in laundering, paper and pulp, ink, etc. It should not be used on iron or mixed with lead pigments, since it has a sulphide content. Phthalocyanine blues are the most important blue pigment in use today, and are particularly useful for nitrocellulose lacquers in low concentrations as a pigment highly resistant to alkalis, acids and colour change. It is one of the most stable classes of pigments,

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Soaps and Chemicals

resistant to cystallisation in organic solvents, and essentially free from flocculation in coatings. Both the greens and the blues have high tinting power and are used in latex paints and in printing inks. They are prepared by reacting phthalic anhydride with a copper salt in the presence of urea or by reacting phthalonitrile with a copper salt with or without anomonia: o

180 - 250 C Phthalonitrile + Copper salt

Phthalocyanine (copper)

Ferrocyanide blues are made by precipitation of ferrous sulphate solutions (sometimes in the presence of ammonium sulphate) with sodium ferricyanide giving a white ferrous ferrocyanide, which is then oxidized to ferric ferrocyanide by different reagents, such as potassium chlorate, bleaching powder, and potassium dichromate. The pigment is washed and allowed to settle, since filtration is extremely difficult because of its colloidal nature. Iron blues posses very high tinting strength and good colour performance, their relative transparency is an advantage in dipcoating foils and bright metal objects and for coloured granules for asphalt shingles. Red Lead, Pb304, or minimum, has a brilliant red-orange colour, is quite resistant to light, and finds extensive use as a primary coat for structural steel, particularly since it possesses corrosioninhibiting properties. It is manufactured by the Regular Process by oxidizing lead (pb) to litharge (pb0) in air and further oxidizing the litharge to red lead. Pb + 1/202 2Pb0 + 1/202

Pb0 Pb304

In the fumed process, which produces smaller particles, molten lead is atomized by compressed air and then forced through the center of a gas flame, which in turn converts it into litharge as a

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fume collected in filter bags. The litharge is then oxidized to red lead. Ferric oxide, Fe203, is another red pigment used in paints and primers, as well as in rubber formulation. A wide range of natural red oxide pigments is available. Synthetic pigment is made by heating iron sulphate obtained from the pickling vats of steel mills. Venetian red is a mixture of ferric oxide with up to an equal amount of the pigment extender, it is prepared by heating ferrous sulphate with quicklime in a furnace. It is a permanent and inert pigment, particularly on wood. The calcium sulphate content, in furnishing corrosion-stimulating sulphate ions, disqualifies this pigment for use on iron. Indian red is a naturally occurring mineral whose ferric oxide content may vary from 80 to 95%, the remainder being clay and silica. It is prepared by grinding hematite and floating off the fines for use. The basic lead chromate, PbCr04.Pb(0O)2, may also be used as an orange-red pigment. It is an excellent corrosion inhibitor, prepared by boiling white lead with a solution of sodium dichromate. Cadmium reds are made by roasting the precipitate obtained by mixing cadmium sulphate, sodium sulphite, and sodium selenide. Cadmium colours range from light yellow to maroon and are available in pure form as well as in lithopone. The larger the quality of selenium used, the greater the shift toward red. Red pigments include a large variety of insoluble organic dyes, either in the pure state as toners or precipitated on inorganic bases as lakes. For example, tuscan red is a name applied to combinations of red iron oxide pigment and a light-fast organic red pigment used where bright colours are needed for exterior paints. Quinac-ridones are extremely durable reds, oranges and violets comparable in serviceability to phthalocyanines. Ocher is a naturally occurring yellow pigment consisting of clay coloured with 10 - 30% ferric hydroxide, Fe (0H)3. It must be ground on levigated. Because of its weak tinting colours, it is being replaced by synthetic hydrated yellow iron oxides for brighter colour and better uniformity. Chrome yellows are yellow pigments with a wide variety of

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Soaps and Chemicals

shades. They are the most popular yellow pigments because of exceptional brilliance, great opacity, and excellent light-fastness. They are produced by mixing a soplution of lead nitrate or acetate with a solution of sodium dichromate. Extenders may be present in up to an equal weight of gypsum, clay or barite. The pigments are of high specific gravity and settles out. The use of chrome pigments is sharply limited by their toxicity when ingested. Organic yellows are used for indoor coatings to avoid the possibility of lead or chrome poisoning of infants. Zinc yellow or chromate, although of poor tinting power, is used because of its excellent corrosion-inhibiting effect both in mixed paints and as a primary coat for steel and aluminum. Zinc yellow is a complex of the approximate composition 4Zn0.k20.4Cr03.3H20. Two other yellow chromate pigments are strontium chromate and barium chromate, both used as corrosion inhibitors. Litharge is used to some extent in anticorrosion paints. Phthalocyanine green is the major green pigment. Chromium oxide, Cr203, is one of the oldest green pigments, but lacks brilliancy, opacity and cost effectiveness. Cruignet's green (emerald green), Cr20(0H)4, possesses more brilliancy and permanency. It is produced by furnacing a mixture of sodium dichromate and boric acid at a dull red heat for several hours. Na2Cr207 + H3B03

Cr20(0H)4

Chrome green is a mixture of coprecipitation of chrome yellow and Prussian blue. Inert fillers are used with this pigment in making paints. Unless carefully ground or coprecipitated, the two colours may separate when mixed in a paint. Burnt sienna, umber and ocher are brown pigments obtained by carefully controlled heating of naturally occurring iron-containing clays, in which the iron hydroxides are more or less converted to the oxides. The umbers contain the brown manganic oxide as well as the iron oxides. These pigments are permanent and suitable for both

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wood and iron. Synthetic oxides, with greater colour strength and clarity, are replacing the siennas as tinting colours. Vandyke brown is a native earth pigment of indefinite composition, containing oxide of iron and organic matter. Metallic powders or flakes or pastes or granules, such as aluminum flaked powder, aluminum granules, powdered zinc (zinc dust), lead powders and pastes are miscellaneous pigments for durable, decorative and heat-reflective properties. Metallic stearates are pigments-suspending agents. Pigment extenders are inert natural and precipitated substances that may be added to points as fillers or extenders for the purpose of giving a better paint film, improving weathering properties, furnishing a base for the real pigment, preventing too rapid setting or reducing the cost of the pigment. Barium sulphate in the natural crystalline form as barite, but finely ground, or in the precipitated form blanc fixe, is one of the most important extenders. Finely ground calcium carbonate (whiting) is another . ordinary silicon dioxide, when finely ground, makes a good filler. Magnesium silicate, asbestine and talc are also widely used pigment extenders, talc being finely ground scapstone. PAINTS Paints are protective and decorative coatings. A typical exterior white paint with long life and good surface is obtained by mixing: 60% 24% 2% 5% 9%

vehicle titanium dioxide zinc oxide fillers (e.g. mica, silica, silicates, calcium carbonate, etc) binders or plasticisers

For details on paints, see A Guide for Paint Makers by O. C. Eneh (2000, Enugu: WIPRO Int).

Soaps and Chemicals

239

SOLID PERFUME A perfume is any mixture of pleasantly odorous substances incorporated in a suitable vehicle or solid holder. Perfumes were originally natural, later synthetics endeavouring to duplicate them. Today's finest perfume are judicious blends of the natural and synthetic essences or fragrances. Perfumes are presented in two major packs: industrial and consumer. The industrial packs are liquids in drums, while the consumer packs are either liquids in cosmetic sprayers or liquids incorporated in sublimating solids and wrapped in perforated cosmetic cellophanes and papers or foils. A solid perfume can be prepared by incorporating perfume of choice in naphthalene. Before the product solidifies, mold in a shape of choice. Package the solid product in cosmetic wrappes. CANDLE Electric light is not available in many communities and uninterruptible electric power supply is still a wild dream even in cities in developing countries. In the circumstance, candle is a handy and affordable alternative. Hence, candle market is large. A good reliable and durable candle machine with varying capacity is fabricated locally. To obtain a good candle, melt 18.9kg paraffin wax on a mild heat, add 10ml paraffin oil and transfer the mixture to candle moulding and cooling machine with threat wellpositioned. Remove candle sticks and package (usually in 8s). If coloured candle is desired, add oil colour of choice before transferring to mould. By adding perfume of choice to the mixture before moulding, perfumed products can be obtained. Special moulds of various sizes are designed to obtain candle sticks of big sizes used in orthodox churches.

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Soaps and Chemicals

STARCH xii.

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size. Cooling and packaging of the product.

Introduction Machinery/Equipment Two major sources of starch in Nigeria are maize (corn) and cassava. Corn starch is mainly a consumer product, while cassava starch is an intermediate product used in pharmaceutical, textile, paper and packaging, chemical and allied product, battery (dry cell), food processing, and plywood industries. Demand for starch is higher than supply, hence investment in starch production will address the existing gap and improve the wellbeing of Nigerians and the entrepreneurs. Production Process Maize (Corn) Maize is grown abundantly in most parts of Nigeria. Its starch processing involves: i. Cleaning, using aspirator, to remove light impurities ii. Destining, using destoner, to remove stones iii. Degerming, using degerming machine, to remove oily germ (used for oil production) iv. Soaking, to soften the grains v. Milling, to disk, stone or roller mill, to release starch noddles in the grains. vi. Starch extraction, using 211-micro mesh sieve, to screen potable water slurry of the fine powder vii. Settling in settling tank or vat-settling viii. Dewatering by centrifuge and decantation or hydraulic press ix. Cake breaking, by disintegration of resulting case in a vertical hammer mill x. Drying, in rotary tray or pneumatic dryer, to about 8% water content xi. Milling dry starch powder to about 0.027-inch particle

Aspirator, destoner, degerming machine, disk mill, centrifuge/sieving machine, disintegrator/hammer mill, dryer, scale, packaging machine. Cassava Cassava is grown mainly in the middle belt and southern parts of Nigeria. The most suitable age of cassava tubers for starch production is 6 - 9 months for the sweet variety. Cassava tubers should be processed into starch within 24 hours of harvesting and must be white when peeled. Greyish or blackish peeled tubers show that fermentation has commenced and are unsuitable for processing into starch. Cassava starch processing involves: i. Weighing, peeling and washing in a cylindrical mechanical washer tank ii. Rasping/grating of cleaned tubers into pulp, using rasping/grating machine to release starch noodles in tuber iii. Screening of pulp into grades, using sieves iv. Settling/sedimentation, dewatering and cake breaking (as in step viii for corn starch production) v. Drying (as in step x for corn starch production) vi. Milling (as in step xi for corn starch production) vii. Cooling and packaging (see step xii for corn starch production) Machinery/Equipment Cassava peeling machine, grater, rotary, screening machine, settling tank, centrifuge/sieving machine, disintegrator/hammer mill, dryer, scale, packaging machine.

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Soaps and Chemicals

GUMARABIC

Production Process

Introduction

Two presentations of refined gum Arabic, powder or granule, will determine the process to follow as outlined below: Table 5.5: Gum Arabic presentations and production processes

Gum Arabic is the hardened exudates from the tree, Acacia senegalis. It is usually contaminated and discoloured by dyes from the bark of the tree, leading to rejection of many exports. Nigeria ranks next to Sudan as a major exporter of raw Gum Arabic to Europe, India, Hong Kong, USA, Singapore, etc. which is purified and re-exported as purified gum to Nigeria. Major sources are in Borno and Sokoto States, while relatively minor quantities come from Yobe, Adamawa, Kano and Jigawa States. Depending on level of microbial contamination and discolouration due to improper handling, gum Arabic is now graded. In 1990, grade I, free from contamination and discolouration sold for N23,000/tonne, as against N8,000 for grade II. The contaminated gum Arabic can be refined and is demanded in far East Asia, USA and Europe. Table 5.4 shows Statistics on GumArabic Transactions.

S/No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Powder Sorting Crushing Dispersing in water Clarification Precipitation separation Drying Milling

Granule Sorting Crushing Dispersing in water Straining Centrifuging with alcohol Spray drying or Spray granulation

The granules are more readily dispersible in water. ALKYD RESIN Introduction

Table 5.4: Statistics on Gum Arabic Export/Import Year 1986 1987 1988 1989

Raw Gum Arabic Export 1,906 tons 6,840 tons 2,728 tons 5,152 tons

Valu e (N) N1.1m N17.8m N7.7m N31.9m

Refined Gum Arabic Import

Landing Value (N)

2,800 tons

294m - 364m

Source: RMRDC (2003: 64). The wide gap in price between exported local raw and imported refined gum Arabic gives the sound reason for local purification.

Alkyd resin provides excellent adhesion, high luster, better colour, durability and resistance to chemicals and moisture. Synthetic alkyd resin is classified according to oil-phthalic anhydride ratio, as in the table below: Table 5.6: Classification of synthetic alkyd resin Medium alkyd resin Long alkyd resin Very long alkyd resin

% Oil Content 46 - 55 56 – 70 71

% Phthalic Anhydride Content 30 - 35 20 – 30 20

Source: RMRDC (2003: 172). Although the demand for synthetic alkyd resin, currently estimated at 20,000 metric tones per annum, is increasing, only two alkyd resin plants are known to exist in Nigeria.

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Soaps and Chemicals

Raw Materials

Raw Materials

High unsaturated drying and semi-drying vegetable oil (linseed, sunflower, palm kernel, cotton, groundnut, soyabean, rubber seed, etc) and polyhydric alcohol (e.g. glycerol). The oils and glycerol are abundantly produced locally, while the imported anhydride is available from local chemical merchants.

Wax, fillers, pigments, colourant, all of which are locally sourced.

i. ii.

iii. iv.

Production Processes i. ii.

Production Process o

Heating of oil with glycerol at about 240 C, to produce monoglyceride Adding phthalic anhydride to the monoglyceride with o continuous heating (220 - 260 C) to esterify the monoglyceride. Water is evolved and viscosity increases. Vacuum may be employed to increase the rate of reaction. Circulation of carbon dioxide to get pale coloured alkyd resin Cooling dehydrated resin.

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iii. iv. v.

Melt wax (or rosin and shellac or pitch if black sealing wax is to be produced). Add fillers, such as kaolin, stapstone (talc), barites, colour oxide and oil soluble organic dyes (colorant). Add a little quantity of beeswax and castor oil, for better plasticity. Pour into mould (made of aluminum or gun metal) Remove the cool and set or hardened product Package for sale.

Machinery/Equipment Melting pan, heater, mould with water cooling system. SHOE POLISH

Machinery/Equipment Resin kettle (stainless steel jacketed vessel equipped with condenser, agitators, gauges, etc), vacuum pump (800L/min), hot air circulation o type heating arrangement up to 350 C complete with oil fired furnace and accessories, raw materials and finished product storage tanks, scale, hydraulic trolley, etc.

Shoe polish is everyday domestic product used to keep shoes of various colours. Raw Materials Wax, mineral oil, turpentine, dye, emulsifier, plasticiser, and tin container.

SEALING WAX Production Process Introduction Sealing wax is used on parcels for cover/locks and seal.

i. ii. iii.

Heat waxes with continuous stirring to melt o Add emulsifier, turpentine, dyes (oil soluble) at 50 C Put into container to harden.

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Soaps and Chemicals

Machinery/Equipment Melting equipment (steam heated cast iron pot), stainless steel vessel jacketed, electric heater, airconditioned room, aluminum vessel, enameled mugs, scale, etc.

v. vi. vii.

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automatic compression moulding machine Drilling of holes on the button Polishing the buttons Packing

Machinery/Equipment PLASTIC BUTTON Buttons are used on garments. They were made from wood, metal and various ornamentals. However, plastic buttons have replaced other buttons because of their availability in attractive colours, ease of fabrication, light weight, non-corrosive nature, and relatively low price.

Cutting machine, hole master machine, grinding machine, tableting machine, semi-automatic compression moulding machine, polishing barrel, etc. FOUNTAIN PEN Fountain pen and ball pens are everyday instruments of writing.

Raw Materials Raw Materials Polyester or acrylic sheet, urea formaldehyde moulding powder. Production Processes Acrylic buttons are obtained by: i. Cutting acrylic sheets into cubes a little bigger than the size of the button in view. ii. Shaping the cubes iii. Designing the surface of the button iv. Drilling holes on the buttons v. Polishing the buttons vi. Packing Urea formaldehyde buttons are obtained by: i. Conversion of urea formaldehyde powder into tablets a little bigger than the size of button in view using tableting machine ii. Preheating the tablets in an oven iii. Moulding the material iv. Compression of the moulded tablets into buttons by semi-

Cellulose acetate butyrate, pen clips, nibs, ball pen refills, packaging materials. Production Process i.

ii.

Feed cellulose acetate butyrate through the hopper of injection moulding machine. (The barrel is heated electrically to soften the material, which is pushed into the cold mould by the piston when activated, giving it the shape of the mould cavity). Open the mould to retrieve moulded products (cap, barrel, nut, nick, etc. of the fountain body). For small parts, like nut, hand operated injection moulding machine is used. Likewise, barrel, cap, neck, etc. of the ball pen.

Machinery/Equipment Hand operated injection moulding machine, polishing and nib-fitting

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Soaps and Chemicals

249

machine, cap holding machine, moulds.

rolls (RMRDC, 2003: 271).

PENCIL

Raw Materials

Pencil is a common writing and drawing material.

Waste Paper (obtained from printers, paper converter waste, newspapers, pool coupons, manuscripts, scripts, litters, etc), paper pulp, water, kaolin, alum, resin, starch, sodium silicate, defoamer, deodourant, colourant, polyethylene sheet and glue.

Raw Materials Wood, graphite, glue, ball clay. Large deposits of graphite occur in Abakaliki in Ebonyi State and Dutsin-ma in Kastina State. Wood (soft and hard) is abundant in Nigeria (RMRDC, 2003: 243).

Production Process i.

Production Process i. ii. iii. iv.

Make lead slip from graphite, ball clay and water by wet grinding, mixing, filtration, drying, kneading and then extrusion. o Heat slip further at 95 110 C under reducing atmosphere to get the final lead slip. Make pencil from slats, using automatic slating, grooving and gluing machine. Sand, paint, end-cut, label and package product.

ii. iii. iv. v.

Crush and mash wastepaper in the pulper with fast rotating sharp blades, adding water to facilitate the operation (add paper pulp to obtain the finest quality product). Add colourants, deodourants, chemical to the mash and compound. Pass mixture into chest agitator for further refining and thickening Boil mixture at a high temperature for drying Cut with knives the reels coming out singly

Machinery/Equipment Machine/Equipment Ball mill, diaphragm, electric baking oven, gluing machine for pencil, filter press, kneading machine, extruding machine, polish machine, end-cutting machine, embossing machine, clamp, wooden pattern, etc. TOILET ROLL Tissue paper, popularly called toilet roll is everyday need in the home, office and hotel. The national consumption is 500,000 trillion rolls per annum, but local production supply 67,680 trillion toilet

Hydra pulper, liquid cyclone, conical refiner, screen, centri-cleaner, thickner, agitator, refiner, cylinder part, two-ply paper, sand, rope reel, paper machine accessories, dryer, drainage system. ALUMINUM SULPHATE (ALUM) Alum is the name given to double salts of aluminum sulphate with either potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate or ammonium sulphate. Commercially, aluminum sulphate is called alum. Alum is widely used in water treatment, dyeing fabrics and tanning leather. With sodium bicarbonate, it is used in baking

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powder production and extensively in paper industry. Raw Materials Bauxite and sulphuric acid. Bauxite is a weathering product composed largely of hydrous aluminum oxides and aluminous laterite. It is also the ore of aluminum. Bauxite deposit occurs in commercial quantities in Ondo, Yobe, and Cross River States of Nigeria. Production Process i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

Crush crude bauxite into powder, using jaw crusher Pulverize React with sulphuric acid (60%), agitating the reaction with steam at 110oC for about 4 hours. Turn into a large settling tank when specific gravity of 60 is attained. Add glue to the liquor to facilitate coagulation. Filter and wash liquor Concentrate in the concentrator Pour into mould to solidify on further cooling.

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Chapter Six

LIVESTOCK HONEY AND HONEYBEE KEEPING Introduction Honey is the sweet viscous fluid made by bees. It has great medicinal, economic, food and nutritional values. It is a very important product, as is the honeybee that makes it. Hence, beekeeping industry is fast growing worldwide, since after the invention of modern hives in the mid-1800's. Unfortunately, honey production is still at subsistence level in many countries of the world, including Nigeria, unlike the United States of America, Canada and Australia, where honeybee keeping for honey is a commercial activity that yields large sums of foreign exchange. Materials on honeybee keeping is scarce, scanty and scattered. Information here provided include biochemical formation of honey, beeswax formation and production, granulation of honey, crystallization of honey, kinds of honey, food value of honey and honey allergies, medicinal values of honey, life and life cycle of honeybee, honeybee keeping, enemies of honeybee, and preparing to keep honeybees. It can stimulate interest in, and development of, commercial honeybee keeping ventures in Nigeria and beyond. This will improve health and national economic development. Natural Biochemical Formation of Honey Using their tube-like tongues, the worker honeybees collect nectar from flowers and carry it in their honey stomach, a pouch in their abdomen, to their hives. The nectar is transferred to other bees that

251

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chew it for about half an hour, mixing it with glucose-oxidase enzyme from glands in their mouths. The enzyme breaks down the sugar in the nectar into simple sugars, fructose and glucose, with hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, in a process called inversion. Fructose Sugar in Glucose-oxidase and + Hydrogen Nectar in bee saliva Glucose Peroxide (Inversion) They then place it in hexagonal cells made of beeswax and fan it with their wings to dehydrate it. As evaporation takes place, it gains viscosity and becomes honey. When the water content has been reduced to below 18%, the cells are capped with a thin layer of wax. Capped honey can keep almost indefinitely, perfectly edible honey having been found in the tombs of the Pharaohs dating back some 3,000 years. The wax from which bees construct the honeycomb is produced by special glands in the bee's body. The hexagonal shape of the comb's cells allows the thin walls of the comb one-third of a millimetre thick - to support load 30 times their weight. The comb is thus a marvel of engineering. Beeswax Formation and Production Worker honeybees eat large amounts of honey, and the bee glands convert the sugar in the honey to wax. The wax oozes through small pores in the body and forms tiny white flakes on the outside of the abdomen. The bee picks them off its abdomen with its legs and moves them up to its jaws. After chewing the wax, the bee puts it on the part of the honeycomb that it is building. After extracting the honey, the comb is melted in boiling water. The wax rises to the surface and is skimmed off. The wax is melted again, filtered to remove impurities and moulded into desired shape and allowed to solidify slowly. It is widely used as raw material for production of creams,

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balms, batik, candle, polish, etc. It is also used in dyeing fabrics as well as in bronze and brass casting. Kinds of Honey Honey is classified according to flavour and colour, which are influenced by the kinds of flowers from which the nectar comes. The colour of honey ranges from white through dark amber. Usually, the light-coloured honey has the mildest flavour. Among the white honey, that of the California white sage ranks first, followed by orange blossom honey. Fall flowers, such as goldenrod and asters, give a dark honey. Granulation of Honey Most pure honey granulate (develop sugary crystals), except tupelo honey, which seldom granulates because it contains more fructose than glucose. Industrial users heat the honey to prevent granulation. Honey Crystals On standing for a long time, honey liquid may separate to form hard particles, called crystals and sold as creamed honey. Food Value of Honey and HoneyAllergies Although a standard-size hive can produce 25kg of honey in good season, it needs 10-15kg to survive the winter, allowing for a surplus for humans, bears and raccoons. Honey is a quick source of energy, being composed mainly of about 82% carbohydrates (fructose and glucose that can be used quickly by the body. With the energy produced from 30g of honey, a bee theoretically flies around the world (Awake, 2005: 15) Honey was an excellent sweet in ancient times. Ajar of honey

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on the table was once considered a mark of great wealth. In the Bible the Israelites were promised a “land flowing with milk and honey” to imply a land of plenty wealth. Honey is a marvellous food containing vitamin B, various minerals and anti-oxidants. However, honey is not a recommended food for under-one infants because they have not yet developed sufficient micro-flora to protect them from botulism (poisoning caused by a bacillus in a baby preserved food) spores estimated to be present in up to 5% honey. Also, some people are allergic to honey. Bakers often use it in place of sugar for production of crackers, cookies, etc. According to RMRDC (2000: 9), honey consists of two types of sugar, dextrose and levulose. It contains compounds of silica, iron, copper, manganese, chlorine, calcium, potassium, sodium, phosphorous, sulphur, aluminum and mangensium; acids, like formic, acetic, malic, citric and succinic; plant colouring matters, like carotin, zanthophye, anthocyanin and tannin; enzymes, like invertase, diastase, catalase and inulase; and vitamins A, B complex and C. Average composition of honey is 19% moisture, 0.29% ash and 0.10% formic acid. Honey is very nourishing. It is estimated that 200g of honey contains as much nourishment as 1.135kg of milk or 1.658kg of cream cheese or 340g of meat or 425g of boneless codfish or 8 oranges or 10 eggs. It is a rich energy food and, with milk, forms a perfect food. It helps to build haemaglobin of the blood and therefore a good food for infants, the aged and invalids. It is taken by athlets after hard exercise to replenish last energy, as it provides energy in a readily available form. When used in baking, honey improved the flavour and enhances keeping quality by retarding drying up process because of its hygroscopic quality.

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Medicinal Values of Honey Honey is used as medicine, as lactose in the form of carrier of almost all homeopathic medicines. It has been used for centuries to treat a wide range of medical problems, like wounds, burns, cataracts, skin ulcers and scrapes. Even modern research has noted that burns heal faster with less pain and scarring when honey dressings were used. Honey has antiseptic properties that battle with some antibioticresistant bacteria because of the hydrogen peroxide produced during inversion. When honey is on a wound, the body's fluid dilutes its natural acidity, thereby enhancing the environment for the activity of the enzyme contained in the honey. The breakdown of the sugar in the honey progresses slowly and constantly, releasing hydrogen peroxide in amounts big enough to kill local bacteria, while not adversely affecting the surrounding healthy tissues. On the other hand, when the traditional wound dresser, hydrogen peroxide, is used to clean and disinfect wounds, its effect is short-lived. A thin layer of honey provides a moist environment that protects the skin and prevents a hard scab from forming. Honey stimulates the growth and formation of new blood capillaries and triggers the growth of the cells that produce new skin. Antioxidants in honey possess an anti-inflammatory action that helps reduce swelling, improve circulation and keep the wound from “weeping.” The ancient Egyptians are believed to have used honey in embalming. Body of Honeybee Like all insects, the body of the bee is made up of the head, thorax (chest) and abdomen. The honey stomach, in which the honeybee carries nectar, is located in the abdomen. The body is thickly covered with fine hairs, to which pollen grains stick as the bee travels from one flower to another.

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The colour of honeybee ranges from black to shades of light

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help load pollen into the pollen basket.

brown. Eyes: A bee has five eyes. Three small eyes form a triangle on top of its head. A large compound eye is found on each side of the head. Each compound eye has thousands of lenses crowded closely together. Bees have no pupils in the eyes, and cannot focus them. The eyes have three colour-sensitive cells that detect blue, yellow and ultraviolet rays. Antennae: Bees have slender, jointed feelers attached to the head, with tiny sense organs that can smell and tiny hairs probably serving as organs of touch. Mouth: The mouth of the bee has a tongue (flexible tube), used to suck water, nectar and honey. On either side of the tongue is a jaw, used to grasp wax and pollen. With strong muscles attached to the inside walls of the mouth, the bee pushes food from mouth to honey stomach. By being able to reverse this movement, worker bees can put honey into wax cells or give it to other bees. Wings: Two thin wings are found on either side of the thorax, front wings being larger than the hind wings. Legs: Three legs are found on either side of the thorax, each having five joints in addition to tiny segments making up the foot. The legs are used for walking, brushing pollen off its body and for handling wax. The front leg has antenna cleaner used to clean dirt from antennae. The hind leg of a worker bee has long curved hairs, called the pollen basket, used for carrying pollen. Hairs on the inside of the hind legs

Sting or Stinger: This is the only means of self-defense. Glands attached to the sting produce venom (poison). The sting of a worker bee has barbs (hooks). When the sting is thrusted into the flesh of the enemy, the barbs hold tight, while the stinger pulls out of the bee's body. The muscles inside the sting keep working and force it deep into the wound. At the same time, muscles pump more poison into the sting. Aworker bee dies soon after losing its sting. A bee sting causes sudden pain, and the poison produces continued pain and swelling. The victim should scrape the stinger off immediately, being careful not to pinch or squeeze it. This will reduce the amount of poison that enters the wound. Some people are so sensitive to bee sting that they may die from only one sting except a doctor treats them quickly. The queen bee has a smooth, curved sting used only to kill other queens. It does not lose its sting. Drones have no sting. Life and Life Cycle of Honeybee Bees are generally grouped into three categories: the solitary bees that live alone, and the social and bumble bees that live and work together in large groups, called colonies. There are approximately 20,000 species of bees. A bee develops from an egg laid by the queen. The drone releases sperm into the queen during mating. The sperm is stored in a sac in the abdomen of the queen. If the queen releases sperm onto an egg, a worker is hatched, otherwise drone results. A bee starts to develop as soon as the queen lays the egg. Developing young honeybees called “brood,” go through four stages: the egg, the larva, the inactive pupa, and the young adult. The castes have different development times, as in table below:


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Table 6.1: Development Time of Honeybee Castes Stage Hatching

Cell capped Becomes a pupa Becomes an adult Emerges from cell

Days after laying egg Worker Queen Drone 3 3 3 8 8 10 11 10 14 20 15 22.5 21 16 24

The worker bees place larva food, called royal jelly, in the bottom of each cell in the brood nest. Royal jelly is a creamy substance rich in vitamins and proteins and formed by glands in the head of young worker bees. When the larva is three days old, the workers begin to feed it with a mixture of honey and pollen, called beebread The workers build a wax cap over the cell about five days after the larva hatches. Changes take place to turn the larva into a pupa, which develops into an adult. The adult worker bee bites its way out of the cell about 21 days after the egg is laid. Drone takes about 24 days to develop. The only function of the drone is to mate with the queens. Honeybee drones usually do not mate with the queen of the hive in which they live. A colony may have 0 to 50 drones, which fly kilometres away from the hive and mate in the air with queens from other colonies. Drones are present in the hive only during the summer. They depend on workers to feed them because their tongues are not long enough to obtain nectar. In the fall, when food becomes scarce, the workers stop feeding the drones and drag them out of the hive to die. A colony needs a new queen if the old queen disappears or becomes feeble, or if the old queen and part of the colony decides to pack out to build a new hive. In some unknown way, the workers select a few larvae to become queens. They feed these larvae with only royal jelly. The difference between a worker and a queen is the quality of the larval diet. At the same time other workers build

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special cells for the queens to grow in. The queen larva becomes a pupa. The queen crawls out of the cell about 16 days after the egg is laid. Bees may have added a special substance to the queen's royal jelly to make her grow faster and make her have a different appearance from the workers. The emerging queen receives no attention from the bees. She eats honey and gains strength. If two queens hatch at the same time, they fight until one stings the other to death. The old queen may leave the colony, or she may fight with the young queen. After the young queen has killed her rivals, she flies (mating flight) from the hive to mate with one or several drones. It then returns to the hive to lay eggs two or three days later. After mating, the queen can lay eggs for the rest of her life. A queen may live as long as five years and produce up to one million eggs during her lifetime. Laying eggs is the queen's only job. In spring, the queen may lay an egg every 43 seconds or 2,000 eggs a day. The queen also affects the colony by producing chemicals called “pheromones” that regulate the behaviour of other bees. A colony may have 2,000 to 60,000 workers. When a colony becomes overcrowded, the queen's egg-laying power diminishes. The workers then build cells for new queens. In these cells, the old queen deposits eggs. When these eggs have developed into pupae, the workers cover the cells with wax. A few days later, many of the workers and the old queen leave the hive as a swarm. Their flight to form a new colony is called swarming. Some workers stay behind and care for the larvae and the new queen. The departing swarm clusters around a branch or a post. Workers, called scouts, then seek out a location for the new colony. Each scout returns to the swarm and uses a special “dance” to indicate the direction and distance of the new site it has found to the other scouts. The scouts then investigate one another's sites. At a signal, the entire swarm travels to whichever site seems best. “Strekers” bees, which know where the hive is, lead the way. The queen follows. Flowers provide bees with the pollen and nectar they use as food. Pollen is the young bees' source of important fats, proteins,

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vitamins, and minerals. The sugar in nectar is mainly a source of energy. Scout bees search for food for the hive. When the scouts find the food, they return to the hive and use a dance to tell the other bees where the food is in relation to the sun. The dance is similar to the one used to indicate the location of a new hive. Workers do not lay eggs and do not mate. They perform a variety of other jobs. Newly emerged workers begin working almost immediately. As they age, workers do the following in this sequence: clean cells, circulate air with their wings, feed larvae, practice flying, receive pollen and nectar from foragers, guard hive entrance and forage. For the first three days of its life, a worker cleans the hive. It spends the next several days feeding developing honeybees. Then the worker begins to produce wax and to build honeycomb cells. The worker stands guard at the hive entrance and receives nectar collected by other worker bees. When a worker bee is about three weeks old, it begins to hunt for food. It continues this job the rest of its life. Honey colonies live year after year, most activity being aimed at surviving the next winter. During winter, bees cluster in a tight ball. In January, the queen starts laying eggs in the centre of the nest. Stored honey and pollen are used to feed these larvae. Therefore, colony stores may fall dangerously low in late winter when brood production has started but plants are not yet producing nectar and pollen. When spring “nectar flows” begin, bee populations grow rapidly. By April and May, many colonies are crowded with bees. Congested colonies may split and form new colonies by a process called “swarming.” Acrowded colony rears several daughter queens, then the original mother queen flies away from the colony, accompanied by up to 60% of the workers. These bees cluster on some object, such as a tree branch, while scout bees search for a more permanent nest site usually a hollow tree or wall void. Within 24 hours the swarm relocates to the new nest. One of the daughter queens that was left behind inherits the original colony. After the swarming season, bees concentrate on storing honey and pollen for winter. By late summer, a colony has a score of brood below insulating layers of honey, pollen and a honey-pollen mix. In

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autumn, bees concentrate in the lower half of their nest, and during winter they move upward slowly to eat the honey and pollen. During the busy summer season a worker may live for only about six weeks, whereas it lives for several months in the less active months of fall and winter. Honeybee Keeping Apiculture is the act of keeping bees for honey. Even thousands of years ago some Stone Age people made crude hives for the bees, so the honey could be near their homes. They probably used hollow logs, a pot placed on its side or a basket turned upside down for the beehives. Later, farmers in Europe built straw skeps that looked like upside-down baskets. Commercial honeybee keeping began, however, in the mid1800's after the invention of modern hives. Today honeybee keeping is highly developed in the United States of America, Canada and Australia. About 90 million kilogrammes of honey are produced each year in the United States of America, with California and North and South Dakota being the leading honey producing states. Alberta leads other provinces of Canada in honey production. Large amount of honey is sold to bakers and the rest is packaged in small containers for cooking and as a sweet spread. Honey butter, made by beating honey and butter together, is a popular spread. Beeswax is sold for production of adhesives, waterproofing compounds, candles, chewing gum, lipsticks, other cosmetics, lubricants, and polishes. Bees can be kept in both city and farm areas. A beginner can buy bees either as a package of workers and a queen, or as a complete hive. A typical honey bee colony is made up of one queen, tens of thousands of workers, and a few hundreds of drones. The queen is the female honeybee that lays eggs. The workers are the unmated female offspring of the queen. The drones are the male offspring. Honeybees live in hives. The hive is a storage space, such as a hollow tree or a box, which contains a honeycomb. The honeycomb

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is a mass of six-sided compartments called cells. Worker bees build honeycomb with wax produced by their bodies. Sticky substances called propolis or bee glue, which they collect from certain kinds of trees, is used to repair cracks in the hive. Honeycomb is used to raise young bees and to store food. The queen bee lays egg in each cell in part of the honeycomb. In general, the cells containing the eggs and developing bees are in the centre of the hive. This area is called the brood nest. The bees store pollen and honey in cells above and around the brood nest. The same cells may be used for different purposes. Several workers guard the entrance to the hive. Glass-walled hives enable those who keep bees as a hobby to watch worker bees communicate by dancing and see the queen laying eggs while workers care for the young. Flowers provide food for bee. The bees collect nectar and pollen from blossoms. They make honey from the nectar, and use both honey and pollen as food. The most common honey plants are alfalfa, alsike clover, sweet clover, and white clover. Regional plants that produce excellent honey include buckwheat flowers (in the east) and tupelo, mesquite, sourwood, and gallbery (in the south). Bees also aid farmers by pollinating many crops. Bees spread pollen from one flower to another, thereby pollinating (fertilizing) the plants. This enables the plants to reproduce. Beekeepers learn to handle their bees carefully to avoid their sting. They wear veils or cloth to protect faces. They tie clothing at ankles and wrists. They wear gloves with fingers and thumbs cut off to allow more delicate handling. Honeybee Diseases, Pests and Enemies Honeybee brood and adults are attacked by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and exotic parasitic mites. Bee equipment is attacked by other insects. Disease, pest and enemies control requires constant vigilance by the honeybee keeper. American foulbrood (AFB) is a bacterial disease of larva and

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pupae. The bacteria form persistent spores that can be spread by adult bees and contaminated equipment. Infected larvae change colour from a healthy pearly white to dark brown and die after they are capped. Capping of dead brood sink inward and often are perforated. Check for AFB by thrusting a small stick or toothpick into the dead brood, mixing it then withdrawing the mass. Brood killed by AFB will be stringy and rope out about inch. To prevent AFB, feed colonies the antibiotic Terramycin according to label instructions in early spring and fall. Allow at least four weeks from the last Terramycin treatment until the first nectar flow. European foulbrood (EFB) is a bacterial disease of larvae. Unlike the AFB, larvae infected with EFB die before they are capped. Infected larvae are twisted in the bottoms of their cells, change to creamy colour and have a smooth “melted” appearance. Because EFB bacteria do not form persistent spores, this disease is not as dangerous as AFB. Colonies with EFB will sometimes recover on their own after a good nectar flow begins. To prevent EFB, treat colonies with Terramycin as inAFB. Chalkbrood is a fungal disease of larvae. Infected larvae turn a chalky white colour, become hard then turn black. Chalkbrood is most frequent during damp conditions in early spring. Colonies usually recover on their own. Nosema is a widespread protozoan disease of adult bees. In spring, infected colonies build up very slowly or not at all. Bees appear weak and may crawl around the front of the hive. Discourage nosema by selecting hive sites with good air flow. Damp, cold conditions seem to encourage this disease. Treat nosema by feeding the drug Fumidl B in sugar syrup in spring and fall. Do not feed the medication immediately before or during nectar flow. Wax Moths are a notorious pest of honeybee keeping equipment. Adult moths lay eggs near wax combs, then their larvae hatch and begin burrowing through the combs to eat debris in the cells. Moth larvae ruin combs and plaster them with webbing and faeces. Honeybees are usually very good at protecting their colonies from moth larvae. If moth damage is found in a colony, there was

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some other problem (usually queen loss) that weakened the colony first. Moth damage is most common in stored supers comb. Protect stored supers by stacking them no higher than five hive bodies. Tape shut all cracks, put para-dichlorobenzene crystals at the top of the stack and cover the stack with a lid. Replenish the crystals as they evaporate. Tracheal Mites enter the tracheae (breathing tubes) of young bees. Inside the tracheae, mites block air exchange and pierce the walls of the tubes to suck blood. Symptoms resemble those of nosema. Bees become weak, crawl at the hive entrance and sometimes uncouple their wings so that all four wings are visible. Colony death rates are highest during winter and early spring. If you suspect tracheal mites, see veterinary expert for help in diagnosing the disease. Infested colonies are treated with Miticur or special formulations of menthol. Varroa Mites are about the size of a pin head and are copper in colour. Female mites cling to adult bees and suck their blood. Females then enter a bee brood cell and produce several offspring which, in turn, suck the blood of the developing bee. Infested colonies are treated with Apistan, a formulation of fluvalinate. Because tracheal mites and Varroa mite are newcomers, control technology is rapidly changing and has not been well worked out. Bears, Argentine ants and other animals may destroy the hive in search of honey. Skunks and dragonflies often eat bees. Bee assassin is an insect that feeds on bees it catches in flowers. Worker bees try to protect the colony by stinging invaders to death, but they do not always succeed. Human activities also harm the bees. Insecticides meant to kill other insects kill thousands of bees each year. Weed sprays kill weeds and flowers from which bees feed. Bees may swarm to unwanted location. A bee keeper should be approached to decide if a problem truly exist and to rid someone of unwanted bee colony, rather than, out of fear, responding with hostility.

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Preparing to Keep Honeybees Honeybees can be kept almost anywhere there are flowering plants that produce nectar and pollen. Choose a site for bee hives that is discrete, sheltered from winds and partially shaded. Avoid low spots in a yard where cold, damp air accumulates in winter. Be considerate of neighbours. Place hives such that bee flight paths do not cross human walkways, playgrounds or other public areas. In dry weather, bees may collect water at neighbours' swimming pools or water spigots. Avoid this by giving bees a water source in your yard, such as a container with floating wood or styrofoam chips. The floating objects prevent bees from drowning. Honeybee Keeping Equipment One new hive with bees and basic equipment costs about $150 (N21,000.00). List of equipment suppliers can be consulted locally or abroad. Hive parts are cut to standard dimensions that mimic the space bees naturally leave between their combs. Always reproduce these dimensions exactly if you make your own bee hives. Bee hive is made up of: !

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Bottom board wooden stand on which the hive rests. Set bottom board on bricks or concrete blocks to keep it off the ground. Frames and foundation wooden frames that hold sheets of beeswax foundation that is imprinted with the shapes of hexagonal cells. Bees use the foundation to build straight combs. Hive body or brood chamber large wooden box (called a “super” that holds 10 frames of comb. This space (the brood nest) is reserved for the bees to rear brood and store honey for their own use. Either one or two hive bodies can be used for a brood. Two hive bodies are common in cold winter regions. Honeybee keepers in areas with mild inters successfully use

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only one hive body. Queen excluder placed between the brood nest and the honey supers. This device keeps the queen in the brood nest and the honey will not occur in honey supers. An excluder is usually not necessary if two hive bodies are used. Honey supers shallow supers with frames of comb in which bees store surplus honey. This surplus is the honey that is harvested. Inner cover prevents bees from attaching comb to outer cover and provides insulating dead air space. Outer cover provides weather protection. Smoker the most valuable tool for working bees. A smoker calms bees and reduces stinging. Pine stra, grass and burlap make good smoker fuel. Hive tool ideally shaped for prying apart and frames. Veil and gloves protect head and arms from stings. After they gain experience, most honeybee keepers prefer to work without gloves. Feeders hold sugar syrup that is fed to bees in early spring and in fall.

To maximize the life of exterior wooden parts, first dip them in copper naphthanate wood preservative, then coat them with good oil base paint. Assemble interior frames with wood glue and nails. Buying and Moving Colonies The easiest, and sometimes the best, way to start keeping bees is to buy two established colonies from a reputable local beekeeper. Buying two colonies instead of one lets you interchange frames of brood and honey if one colony becomes weaker than the other and needs a boost. Buy bees in standard equipment only. Competent beekeepers usually have one or two hive bodies on the bottom board with shallower honey supers above. Question the seller if supers are arranged differently. The condition of the equipment may reflect the

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care the bees have received, so be suspicious of colonies in rotten, unpainted wood. Once the colony is opened, the bees should be calm and numerous enough that they fill most of the spaces between combs. Be sure each super has at least nine frames of comb. Inspect combs in the deep supers for brood quality. Capped brood is tan brown in colour. A good queen will have at least five or six combs of brood, and she will lay eggs in a solid pattern so that there are few skipped cells. Look for symptoms of brood disease and wax moth larvae. Bee hives are easiest to move during winter when they are lighter and populations are low. Moving hives is a two-man job. Close the hive entrance with a piece of folded window screen, seal other cracks with duct tape, fasten supers to each other and to the bottom board with hive staples then lift the hive into a truck bed or a trailer. Tie the hives down tightly. Remember to open hive entrances after the hives are relocated. Installing Packaged Honeybees Another way to start keeping bees is to buy packaged bees and queens and transfer the bees into new equipment. Bees are routinely shipped in two to five-pound packages of about 9,000 to 22,000 bees. Once your packages arrive, keep them cool and shaded. Set up a bottom board with one hive body and remove half its frames. Make some sugar syrup (one part sugar: one part water) and spray the bees heavily through the screen; bees gorge themselves with syrup and become sticky, making them easy to poor. Pry off the package lid, remove the can of syrup provided for transit, find and remove the queen suspended in her cage and re-close the package. The queen cage has holes at both ends plugged with cork, and one end is visibly filled with white “queen candy.” Remove the cork from this end and suspend the queen cage between two centre frames in your hive. Workers will eat through the candy and gradually release the queen.

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Next, bounce the package lightly to shake all bees into a clump on the bottom, quickly take off the lid and shake the bees into the hive on top of the queen. As the bees slowly spread throughout the hive, gently return the frames you removed earlier. Carefully place the inner and outer covers on your new colony and feed your bees sugar syrup continuously until natural nectar flows begin. After two days, check to see if the bees have released the queen from the cage. If she was released, you will probably find her slowly walking on one of the centre combs. If bees have not yet released her, return the queen cage to the hive until she is released. A week after the queen's release, check the colony again. By this time, you should find white wax combs under construction with cells containing syrup, eggs or young larvae. If you do find eggs, the queen may be dead and she must be replaced immediately. Order another queen and introduce her as before. Catching Swarms Another way to get started is by finding and installing swarms. Sometimes swarms cluster on accessible places, such as low tree branches, and property owners are usually eager for a beekeeper to remove them. If you find a safely accessible swarm, get a five-gallon plastic bucket with some kind of perforated cover such as window screening. Spray the swarm heavily with sugar syrup, place the bucket underneath it, then give the branch a sharp shake to dislodge bees into the bucket. Cover the bucket and install swarm in a hive as would packaged bees (except for the steps in installing a caged queen). Honeybee Management Management of honeybee is scheduled around natural nectar flows. Beekeepers want their colonies to reach maximum strength before the nectar flows begin. This way, bees store the honey as surplus that the keeper can harvest instead of using the honey to complete their

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spring build-up. Feeding and medicating should be done January through February. Queens resume laying eggs in January after which brood production accelerates rapidly to provide the spring work force. Some colonies will need supplemental feeding. If colonies are light when you hoist them from the ear, they need sugar syrup. Mix syrup (one part sugar to one part water) and feed the bees heavily. Commercially available pollen supplements provide extra protein for population growth. Feed all medications early enough to allow for labeled withdrawal periods nectar flows begin. By mid-February, the hives are ready for detailed inspection. 0 On warm days (at least 45 F) check the colonies for population growth, the arrangement of the brood nest and disease symptoms. Colonies with less brood than average can be strengthened by giving them frames of sealed brood from stronger neighbours. If you use two hive bodies, most of the bees and brood may be in the upper body with little activity in the bottom one. If so, reverse the hive bodies, putting the top one on the bottom. This relieves congestion and discourages swarming. If you use one hive body, relieve congestion by providing honey supers above a queen extruder. Swarming should be avoided because it severely reduces colony strength. Mail-order queens are usually available by the last week in March. Annual requeening, whether in early spring or in fall, is one of the best investments a beekeeper can make. Compared to older queens, young queens lay eggs more prolifically and secrete higher levels of pheromones which, in turn, stimulate workers to forage, suppress swarming and suppress disease outbreak. To requeen a colony, find, kill and discard the old queen. Let the colony remain queenless for 24 hours then introduce the new queen in her cage. With a new queen, you can also make a new colony by taking frames of brood, honey and bees from a strong colony (leaving behind the old queen), placing them in a new hive body with a new queen the moving the new hive to a new location. This controlled “splitting” of a colony lets a beekeeper manage the swarming process; congestion and the swarming urge are relieved in the strong colony, and the

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removed bees are housed in managed hive instead of lost. If you feed your colonies, medicate them, requeen them and control swarming, they should be strong enough to collect surplus nectar by mid-April. This is the time to add honey supers above the hive bodies. Add plenty of supers to accommodate incoming nectar and the large bee populations; this stimulates foraging and limits lateseason swarming. As nectar comes in, bees place it in cells and evaporate it to about 18% water content. When bees cap the honey, it is considered ripe. Not all honeys are alike. Usually, lighter honeys command higher prices, and most beekeepers try to keep darker honeys from mixing with lighter ones. For example, some beekeepers remove supers with dark tulip poplar honey before it can mix incoming sourwood honey which is lighter. During late summer and early autumn, brood production and honey production drop. Unlike in spring, you should now crowd the bees by giving them only one or two honey supers. This forces bees to store honey in the brood nest. Colonies are usually overwintered in two hive bodies or in one hive body and at least one honey super. If you overwinter in one hive body and a honey super, remove the queen excluder so the queen can move up into the honey during winter. Colonies should weigh at least 100 pounds in late fall. It they are lighter on stores, feed them a heavy syrup (two parts sugar to one part water). Processing Honey Honey is sold as “extracted honey” bottled, liquid honey that has been extracted from the combs; “comb honey” honey still in its natural comb; and “chunk honey” a bottled combination of extracted and comb. Honey extracting equipment for the hobbyist is specialized and represents a one-time investment of about $500 for new equipment. Used equipment is often available at significant savings. These are the basic tools and procedures for extracting honey:

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271 Uncapping knife: a heated knife for slicing off the cappings fro combs of honey. Uncapping tank: a container for receiving the cappings. Wet cappings fall onto a screen, and honey drips through to the bottom of the tank and out a spigot. Extractor: a drum containing a rotating wire basket. Uncapped combs are placed in the basket and the basket is turned by hand or by motor. Honey is flung out of the combs onto the sides of the tank and drains through a spigot. Strainer: a mesh of coarse screen or cloth directly under the extractor spigot. This filters out large debris such as wax and dead bees. Storage tank: a large tank with spigot, or “honey gate,” at the bottom. As honey settles in the tank, air bubbles and small debris rise to the top and can clear and attractive.

Sometimes, extracted honey granulates. This is a natural process, and the honey is still perfectly edible. If bottled honey granulates, loosen the lid and place the jar in a pan of water on a stove. Heat and stir the honey until it re-liquifies. Comb honey requires little specialized equipment, so it is a good way for a new beekeeper to get started. Supply companies offer special comb honey supers for producing comb honey in round or square one-pound sections. “Out-comb” honey is the easiest and least expensive honey to produce. With cut-comb, the entire comb is cut away from the frame then further cut into smaller sections and packaged in special plastic boxes. Regardless of these variations, all comb honey requires special extra-thin foundation. Freeze comb honey overnight before it is sold to kill any wax moth eggs and larvae. Chunk honey is made by placing a piece of cut comb honey in a jar and filling up the rest of the jar with extracted honey. Remember to freeze the comb honey first. Wax cappings are a valuable by-product of extracting. After cappings have dripped dry, wash them in water to remove all honey. Melt the cappings, strain the wax through cheesecloth and pour it into

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bread pans or a similar mould. Supply companies can render your beeswax bricks into new foundation at considerate savings. Pollination Many valuable crops benefit from insect pollination (the transfer of pollen from one flower to another). This process increases fruit yield and, often, the size of the fruit. Honeybees are important pollinators because they can be managed and easily moved to crop site. For this, one colony per acre is commonly used. Stings

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Conclusion A key issue in Nigeria's current economic reforms agenda is promotion of growth and development of small and medium enterprises, which is also the targeted method of achieving the United th Nations 8 Millenium Development Goal (MDG) of reducing extreme hunger by half by year 2015. Commercial honeybee keeping for honey is a viable enterprise to establish in this context. The information above is a stimulant for this venture in Nigeria. FISH FARMING Introduction

Anyone who keeps bees will inevitably get stung. Consider this before you invest in a beekeeping hobby. You can greatly reduce stinging if you use gentle, commercially reared queens, wear a veil, use a smoker and handle bees gently. Experienced beekeepers can handle thousands or even millions of bees daily and receive very few stings. A bee sting will cause intense local pain, reddening and swelling. This is a normal reaction and does not, in itself, indicate a serious allergic response. With time, many beekeepers no longer redden or swell when they are stung (however, it still hurts). An extremely small fraction of the human population is genuinely allergic to bee stings. These individual experience breathing difficulty, unconscious or even death if they are stung and should carry with them an emergency kit of injectable epinepherine, available by prescription from a physician. When a bee stings, the stinger and poison sack remain in the skin of the victim. Always scrape the stinger and poison sack out of the skin with your fingernail or a hive tool; never pull it out because this squeezes the remaining venom into the skin.

Aquaculture is the science of growing animals and plants in water. Fish culture, an aspect of aquaculture, is the growing of the ponds. Infertile land can be converted into fish ponds, a collection of which is called Fish farm. According to defunct Family Economic Advancement Programme, FEAP (1998:35), protein intake in Nigeria is below 40%. The per capita consumption of animal protein is 28 kg/annum, only 10.6 kg or 37% of which is derived from fish. The current demand for fish is twice its local production. Investment in fish farming will stem low protein availability to the teeming population of Nigerians. Fish farming is encouraged for the following reasons: 1 fish is the cheapest source of protein; 2 it is more certain and convenient to culture and harvest fish (from ponds at home) than to catch fish from lakes, rivers or streams, or even buy from the nearest market; 3 fish pond can be built on land, irrespective of the soil nature and shape; 4 fish harvest from pond can be controlled and the fishes replaced, unlike the streams;


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6 7 8 9

fish growth can be controlled in the pond by varying food intake natural enemies can be kept off ponds; fishpond harvests are surer means of income; choice of fish varieties to keep or harvest is made with fishponds; fish culture ensures a regular supply of cheap fish.

The advantages of fish culture over other forms of animal husbandry are: Fish-keeping is less unsightly and less of a nuisance than ! poultry, goatry, etc. There is no objectionable odour in fish keeping. ! Fish makes no noise. ! Fish can feed on crumbs. ! Fishpond takes water or land otherwise wasted. ! atmospheric pollution, which is detrimental to cattle or ! poultry farming, is not in fish culture. ! Fish is a more efficient food converter, e.g., fish converts 2kg food to 1kg of fish flesh while cattle converts 20kg food to 1kg of meat. ! Fish consumption is acceptable to most religions. ! fish produces oil (eg cord liver oil) for medical, industrial and other uses, such as in soap making. Sites for Fish Ponds The following factors together make a site good for fish pond: 1 2 3 4

A heavy clayey soil with low sewage or that is water proofed. Sandy, rocky and stony soil or pebble bed are not good for fishpond. Clay is used to build the pond walls. Acidic soil affects yield and are lined with either agricultural lime Ca(OH)2, or Limestone draining. Land with low shrubs are easier and cheaper to clear . Availability and acidity of water is very important. Water of pH 6.5-9.0 before day break are most suitable. Add peatmoss

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to reduce alkalinity. Water must not contain oil or heavy metals, like mercury, copper and zinc which are toxic to fish even at low concentrations. Sources of pollution should be avoided in siting the pond 5. The temperature of the pond can be controlled by reducing insolation by erecting a bamboo shed over it. 6. Depending on the fish, oxygen requirements range from 4 to 8 mg/litre, although ciclidis withstand 3 mg/litre (or much lower). Dissolved oxygen profile influences the stocking density of the pond. 7. Turbidity, a measure of suspended dirt and other particles in water, is a factor in fish culture. In shallow ponds, high turbidity could prevent sunlight from reaching the plankton so that the phytoplankton cannot produce oxygen. Turbidity can be estimated by experience by looking at the pond, or by standing in the pond and sticking the arm under the water surface. If the hand is invisible at elbow-deep level, the water is turbid. Turbidity colour indicates productivity level, turbid brown showing turbidity while turbid green shows productivity. If the entire arm (hand to shoulder) under the water surface is visible, the water is neither turbid nor productive (i.e. lacking in fish food). Turbidity affects fish directly by killing them, reducing their growth rate or preventing their reproduction. Indirectly, it can reduce natural food available to the fish. To reduce turbidity, scatter gypsum (alum) at 1kg/50litre of pondwater. To prevent turbidity, streams containing industrial wastes must be avoided. Sources of Pond Water Sources of pond water are: rainfall for “skyponds”; ! run off, from the surrounding land; ! ! natural water, springs, streams, rivers or lakes channel by diversion ditch to the pond and regulated with gate or plug.


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Spring water is usually clean (uncontaminated) and has no unwanted fish or fish eggs. It is often, however, low in oxygen content. Avoid streams flooding in rainy season, or build a channel to divert it away from the pond. Filter streams, river or lake water; well water is, regular and low in contaminants content, ! though low in oxygen. Avoid chlorinated and hard waters. All said and done, clean well-water is the most suitable pondwater.

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!

!

277 while the ducks eat up watersnail and weeds. Cage culture, in which floating cages are constructed with nylon netting and bamboo wood and 5-10g fingerlings 3 introduced at 200-800 fingerlings/m , to subsist mainly on natural food in the water, with occasional supplementary food. Harvest is done every 6 months to give room for increased growth rate if production is disallowed. Integrated Plant-Fish Culture, which rice is grown in the fishpond with fish. The fish feeds on worms and insects in the root of the rice for mutual healthy growth.

Life Cycle of Fish Equipment Fry - Atevi - Fingerling - Brood Fish Culture Techniques

Rearing tanks (ponds/dikes), Washing tanks (plastic), Oxygenator, Fish feed, Scale, Working table, Hatching trough, Packaging materials, and Deep freezer.

Fish culture techniques are: Pond Construction !

!

!

! !

Permanent mixing of age groups, in which fry to brood are reared together to give fish of all sizes. Caring capacity (maximum population density) is attained after 3 to 4 months, and intermediary fishing starts. Temporary mixing of age groups, in which the young and old fishes are reared, and after one reproduction the pond is drained and fingerlings sold or used for new stocking. Polyculture, in which different but compatible species of fish are reared in a pond. Food utilization is maximized, but balanced relationship must be maintained. Cannibalism and high overhead costs are the disadvantages. Monoculture, on the other hand has one species of fish in the pond. Integrated Animal-Fish Culture, in which a platform is raised at the corner of the pond to raise animals, e.g. pigs, or ducks introduced into the pond. The pig faeces fall into the pond water to serve as fertilizer and food for plankton and fishes,

Pond construction uses the following principle: -

Land survey; Marking out the pond dimension/walls; Excavation; Building the drainage system and water inlet; Building the walls or cores or dykes solidly to prevent collapse; Sealing the pond bottom and walls. The water depth should be 1.5 metres. Shallow ponds are turbid or muddy and too hot for the fish. Of the four kinds of ponds, Contour and paddy ponds have regular shape, while Barrage and Diversion ponds have irregular shape. Preparing the pond involves plowing the old pond to enable it dry well, and clearing the bottom of any twigs, stumps, branches, or dead fish. Predators (e.g. snake, frog, etc.) must be removed or

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poisoned when the pond is dry. Ensure large cracks in the soil. Clear and smoothen and condition the pond with lime 2 weeks before water is introduced slowly and falling into the pond so as to mix with oxygen. Lime also kills pathogens (disease agents) and promotes the breaking down of organic matters to release nutrients. It is applied as and when needed in the following ways: ! Pond Bottom Method, in which dry pond bottom is limed before water is introduced at the rate of 1,400 kg; 114 kg; 2,270 kg and 200 kg per hectare of powdered limestone, caustic lime, calcium hydroxide and quicklime respectively. ! Pie Method (pond water), in which lime bays are placed at the bank of the pond in heaps at several spots. Fertilizer is broadcast on the pond water surface. ! Inflow Water Method, in which lime is packed in a sack and placed at the entrance for water which splashes, dissolves and carries the lime into the pond. The young fish is collected in a polythene bag with water in a cool evening (not hot afternoon) and introduced into the pond. Let the pond sit for days after it has been filled with water. Then crosscheck the quality (temperature, oxygen content, pH, turbidity, alkalinity, nutrients) of the water after the sitting period. The nutrients required by the fish to grow are the essential elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, etc. Fish gets these elements from the pond soil, water and food. Plant grass on the wall of the pond to serve as feed or food for the fish. Introduce organic (manure: sheep, poultry, cow or pig dump; compost; rice grain; etc.) and inorganic (NPK) fertilizers to serve directly as feed in the pond or stimulate and maintain plants growth. The rates of application are 1,000 kg/hectare for cow dump and 114228 kg/hectare for poultry droppings. Also, use artificial food as much as possible to supplement the natural foods: algae, weeds, larvae, insects, worms, etc. The

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growth of fish is directly related to the amount of food available in the pond. Different species and cycle of fish require different foods. Typical artificial foods are bread crumbs, rice bran, fish meal, ground maize, broken rice, soya bean cake, peanut cakes, sweet potato, grass, left-over animal feeds, animal manure, etc. The daily management of the pond involves checking for leaks, cleaning filters, watching fish behaviour, feeding the fish, and watching for predators (snake, rat, ell, strange fish, etc). Fishes swimming quickly round the ponds are well. Those waiting near the surface are hungry and need to be fed. Fishes should be fed at least twice daily. Gasping for breath at the surface of the water show that there is not enough oxygen in the pond and the farmer need to aerate the water. Seed multiplication/production can be natural or induced (artificial) in droodponds. The selected spawner (female) and male breeders introduced into the ponds. Most fish spawn within the first night, or a few days later. Hormones are used for inducing spawning. The environment of fish culture must always be clear and clean. An expert should visit monthly to inspect the farm. Harvesting is done with the following instruments, gill, seine, and line. POULTRY AND FEEDS PRODUCTION Introduction Poverty simply walks tall in developing countries. Malnutrition is the commonest symptom. Protein deficiency and lack of brain acid phosphates in pregnant mothers lead to the birth of weightless babies with weightless brains. These are moronic children. Poultry eggs and meat are good, fast and cheap sources of animal protein. They are highly recommended for the diet of the pregnant mother, the child and all. A relatively small portion of land and capital are needed to

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start a poultry business. Besides, anybody can learn poultry techniques and manage the business. Various scopes of operation can be embarked on with the corresponding profitability. You do not need to go for virgin land, as a micro-scale poultry business can be established at your backyard. As a civil servant, businessman or business woman, you can safely run a poultry business without encroaching on your official time. Poultry farm has many products and bye-products, each of which has ready market. You have no reason to delay starting a poultry business today. Poultry Farming Poultry farming is the keeping of birds (including turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, etc.) in order to produce table (unfertilized) eggs by layers, hatch fertile eggs by breeders, produce broilers, cockerel, chickens and integrated products like droppings, feather, etc. Thus, a poultry farming is a source of employment, fast and fat income (profit), animal protein (eggs and meat), fertilizer (poultry droppings), raw-materials (poultry bye-products, such as feather used for making cushions, mattresses, pillows, local fans, and decorative items), fertile eggs (also for making vaccines), gifts (such as turkeys, fowls), security birds (geese that make noise at the approach of strangers), and chickens (also for exhibitions, shows and entertainment as in cock fighting). Brooding And Rearing A day-old chick weighs about 0.2 kg. It takes about 10-12 weeks to mature to a market size or weight of 1.5-2.5 kg. Management of the chick from day-old to 4-6 weeks is called Brooding, while Rearing th involves nurturing it to the standard market size between the 6 and th the 12 week. Brooding involves the management of the delicate chicks, which are more susceptible to diseases and climatic conditions.

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Brooder and Good Brooding Practice Brooder is the house, which provides a suitable temperature, relative humidity and ventilation for the chicks. It could be half wire-meshed, covered with nylon or a normal structure. Before the arrival of the chicks, the brood must be prepared and cleaned with soap and disinfectant. Allow the floor to dry and litter with wood shavings to a depth of 5 cm. Use electric bulbs or kerosene stove/lantern to supply heat to the brooder. A 200-watt bulb can do for 100 chicks. When a stove is used, the hot base needs to be shielded. Clean and space out feeds and water troughs (drinkers) in the brooder. Keep feeds, water and attained warmth ready in the brooder before the chicks are introduced. Give Starter mash (feed) to day-old to 4-week old chicks, th Growers mash (feed) up to the 8 week and Finishers mash (feed) th from the 8 week. Follow the temperature guide below for the brooder: Table 6.2: Temperature requirements for different bird ages 0 Bird age (Week) Temperature ( C) 1 31-34 2 29-31 3 26-29 4 23-26 5 upwards 27 2

Spacing is 10m per 100 birds, to avoid stress resulting mainly from congestion. Daily brooding practice include: ! Observing the birds 2-3 times. Comfortable birds are spread evenly within the brooder and are active. If birds move away from the heater, it means they are feeling hot, and the heat needs to be reduced. If they cry around the heater, it means they are feeling cold, and you need to increase the heat. If they pile up away from the direction of draught, it means you need to close the


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vents.

! ! ! ! !

Dull and inactive chicks are observed more closely for the following symptoms: swollen parts, sleepiness, dropping wings, watery faeces (diarrhoea), water coming from the eyes (lachrymation), bloody faeces (coccidiosis) and greenish faeces (bacterial infection). Replacements of wet or caked litter with dry litter to avoid cold and disease outbreak. Provision of feed (once or twice). Washing of drinkers. Good Sanitary practice. Keep every part and the surrounding of the brood free from dirts, webs, litters, etc. Records. Keep records/charts of events around and poultry birds development.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

283 stress (caused by hunger, thirst, heat, and congestion). Nutrition: poor nutrition reduces laying. Cold: birds that feel cold feed more in order to generate more body heat through digestion and increased body metabolism. This increases laying. Disease/Parasite/ Debeaking: affect laying for a few days. Breed of layers: the genetics of the layer influences laying. Broodiness: this is the desire of the bird to sit on eggs (of self or others) after laying. Birds with or suffering from this tendency are poor layers. Management: space, ventilation, lighting, sanitation, disease control, number of laying nests, rate of collection of eggs, etc. affect laying.

Distinguishing Productive from Unproductive Layers th

th

Give Chicks mash (feed) from 6 to 8 week age of bird, th th Growers mash (feed) from 8 to 17 week age of bird, and Layers th mash (feed) from the 17 week up to the culling period. Give feed twice a day (8-9am and 4-5pm are best). Fill the trough (feeder) very well with feed. Continue culling at 5th day. Put on a common uniform from now for recognition. Give 5 litres of water per 20 chicks. Debeak after the 5th week. Deworm any time from 8th week. Change house if space is getting smaller for the growing birds, to avoid stress. Transfer to cage between the 15th and 16th week. Layers Laying of eggs begin between 22nd and 24th week. The factors influencing laying include: 1. 2.

Age: laying decreases generally after 9-10 months of laying, but some lay over 15 months. Stress: the number and size of eggs decrease with increasing

1. Bleaching is gradual change of the colour of vent, eye ring or ear lobe, beak and shanks of bones of laying birds (hens) from yellow to white. This occurs in poor layers only. 2. Moulting is shedding of feathers after each cycle of egg laying between 10 and 15 months. It occurs for a long period before 12 months in unproductive layers. Moulting occurs for a short period after 12 months in productive layers. 3. Unproductive layers usually have smooth and shinning feathers from doing little or no jobs, while productive layers usually have ruffled, soiled, warm feathers due to frequent visits to frequent laying nests. 4. Broodiness is the desire to sit long on eggs and struggle to return if taken away from nest/eggs or aggressiveness. This leads to poor feeding and laying in unproductive hens, but is not the portion of productive layers. 5. Unproductive layers make a peculiar sound which productive hens are not known for. 6. Unproductive layers are shrilled, dry paled, sally and fairly cold combs with dull and sickly appearance. Productive layers have

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warm, large, smooth, bright-red and shiny combs with bright and alert eyes. 7. Unproductive layers weigh above 1.5-2.5 kg due to fat deposit, while productive layers weigh less. 8. Unproductive layers have shrink and dry vent, while productive layers have large and moist vent. 9. Unproductive layers have shrink skin due to dehydration or thick skin due to fat deposit underlying the skin, while productive layers have soft and loose skin. 10. Unproductive layers have concentrated and hard abdomen, while productive layers have full and soft abdomen. 11. Unproductive layers have pelvic and pubic bones that can accommodate one (1) finger only, while those of productive layers can take 3-4 fingers. 12. Unproductive layers have pelvic and keel bones that can accommodate 2-3 fingers, while those of good layers can take 4-5 fingers.

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5. 6. 7 8. 9.

285 breathing. Mark affects chicks of 4 weeks of age, with paralysis and heavy death rate. It destroys sick birds. Day-old calcination is useful. It is a hereditary disease through the eggs in th incubation. Reduce the number of chicks at 4 week and open the window. Cannibalism is eating of self, fellow birds or eggs. It starts with lack of feed, stress and too high temperature. Pecking leads to it. Put red light in their midst. Nutritional Disorder is caused by unbalanced feed and leading to retarded growth, poor resistance to disease attack, etc. The indispensability of good hygiene including regular changes of old or wet litters. The importance of vitamin drugs, preventive medicines and vaccination. (Consult veterinary doctors.) The indispensability of close monitoring of the poultry house.

Disease Prevention and Management

Poultry Feeds Recipe

For effective disease control and management, take note of the following:

Poor feeds have ruined many poultry business. It becomes imperative that a serious poultry farmer should give a serious thought to making his/her own feeds. The equipment required for the making of poultry feeds are mixer, roller, grinder/miller. An economically feasible formulation of general feed is shown in table 6.3: Table 6.3: Feed formula Maize 3.5 kg Sorghum(Guinea corn) 3 kg Soyabean 1.7 kg Bone 1.5 kg Molasses 0.4 kg Salt 0.05kg Mineral-Vitamin 0.1 kg

1.

2. 3.

Coccidiosis is a poultry disease, which can start at any stage. Its symptom is blood-stained waste discharge. Laying may stop for a few days. For cure ask for coccidiostat or anticoccidiosis drug. Prevent coccidiosis with terramycin soluble powder, chick formular or poultry formula. Worm should be prevented with piperazine compound. Ask for dewormer. Chronic Respiratory Disease (R.D), a very serious disease which can kill about 95% of the birds in one week. It starts with wet feed, contaminated water, visitors and relatives entering the poultry house. The symptom is difficulty in

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! The vitamin-trace mineral must include/provide per kg of feed 800 I.U. of Vitamin A, 1000 I.C.U. of Vitamin D3, 5 I.U of Vitamin E, 6mg of menadione sodium bisulphite, 4mg of riboflavin, 30mg of niacin, 12mg of d-pantothenic acid, 301mg of choline chloride, 20micrograms of Vitamin B12, 100mg of BHT, 70mg of zinc (as zinc oxide ), 50mg of manganese (as manganous oxide), 0.25mg of iodine (as ethylene diamine dihydroiodide), 50mg of iron (as iron sulphate), and 0.10mg of selenium (as sodium selenite).

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birds for shows.

Allied Poultry Businesses These include: 1. poultry feeds production; 2. production and sales of poultry drugs; 3. production and sales of poultry equipment; 4. marketing of poultry products and bye-products; 5. poultry consultancy services;

Procedure SNAILRY Grind or mill grains and bones which must be dry. Mix all ingredients well in roller-mixer. (In milling, consider the size of the bird. Finishers mash and Layers mash are bolder than other feeds which are for younger birds. Starter Mash is the finest.) Feed composition varies as below for Starters mash, Layers mash and Growers mash as follows: Table 6.4: Feeds composition Starter Layers Growers Energy (%) 32 28.5 29 (Kcal/kg) Protein 0.23 0.15 0.15 Calcium 0.009 0.0325 0.006 Phosphorus 0.007 0.005 0.004 Poultry Harvest Poultry harvest supplies: protein-rich poultry table eggs and meat for human foods ; ! poultry droppings for fertilizer; ! feathers for making cushions, mattresses, pillows, local fans ! and decorative items; fertile egg for vaccine production; ! turkeys for food and gift; ! geese for food and security; !

Introduction This is the rearing of snails for meat, which could be exported and used to supplement or replace beef, mutton, pork, and other meats. Structure and Span of Snail The snail consists of head, foot and shell (with the viscera mass). The fleshy head bears two pairs of tentacles that can be retracted. The longer pair has a tiny eye on each of them. The eye is used to distinguish light from darkness. The shorter tentacles are knobbed at the ends and are probably organs of smell or touch. The mouth is in the centre of the head below the pair of shorter tentacles. Behind the head is a broad, flat retractile foot, which is a muscular organ used for adhering to plant, crawling and digging into the soil. The posterior end of the foot is usually pointed on the upper side. The viscera mass, the shorter part of the snail, is always confined within the upper wholls of the shell. It includes the tiny heart, stomach, a single sacklike lung, genital gland, kidney, liver (digestive organ), and intestine. These vital organs are partially covered by the mantle tissue that lies in the shell. Snails replace some lost parts. New teeth form on the radial


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as the old ones wear away. If the shell becomes damaged, the mantle quickly repairs it. A lost eye, tentacle or part of the foot is thus replaced.

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! Reproduction and Life Cycle of Snail Snails mature sexually at 9-10 months with average weight of 90135g. It breeds in rainy season (May-October), but can reproduce all year round if well fed. The hermaphrodite lays eggs at night in clutches containing 13-16 eggs in a smooth wall 2-6cm deep. Their sizes vary with total rainfall and relative humidity, and the depth at which the eggs are buried depends on sizes. Freshly laid eggs have lemon-yellow smell, are oval in shape and slippery to touch. In a year, the snail lays 4 clutches of eggs (about 50-60), which hatch in 26-40 days with parental independence. Eggs, placed in a hatchery with top and floor covered lightly with sand , hatch in 25 days. After 30-35 days, the incubated unhatched eggs are inspected and subjected to mechanical scarification at the extreme top to gradually recover the young ones from the shells. Delay in hatching may be due to shell thickness or high moisture content of the soil. Hatching rate of 60-70% and survival rate of 70% are normal.

! !

!

!

!

! ! !

Setting up a Snail Farm !

!

!

Select parent stock from snail farms or hinterland not stray snails or market stocks which have been starved of water or food and subjected to erratic climatic conditions that will affect their productivity. Avoid roped-snail because the shell has been damaged and this would cause death or loss of weight or even low productivity resulting from regeneration of shell. Provide for incubation and hatching of eggs with correct temperatures (slightly higher than that of the surrounding).

! !

289 Clean and pulverise the soil regularly and remove the feed debris to avoid pollution by decaying vegetable materials or increase in soil acidity. Avoid heat conductors in choosing feeding and housing materials. Avoid over-stocking and over-crowding, and group properly. Practice mixed farming: snailry-cropping, snailry-poultry, snailry-rabbitry, etc. because it is a long-term project which requires time before returns begin to come in. Select a site with supply of neat water (devoid of chlorine) and naturally calciferous soil (otherwise, dress with chalk, etc.) with alkaline pH range of 7.2-8.7. You can feed the omnivorous snail with cocoyam leaves and corn, cassava leaves, paw paw leaves and fruits, solid pap made from maize, earthworm, etc. Population density of 300 snails for 9m x 7.5m for free range enclosure or 30-50 adult snails 1.2m x 1m x 0.9m for box type enclosure. Arrange to harvest between October and April when prices are best. Avoid cement, solignum and chlorinated water which are toxic to snail. Keep away birds, moth's larva, spiders, snakes and small animals which are enemies of snails (which protect themselves by exuding slime to damage some foes, nocturnal habits, and withdrawal into shell). Avoid stress from changing snail environment which may affect reproduction especially during the dry season. Check cannibalism: adult snails consume the eggs and the young ones.

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GOATRY

choose from a variety of vegetation and weed.

Introduction

Feeding

Goats are kept in the tropics mainly for meat, hair and skin production, and, additionally, for milk in the temperate zone. They thrive where other livestock fail because they are good foragers, browse on a variety of vegetation, do not discriminate much over food materials, and withstand adverse weather conditions in humid regions of the tropics. They thrive best in sub-humid or Savannah regions. Breeds vary in the tropics and temperate zones. Five breeds are found in the tropics, while four are found in the temperate zone. Considerations for establishing a stock include market demand for the product, cost and availability of the breeds and the feeds, and the environment. Popular and profitable breed is preferred.

From 4 weeks to 6 months of age, goats are given kid ration with large th th protein content and incorporated with milk. Between the 6 and 9 month, they are given normal concentrates as for the rest of the herd. th From the 9 month, they are given normal concentrates daily in addition to about 1kg of silage. Soilage, browsing and grazing further supplement. The concentrates may be given 3 times daily at 10 a.m., 1 p.m. and 5 p.m. Recommended time for browsing is between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m. Silage, roots and concentrates in flat-bottomed bunks are given to the goats in their pen. Two-sided bunks of width 55cm and depth 7.5-10cm are useful. The bunks are raised 20.3-25.4cm above the floor. A linear space of 30.1cm per head is allowed at feeding bunk if there are no bars, or 20.1cm if bars separate the goats as they feed. Pregnant and milking goats need more feed than dry goats. Feeding is very important to milk producers. The animal gives you what you want the milk, if you give it what it needs, the food. Goats enjoy the following concentrate foodstuffs: ! Beans ! groundnut cake ! maize ! soyabean ! oat, and ! small quantities of coconut cake and cotton cake. These are mixed in the right proportion to provide for the animals the right per centages of proteins and starch needed for the stage of the animals and for the particular production or purpose. Groundnut cake mixed with oats and maize is good. Goat roughage is very important for goats and need to be provided in the right quantity and quality. 2-4.5 litres of water per day per head is good for goats in hot

Goats Keeping Goats enjoy free movement, browsing vast areas of pasture. To avoid damages by this destructive habit, goats are usually kept in: ! tethering; ! semi-stall feeding; ! herding or fencing. Tethering involves tying to a stake by means of a string or chain in a small hut of 1.5 metres square with roof, and fodder sent to it. Semi-stall feeding involves provision of an enclosure with a small goat-house or pen with feed racks. The fence (with wall, stick or wire mesh) of the enclosure should be 1 metre high. Aggressive horned goats should not be kept with polled or hornless goats. 2 2 Spacing is 1.4 m for a doe, 1.8 -2.3 m for a doe with a kid, and 55.7 2 74.3 dm for a goat feeding out. Herding provides goats with enough fields to browse and

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weather. Minerals may be mixed with feed concentrate or left in the trough box for licking. Breeding Although sexual maturity sets in at 6 months of age, breeding is encouraged from 9 months. The female goat may be left till a year or a year and half, giving the doe enough time to develop. A 2-year old male goat can breed or mate with 100 does. Heat period in the doe is signified by the swelling of the vulva, its reddishness, and the discharging of colourless material from the vulva. The doe is restless and cries frequently. This period spreads all year round in the tropics, although it is more frequent in one period of the year than others. It lasts 1-2 days and re-occurs after 18-21 days except where there is pregnancy. The does should be mated about 12 hours following the heat period. It is necessary to note the heat period and serve the doe. Flock mating and stud mating are two main mating systems adopted in goat breeding, the former being preferred for large herd. Cross-breeding improves the poor yielding West African dwarfs with some high yielding exotic breeds. Expectant goat should not be tethered. With parturition approaching, the goat has increased appetite. All materials to assist the goat in case of difficulty in delivery should be gathered. These include: (i) a bucket for disinfectants and water for washing hands before assisting the goat; (ii) soap; (iii) disinfectant (e.g. Dettol disinfectant); (iv) obstetric cream for lubricating the hands and arms (e.g. Dettol obstetric cream); (v) soft tissue paper for wiping the slime off the kid; (vi) towel for drying the kids. Goats show signs of kidding 2-3 hours before the actual parturition starts. These include restlessness, frequent crying, and

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distention of the udder. The hind flank is hollowed. The tail head is raised and the ligament around sunk. There is a discharge of white milky substance followed by a more opaque liquid, indicating the start of parturition. Actual parturition, which may not start until 2 days after discharge, starts with the straining of the abdomen, brought about by the contraction of the abdominal walls. The sack breaks and the fluid helps to lubricate the vaginal tract. Aportion of the kid is visible. The normal position is the forefeet and the head resting on the feet. As the straining continues and becomes more vigorous the head comes up through the passage and with little rest and then renewed effort the kid is expelled. The keeper can assist in the parturition by washing his hands, gripping the legs and pulling the kid in arrangement with the rhythm of contraction and strain. In the case of mal-position of the kid, the washed and disinfected hand should be inserted into the vaginal tract re-align the kid for expulsion. As soon as the kid is expelled, the mucus should be cleaned over the mouth and nose to aid breathing. Artificial respiration should be applied by gently pressing the forelegs forwards and backwards for the case of weakness of a kid resulting from prolonged birth. In the case of a goat having a second kid, the first should be kept away from it, lest it kills the kid. The first two kids should be kept away, in case of a third. The after-birth is next expelled about ½-8 hours after the expulsion of the kid(s). If after-birth expulsion is delayed further, the veterinary expert may direct some hormonal treatment. The afterbirth should be well disposed of. The doe's udder is washed with warm water and disinfectant and dried. Each kid should be helped to suck it. The goat should be given good food. The goat pen or house should be cleaned. Two main ways of rearing the kids are natural rearing and hand-rearing. In natural rearing, the kid is left with the dam to suck as much milk as it needs at any time of the day or night. The kid is

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weaned at 5-6 months of age. In hand-rearing, the kid is allowed to stay with its mother only for the first 4 days to enable it take colostrum (the dense rich milk of the first phase of lactation). Thereafter, it is reared away from the mother in such a way that the mother does see it or hear it calling for her. It is kept in a roomy warm shed provided with straw bed and wooden box to avoid draught. It is fed with milk either with bottle with teat or from bucket. For the first 4 weeks goat or cow milk raised to 54.40C is given to the kid 5 times a day. Thereafter, 3 times feeding per day is good. Gradually, the kid is introduced to concentrate food and tender young cassava roots, shoots of sweet potato and legumes. The male kid not intended for breeding is castrated after 2 weeks or 2-3 months of age. Gestation period is 145-153 days (150 days average). Goats usually kid 3 times in 2 years. The number of kids per parturition is 13. Goats in kid need more attention in terms of feeding them well for good lactation and growth of their kid(s), and allowing them to have exercise to avoid muscular weakness that may impair kidding. Goat diseases Goat diseases differ in relation to the location. In Nigeria, a few of the most common diseases of goats are: Enteritis pneumonia (scouring) ! Trypanosomiasis ! Helminthiasis ! Scabies ! Enteritis pneumonia is a contagious pneumonia attack of goats complicated by intestine upset resulting in diarrhoea, spreading easily through discharges and droppings, contaminated water, feed and equipment or carried by an attendant through inadequate sanitation. Symptomatically, the animal is dull, has occasional cough, has nasal watery discharge and probably some discharges from the eyes, loss of appetite, and watery diarrhoea that soils the tail and the thighs.

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The mortality rate may reach 100%. This disease caused by bacteria, which affect the lungs and the intestines. It is speculated that viruses participate. For treatment and control, the affected goats have to be quickly removed to a clean dry place, sanitation has to be beefed up and contamination of water, feed and equipment checked. On detection of the outbreak, a veterinary officer should be consulted immediately for necessary medication. Trypanosomiasis is a disease of many livestock caused by the protozoa, trypanosome, which swim in the blood and cause a lot of havoc and death to the animals. In goats, Trypanosomia vovox is associated with the disease and is transmitted by tsetse-flies, Glossina species, which act as the intermediate host. The diseases manifest in emaciation, relapsing, fever, anaemia, oedema, loss of weight, eye upsets, accompanied by lachrymation. The disease is not as acute in goats as it is in pigs, which it kills within 6 days. To prevent and control the disease, tsetse-flies that host and transmit the disease should be eradicated, wild animals that form the reservoirs for the protozoa should be destroyed, insect bites should be prevented and apply preventive medication. Drugs are available for treatment. Helminthiasis is a common name for many diseases caused by parasitic worms, including Platyhelminthes, the flatworms and Nemathelminthes, the roundworm. They inhabit different organs of the body, causing a lot of harm to the tissues and organs of the body and weakness and susceptible to many other diseases. Spread occurs through the contamination of feed, water and environment with faeces of the infected animals. Each species of worms has its symptoms, which also relate to the tissue or organ affected. While the Liver-fluke causes haemorrhage, other symptoms of the disease include anaemia, loss of weight, loss of vigour, intestinal disorder, including diarrhoea, reduction of products and susceptibility to other diseases. Treatment is by worm expelling. Prevention is by

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deworming from time to time and then moving the animals to another pasture after deworming, and by maintaining a high standard of sanitation. The young susceptible animals should not graze where the old ones had grazed. PIGGERY

Livestock

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Introduction Pigs are: ! monogastric (single stomach) animals, like man, and need to be fed well; ! good feed converters, second to broiler, converting 0.20, where cattle convert 0.013, of the gross energy into meat; ! polyestrous (i.e, breed round the year); ! more meaty and less bony than other livestock; ! prolific animals which can deliver 10-20 piglets twice a year, and can reproduce itself 120 times in 18 months (while cattle is 12 times in 3 years); ! greedily curious, reflected in the tendency to sniff and nibble all sorts of feed materials placed in the environment; ! of good house inkeeping habits; ! land damagers due to rooting and trampling efforts; ! poor utilisers of roughage, their rapid growth rate coupled with single stomach, (in contrast to complex ruminants) requiring concentrated feed rations; ! known for maintaining a social hierarchy; ! very susceptible to disease and parasites; ! a source of meat (pork) which is very nutritious because of its high fats and low water contents when compared to beef (cattle) and mutton (sheep). It is noteworthy that: * relatively small portion of land and capital are needed to establish a pig farm; ! anybody can learn pig rearing;

! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 2

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pork is today in high demand throughout the world; pork production will reduce the price of beef; swine is the collective name for pigs; litter refers to pigs born of the same mother at the same time; piglet is a young pig yet to be weaned; weaner is a young pig that has been weaned; grower is a pig, more than 10kg by weight, being fattened for meat (market); gilt is a young female pig that has not reproduced young ones; boar is an uncastrated male pig; barrow is a castrated male pig; sow is a mature female pig pregnant for the first time; farrow is the act of giving birth to piglets; many local and foreign breeds of pigs are available in Nigeria, and; a pig has reached market stage when it weighs about 200kg. In selecting swine, we note that: large litter size (10kg for gilt and 12kg for sow) indicates high ovulation rate, while low litter size indicates low level of embryonic mortality; the pig should look healthy with no physical defect; at least 12 developed and functional mammary features evenly spaced are essential; boar should have both testicles well descended into the scrotum; good length (74-79 inches) and girth, curve at the back and wide legs are essential; pigs with excess fat should be avoided; pigs that convert 3.25kg feed to 1kg lean tissue (rather than fat) are desirable; the history of the parent pig is important. In piggery management, note that: though puberty is 8-10 months, mating is best allowed around a year; a male of 1or 2 year(s) covers a female a day and 30-40 females in a season, while a male of 2 years plus can cover 2-3

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3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17


females a day and 50-60 per season; mating lasts 10-20 minutes; cross-mating should be after weaning, not at the first heat (ovulation) period, usually 10-15 days after delivery; after 4-5 deliveries, the mother should be fattened for the slaughter; female pig has continuous ovulation with the heat cycle of 3 weeks and signs of crying, lack of appetite, hiding in the dark, swollen and reddened vulva for 1-3 days, and possibly running after males; gestation is 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days; pregnant and nursing mothers should eat available green pasture in addition to the feed concentrates; delivery (farrow) period is marked by restlessness and crying and nibbling the floor materials; it is good to transfer the pregnant pig 3-6 days before delivery to the clean pen (delivery room) prepared with sawdust on the floor; piglets are easily expelled at due time; application of G.V. or Methylated Spirit on the cord of the piglet after deliver, as well as treating with a disinfectant, the genital organ of the mother is essential; immediate removal of the placenta prevents the pigs from eating it and helps to clear the smell; helping the weak piglets the first day to take their colostrum before milk is essential; iron treatment of the young piglets at 3-weeks prevents mortality from anaemia; the new upper tooth (neddle tooth, black in colour) should be removed to avoid using it to bite or hurt mother's teat during sucking which could result to a violent reaction and attack from mother, disturbance to milk supply, infection, etc; creep feed (the first solid food) should be supplied during lactation (1st to 5th week) for feeding practice by the piglet, while the weaners feed is introduced 5-8th week at 35kg live-

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weight and growers diet starts from 35-55kg live-weight; 18 feed should be changed as/when due according to age, condition and weight of piglets; 19. weaning is within 60 days, and influenced by vigour and weight of pig. Table 6.5:Weaning schedule for gil and sow Days Gilt weight Sow weight 21 4.5 kg 4.5 kg 49 11.0 kg 12.31 kg 56 16.0 kg 19.1 kg 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

grouping pigs according to age and condition is advisable; over-crowding must be avoided to prevent biting of ear and tail; separation of male from female from 5-6 months of age is important; water should be provided early in the morning and changed, with cleaning, the next morning; dry feed should be available at all times (ad libitum) for the pigs; cleaning the pen is very important to avoid disease, and moist bedding must be promptly removed; compounding feed follows the following proportion:

Table 6.6: Compounding pig feeds Creep feed Weaners diet Growers diet Fatness diet Breeding diet

27. 28.

Protein Grains/cassava Calcium Mineral/Vitamins Phosphorus (Energy) (%) 24 60-63 8-11 0.1 5-8 20-22 60-62 8-11 0.1 7-9 18-20 61-63 9 0.1 6 15-16 62-65 35 0.1 6 16 67-68 7 0.4 7

high protein concentrates (blood meal, fish, ground cake, etc.) are available from feed manufacturers; waste food from canteen. hospital, hotels, are also good for pigs, but not for young pigs and pigs a few weeks away from

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29. 30.


slaughter, and must be boiled to eliminate disease before giving them to pigs; Boiled or fresh cassava, paw paw fruits, etc, can be given to them; a daily increment in weight for pigs very well fed with good management is as follows:

Table 6.7: Weight increase with good feeding for pigs 1st month - 150g/day 5th month -500g/day 2nd month - 250g/day 6th month -600g/day rd 3 month - 350g/day 7th month -700g/day 4th month - 400g/day 8th month -900g/day 31. size of pig against pen area and length are: Table 6.8: Pen area requirement for different pig sizes Size of pig: weaning to 35kg 35-55kg 55-90kg Pen area: 0.7m2 0.7m2 1.1m2 Length: 22cm 30cm 37cm 32.

with good feeding, neatness and preventives (vitamin, dewormer, etc.), pig hardly takes ill.

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Chapter Seven

CROPS INTRODUCTION Crops production, protection and storage are very important factors in food security. They require plant hormones and hormone regulators, storage chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers. Fertilizers can be inorganic or organic solid or liquid preparations. Inorganic fertilizer contains salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonia and magnesium. Organic fertilizers include urea, compost, green manure (legumes), animal droppings, wood ashes, etc. Field pesticides include herbicides, which kill weeds in the farm. They can be total or selective weed-killers. The total weedkillers eliminate all green plants, including the crops, while the selective weed-killers spare the crops and kill the weeds only. Sodium chlorate, NaClO3, is the earliest total weed-killer still in general use. It is, however, easily leached from the soil. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is the first selective herbicide, which functions by physiological selection to kill the broad-leaved weeds (dicotyledons) and spare the narrow, waxy cereal leaves, which allow the spray to run off without harm to the cereal plant. Biochemically selective weed-killers are based on plant hormones. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a plant hormone, which very powerfully stimulates the growth of plants. Applying large amounts of IAA to a plant would cause it to grow excessively and die soon as a result. To avoid the metabollic regulation of this plant hormone, the synthetic analogues have been used in its place. Examples include 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2-methyl-4chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA). Other hormone-type weed-killers include a series of benzoic acid compounds, e.g., 2,3,6-trichlorobenzoic acid (TBA). The

301

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simple halogenated acids, e.g., trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and 2,2dichloropropionic acid (Dalapon), are used for controlling perennial grasses. Pesticides also include fungicides, nematicides, algaricides, etc. Market presentations could be combinations. CASSAVA Introduction Cassava, with one species, Manihot, esculent or utilisima, is a dicot belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. It has many cultivars based on many different parameters. One of these parameters is cyanide content mainly to the peel.

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production is amenable to traditional bush-burning agriculture where left-over ash is a rich source of pottassium. A fertilizer (k-15) should be applied at 400kg/ha about 6 weeks after planting The major pests of cassava are grasshoppers, termites, mealybug, mites, and rats which dig up and eat the tubers. (Consult Cobaxy Int. Ltd. or any reliable pest controllers). Cassava may suffer from the following diseases: mosaic, anthracnose, bacterial blight, which are best prevented and affected crops destroyed. Harvest of early varieties at 12 months gives high yield and extractable starch. Late varieties are harvested 15-18 months. Harvest when soil is moist to minimize damage to tubers. Local cultivars yield 5 tonnes/ha, improved cultivars yield 15 tonnes/ha, and research stations get 30 tonnes/ha. Processing and Utilization of Cassava

Cultivation of Cassava Cassava is a lowland tropical crop requiring a good amount of rainfall and humid climate with a temperature range of 25 to 290C. It can tolerate drought and low soil fertility because of its feeder roots, which grow about 1 meter deep into the soil. The best soil for cassava is a sandy loam soil of average fertility and sound drainage. Clear the land and make mounds or ridges 1 meter apart. Plant any time in the year, especially with the early rains, selected healthy cuttings (25cm from 10-12 month old plants) free of biotic infestation. (Shorter stakes produce top growth but low harvest). Check for freshness (latex exudes from scratched lesion) before planting stakes (which dehydrate with storage) in a slanting position with about 3 nodes sticking out, maintaining 1 meter spacing on the ridge. When interplanted with melon, weed is culturally controlled. Otherwise, the crop needs manual weeding 3-4 weeks, 12 weeks and 5-6 months after planting. Herbicides, e.g primextra, primagram, etc. are used for chemical weed control in cassava at 5 litres/hectare. Cassava requires a high amount of potassium, hence its

Frying and fermentation are methods of processing cassava to reduce the cyanide content and make easier the starch extraction. Thus, cassava can be produced into garri, starch, foofoo flour, and livestock feed. Cassava is a major carbohydrate (energy food) source, the tuber containing about 62% water, 22% starch, 1.5 protein, and 2% fibre (Uguru, 1996). The Table7.1 below outlines the uses of cassava derivatives Table 7.1: Uses of cassava derivatives S/No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Primary Product Garri Fufu Lafu/elubo Flour

5. 6.

Chips Pellets

Use Food and livestock feeds Food Food Production of glucose, ethanol, bread, adhesive, confectionery, livestock feed, flour Food, livestock feed, flour Livestock feed

304 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.


Cassava leaf

Vegetable for livestock feed protein concentrate for livestock feed Starch Food, pharmaceutical, paper, textile, adhesive, canning confectionery, glucose, ethanol, etc. Dextrin Food, adhesive, oil drilling, “briquetting”, textile, paper, ( a modified starch) breweries, etc. Glucose and dextrose Mineral drink, confectionery, pharmaceutical, caramel, etc. Ethanol

Locomotic, automobile and industrial fuel, drink, pharmaceutical, laboratory, industry Source: Atoe and Ibobor, 2006: 289.

Table 7.2: Domestic market potential of cassava derivatives S/No

1 2 3 4 5 6

Product

Product Dry Weight (mt)

Starch Garri Fufu powder Flour Livestock feed Ethanol (90 million litre/year)

444,000 400,000 300,000 400,000 3,000,000 225,000 pellets/chips

Fresh Tuber Weight Equivalent (mt) 1.8 million 2 million 1.2 million 1.2 million 12 million 900,000

Employment Opportunities 750,000 800,000 600,000 800,000 3,000,000 600,000

Source: Atoe and Ibobor, 2006: 290.

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Table 7.3: Export market potential of cassava derivatives S/No

Commodity

1

Starch

2

Ethanol

3

Food

4

Livestock feed Cassava leaf

5

Present World Market Estimate (mt) 40 million

20% of World Market (mt) 800,000

Fresh Tuber Weight Equivalent 32 million

675,000

2.7 million

270 million litre/year 10 million people x 0.2kg/day 96 million

736,000

3.7 million

19 million

75.6 million

37 million

7.4 million

75 million fresh leaf

Source: Atoe and Ibobor, 2006: 290

Business Value ($) 400 billion 189 million 662 million 3.7 million 3.1 million

COCOYAM Introduction

Value of Industry (N) 33 billion 27 billion 18 billion 6 billion 85 billion 7.2 billion

Cocoyam, a monocot of the family of Araceae, is not a root but an underground stem and not a tuber but a corm. Two important genera: Colocasia (tero) and Xanthosoma (tania), are extensively cultivated. Cultivation of Cocoyam Cocoyam requires about 250c temperature and grows well in rich alluvial saline soils with large quantities of moisture and organic matter and pH 5.5-6.5, with an ideal annual rainfall of 200cm. It tolerates some degree of flooding and shade. The land is cleared, ploughed. Harrow, ridges and mounds are made. The crop is propagated vegetatively by planting 10-15cm soil depth of: (a) small cormels or setts cut from large cormels; (b) small corms or setts cut from large corms and (c) the shoot made up of the apical portion of the corms and the lower portion of the petiole.

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With adequate soil moisture of flooded culture, 30x30cm spacing is adequate, while 50 x 50cm spacing on upland mounds or 50cm apart on 1 metre ridges will be ideal. Weeding is done in early stage of growth as the leaves soon expand to shade off weeds. Fertilizer is applied at the 14th week. Apply 60kg P2 O5/ha and 60kg K2O/ha at planting and 40kg N/ha split th at 6 and 12 weeks after planting. Harvest immediately the crop mature by the yellowing of leaves and the consequent die back of the top usually in December to January in Nigeria. Bruises on corms provide entry points for rot organisms. The taro yield 2-10 tonnes/ha, while the tania is 10-25 tonnes/ha. The major pests of Cocoyam taro are (a) rootknot nematode controlled by spraying with any systematic insecticide. The major diseases of Cocoyam are: corm or collar rot controlled by (a) use of uninfected planting 1 materials (b) crop rotation with maize (c) deep planting of corms, 2 Leaf light diseases controlled with a copper based fungicide. Processing and Utilization of Cocoyam To avoid corm rot diseases, process cassava into (a) dry chips, (b) flour, or (c) boiled and pounded thick foofoo paste. It is eaten in various forms as food and contains 63-85% moisture, 13-29% starch, 1.4-3% protein and some amounts of fat, fibre, ash, vitamin c, niacin, thiamin and riboflavin. The leaves and petioles are also used as food (Uguru, 1996). MAIZE This is a large monoecious grass of the family of Gramineae.

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Cultivation of Maize 0

Maize is a tropical crop thriving in temperatures below 35 C and best 0 at soil temperature of 20 C. It cannot stand drought and performs best on 400-900mm of rain and in well-drained loamy or sandy soil that is rich in humus and available nitrogen. Maize is propagated by seeds only. It is planted after clearing, ploughing and harrowing on ridges when intercropped with cassava and flat when drilled as a crop as soon as the beds are prepared to a depth of 5-8cm at an intra-row spacing of 25cm and inter-row spacing of 75cm to give a plant population of about 53,000/ha or seed population of 25kg/ha. Put 2 seeds in a hole. Weeds are removed manually with hoe or killed with herbicides, such as Primextra, Primagram, Basamaize, Gesaprim, etc. First dose of NPK fertilizer is applied 10-14 days after sowing at 250kg/ha. Place a match box-full 3cm deep and 15cm from each stand. At tasselling (7 weeks from sowing), sulphate of ammonia is also applied by the same side placement at 150kg/ha. It is ready for green harvest when silk is dry and for dry grain harvest when silk, leaves and husks are completely dry. Yield is 2.5-7 tonnes/ha. for hybridized maize, and 1-3 tonnes/ha. for local production. Diseases and Pests of Maize Birds, which feed on grains before harvest, are controlled by scaring. Maize diseases include Corn smut, Com leaf blight, and Maize rust all of which are fungal and controlled by crop rotation, planting resistant cultivars, destroying affected plants, and chemically. Maize pests include Stem borers, controlled with systemic insecticides, such as Miral or Furadan. Maize aphids also attack maize, an are controlled by spraying with Diazionon.

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Rodents also attack maize. They are controlled by trapping, fencing and rodenticide application. Maize weevil, which attack stored grains, are controlled chemically with Aluminium phosphide and Actellic. Maize streak is a viral disease that is mostly restricted to monocots and controlled by planting resistant varieties and destroying the affected plants.

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variegated colours); (ii) easy detachments of the grain from the glume; and (iii) very hard grain when bitten between the teeth. Panicular harvest is common and the stubbles are left for yams staking. Yields of 350-1,200kg/ha have been reported. The harvest panicles are either stored as such or threshed before storage in the traditional rumbu or modern silos after drying grains to 13% moisture content.

Processing/Utilization of Maize Pests and diseases of sorghum Maize is eaten boiled or roasted or processed into animal feed, vegetable oil, baby food, starch, Tuwo, Akamu, Egbo, Popcorn, Cornflakes, Corn syrup, Beer, Malt drinks, etc. (Uguru, 1996). SORGHUM (GUINEACORN) This is an annual crop similar to maize in many ways, including climatic demands. Cultivation of Sorghum Sorghum cannot tolerate low temperatures, but some level of drought. It's pH requirement is 5-8.5 range. It is propagated by seeds planted into freshly well-prepared seedbeds or ridges 90-100cm apart in 60cm intra-row. Seed dressing with Aldrex T and Fernasan D prevents decay before germination. Weeding is best done through the application of the herbicide atrazine, since hoes for manual weeding destroy the massive root system of sorghum. 3-4 tonnes/ha of manure or compost or 60-12kg/ha of single superphosphate are worked into the soil before sowing and 100kg/ha of sulphate of ammonia or 125kg/ha of NPK applied about 3 weeks from sowing may be useful. Crop maturity is indicated by (i) the full development of glume and seeds (white, black or

The major pests are sorghum midge (flies) controlled by early planting, use of resistant varieties, destruction of affected parts, and application of insecticide; aphids are controlled by the use of resistant varieties and spraying of chemicals; witch weed, prevented by continuous weeding. Sorghum diseases include: i. the fungal Grain smut whose pores are seed-borne, and controlled by seed dressing; ii. the soil-borne Head smut controlled by crop rotation and destruction of affected plant; iii. the Bacterial blight, which occurs on seedlings exposed to long periods of wet weather. The symptoms are yellow leaves that eventually wilt and collapse. Processing and Utility of Sorghum Sorghum is processed and consumed in various food forms: tuwo, akamu, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, etc, as well as used as feeding-stuffs (Uguru, 1996).

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RICE

Rice Processing and Utilization

Introduction

When bitten between the teeth, a brittle break indicates maturity, readiness of rice for harvest. Manual or mechanical harvest is used. Paddies are drained and the soil allowed to dry to permit the entrance of labourers. Threshing is the manual or mechanical knocking out of the caryopsis from the panicle of the rice. In hand threshing, the rice sheaves are flogged on logs of wood placed on mats to separate the rice straw from the paddy. Winnowing involves careful throwing up of the rice in a shallow tray against the wind to get the straw and other foreign matters blown off to retain the clean paddy. The winnowed rice is properly dried to a moisture level of about 14% in the sun and finally put into bags and stored in a dry ratproof store. Parboiled and milled rice stores better than rice milled directly. Parboiling consists of soaking and steaming. Soaking involves washing the rice (to ensure that it is not coloured after milling) and removing the incompletely filled grains; loading the grains in a drum and topping it with water a few centimeters above the rice level; covering and firing the drum until bubbles appear; discontinuing firing and allowing the grains to rest till the next day (or 0 3-4 hours if heating was at 65-70 C); and washing the soaked grains. Steaming involves adding 5-8 litres of water to a drum filled with the soaked grains, covering the top with a jute bag and heating till steam is noticed. Heating is discontinued and the grains spread hot, evenly on a mat, first thinly under direct sunlight, and later, heaped to avoid very rapid drying rate, to prevent sun cracks on the grains. Milling is the removal of the glume and parts of the embryo and the aleurone layers from the grain. The by-products of milling are the husk and the nutritionally rich bran containing parts of the embryo and the aleurone layer. The rice is ready for consumption after milling.

This is an aquatic monocot of the family of Gramineae that successfully grows in standing water, varying from 60-190cm in height, and grain lengths of 5.5mm (short), 6.6mm (medium), and 78mm (long). Cultivation of Rice 0

Rice requires 110-180 growth days and 20-28 C temperature, and is better grown in heavy clay soils that have water-retaining capacity to meet its water requirement. It tolerates acidic conditions and withstands pH 4.5-7.5. For the paddy rice, the land preparation involves clearing and construction of field-side embankment which side holds impounded water. Plough, harrow and puddle the field (for transplanted paddy) to reduce water percolation, ease transplanting, reduces weeds, and incorporate oxygen into the top section of the soil. For upland rice the soil is cleared, ploughed and harrowed at the onset of rains. Rice is propagated by seeds broadcast directly into the field or first prepared by sowing or dibbling in nursery 10-12cm deep, and later transplanted to fields earlier manured or treated with inorganic fertilizer and kept weed-free and watered sufficiently for 4-6 weeks. Manual transplanting at 30 x 30cm spacing is normal. Plant upland varieties when the rains stabilize, and paddy anytime in so far as irrigation is available, at 45-90kg/ha. Weeding or chemical weed control is very important in rice farming. Sulphate of ammonia is the best (most soluble and easily absorbed) source of nitrogen applied at about 20cm depth. For potassium and phosphorus deficient areas, 100kg/ha of 15-15-15 NPK is applied between rows at flower initiation.

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Fields of 0.5-4 tonnes/ha. have been obtained. Rice is a major staple in most countries in the world. The oil from bran can be used for cooking or as salad oil. The bran serves as a good roughage for cattle. The major pests and diseases of rice The major pests of rice are birds which attack field rice, and controlled by bird scaring; stem borer which attack the plant from seeding to maturity, and controlled with systemic insecticides, like Furadan, Miral, etc. and burning the stubble of infected plants; Armyworms, whose larvae feed on the leaves of the plant causing obvious damage and reducing photosynthetic surface, and controlled by a uniform spray of the Malathion; Gall midge, which affects the rice fields with little known as yet of the bionomics and control; and rodents which attack rice fields, and controlled by trapping, fencing or use of chemical poison. The diseases of rice include the fungal Blasts and rotten neck, which infect the leaves and the panicles causing the leaves to dry up, and controlled by use of resistant species, burning infected plants, and seed dressing; the fungal Brown leaf spot, which reduces leaf area, and controlled by use of resistant varieties; the fungal Stem rot which causes the stem rot disease of rice; and Bacterial blight, with the appearance of water-soaked stripes on the leaves which wither leading to the possible death of the plant.

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Cultivation of soyabean Soyabean, usually sown in June/July in Southern Nigeria, requires 400-900mm of rainfall during the growing period, and does best on sandy or clay loam soils of good fertility. It is propagated by seeds sown directly at a depth of 2-4cm and a spacing of 60 x 30cm on seedbeds (or flat) or 15-30cm on ridges 1m at 45kg/ha seed rate. Hoe weeding or use of herbicides (e.g. Codal) is important particularly during the early growth stages. Nitrogen fertilizer suppresses nodulation, hence the application of 300-450kg/ha of 0-20-20 NPK is recommended. Calcium or magnesium is also added to soils where such salts are deficient. Yellowing and drying pods show maturity, which must be followed by immediate harvest. Grain yields range from 0.5-2 tonnes/ha, depending on variety and husbandry. Utilization of Soyabean

SOYABEAN

After shelling and drying, food seeds are stored in sacks, but loss of seed viability is a problem for future planting. Soyabean contains 17-20% oil and 37-43% crude protein. The oil is used for the manufacture of paints, printers ink and soap. The soyamilk (dry powder and liquid) as well as Soyabean beverage and moi-moi are rich sources of protein for the baby and adult. The soyabean cake is a livestock feed. The trypsin inhibitors contained in the soyabean are rendered harmless by heating the seeds.

Introduction

The Pests and Diseases of Soyabean

This is a bushy legume with trifoliate annual leaves, an erect growth habit and 40-120cm height, of the family of Leguminoseae. Leaves and stems are covered with grey hairs, while flowers are small and borne on short arising at the nodes.

There are no major pests of soyabean. Many insects cause minor problems, while nematodes and rodents reduce soyabean yield in the humid regions of the tropics. The diseases include Bacterial blight, which is seed-borne and experienced in very humid conditions with the symptoms of

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lesions on the leaves, stems, petioles and pods. It is controlled by the use of resistant cultivars. Wild fire causes defilation, and is controlled by use of resistant cultivars. The fungal Downy mildew, attacks leaves and pods, and is controlled by the use of fungicide and use of resistant strains. The viral Soyabean mosaic and Yellow mosaic attacks are mostly of no consequence. Some root rot diseases are yet overlooked (Nzelu, 2004; Uguru, 1996). TOMATO Introduction This is a succulent herbaceous vegetable of the family of Solanaceae produced for the fresh market or for processing. The leaves are hairy, variable in shape and unevenly pinnate with lobed margins. The flowers are often shed one or two days after they have opened. Cultivation of Tomato 0

Tomato requires 18-29 C for optimum yield. At higher temperatures with high humidity, foliage diseases are rampant. Hot dry winds reduce fruit set as flowers drop before fertilization. Tomato grows well in sandy to heavy clayey soils, and best in rich well-drained loamy soils. ApH range of 6-6.5 is best. Tomato is propagated by seeds either sown directly into the field, or first in a nursery and later transplanted. Plastic greenhouse, propagation farm, seedbox, and ground nursery are practiced. The best soil is sterilized sandy loam mixed with well-rotted compost or farmyard manure and clean river sand in the ratio of 3:2:1 and sieved with 1cm screen. The seeds are planted 5cm apart, watered, covered with a board and placed in a shade undisturbed till 3 days later when germination starts. Seedlings are ready 3-4 weeks from planting.

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Harden the plants before transplanting by lessening the frequency and volume of water applied to the nursery. 150-400g seeds can be transplanted to 1ha through the nursery at 6-leaf stage, 15cm height, or 3-4 weeks of age. Ploughing and hoeing should observe 18-25cm depth in moist soil and seedbed of 129cm width. Soil-improving crop (legume) should precede the tomato planting. Transplanting is better done in the evenings with a spacing of 45cm within the row and 60cm between the row. Staking may be necessary. Axillary vegetative shoots are manually removed and the shoot apex is decapitated when the plant attains a height of about 200cm. Irrigation becomes important during limited rainfall or when evapotranspiration is higher than precipitation. Weeding is by hand or with hoe or cultivator. Organic manure is applied liberally before transplanting. Top-dress with NPK fertilizer applied when the flower buds of the first truss have 2 become visible. 1kg/9m NPK is incorporated into the top 5cm of the soil either in bands or in rings 20-25cm away from the plant. Maturity sets in 3-4 months after planting, and the fruits (ripe or near-ripe) are picked manually. 20 to 30 tonnes/ha or higher yields are possible. Processing and Utilization of Tomato The tomato fruit is about 94% water and 6% soluble sugars, citric and malic acids, mineral salts and vitamins A, B and C. It is used in making salad, soups and sauces. It is processed/preserved by canning the juice. Pests and Diseases of Tomato The pests of tomatoes include: (i) Nematode or eelworm, which attacks under humid tropical

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conditions. Swellings on the roots may result and lesions created make way for entrance of bacterial and viral disease. Crop rotation is the cheapest control. Systemic pesticides are effective; (ii) White flies, which are vectors of some viral pathogens that cause the tomato mosaic, leaf curl and the tomato spotted wilt. Pesticides sprayed regularly control the flies; (iii) Lady bird, which damage the shoot and fruits. controls it; (iv) Fruit worm (Uguru, 1996).

Malathion

OILPALM Introduction This is a monocot of the family of Palmae with a dense network of fibrous roots. The stem terminates in a crown of fronds consisting of 25-40 pinnate fronds and a central spear leaf. The fruit is a drupe consisting of an exocarp, mesocarp (with oil) and the endocarp (shell). Cultivation of Oil Palm At least 2,000mm of rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year, high daily temperature of 24-340C, sunshine of 1,500 hours per year, and soils loose enough for extensive root branching with good water and nutrient holding capacity are the needs oil palm trees. Oil palm seeds germinate in 21 days when treated with artificial heat from fermenting vegetable matter or a woodfire followed by cooling to ambient temperature with optimum humidity. The seedlings are raised in polythene bags. The 400-500 gauge, 40 x 35cm layflat bags are filled with topsoil and placed in a square formation at 45 x 75cm spacing. The nursery is adequately watered

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and weeded. The pre-germinated nuts are planted as soon as they are sourced at a triangular spacing of 9 x 9 x 9m (142 palms/ha) and planting holes of 45 x 45 x 45cm. Transplanting is done with the early rains in March or April. Seedlings and bags are transplanted with all the accompanying soil after the polythene bag has been carefully stripped off. Protruding roots of seedlings should be immersed in clay slurry during handling and transportation. The planting holes are cross-shaped and the roots evenly distributed as such. First the hole is filled with topsoil and finally with bottom soil before firming the soil around the base of the seedling. Weed is controlled by cutlassing, herbicide spray or use of cover crops. The thrash from cutlassing is left as mulch in the farm. 56kg of a mixture of NPK and Mg fertilizers in the rate of 1:1:1:2 using sulphate of ammonia, single superphosphate, nutriate of potash and magnesium sulphate is applied at the 2nd and 8th month of nursery life. It is applied in a circle with a diameter of 2 metres round the palm in order to reduce leaching losses. Deficiency in any of the macro nutrient elements greatly hampers the fruiting potentials of the transplanted palms, K deficiency particularly causing confluent orange spotting on the leaves, a disease that reduces photosynthesis surfaces of the plant. The bunch is mature for harvest when up to 10 fruits are loose (or fallen or dislodged) at the base of the tree. Traditionally, the subtending leaf is pruned and the bunch cut by the stalk. In modern techniques, chisel is used to cut the bunch without affecting the subtending leaf. The palm wine is tapped, with the yield of 3,500-4,200 litres/ha. Processing and Utilization Palm fruits are processed immediately after harvest, otherwise the free-fatty acid (FFA) content will increase and cause a drop in the oil quality. A high quality palm oil has 3.5% FFA or less, against 30% for

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the traditional oil. Palm oil is rich in carotene, which is a precursor of vitamin A. It is used in homes for cooking and in industries for the manufacture of margarine, soaps, lubricating oils, and candles. The palm kernel oil (extracted from the palm kernel) is used in the manufacture of soaps, vegetable oil, skin lotion or as a laxative. When mixed with kerosene, it is used as a wood finish. The palm kernel cake is a livestock feed, while oil dreg is a good fattening diet for pigs. The plamwine is a popular alcoholic drink. The leaves, rachises and petioles of the oil palm are turned into thatches for roofing buildings. Brooms for sweeping are made from the leaves.

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Dry basal rot, Crown disease, etc. are other diseases causing similar symptoms and similarly controlled (Uguru, 1996). PINEAPPLE Introduction Pineapple fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A and C and of sugars. It serves as a medicine and for wine production. The leaves of some species of pineapple produce very strong fibres. Climatic and soil requirements

Major Pests and Diseases of Oil Palm 0

Nursery pests include snails, crickets, and mammals, such as rodents, controlled by use of pesticides. Oil palm leaf Miner, which attacks the field plant is controlled by spraying with Ultracide 40 EC at 1.5 litres/ha. The larvae of strope weevil tunnel through the trunk, and is controlled by systemic insecticide, such as Nuvacron. The stinging green caterpillar (a moth) feeds by scraping the undersurface of the leaflet from the tip backwards, resulting in pronounced defoliation and considerable loss. This is controlled by spraying with Basudin 60 EC at 3.6 ml/litre or Ultracide 40EC at 1.5-3ml/litre of water. Anthracnose is a nursery fungal disease controlled by spraying with fungicides, such as Dithane M45 at 2g/litre of water. Perenox and other copper-based fungicides are avoided here as they cause severe scorching on young palms. Freckle is another fungal disease of young palms, controlled by use of Dithane M45 or Captan at 2g/litre of water. Blast, a root disease of young palms, causes decay and eventual collapse of the root system. Ganoderma trunk rot causes the stem tissue of mature palms to rot even without obvious external symptoms. Vascular wilt, a soil-borne fungus, discolours the outer whorls and is controlled by removal of old stumps.

Temperatures of 15-32 Cand rainfall of 1,250-1,500 mm distributed throughout the year is required. The shallow crop with limited root system requires large amount of moisture and perfect drainage. Sandy soil rich in organic matter or well drained acidic (pH 5.5) loam suitable. Agently sloppy land is desirable, but not steep slopes. Other requirements Cultivate land to a depth of 20-30cm and destroy all weeds before planting crown suckers, ratoons or side suckers, basal slips and stem cuttings selected on bases of resistance to pests and diseases, early fruit production, good and uniform sizes and shape, large palatable fruit, and small crowns. The basal leaves of planting materials are removed and the materials dried in the sun for about 2 weeks before planting. The removal of the basal leaves provides areas for root initials. Double row system of planting, in 60 cm wide and 45 cm deep trenches filled with top soil mixed with fertilizer and manure. Consolidate and water heavily before planting. It is more economical where land is limited than the single row system. Greater spacing produces larger fruit which sell better in the market, whereas smaller spacing yield medium-sized uniform fruits best for

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processing. Hand-weed as necessary to avoid hoe-injuries on the plant. Mulch with grass, straw or leaves to prevent erosion.

MELON

Harvest and Yield

Melon originates from Africa. Its seeds are rich in high quality oil. Deshelled seeds are ground or pounded for soup making.

Harvest is from when base of fruit begins to turn yellow to when the th fruit is fully yellow, mostly from the 18 month of planting. Avoid damage to fruit. Yield varies with varieties and cultivational care. Average yield in Hawaii is 63 metric tonnes per hectare, but 30 metric tonnes per hectare in Nigeria. Replanting of orchard should be after 4 years. Pests Mealy bug insect feeds at the base of pineapple fruit, causing fruit rot and wilting effect on the plant, which withers and decays. Control is by spraying with DDT, BHC, Malathion or Dieldrin. Zolove or Sherpa plus or Actellic may be sprayed at flowering stage. Diseases Nematodes attack on pineapple is controlled by fumigation with nematicide or use of resistant varieties. Heart rot and root rot are caused by soil fungus and limited to areas of high rainfall. They are controlled by use of resistant varieties. Leaf blotch produces brown sunken spots on the upper leaf surface, which may expand to form a streak covering a large proportion of the leaf surface. Control is by spraying with copperbased fungicide (Anyanwu et al, 1998).

Introduction

Climatic and soil requirements Melon performs better in fertile, humus-rich, and well-drained sandy-loam than in other soil types. It tolerates some degree of acidity. The warm-season crop needs high temperatures for long periods of the year under irrigation. Humid climate predisposes plant to fungal attack unless planted with first rains, while excessive humidity affects flowering and encourages foliar. Tillage eases root penetration and better crop establishment. In traditional mixed cropping system, the seeds are directly sown in mounds or ridges usually 2 or 3 seeds per hole 3cm deep and spaced 1-2 metres. At least two rounds of weeding, at early plant growth stage and before flowering, are recommended. In crop rotation or mixture system, organic manure and/or soil improving crop are used to maintain a good level of organic matter. If need be, 15-15-15 NPK fertilizer is broadcast at 225kg/ha before sowing. Harvest and Yield Fruits mature 4-5 months after planting, showing in drying and withering of leaves and exposure of fruits. One plant produces 3-5 fruits to give 30,000-50,000 fruits per hectare at 1 metre spacing. Harvested fruits are cut open and left to ferment for 2-3 weeks to make seeds removal easy. Seeds are washed and sun-dried before storage (Uguru, 1996).

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PEPPER

Other requirements

Introduction

Weeding is manual, herbicides could be used. Hoeing care must be taken to avoid bruising the roots, which provide entry points for soilborne disease organisms. NPK fertilizer is applied liberally on beds or ridges several days before transplanting. Top dressing with potassium and phosphorus is important in very poor soils.

Pepper originated from Tropical America. Sweet or bell pepper and Hot or red pepper are two species of pepper grown in commercial scale in most countries. The former is grown as a short-term annual, while the latter is a short-lived perennial often grown as an annual in tropical West Africa. The fruit of the former is usually mild and less pungent than the former, which is highly pungent. Further differentiation is noted in the table 7.4 below. Table 7.4: Further differentiation of two pepper species Plant type Sweet or bell pepper Hot or red pepper

Height

Branching

75 cm

-

1.5 metre

Much branching, woody at 3rd/4th year

Flower Yellow, axial, solitary Yellow, clusters of 2 or more, axial

Fruit shape/size Shape and size vary Small, erect, conical

Colour of ripe fruit Red, orange or yellow Red or yellow

Source: Uguru (1996). Hot or red pepper is used as condiment and for flavouring soups, stew and sauces. It is also used in pressing seeds and has some medicinal applications in local orthopaedics in Nigeria. Climatic and Soil Requirements 0

Both types require day temperatures of 27-32 C and night 0 temperatures of 20-28 C. They are tolerant of a wide range of rainfall, and grow best within 625-1,250 mm. Excessive precipitation causes poor fruit set and premature fruit drop. Welldrained and fertile sandy loam with ample supply of organic matter is best for peppers. Propagation is from seeds first sown in a nursery to germinate 6-10 days and transplanted to manured seedbeds or ridges at 10-15cm height. Recommended spacing is 75cm x 75cm for beds and 75cm apart on ridges spaced 1 metre apart.

Major pests Nematodes cause stunting of root system, impede upward movement of water and nutrients and retard growth and development. Control is by planting resistant varieties crop rotation and application of carbofuran. Birds pick ripe fruits if harvest is delayed. Control measures for rice and maize apply here too. Major diseases Viral mosaic and leaf curl diseases are serious pepper diseases in Nigeria, resulting in small-sized leaves that are discoloured, crinkled and curled. Infected plants should be uprooted and burnt. Fruit rot turns fruits brown with affected areas appearing water-soaked and soft. Infected plants are sprayed with copperbased fungicide at the early stage of fruiting. Harvest and Yield Flowering commences 6-12 weeks after transplanting and fruits are ready for harvest as from 4 weeks after flower initiation. Fruits are picked manually. Fresh fruit yield of hot or red pepper is 1-1.2 metric tonnes per hectare. Dry fruit yield is 340-450kg per hectare (Uguru, 1996).

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MANGO Introduction The ripe mango fruit is a drupe with a fleshy, succulent and sweet mesocarp and a stony endocarp. It is eaten raw, while the unripe fruit may be boiled and prepared in various ways for eating. The kernel is also edible, and the leaves serve as fodder. The resinous gum from the tree is used in mending pots, while tannin from the bark of the mango tree is used for tanning leather. Climatic and soil requirements Deep, well-drained and rich soil not more than 915 metres above sea level is ideal for mango cultivation. A dry period is needed to induce flowering and another dry period for fruit setting. Mango is propagated by seeds planted soon after removal from the fruit. Seedlings are transplanted in 61 cm x 61 cm x 61 cm holes filled partially with top soil and spaced 9.5 metres x 9.5 metres. Excess shoots on one seed should be cut off. Thick mulching is desirable. Vegetative propagation by budding, layering and grafting is also practiced with advantages of shorter (4-6 years) maturity and fruit-bearing age (as against 8 years for the seed propagated) and maintaining of qualities of original stock. Harvest Mature fruit is harvested ripe (yellow) or unripe and kept in cool sheds to ripe. Pests and Diseases Major pests are moths and fruit flies, which attack ripe mango fruits or ones about to ripe. Control is by regular harvest of ripe fruits and

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destruction of over-ripe fruits. Anthracnose, a fungal disease, attacks mango leaves, causes spotting of fruits and shedding of young fruits. Control is by observing strict sanitation during planting period and spraying with fungicides (Anyanwu et al, 1998). PLANTAIN Introduction Plantain is a large rhizomatous plant surviving vegetatively by means of suckers. It is a giant herb originating fromAsia with juicy and nonwoody aerial pseudostem consisting of overlapping leaf bases. French, Horn and Falsehorn plantains are the three main types of plantain in Nigeria. They are differentiated as in the table below: Table 7.5: Types of plantain French Horn Falsehorn

11-13 6-9 2-8

Large Small 18-22

About 500 400-500 300-450

Nov.-Feb.

Source: Uguru (1996). The starchy fruit is usually eaten cooked or chipped and fried in oil, or its starch tapped for various industrial productions. Overripe ones are blended with cereal flour and fried to obtain fritters or with beans flour for plantain moi moi. It is propagated asexually by means of suckers or bits. Suckers are planting setts that develop from buds on the short underground stem (corm), while bits are large corms which have been dug up and divided into small pieces with at least on “eye” on each segment with good regeneration potentials. Suckers are separated from their mother plants with a spade, and then planted within one week.

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Climatic and Soil Requirements

Major diseases

Plantain requires a hot and humid environment. Annual rainfall of not less than 1,200 mm evenly distributed throughout the year is ideal. Air temperature of 300C is suitable.

Black sigatoka, a fungal leaf spot disease, affects all plantain cultivars, except recently bred resistant genotypes. Leaves first show yellow spots, turn black and eventually become necrotic. Photosynthesis is impaired and small bunches are produced. Control is by foliar spray with Benomyl fungicide or soil application of triadimeton or triadimenol.

Other requirements Planting hole should be 30cm x 30cm x 30cm. First cover with top, then bottom soil. N, P, K, Mg and Zn are required for optimum growth and yield. In deficient soil, each stand needs 1-1.2kg of sulphate ammonia, 1.25-1.5kg muriate of potash and 300g of single superphosphate. Micronutrient elements, such as Zn, are, in some cases, applied as foliar sprays. Depositing household wastes in the farm provides highly important organic matter. Two 'followers' are allowed to grow with the main ratoon crop. Other suckers are removed carefully and transplanted or sold. The shallow rooter with heavy fruit bunch tends to bend and experience tip-over (entire corm with roots come out of the ground), snap-off (corm breaks leaving a part in the ground), doubling (pseudostem breaks), especially with strong winds. Propping underneath the bunch with fork-like structure provides a good support. Major pests Nematodes attack and damage plantain roots, weakening the plant to tip-over and causing reduction in yield. To control nematodes, apply nematicide in a circle 25 cm from the plant. Stem borer lays eggs near the corm of the main plant. The larvae attack the underground part of the plant, feeding and boring channels within the corm, to weaken the plant which may tip over. To control stem borer, leave the land to fallow or apply systemic insecticides, such as carbofuran.

Harvesting and Yield The bunch is cut from the bearing plant, which is completely destroyed and suckers thinned. Mature plantain bunch ripens in one week. Yields differ with variety and agronomic care from 16-20 metric tonnes per hectare. BANANA Most of the information on plantain apply to Banana. The two main types of banana grown in Nigeria are Gros Michel and Cavendish, differentiated as in table7.6 below: Table 7.6: Types of Banana Plant type Gros Michel Cavendish

Growth rate Vigorous Not vigorous

Fruit size/shape Height Slender and curved Taller Robust and short Shorter

Source: Uguru (1996) Banana is eaten raw. Overripe ones have similar use as overripe plantain.

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CASTOR BEAN Introduction Castor bean is of Ethiopian origin. The fruit is a capsule containing three shiny seeds, which vary in colour. Castor oil has excellent keeping quality and does not turn rancid. It remains viscous at high temperatures and liquid at low temperatures, a major reason why it is one of the best oils for the manufacture of lubricants. It has numerous other industrial uses. The excellent emolient property makes castor oil a key material for the manufacture of body creams in the cosmetics industry. It is also used in the production of Turkey oil used in cotton dyeing, printing, and leather industries. Castor oil is poisonous and should not be fed to man or livestock without adequate processing. With a good extraction method, however, the oil is normally free of the ricin and allergen, both toxins remaining in the cake, which becomes unsuitable for compounding livestock feed. Climatic and soil requirements A combination of temperature range of 25-300C, annual rainfall of 600-1,200 mm evenly distributed during growing period, silty clay loam (medium textured) soil, growing period of 140-180 days gives good conditions. Castor plant is sensitive to saline environment.

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cropping is spaced 1 metre x 2 metres. The short internode varieties require shorter spacing, and higher plant density per hectare is realised. Weeding is required at the juvenile stage. House wastes manure castor farms. Deficiency in nitrogen and phophorus is corrected by the application of 140-260 kg/ha of nitrogen and 60-130 kg/ha of P2O5. Yield is under 1 to 3 metric tonnes per hectare. Castor seeds store well, freshly hulled seeds with little or no cracks keeping without deterioration for at least 2 years. Major pests Reported pests include thrips, corn earworms, armyworms, spider mites, and leaf miners. None of these insects poses serious problems in castor farms in Nigeria. Major diseases Damping-off disease is common in castor fields. It is controlled by fungicidal seeds treatment. Alternaria leaf spot, caused by Alternaria ricini, causes defoliation. Bacterial leaf spot, caused by Xanthomonas ricinicola, occasionally causes serious damage to castor plants (Uguru, 1996). SWEET POTATO

Other requirements

Introduction

Castor bean is planted on well-tilled and harrowed flat or raised beds, with crop residues of previous plantings buried to raise the organic matter content of the soil. Planting is with early rains in tropical West Africa. Castor bean is usually intercropped with other arable crops, such as maize, cassava and yams. It is grown by seeds planted 5-7 cm deep. Sole

Sweet potato is a dicot. Its starchy root tuber is cooked or fried or pounded or floured and processed in various ways for human consumption. It is also a carbohydrate source for livestock. There are many cultivars, the coarse fleshed being unsuitable for human consumption. The tuber contains about 70% water, 20% starch, 1.5% protein, 1.5% sugar, and trace vitamins and minerals.

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The starch is usually converted to maltose during boiling, giving the food its characteristic sweet taste. Climatic and soil requirements Long sunny conditions without shade, temperatures up to 240C, 7501,250 mm of rainfall, sandy loam soil, and soil that is not prone to waterlogging provide good growth conditions for sweet potatoes. Where the water table is high, the crop should be planted on mounds or ridges. Other requirements Sweet potato is propagated vegetatively. A terminal cutting 0 containing at least 5 nodes is planted slanted at an angle of 45 , exposing at least 2 nodes. Sprouts (slips) and leaf bud cuttings are planted erect. Spacing of 90cm x 90cm is ideal for a sole crop. Keep farm weed-free the first 6 weeks after planting. Thereafter, the growth habit of sweet potato smothers weeds. NPK 10-10-20 at 700 kg/ha is recommended for very poor soils. It is applied on both sides of the ridge after weeding. Sweet potato matures between 4 and 8 months, depending on the variety. Yellowing and withering of leaves announce maturation. To harvest, cut the vines and dig out the root tubers. Yields, which depend on cultivars and location, range from 5 to 16 metric tonnes. Major pests Sweet potato weevil is a major pest. To control it, cover the exposed roots with soil (earthing up) or spray affected plant with Diazinon (Basudin 60EC) at 0.1 litre in 50 litres of water. The larvae of sweet potato vine borer make a tunnel in the stem, thus weakening and causing it to wilt. To check the pest, vine cuttings are dipped into a solution of an insecticide before planting.

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Nematodes cause lesions on roots, cracks on tubers, and general stunting of the plant. Planting Nemagold, a resistant variety, and pre-planting treatment of planting materials help to check nematode attack. Rodents, controlled by trapping or use of rodenticides, are also pests of potato. Major diseases Diseases of sweet potato include sweet potato virus, soft rot and stem rot. The cheapest form of control is pulling out and burning infected plants. Resistant varieties, Dokobo and Anioma, are planted in places where the diseases are endemic (Uguru, 1996). PAWPAW Introduction Pawpaw originates from South Africa. Two local varieties are shortfruited and long-fruited, generally of higher quality than the former. Imported varieties, e.g. pink fleshed variety from the Cameroons, are of a better quality. Ripe fruit is very delicious. It contains papain, which tenderises tough meat. Tough meat can also be made tender when cooked with pawpaw leaves or with the green pawpaw fruit. In Ceylon and East Africa, pawpaw latex is collected from the fruit, dried and preserved or used in preparing exported papain used as meat tenderizer in packing industries and in the manufacture of silk. Pawpaw grows to a height of 3-5 metres, with hollow and mostly unbranched stem and large leaves on the apex. Male and female flowers develop on different trees with the former more numerous and hardly developing into fruits. Flowers have sweet scent, which attracts insects that pollinate them.

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Climatic and soil requirements Well-drained lighter soils are good for pawpaw. Other requirements Pawpaw is propagated by seed, or branch cutting of not more than 1.2 metres long. The seeds may be sown directly in the field, or first germinated in a nursery and later transplanted into the field. The nursery can be prepared on the ground in shallow boxes or baskets. The ground soil should be worked to a fine tilt, while top soil rich in humus should be used for boxes and baskets. The seeds are sown 7-10 cm apart in rows at a depth of about 2.5 cm. The nursery should be shaded and seeds watered in the morning or evening every other day. The seedlings are ready for transplanting after 2-3 months at 15-20 cm heights. Three (3) weeks to transplanting, the nursery shade should be gradually withdrawn. Spacing is 2 metres x 2.4 metres in 61 cm x 61 cm x 61 cm holes filled with top soil with each stand taking 3 or 4 seedlings 15-20 cm apart. One match-box full 4-8-5 NPK fertilizer should be applied twice a year. Ring-weeding is monthly in rainy season and bimonthly in dry season. Other weeds are slashed as often as necessary. Fruits mature 9-10 months after transplanting. Harvest ripe or green fruit without injuring them and store in a cool and dry place. Diseases Leaf spot attacks leaves. Fruit rot disfigure fruit. Seriously affected plants should be removed and destroyed (Uguru, 1996).

Chapter Eight MINERALS INTRODUCTION Rich mineral deposits that need to be harnessed abound in Nigeria. They include: Metallic: iron-stone, gold, columbite, feldspar, tantalum, magnesite, zircon, lead ore, zinc ore, casserite, molybdenite, wolframite, iron ore, bauxite, copper, limonite, etc. Non-metallic: clay, kaolin, fire-clay, glass sand, limestone, calcite, dolomite, bentonite, gypsum, sulphur, barytes, phosphate, dolerite (quarry-stone), diatomite, lignite, kyanite, salt, talc, mica, gemstones, trona, etc. Mineral fuels: petroleum, natural gas, coal, etc. Miscellaneous: spring, hot springs, etc. Table water production (from springs and other sources) is discussed in chapter 3. Kaolin, Limestone and Quicklime productions are discussed in this chapter. KAOLIN Introduction Kaolin is of versatile industrial use in cosmetics, pulp and paper, chalk, agro-allied and pharmaceuticals production. The total consumption of kaolin in Nigeria is 19,000 metric tonnes per annum. The cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries have shown general

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Minerals

apathy towards local kaolin speculated to be heavily laddened with microbes (FEAP, 1998:60-61). Kaolinitic clay deposits occur in Enugu, Kaduna, Anambra, Katsina, Oyo, Kebbi, Ogun, Plateau, Borno, and Kwara States.

Production Process

Equipment

QUICKLIME/HYDRATED LIME

Blunger or Jaw crusher, Hydrocyclone, Sieves, Vibrating screen separator, Hammer mills, Calciner, Pulps, Conditioners, Scale, Packages, and Packaging machine.

Introduction

Process The dry process handles high-quality raw-materials that requires no washing. The kaolin is crushed, pulverised, milled, classified and packaged. LIMESTONE Introduction Ground industrial mineral from marble or limestone serves as abrasive and filler in chemical metallurgical and non-metallurgical industries, including paper, paint, ceramics, refractory, agricultural, plastics, rubber, pharmaceutical, and other mineral and non-mineral based industries. Its demand in Nigeria is 90,000 metric tonnes per annum, but only 25,000 metric tonnes are supplied by local producers (FEAP,1998:64).

335

The total process involves quarrying, blazing, milling (including grinding, air classification, screening), and packaging

Quicklime, CaO, is obtained when limestone/marble Calcium carbonate is calcined at 800-1,2000C. Hydrated lime is obtained by hydrating quicklime. It is one of the most extensively used industrial raw-materials. It is used in chemical industries to produce caustic soda, precipitated calcium carbonate, portland cement, fertilizers, rayons, calcium hypochlorite, citric acid, phosphates, glycerine and polypropylene oxide. In the food industry, it is used in softening water and sugar refining. In metallurgical industry, it is used in the production of non-ferrous metals, such as copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver and uranium. The demand and supply in Nigeria are put at 101,000 and 35,000 metric tonnes per annum respectively (FEAP, 1998:67). The highest limestone deposit of 100 million metric tonnes occurs in Sokoto State, followed by 85 million metric tonnes in Benue State, 70 million metric tonnes in each of Kogi and Ogun States, 15 million metric tonnes in Enugu/Anambra States, 10 million metric tonnes in each of Edo and Cross River States, 1 million metric tonnes in Imo State, and large amounts in each of Bauchi and Niger States and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Equipment

Equipment Jaw crusher, Disintegrator, Pulverizer, Rotary screen, Scale, Packages, and Packaging machine (with stitcher).

Lime kiln (rotary or vertical), Jaw crusher, Vibrating screen, Conveyor, Hammer mill, Blower, Lime bin, Scale and Packaging device, Vapour and centrifugal separator, Hydrator, Feeder and

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Minerals

337

feeder water control device. Equipment/Machinery Production Process 1.38 metric tonnes of good-quality limestone (to yield 1 metric tonne of hydrated lime) is mined, crushed, screened, conveyed to kiln, 0 where it is decomposed at 800-1,200 C, milled, and packaged.

Double screw clay mixer with crushing rollers, sieve (electromagnetic), pugmill or ballmill, blunger or jaw crusher, conveyor, cutting table, glaze machinery, spray dryer, kiln with chimney scale, generator, etc.

CLAY FLOORING TILE

MARBLE TILE

Introduction

Introduction

Clay flooring tiles are used mainly as floor and terrace covering. Clay and clay-based materials for making the tiles are found in nearly all the States of Nigeria. Because of phenomenal demand for building materials in Nigeria, the country incurred an import bill of over N600 million both 1986 and 1987. The ever increasing demand and price of flooring tiles has popularized burnt clay tiles in Nigeria, making this project a wide decision.

Marble is an age-long excellent architectural and artistic material due to its sturdy nature and smooth surface. The commonest use of marble is in making roofing and flooring tiles. Prior to 1980, most of the tiles used in the construction industry in Nigeria were imported. Presently, local production cannot meet the demand for the products.

Raw Material

Marble slabs - crystalline form of limestone, also obtained commercially from any carbonated rock capable of taking polish - are the raw materials required for the production of marble tiles. Limestone is found in Nigeria in Sokoto, Benue, Ogun, Kwara, Cross River, Anambra, Edo, Imo, Bauchi, Niger, Enugu and FCT (RMRDC, 2003: 85-6).

Clay materials abound in Enugu, Katsina, Ogun, Kano, Kebbi and Borno States (RMRDC, 2003: 81 - 2). Production Process i. Mix clay and water and feed to a plug mill ii. Cut clay column from mill into slabs on the cutting table iii. Dry slabs pressed into tiles on a hard press for 24 hours iv. Kiln-dry tiles (first by firing) v. Apply glaze solution on tiles and allow to dry overnight vi. Transfer glazed tiles into kiln for glost firing vii. Hard polishing gives dried tiles glassy surface viii. Burn tiles in a klin ix. Sort tiles out and package for sale.

Raw Materials

Production Process i. Feed marble slabs of required thickness procured from the block sawing units into the grinding and polishing machine. ii. Grind and polish slabs (by respective machines) iii. Cut polished slabs into desired tile dimensions with edge cutting machines iv. Sort tiles to size and package for sale.

338


339

Minerals

Machinery/Equipment

CALCIUM SULPHATE (PLASTER OF PARIS, POP)

Grinding and polishing machines, edge cutting machine, overhead water tank, water pump, and miscellaneous tools and fixtures.

Introduction

CHALK Introduction Chalk is a regular feature in the education industry at all levels. It is used for writing on chalkboards and slates. The present national demand, over 15,000 metric tones per annum, is far from being met by local manufacturers.

Calcium sulphate (plaster of paris) has outstanding property of setting and subsequent hardening when mixed with water within a time range of 15 seconds to 30 minutes. It is extensively used in ceramic industry for preparation of models, moulds, and plaster toys. It is also used in the manufacture of statues, chalk, crayon, plaster board, decorative picture frame, wall and flooring plasters, suspended ceiling boards, orthopaedic and dental plaster, pharmaceutical formulations and in interior decoration. Raw Materials

Raw Materials Calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris, POP) is the major raw material for chalk production. It is obtained by calcining gypsum locally available in Yobe, Sokoto, Ogun, Edo, Adamawa, Taraba, Anambra, Imo, Benue and Bauchi States as deposits currently being exploited (RMRDC, 2003: 93).

POP is calcined gypsum, which is found in Adamawa, Taraba, Yobe, Borno, Bauchi, Benue, Sokoto, Ogun, Edo, Kogi and Abia States (RMRDC, 2003: 108). Production Process o

Production Process i. Mix POP, china clay and additives to obtain desired colour. ii. Make a water slurry of the mixture (making efforts not to allow air bubble to be formed in the slurry) iii. Pour slurry into moulds and give time for proper setting iv. Remove chalk sticks, dry and package for sale.

When calcium sulphate, CaS04, is heated to 130 - 180 C, it losses a portion of its water of crystallization to form POP: CaS04.2H20 + Heat i. ii. iii.

Equipment/Machinery Aluminum moulds, scale, dryer (oven), furniture, etc.

iv.

1

1

CaS04. /2H20 + 1 /2H20 (POP) With raw gypsum to remove impurities Dry and pulverize the lumps Calcin the gypsum powder in a rotary drum calciner (by o heating with a low pressure burner to 130 - 180 C for about 2 hours. Cool and pulverize to the finest size and package airtight in polyethylene lined gumming bags.

340


Minerals

Jaw crusher, screen washer, rotary cylindrical drum calciners, disc pulveriser, hammer mill, sieving machine, comprehensive strength testing machine, burners, scale, stitcher, etc.

vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.

Equipment/Machinery

CERAMICARTWARE/TOY

341 Shaping in a filter press to form cakes Mixing cakes thoroughly in a kneading mill Adding electrolytes to slip in an agitator Grazing of moulded casts. Drying Kilning Beautification and packing for sale

Introduction

Machinery/Equipment

Ceramic artwares can be fruit bowls, flower vases, ash trays, decorative wall plates and toys, like elephants, birds, etc. in colours. Market survey indicates increasing preference for ceramic artwares, which is deepening with aesthetic taste of Nigerians and increasing with growing population.

Ball mills, pot mills, screw blunger, agitator, magnetic separator, filter press with diaphragm pump, edge runner, horizontal pug mill, jigger and jolly, decorating wheels, air compresses, kilns, storage tanks. PHOSPHATE

Raw Materials Introduction China clay, ball clay, feldspar, quartz, fire clay, plaster of paris, and glazing materials are among the raw materials for the production of ceramic wares. They occur in Anambra, Adamawa, Bauchi, Benue, Edo, Enugu, Imo, Kogi, Kwara, Katsina, Niger, Ogun, Ondo, Borno, Oyo, Osun, Yobe, Lagos, and Plateau States of Nigeria (RMRDC, 2003: 104). Production Process i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Crushing the non-plastic hard materials, like quartz and feldspar in jaw. Grinding further in edge runner to fineness of 30 mesh or above. Adding plastic clay and wet grinding in a ball mill. Demagnetization and sieving Mixing clay with suitable proportion of water in a blunger to form slip

Phosphate rock develops from bones of animals and marine invertebrates that secrets shells of calcium phosphate. It occurs as mineral appetite, Cas(P04)3(F,Cl,0H), where F, Cl, 0H are present in varying amounts. Beneficiation or processing of phosphate rock yields phosphate mineral which has a vitreous luster, tabular form, specific o gravity of 3.2g/ml and melting point of 1,600 C. The mineral is an essential micronutrient for plants, supplied naturally by weathering of phosphate rocks and artificially from mining of phosphate rocks, an insoluble evaporite. It is also a basic raw material for the manufacture of phosphorous based detergents and phosphoric acid used in the production of compound fertilizer. Phosphate mineral is also used in water treatment, fire extinguishers production, dentistry, toothpaste production, animal feed production and some processed food.

342


Raw Materials Sedimentary phosphate rock deposits occur in Sokoto, Ogun, Abia, Ondo, Cross River and Kogi States (RMRDC, 2003: 123). Phosphate rock, no matter their origin, can easily be beneficiated. The mined ore is usually beneficiated to remove clays, carbonates or organic matter. Machinery/Equipment Rotary washer, jaw crusher, vibrating screen, hydraulic classifier, floatation machine, mixing tank, silos, hammer mills with classifiers, scale and packaging machine. Production Process i. Screening the phosphate rock ii. Crushing the phosphate rock iii. Washing iv. Screening v. Leaching vi. Dewatering vii. Drying viii. Milling ix. Screening x. Weighing xi. Packaging TALC Introduction Talc is metamorphic rock associated with magnesium rock and with chemical composition, Mg3Si4010(0H)2. It is an industrial mineral used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, electrical, paper, paints, tyre and ceramic industries. Commercial deposits of talc have been found in Nigeria, hence the need to establish more beneficiation/processing

Minerals

343

plants in the country. The national demand in 50,000 metric tones per annum over 90% of which is imported. Raw Materials Raw talc deposits have been reported in Niger, Kwara, Kaduna, Kogi, Osun, Ogun, Ekiti and FCT (RMRDC, 2003: 128). Production Process and Machinery/Equipment i.

Crushing and milling with jaw crusher and hammer with fitted with cyclone and screen. ii. Electromagnetic separation with magnetic separator iii. Conditioning in tanks fitted with agitator iv. Froth floatation in tanks with collector reagent and frothing agents v. Chemical treatment in tanks with bleaching chemicals vi. Leaching and washing in water tanks with water vii. Dewatering with hydraulic press or filter press viii. Drying with flash dryer ix. Milling with pulveriser, ball mill (fluid energy type), grinding mill, roller mill. Talc bulk from the mine is crushed in a jaw crusher and then screened in a rotary screen. Oversize materials are milled in a hammer mill fitted with a cyclone. The undersize materials from the hammer mill are fed into a pebble mill using ceramic grinding media. Feed contaminated or discoloured talc, which may occur if conventional grinding media are used, into floatation cells and then to a hydrocyclone assembly for thickening. The badly discoloured talc from the cells is bleached with acid before going through the cyclone. The product is from the cyclone is dewatered in a filter press and the cake so obtained is granulated in a disintegrator. The distinguished talc is dried in a flash dryer. The dried talc is milled to the required particle size and package.

344


BENTONITE Introduction Bentonite is a non-metallic mineral with wide application in foundry, civil engineering, binding, metallurgy, ceramics, food processing, oil well drilling, textile industry, oil refining and chemical industry, paper industry and agriculture. Raw Material About 700 trillion metric tones of bentonite clays occur in Borno and Adamawa States. Other occurrences are in Edo, Imo, Abia and Anambra States. Annual consumption of bentonite is 50,000 metric tones in Nigeria.

In many industrial applications, bentonite is used in its natural form. However, for more specialized use of bentonite, where the absorptive, thixotropic and/or gelling properties are required, beneficiation, and sometimes activation, is required. The table below summarises bentonite derivatives, their uses and the activating agents to obtain the derivative. Table 8.1: Bentonite Derivatives, Uses and Activating Agents

3

Generally, when bentonite is required in its natural form, it is homogenized, dried and milled to the required grain size. For other applications, the raw bentonite is blunged in water in propeller or drum blungers and then screened to remove the boulders, pebbles and sand. The resulting slurry is then concentrated by sedimentation, dewatered, dried and milled to required grain size. For activated bentonite, activation is usually done on the slurry or in the dry state. The upgrading method of beneficiation of bentonite clay usually consists of the following steps: i. Separation of undesirable impurities ii. physio-mechanical beneficiation iii. chemical-mechanical activation Machinery/Equipment Jaw crusher, roller crusher, wet pan mill, blunger, reactor, dryer, pulveriser, screen cyclone, pan, box feeder, conveyor, silos, piper, scale, packaging machine, etc.

Production Process

S/No 1 2

345

Minerals

Bentonite Derivative Sodium bentonite Acid activated bentonite

Activating Agent Sodium carbonate Mineral acids

Organo bentonite

Hydrochlorides of long chain organic amines

Industrial Uses Oil well drilling Food processing, oil refining, chemical industry Organo-liquid industries

CRUSHED GRANITE Introduction Granite stone is obtained by breaking up large granite rock to varying sizes. The large size is used for railway construction, while the smaller sizes are used for building and road construction. Demand for granite stone is very high in Nigeria and the rock occurs widely in the country. Production Process i. ii.

Source: RMRDC (2003: 133). iii.

Breaking granite into boulders. Primary jaw crushing to break the boulders to smaller sizes Secondary jaw crushing uses a series of jaw crushers to

346


iv.

break the stone further to smaller required sizes. Separation of crushed stones to sizes in a rotary screen with various mesh sizes.

Machinery/Equipment Primary jaw crusher, secondary jaw crusher, hammer mill, air compressor, rotary screens, conveyor belt, etc. LEAD/ZINC (SMELTING) Introduction Zinc ranks third and lead fourth in world metal consumption. Lead acid batteries manufacture is the major market for lead, while zinc has wide industrial application due to its chemical properties. Primary consumers of zinc and lead use them directly, while the secondary consumers use their galvanized, alloyed and related products. Raw Materials Lead and zinc ores occur in Ebonyi, Benue, Taraba, Plateau, Nassarawa and Bauchi States. The ores in Abakaliki - Isiagu (Ebonyi State) area are a good economic source of lead, zinc, silver, cadmium and sulphur in Nigeria. Inspite of these economic deposits of lead and zinc in Nigeria, there is no concentrator or smelter in the country. Rather in 1987 alone, 1.2 million metric tones of lead and lead alloys were imported, while zinc and zinc alloys figure was 377,487 metric tones (RMRDC, 2003: 141). Machinery/Equipment Payloader, forklift, weighbridge, vehicles, workshop, equipment, smelting plant, electrolytic plant, crushing, grinding, and floatation equipment.

Minerals

347

Production Process The process involves crushing, grinding, floatation, dewatering and smelting. i. Crush ore in vibrating grizzly to get boulders of rock ii. Grind rock boulders in jaw crusher iii. Screen crushed ore in double-deck to pass 9mm iv. Recycle oversize ore to crusher v. Classify in two stages of cyclones to get silver-lead concentrate and conventional lead floatation circuit vi. Smelt by oxidation and reduction of lead oxide slurry in an electric furnace connected directly to the vertical shaft. CEMENT Introduction Even when the 8 cement plants in Nigeria operated at full installed capacity, products fell short of demand estimated at 5 million metric tones. Hence, cement has always been imported into the country. Yet, there are enough reserves of limestone clay/shale and gypsum to support local production of cement. Limestone deposits occur in Enugu, Ogun, Cross River, Benue, Sokoto, Gombe, Imo, Edo, Ebonyi, Abia and Kogi States. Gypsum deposits are found in Gombe, Yobe, Borno, Adamawa, Taraba, Benue, Ogun, Sokoto, Edo, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi,Abia and Imo States. Machinery/Equipment Rock drills and explosives for blasting (if necessary), excavators, loaders, trucks, crusher, silos for storage of the raw materials, kiln (rotary or vertical shaft kiln), grinder to grind the clinker with the gypsum, bagging equipment, electrostatic precipitator, etc.

348


Production Process Cement production involves quarrying of limestone, clay and gypsum. The quarried raw materials are crushed in the factory, where they are mixed in the right proportion (for OPC, 80% limestone, 20% clay). The slurry from the mixer is kilned for decomposition of the clay and limestone at 900oC. The lime combines with other oxides to form a clinker at 1400oC to 1500oC. Gypsum (about 5%) is added to the clinker and ground into cement. Cement manufacture can adopt wet or dry process. Wet process is adopted when wet chalk and clay are used. Water is added to the chalk to form a slurry before blending. The mixture is then pumped to a rotary kiln to boil off the water and convert it to a clinker at 1000oC. The dry process is adopted for harder raw materials such as limestone and shale. They are ground into a raw meal, pre-heated and then passed through the kiln. The clinker is then ground to form cement.

Chapter Nine TRANSLATING INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGY REPORTS INTO ENTERPRISES INTRODUCTION From independence to mid 1980s, the government and people of Nigeria embarked on grandiose, capital intensive, large-scale industrial projects with very high foreign dependence on technology, machinery, spare parts and raw materials. Following the global oilglut of the early 1980s, Nigeria introduced the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), leading to devaluation of the Naira and soaring exchange rate. The manufacturing industries could no longer afford the foreign exchange to import machinery, spare parts and raw materials. They began to operate below installed capacities, retrenched worked, and closed down in many cases (Eneh, 2005: 75 76). This development brought to focus the importance of indigenous technology innovations as against borrowing or transferring technologies from developed nations. In this chapter, various indigenous technology reports, which can be translated into enterprises, are highlighted. Embarking on the projects at micro, small and medium scale levels will lead to industrial and technological self-reliance and foreign exchange savings through import substitution by means of local equipment and raw material utilisation. Some of these indigenous technology findings have been unavoidably mentioned in some relevant chapters. Also included in this chapter is a table of national demand and supply of some major products. This information brings to the fore supply and areas of investments to aid industrial decisions.

349

350


Translating Indigenous Technology Reports in Enterprises

351

COMMERCIALISABLE PROJECT REPORTS

Production ofAdhesives

Production of Malt from Nigerian Cereals

Paste and viscous cassava adhesives have been prepared by FIIRO. The adhesives, which have permanent binding effect, are free from fungal attach. The Institute also produced gum from gum arabic.

Malted cereals have been produced by various researchers and research institutes from Nigerian Sorghum (guinea corn), millet, maize (corn), etc. Acceptable lager beers of competitive standard have been brewed from sorghum malts with or without adjuncts, using existing or modified brewing plants. Of the several sorghum varieties screened and evaluated for malting potentials, Stock 5912, which is not popularly used as food, is best for malting. The malting equipment have also been developed at the Federal Institute for Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO) and the Project Development Institute (PRODA), Enugu. Production of Cassava Starch (for Non-Food Uses) Cassava starch is an important raw material with great demand in textile and paper industries. The FIIRO successfully prepared cassava starch powder and cold water starch for textile finishing, paper manufacturing and home laundry purposes. Since the ordinary cassava starch is too viscous to give a continuous film that will adhere to yarn surface and import sufficient strength to withstand tension during weaving, the Institute developed a modified cassava starch that can be used for textile weaving. Production of Detoxified Cassava Starch for Bread and Other Food Uses The cassava starch that can be incorporated into wheat or corn flour for break baking was developed at the FIIRO in the 1980s.

Production of Corn Starch Corn starch , used in food, pharmaceutical and textile industries, has been prepared at FIIRO. Production of Industrial Yeast from Molasses Industrial yeasts are Baker’s yeast and food yeast, which are very important to fermentation and confectionary industries, whereas molasses are waste by products of the sugar processing industry. The suitable technology for the production of industrial yeasts from molasses has been developed at FIIRO. Production of Sparkling Wine from Palmwine FIIRO developed a suitable process technology for production of sparkling wine, which is very similar to Champagne, from palmwine. Production of Livestock Feed Cassava and wastes from corn and citrus have been used to compound livestock feed at FIIRO. Bottled Palmwine Palmwine, a milky and fermentable sap of raffia or oil palm trees, is drunk fresh as an alcoholic beverage in both the rural and urban centres in Nigeria. Its consumption was limited to the producing areas in the Southern States in Nigeria because of its very short

352


shelflife. FIIRO developed a very efficient equipment and method of preserving and bottling palmwine. Alcohol and Vinegar Production FIIRO designed and developed a distillation equipment for producing alcohol and vinegar from fermentable wort and/or palmwine.


353

Cassava Production (Mechanised) Cassava has high demand in the production of starch, detoxified starch, garri flour, alcohol, etc. To meet its demand, mechanised cassava farming is necessary. The Agricultural Engineering Department, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, has developed the cassava planter, cassava ridge profile weeder, and single-row Model I Cassava Harvester machines. Grain Harvesting and Processing Machines

Garri Production (Mechanised) Garri is a popular food in Nigeria, consumed by all classes of people almost on daily basis. Garri flour production has been mechanised at FIIRO. Various machines for cassava tubers processing into garri have also been developed by various research centres and companies as outlined below in Table 9.1.

Farmers, as well as food processing and livestock feed manufacturing industries need grains planting, harvesting and processing machines to cope with increasing demand for their products. Some grains planting, harvesting and processing machines have been developed as shown below Table 9.2. Table 9.2: Grain Processing Machines

Table 9.1: Cassava Processing Machines S/No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Machine Cassava Peeler (continuous process model) Cassava Peeler (Batch process model) The PRODA Cassava Peeling machine Manual Cassava Grater PRODA Cassava Grating Machine PRODA Depulping Machine Garri Mash Pulveriser/Sifter Garri Frying Machine PRODA Garri Flying Machine PRODA Cyclone Unit PRODA Garri Screening Machine (Shaker) The PRODA Communal Garri Fryer Cassava Grater

Research Centre/Company Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept. UNN PRODA, Enugu Agric Engineering Dept, UNN PRODA, Enugu PRODA, Enugu Agri Engineering Dept. UNN Agri Engineering Dept. UNN PRODA, Enugu PRODA, Enugu PRODA, Enugu PRODA, Enugu Gapco Technical Works, 22B Mbanugo Street, Enugu

Source: FOPCIT, 1987.

S/No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Machine Multi-Grain Winnower Reciprocating Triple-Sieve Mult-Grain Triple Pass Solar Collector/Dryer Dehumidified Air Solar Tray Dryer Passive Solar Heated Poultry Chick Brooder Fertiliser/Grain/Lime Broadcaster Grain Hammer Mill Grain Dispenser

Research Centre Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept. UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN IMT, Enugu

Source: FOPCIT, 1987. Palm Processing Machines Various products are obtained from the oil palm tree. Machines developed to obtain products from the oil palm tree include (Table 9.3)

354


Table 9.3: Palm Processing Machines S/No 1 2 3 4

Machine Epo-Mill Palm-oil Processing Machine Palm-Oil Fruit Processing Equipment PRODA Palm Kernel Cracker Palm-oil Rotary Screw Press

Research Centre/Company Mech. Engineering Dept, UNN PRODA, Enugu PRODA, Enugu IMT, Enugu

Source: FOPCIT, 1987. Food/Drink Processing Machines Machines developed for food processing include those outlined in Table 9.4 below.

Ta b l e 9 . 5 : O t h e r C o m m e rc i a l i s a b l e a n d A d a p t a b l e Projects/Equipment S/No 1

Ceramics Production

2 3 4 5 6

Pottery Wares Production Camp-bed Production Casts Production Baby Cots Production Executive Signal Unit Production

7

Desert Cooler Production Thyristor-based Traffic Light Controller Production Running light and Electronic Sign Post Production Avocode Amplier/Voltmeter for Blind Students Production Automatic Electronic Ignition System Production Solar Refrigerator Production Low Voltage Power Transformer Production Burglary Alarm System Production

Cooler/humdifier alternative for air-conditioner For control of traffic

Reference Organisation Fine and Applied Arts Dept, IMT, Enugu PRODA, Enugu GTC, Enugu GTC, Enugu GTC, Enugu Electrical/Electronics Eng. Dept, IMT, Enugu Mech. Eng. Dept, IMT, Enugu Elec. Eng. Dept. UNN

For decoration of stages and illumination of sign posts

Elect/Electronic Eng. Dept., IMT, Enugu

Teaching aid for blind students

Elect/Electronic Eng. Dept. UNN.

Prolongs lifespan of battery, contact points and plugs of motor vehicles Cold Storage and airconditioning For low-voltage power distribution Burglar and fire alarm

Elect. Eng. Dept. UNN

Battery Chargers Production Heat Sealing Machine Production

Portable and Industrial Battery Chargers For ceiling all-size polythene materials

17

Power Survey Unit Production

18

DC to AC Converter Production

For step-down and direct voltage supply/regulation for electronic equipment For emergency lighting when public supply goes off

8

Table 9.4: Food Processing Machines S/No

Machine

Purpose

1

PRODA Steam Cooker

2

Assorted Fruit Wine Loma Wine

Mass production of moi-moi Fruit wine production

3

Egusi Shelling Machine

4

Synthex Palm Wine Analogue

5

Bitter leaf (onugbu) Processing Machine

Commercial Shelling of Egusi Palmwine production from sucrose-base Bitter leaf processing

Research Centre/Company PRODA, Enugu Dept. of Microbiology, UNN Agri Engineering Dept. UNN Dept. of Microbiology, UNN Agric Engineering Dept, UNN

Source: FOPCIT, 1987. Other Commercialisable andAdaptable Projects/Equipment

9

10

11

12 13 14

15 16

Other commercialisable and adaptable project in miscellaneous fields include those outlined below in Table 9.5.

355


Project

Product/Service Household and laboratory wares, bricks, insulators Table and ornamental wares Camp-bed Ornamental and artistic casts Baby cots CEO-receptionist signals

Mech. Eng. Dept, UNN Elect/Electronic Eng. Dept. ESUT, Enugu Dept. of Elect/Electronic Engr. IMT, Enugu Dept. of Computer Sci. ESUT, Enugu Dept. of Elect/Electronic Engr. IMT, Enugu Dept. of Elect/Electronic Engr. IMT, Enugu Dept. of Elect/Electronic Engr. IMT, Enugu

356


19

Potters Wheel Production

20

Ceiling Board Production Machine

21

Portable Compressed-air System Production Wheel Alignment Apparatus Production Hand Broad Loom Production

22 23

24

25 26

27 28 29 30

Printing Press (Kamen Press 81o) Machine Production Wood and Metal Bench Vices Production Radio Receiver and Other Electronic Gadgets Production Metal Workshop Roof Production Rabbits/Rats/Mic/Guinea Pigs Production Glass Slides Production Physics Apparati Production

31

Drug. Tableting Technology

32

Draw-over Anaesthetic Machine Production

33

Bell Spirometer Production

Equipment for production of pottery wares For production of ceiling board from waste paper and elephant grass For use by itinerant (roadside) vulcanisers For use by itinerant (roadside) mechanics For use in fabric production

Simple letter press machine

For positioning/holding objects For electronic works

PRODA, Enugu

34

Dept. of Sc. Tech. IMT, Enugu

35

Dept. of Mech. Eng. IMT, Enugu Dept. of Mech. Eng. IMT, Enugu Dept. of Fine & Applied Arts, IMT, Enugu Dept. of Printing Technology, IMT, Enugu GTC, Enugu GTC, Enugu

Social Roof for workshops

GTC, Enugu

For laboratory tests

Fac. of Vet. Med. UNN Fac. of Vet. Med. UNN PRODA, Enugu

For mounting and preservation of specimen Wheatstone bridges, optical bench, Boyle’s Law Apparatus, Potentiometer, Hare’s Apparatus, Hypsometeer, Ball and Ring, Altimeter Occulting Disk, Solar Cell Pyranometer, Copper Voltameter, Inclined Plane, Capacitor, Circuit Board, Standard Resistors. For drugs production

For diagnosis of asthma and chronic bronchitis

Dept. of Pharm. Tech and Ind. Pharmacy, UNN Dept. of Anaesthesiology, College of Medicine, UNEC Dept. of Physiology, College of Medicine, UNEC

357


Smoking Fish Technology and Equipment (Kiln) Bread Baking Equipment Production

For smoked fish production

36

Livestock Feed Equipment Production

Mixer, hammer mill, storage device

37

Merry-go-round Play Equipment Production

8-in-1 play equipment

38

Block-moulding Machine Production

For moulding blocks

Mixer, oven, kneading machine

Dept. of Food Science and Tech. UNN Grapco Tech. Works 22B Mbanugo Street, Enugu Grapco Tech. Works 22B Mbanugo Street, Enugu Grapco Tech. Works 22B Mbanugo Street, Enugu Grapco Tech. Works 22B Mbanugo Street, Enugu

Source: FOPCIT, 1987.

Average National Demand and Current Supply of some Major Industrial Raw Materials (1994) Table 9.6: Annual Demand and Supply of Some Major Industrial Goods S/No

Goods

Minerals 1 Iron Ore 2 Coal 3 Tin ore 4 Columbite 5 Lignite 6 Limestone 7 Kaolin 8 Marble 9 Lead 10 Zinc 11 Manganese 12 Barite 13 Dolomite 14 Kyanite 15 Talc 16 Gold

Reserse (mt)

3 billion 350 million 1 million 500,000 70 million 800 million 200 million 100 million 5 million 5 million 300,000 800,000 20 million 7 million 40 million 300,000 ounces

Annual Demand (mt) 15 million 150 million

27 million 50,000 10 million 100,000 100,000 300,000

10,000 ounces

Annual Supply (mt)

358

S/No


Goods

Agricultural goods 17 Sorghum grains 18 Maize (corn) 19 Wheat 20 Rice 21 Soya beans 22 Cocoa 23 Cassava 24 Palm oil 25 Livestock 26 Rubber 27 Cotton 28 Coffee beans 29 Oil seeds (excl. palm) 30 Tobacco leaf 31 Sugar 32 Cassava starch 33 Corn starch 34 Livestock feeds 35 Sorghum malt 36 Mineral water concentrate 37 Long/short fibre pulp 38 Dextrose 39 Glucose 40 Common salt

Reserse (mt)

Annual Demand (mt)

Annual Supply (mt)

2 million 3 million 4 million 1.5 million 100,000 200,000 500,000 18 million 80 million 500,000 1 million 20,000 1 million

1 million 1.5 million 40,000 500,000 150,000 90,000 200,000 200,000 60 million 100,000 600,000 0 300,000

50,000 1 million 50,000 20,000 2.5 million 50,000 500,000

20,000 100,000 20,000 0 500,000 5,000 0

300,000

0 0 0 0

359


S/No

Goods

Reserse (mt)

Annual Demand (mt)

Chemical and Pharmaceutical 41 Soda ash 20,000 42 Caustic soda 100,000 43 Phosphoric acid 90,000 44 Hydrated lime 150,000 45 Sulphuric acid 46 Sodium sulphite 47 Sodium sulphate 48 Gypsum 300,000 49 Bentonite 60,000 50 Crude salt 300,000 51 Cement 9 million 52 Potash 90,000 Source: RMRDC (1994:5-9).

Annual Supply (mt)

0 0 0 40,000 0 0 0 20,000 5,000 0 3 million 0

362


Chapter Ten

INDUSTRIAL WASTES MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION Waste is useless or unwanted material arising from man's activity. Waste management involves the collection, sorting, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal and recycling of these wastes. The need for proper waste management arises with population growth, rapid urbanization and industrial growth. PROBLEMS AND CONSEQUENCES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIAN CITIES Sewage water, municipal and industrial wastes need to be disposed carefully to avoid nuisance, such as unsightly refuse, odours, dangers to human and aquatic lives, and threat to marine food and water supplies. The resulting water and solid wastes can be recycled (put to use once again). An average Nigerian is responsible for over a tonne of waste per year. Most of these wastes are dumped or littered profusely all over our cities. The refuse dumps are often ignored or disused. This results to unhealthy environment, hazards and threat to lives. To bring about healthy environment, these wastes must be properly managed. Some of the factors militating against effective waste management in Nigerian cities include: ! lack of comprehensive national policy on waste management; ! ignorance of the masses about development plans; ! illiterate status of the women; ! inadequate compliance by citizens to existing policies; ! unbalanced income distribution; ! lack of political will; ! Poor state of the national economy, resulting to poor funding,

360

361

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !


inadequate provision of machinery/manpower, poor road network, etc; economic pressures on urban areas; high cost of transportation; lack of community participation; lack of sorting of waste materials; growing demand for plastic packaged goods; high rate of population growth; high rate of urbanization; high rate of commercial activities; growing industrial activities.

362

Industrial Waste Management

That is, Calcium }Bicarbonate and/or }Sulphate and/or Magnesium}Chloride (soluble)

Calcium and/or Magnesium cation exchanger (insoluble)

(insoluble)

(soluble)

Recommended methods of waste management in the community/industry can be outlined in sequence as below: 1.

The consequences of poor waste management in Nigerian cities include: ! blocked drainage and flooding; ! weakening of structural foundations; ! breeding ground for pests; ! effect on GNP.

Collection: There is a Neighbourhood Collection Centre (NCC), to where all families and/or industries take their garnered wastes. The wastes may be tied in bags.

RECOMMENDED METHODS OFWASTES MANAGEMENT Handling Waste Water Waste water needs to be handled. The sodium-cation-exchange is the most widely used method for softening hard water, which contains calcium and magnesium ions. In the process, these ions are exchanged for sodium ions. Thus,

{(HCO3)2 Ca } { SO4 Mg} { Cl2

+ 2Na

Ca } Mg}

{(HCO3)2 + 2Na2 { SO4 { Cl2 {Bicarbonate Sodium {Sulphate and/or {Chloride

Figure 10.1: Wastes garnered in the home/industry. 2.

Transportation: The garnered wastes are taken to the NCC by means of human portage, wheelbarrow or vehicle.

363



4.

364

Storage: Easily fermentable organic wastes are heaped together and covered with rubber sheet. They yield manure and fertilizer.

Figure 10.2: Wastes taken to NCC 3.

Sorting: The wastes are sorted out into classes: plastic, organic wastes, leather, tyre, necklace, bottle, metal, etc. Human scavengers are allowed to pick their needs.

Figure 10.4: Wastes storage 5.

Disposal: Wastes are hauled into pits for land reclamation.

WASTE-TO-WEALTH Recycling and Processing Wastes have been put to very useful ends in waste-to-wealth schemes, rather than litter the place and cause health problems. Thus, rubber wastes can be used to make plastic wears (example slippers). Feather and other soft wastes are used to make pillow. The list is endless.

Figure 10.3: Wastes sorting and human scavengers' activities

365



366

Agriculture: Recovered wastes serve as inputs in fish/aquatic plant farming and as manure (fertilizer) in crop production, as well as biogas; Industries: Scrap metals are recycled into foundry for making metallic products (e.g. aluminum pots, kerosene bush lamp, pressing iron, etc.)

Figure 10.5: Wastes hurled into pits for land reclamation Apart from industrial purposes, wastes recycled serve as inputs in Biogas andAquaculture. Setting up Waste Management Schemes ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Establish necessary contact ; Consider resources available and technical options ; Consider coverage/service and population/access ; Consider type and of waste generated ; Consider financing ; Consider operation/coordination ; Strike an agreement by all stakeholders.

Waste toWealth Schemes Through recycling, wastes can become very important industrial raw materials. Waste recycling uses up wastes and creates healthy environment and jobs for scavengers, industrial workers and recycled product marketers. Recycled wastes are useful in:

Figure 10.6: Metallic Products from Wastes Tissue paper is produced from recovered and treated papers from home, office and press. Ethanol (for many industrial and pharmaceutical uses) can be produced from excess carbohydrate foodstuff, examples: cocoyam, cassava, yam, or their peels, etc. Pottery wares and bleaching earth are made from abundant waste mud. Plastic wares: bucket, storage tank, footwear, goggle, watercan, etc. are made from recycled rubber wastes.

367


Bone wastes are turned into necklace and other useful products.

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New School Chemistry for Senior (3rd ed). Onitsha: Africana First

Abimbola,Adegboye O. (2001) Good Manufacturing Practice, NAFDAC Consumer Safety Bulletin, October-December, pp12, 25. Agu, R.C. (1985). Studies on Beer Production from Millet (Pennisetum maiwa). M.Sc. thesis. Brewing Science & Technology Unit, Department of Microbiology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Aimiuwu, L. E. A. (2006). Working the Works. Management in Nigeria, Vol. 42, No. 1. Aldrich (1990-1) Catalogue 417pp. Figure 10.7: Necklace from Wastes

Anyanwu, A.C.; Anyanwu, B.O. and Anyanwu, V.A. (1998) A Textbook of Agricultural Science for Schools and Colleges. Onitsha:Africana-FEP Publishers Ltd. Archimedes (287 BC) in Chris Omeben Success Dynamics for Wealth Creation. Lagos: Neighbours Publications. Atoe, V. Y. and Ibobor, S.O. (2006): The Nigerian Entrepreneur and the Environment of Business in McOliver, F.O.; Okafor, F.C.; Nwagwu, N.A.and Okogie, C.E.E. (Eds.) Entrepreneurship Development: The Nigerian Experience. Benin City: Mareh Publishers.

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Awake (2005), “Honey - The Bee's Gift to Man,” August 8, 2005, p.15.

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Awan, L. And Okaka, S. C. (1985), “Elements of Food Spoilage and Preservation.” Briggs, D.E.; Hough, J.S.; Stevens, R. and Young, T.W. (1981), “Malting and Brewing Science” Vo;. 2, 2ed. London: Chapman and Hall Ltd. British Patent No.354,370, “An Imported Pomade and Liquid Hair Dressing: A hair dressing containing irradiated wool fat and olive oil or similar oils to which is added 1:8000 of Cantharidin.” British Patent No.496,893, “Vegetable Oil Preparation For External Application To The Body: A Process for the manufacture of creams and like vegetable oil containing products to which is added Ti-tree oil and the whole is irradiated with ultra-violet rays for periods of fie to fifteen minutes.” Brown, G.I. (1978), “A New Introduction to Organic Chemistry.” London: Longman Group Limited. Calvin Coolidge (2001), in Zig Ziglar “You Can Reach The Top.”. Aba: E.O. Overcomers & Co. Ltd. Clarke, J.F. (2004), in John L. Mason “An Enemy CalledAverage.”

Davidson, et al (1975), “Human Nutrition and Dietetics.” Davidson, J.,Better, E.J. and Davidson, A. (1953), “Soap Manufacture.” New York: Interscience Publishers. 525 pp. Disraeli Benjamin (1995), in Rick Warren “The Purpose Driven Church.” Michigan: Rick Warren Grand Rapids. Dougherty, J.J. (1977), “Wort Production” in Broderick, H.M. “The Practical Brewer - A Manual for the Brewing Industry,” 2ed. Wisconsin: Master BrewersAssociation of theAmericas. Ebigbo, P.O. (2006), “Corrupt Practices Now Anachronistic in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka?” Paper delivered at the Antist Corruption Sensitisation Workshop on 1 March 2006 at the University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. Ekanem, O.T. (2006), “ The Art of Writing Feasibility Studies for New Enterprises” in McOliver, F.O.; Okafor, F.C.; Nwagwu, N.A. And Okogie, C.E.E. (Eds.) Entrepreneurship Development: The Nigerian Experience. Benin City: Mareh Publishers.

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Larueile, L; Van Dijck, M and Daenens, P. (1976), Journal of Dairy Research. 43, 137. Beer. In Rose, A.H. Economic MacLeod, A.N. (1977). Microbiology Vol. 1: Alcoholic Beverage. Academic Press Inc. London. 44-126pp.

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Mckay, A. J. (1974). The Australian Journal of Dairy Technology. 29 (1), 34. McLoughlin, Harold J. (2005). Building Your Business Plan,sin McOliver, F.O.; Okafor, F.C.; Nwagwu, N.A. And Okogie, C.E.E. (Eds.) Entrepreneurship Development: The Nigerian Experience. Benin City: Mareh Publishers. Mike Murdock (2004) in John L. Mason An Enemy Called Average. Benin City: Joint Heirs Publications Nigeria Limited. Montguide (2005) a publication of the College of Business, Montana State University, Bozman 2, in Montguide E-13. National Directorate of Employment, N.D.E. (1987). Papers presented at a 2-Week Entrepreneurship Development Programme, E.D.P. In July at the Government Technical College, G.T.C., Enugu. NIMSAfrica (1995). Medical Journal. Vol. 35 (5), p. 137. Njoku P. C. (2002) “GMP In Cosmetic Factories,” NAFDAC Consumer Safety Bulletin, Vol. 1 No. 3, October-December, pp16-18.

Odebunmi, E.O., Dosumu, O.O. and Shoga, O.O. (2003). “Comparative Analysis of Sobo Extract, Orange and Pineapple Juices.” Journal of Chemical Society of Nigeria, Volume 28:1. Okafor, N. and Aniche, G.N. (1980). “Brewing a lager beer from Nigerian Sorghum”. Brewing and Distillation International, 10:32-35. Olotu A.M. (2002) “Laboratory Evaluation of Cosmetics,” NAFDAC Consumer Safety Bulletin, Vol. 1 No. 3, October-December, pp11-12. Omeben Chris (2006) Success Dynamics for Wealth Creation. Lagos: Neighbours Publications. Onwuka, N.D. and Eneh, O.C. (1996). “Xanthosoma sagittifollium as a potential raw material for beer brewing.” Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, Netherlands. Vol.5:1-12. Onwuka, N.D. and Eneh, O.C. (1998). “The potential of cocoyam in stout beer brewing.” Journal of Science & Technology, ESUT, Enugu. Vol. 4:79-86. Owuama, C.I. (1982).” Studies on Mashing Methods for beer

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APPENDICES Appendix I : Some Functional Breweries In Nigeria

Welfare and Industrial Promotions (WIPRO) International (2001), “Honey and Beekeeping” in “Most Enterprising Project Digest,” Vol.2, 1-6.

Northern Nigeria 1. Nigerian Breweries Ltd, Kaduna 2. International Beer and Beverage Industries, Kaduna 3. North Breweries Ltd, Kano 4. Jos International Breweries Ltd, Jos 5. Benue Breweries Ltd, Gboko. Western Nigeria 1. WestAfrican Breweries Ltd,Abeokuta 2. Africana Breweries Ltd, Ibadan 3. Associated Breweries Co. Ltd.Agbara 4. Nigerian Breweries Ltd, Iganmu 5. International Breweries Ltd, Ilesha 6. Guinness Nigeria Ltd, Ikeja 7. Standard Breweries Ltd, Ibadan 8. Kwara Breweries Ltd, Offa 9. Sona Breweries Ltd, Songo-Otta 10. Ibadan Breweries Ltd, Ibadan 11. Ogba Breweries, Ogba. Midwest 1. Bendel Breweries Ltd, Benin City 2. Superbru Ltd, Ughelli 3. Guinness Nigeria Ltd, Benin City 4. Benin Brewery, Benin City. Eastern Nigeria 1. Premier Breweries Ltd, Onitsha 2. Life Breweries & Co. Ltd, Onitsha 3. Diamond Breweries Ltd, Nsude 4. Olympic Drinks Co Ltd.Abagana 5. Pal Breweries Ltd, Oko 6. Golden Guinea Breweries Ltd, Umuahia 7. Eastern Breweries Ltd,Awo-Omanma

378

379


8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Dubic Breweries Ltd,Aba Nigerian Breweries Ltd,Aba Safari Breweries Ltd,Arondizuogu Pabod Breweries Ltd, Port Harcourt Rivers State Breweries Ltd. Cross River State Breweries Ltd, Uyo.

Appendix II: Estimated Capital Expenditure Land: Depending on the final location, this cost could be lower or higher. It was discovered that it could also be wholly saved by involving an undeveloped land owner in the venture. Grains Preserver: By contract for a regular supply of grains with a source that has storage facilities, the need for preserver can be circumvented and the cost saved. Appendix III: Working Capital Should the initial setup cost be too much to secure, the working capital for two (2) months could be used, thereby reducing the set-up cost by N108,333.00. Appendix IV: Initial Set-up Cost This cost can be reduced by N228,333.00 as directed in Appendix II and III above. This leaves a final initial set-up cost of N596,667.00. Appendix V: Registration of the Maltings This was not considered, since the maltings is thought to be a subsidiary of an existing incorporated company.

Index Cocoyam, 305 Copper Nitrate, 193 manufacture of, 193 Copper wire, 216 Corn flakes, 138 Cosmetics, 151, 157 additives, 157 Creams, 151 classification of, 151 cold, 152 manufacture of, 157 vanishing, 154 water-free, 155 Custard, 134

Abrasive wheels, 212-213 Alkyd resin, 243-245 Aluminum sulphate (Alum), 249 Apiculture, 261 Aquaculture, 273 Aspirin, 179 Babyfood, 133 Banana, 327 Beef Burger, 132 Beer brewing, 98 Beeswax formation, 252-253 Bentonite, 344 Biscuit, 130 Bleaching earth, 219 Bone meal, 140 Bottled palm wine, 351 Bread, 124 Brewery Fermentation, 103

Deodorants & antiperspirants, 163 Detergent powder, 185 Diary and related drinks, 121 Documentation, 85 See also Good Manufacturing Practice Doughnut, 127 Dried Egg Powder, 139 Drips, 176

Cake, 125 Calcium carbide, 189 Calcium sulphate, 339 Candle, 239 Carbon brushes, 218 Castor Bean, 328 diseases and pests, 329 requirements of, 328 Cement, 347 Chalk, 338 Citric Acid, 206 Change, 8-10 and stagnation, 8-10 origins of, 8-9 Coated abrasives, 203

Employees, 42 relating with, 42 Employer, 47, 55 pleasing, 47 love for, 55 Entrepreneurship, 1-78, categories of, 18 definitions of, 1-3 requirements for, 4, 14

380

381


theories of, 3-4 Enterprise, 5-7, 14-78 benefits of, 16-17 definitions of, 5-7 establishment of, 5-21 feasibility study in, 61 relationship in, 51-56 technological issues for, 63-64 Ethanol, 110-114 from ethyne, 110-111 from direct hydration, 111-112 from carbonhydrate source, 112-114 Face powder, 166-171 functions of, 167-168 manufacture of, 168 Faith, 26-27 Feasibility Report, 61-77 purpose of, 61 format of, 66 Fermentation, 103-104 Fertilizer, 223-224 Fish culture techniques, 276 Fish farming, 273-279 importance of, 273 Fish ponds, 274-279 construction of, 2770279 sites for, 274 Fountain pen, 247 Fruit drinks, 118-120 Fruit juice/paste, 148-149 Gins (spirits), 107-117 Ginger drink, 119 Glucose and fructose, 136-137 Glue and gelatine, 197-198 Goatry, 290-296

breeding, 292-294 diseases, 294-296 feeding, 291 keeping, 290-291 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), 79-87 basic requirements of, 81-87 introduction to, 79 scope of, 80-81 Gossip, 48-50 and malice, 49 Graphite crucible, 213 Gum arabic, 242-243 Gums, 204-205 Honey, 251-273 crystals, 253 food value of, 253-254 kinds of, 253 medicinal values of, 255 processing, 270-272 Honeybees, 255-273 buying and moving, 266-267 diseases and enemies, 262-264 installing packaged, 267-268 keeping, 261-273 life and cycle of, 257 management of, 268-270 Ice cream, 121 Inks, 199-202 Intravenous fluids (Drips),176-177 See also Drips Kaolin, 333-334 Kunu, 123-124 Lacquer Removers, 173-174

382

Index

Layers, 282-288 productive and unproductive, 283-284 Leadership, 35-42 failures, 38-41 good, 36-37 importance of, 35 styles, 37 Ledger, 30-33 Leverage, 21-22 Limestone, 334-335 Liquid detergent, 184-185 Lotion, 158-159 Macroni, 136 Maize, 306-308 diseases of, 307-308 processing of, 308 Maize starch, 140-141 Malting, 95-98 additives, 96-97 Mango, 324-325 diseases and pests, 324-325 requirements of, 324 Marble Tile, 337-338 Mashing, 99-102 Mastermind Alliance Principle (MAP), 33-34 Matches, 220-223 Meatpie, 128-129 Melon, 321 requirements of, 321 Methanol, 108-109 manufacture of, 108 Mineral water, 94-95 production of, 95-96 Mosquito coil, 208-209 Motivation, 43-47

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), 79 responsibility of, 79 Nail Enamels, 171-173 Oil Palm, 316-319 cultivation of, 316-317 pests and diseases of, 318-319 processing of, 317 Paints, 238 Palm Kernel Oil Extraction, 144-145 Paracetamol, 179-180 Paraffin wax, 211 Particle Board, 202-203 Pawpaw, 331-332 diseases of, 332 requirements of, 330 Pawpaw & Banana Drinks, 119120 Pepper, 322-323 Persistence, 24-26 Phosphate, 341-342 Piggery, 296-300 Pigments, 232-238 coloured, 234-238 Pineapple, 319-320 diseases and pests, 320 requirements of, 319-320 Plantain, 325-327 diseases and pests, 326-327 requirements of, 326 Plastic buttons, 246-248 Polyester resin, 201-202

383


Poultry Farming, 279-287 diseases prevention, 284-285 feeds recipe, 285 harvest, 286 layers, 282-284 Poverty, 5, 10, 17, 88 and wealth, 17 food security and, 88 industry and, 10 Powders, 166-171 face, 168 medicated, 169 Quicklime, 335-336 Relaxer, 163, 178 Resin, polyester, 201-202 Rice, 310-312 cultivation,310 diseases of, 312 processing of, 311 Scotch Egg, 131-132 Shampoos, 160-161 Shaving lotions, 161-163 Shoe polish, 245-246 Snail, 287-289 farm, 288 life cycle of, 288 Snailry, 287-289 Soap, 181-184 manufacture of, 182-184 Sobo Drink, 118 Sodium bisulphite, 226-227 Sodium chloride, 224 Sodium hydrosulphite, 227-228 Sodium hypochlorite, 231 Sodium nitrite, 228-229

Sodium perborate, 231 Sodiump peroxide, 230-231 Sodium silicate, 229-230 Sodium sulphate, 225-226 Soldering wire, 210 Sorghum, 308-309 diseases of, 309 processing of, 309 Soyabean, 312-314 diseases of, 313-314 Soyabean milk, 122-123 Spirits, 114-117 distilled, 116-117 Success tips, 15-16 Sulphuric Acid, 205-206 production process, 206 Sweet potato, 329-331 diseases and pests of, 330-331 requirements of, 330 Table water, 88-93 treatment of, 89-93 Talc, 342-343 Toilet roll, 248-249 Tomato, 314-316 cultivation of, 314-315 diseases and pests of, 315-316 processing of, 315 Waste management, 360-367 methods of, 361-364 problems of, 360-361 recycling and processing, 364 schemes, 365-367 waste to wealth, 364 Water, 88-95 treatment of8 0-93 Wine, 115-116

Index

production of, 115-116 Vegetable Oils, 145-147 Vision, 18-19, 21, 35 and dream, 18-19, 21 as goal, 19 leadership, 35 Yoghurt, 123 Zinc chloride, 194-195 Zinc Cyanide, 196-197 Zinc Nitrate, 191 Zinc sulphate, 195-196

384

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES is an enterprise development book for aspiring or practising entrepreneurs in the production industry. It empowers you with the knowledge needed for good manufacturing practice and management for foods and beverages, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, soaps and chemicals, livestock, crops, minerals, translating Nigeria’s indigenous technology reports into enterprise, as well as industrial waste management. It builds the industrial capacity of the entrepreneur for self-reliance, poverty and hunger reduction and sustainable national development. ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN FOOD AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES converts job-seekers to self-reliant and employment-generating job-creators. ABOUT THE AUTHOR A highly experienced and widely traveled enterprise development and management consultant, Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh, holds B.Sc. Industrial Chemistry (1983) and M.Sc. Brewing Science & Technology (1987) of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka as well as D. Litt. of St. Thomas -a-Beck et University, Kent, England. He is a member of the Institute of Brewing and Distilling (London), Chemical Society of Nigeria, Institute of Chartered Chemists of Nigeria, and Nigerian Institute of Management. He is a consultant with UNICEF, United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). He is a Research Fellow with the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus and Lecturer with the Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. He has scores of radio news commentaries on national and international development issues, hundreds of workshop papers, over a dozen monographs, in addition to numerous academic publications. He is happily married with four children and resides in Enugu, Nigeria. Publishers

Institute for Development Studies University of Nigeria Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria