Environmental Performance of Buildings: Linking ...

Environmental Performance of Buildings: Linking Practical BIM/ICT to Practical Policymaking Dr Alan Redmond, Dr Bob Smith and Mr. Deke Smith ABSTRACT—The United States faces large and complex energy challenges due to our changing degrowth economy, changing population dynamics, uncertain technology funding, immature Public-Private Partnerships for Infrastructure, and aging public and private urban infrastructure. Previous energy projection models anticipate that U.S. energy demand will increase by more than one-third by 2030, with electricity demand alone rising by more than 40 percent. The main purpose of this paper is to assess an information system architecture for maintaining building-related performance criteria through an Urban BIM-FM model extending the nation’s energy efficiency guidance prototypes with BIM-FM guidance and standards The following research methods and techniques will be discussed: i) prequalification of existing and new construction Information Communication Technology (ICT); advancements with emphasizes directly related towards BIM, ii) identify BIM/ICT energy related investigations (via user cases), and iii) assemble, store (data modeling), and disseminate (object-hyper linking) building and construction-related technical data. In conclusion, this paper will assist policymakers in making decisions which impact the entire building community and where possible, a united building community can influence an appropriate action.

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Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ Introduction ................................................................................................................................. Resilient Communities and Infrastructure ................................................................................... Parametric Modeling (BIM) and Energy Analysis ........................................................................ High-Performance Building Attributes......................................................................................... Case Study ‘The Empire State Building’ (ESB) .............................................................................. The Future of Designing Retrofitted Environmental Buildings .................................................... Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... References ...................................................................................................................................

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List of Figures Figure 1 – Curtain Walling Family Parametric Table (Revit Structure 2012) ............................... Figure 2 – The Process Flow of Energy Analysis System .............................................................. Figure 3 – Scope of Cloud BIM Applications ................................................................................ Figure 4 – Simulation Tools and Databases Supporting Fenestration Design (Sourced from Selkowitz, 2013) .......................................................................................................................... Figure 5 – The Complex Interactions of High-Performance Building Attributes ......................... Figure 6 – Components of an Object Hyperlinking Scheme ........................................................

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List of Tables Table 1 – Eight Energy-Efficiency Strategies and Identified Solutions ........................................ 11 Table 2 – Incremental Cost for Eight-Efficiency Strategies (Sourced from Pearce et al. 2012) .. 12

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Introduction In 2006, the US had an expanding economy, growing population, and rising standard of living all depended on energy services. Events such as the Northeast electricity blackout of August 2003 and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita 2005 emphasized the growing demand on energy reliability and its economic and human impacts. The National Action Plan for Energy efficiency highlighted that greater investment in energy efficiency would assist the US in meeting these challenges. With regards to recovering costs the State of California had made it clear that energy efficiency was the most important resource and adopted decoupling (a rate adjustment mechanism that separates (decouples) an electric or gas utility’s fixed cost recovery from the amount of electricity or gas it sells) and sales for its investors owned utilities to remove regulatory barriers to a full financial commitment to energy efficiency [9]. The National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency Vision for 2025 highlighted changes to watch in evolving technology, policy, and program practices for energy efficiency such as demand response, advanced metering, and smart grids; i) new technologies, such as advanced meters and smart appliances/controls, ii) data collection networks and data analysis to enhance energy efficiency, iii) new customer interfaces and iv) increased interoperability [20].

Since the start of the economic downturn (first quarter of 2008, when GDP fell 1.8 per cent) [1] the US has focused increasingly on innovative techniques to reduce energy cost and implement energy efficiency policies. Policies are key factors in setting future protocols to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. In 2012, the president’s plan for a strong middle class and a strong America launched three new manufacturing innovation institutes supported by the Department of Defense and Energy in order to invest in American-made technologies. Other key areas included, driving investments that would enhance manufacturing competitiveness, improve grid resiliency, and cut carbon pollution and rebuilding and upgrading infrastructure. The “Fix it First” program focused on urgent infrastructure repairs with a $50 billion investment. The putting people to work repairing homes through project rebuild initiative examined the issue of foreclosed and vacant properties leading to hold back growth absent additional intervention. Project Rebuild’s 15 billion proposal involved assisting rebuilding while creating new construction jobs [25]. In the US, extreme weather comes at a cost, climate and weather disasters in 2012 cost the American economy more than $100 billion: $30 billion drought/heat wave (precipitation was 2.57 inches below the 20th century average, 15th driest year on record), $65 billion Superstorm Sandy, $11.1 billion combined severe weather, $1 billion western wildfires (wildfires burned more than 9.3 million U.S. acres) and 2.3 billion Hurricane ISAAC. The biggest driver of climate change is carbon pollution with electricity and transportation identified as the two main contributing factors with the former amounting to 33 per cent and latter 28 per cent. As part of achieving Presidents Obama’s goal of doubling energy productivity by 2030, the administration is committed to encouraging adoption of state and local policies to cut energy waste. Five key areas have been identified as future points of progress i) support climate – resilient investment (at community level remove policy barriers), ii) rebuild and learn from Superstorm Sandy (pilot innovative strategies in the Superstorm Sandy affected region to strengthen communities against future extreme weather), iii) launch an effort to create sustainable and resilient hospitals (through a publicprivate partnership (PPP) within the healthcare industry), iv) maintain agricultural 3

productivity (deliver science-based knowledge to farmers, ranchers and forest landowners to help them understand and prepare for the impacts of climate change) and v) provide tools for climate resilience (including existing and newly developed climate preparedness tools that state, local and private-sector leaders need to make smart decisions [23]. The focus of this paper will be to pre-qualify existing and new construction ICT technologies manufactured to advance decision making, investigate energy modeling through Building Information Modeling and assemble, store (data modeling), and disseminate (object-hyper linking) building and construction-related technical data. The use of energy-efficiency guidance prototypes with BIM-FM will feature as a protocol for future guidance and standards. Resilient Communities and Infrastructure “Increased resilience (multiple solution thinking for designing-out vulnerabilities in the built environment [17]) cannot be accomplished by simply adding a cosmetic layer of policy or practice to a vulnerable community. Long-term shifts in physical approaches (new technologies, methods, materials, and infrastructure systems) and cultural approaches (the people, management processes, institutional arrangements, and legislation) are needed to advance community resilience” [12]. In order, to improve energy efficiency in commercial buildings by 20 per cent by 2020 the Better Building initiative focused its attention on involving the private sector. This led to public-private partnership (where the private sector organizes the funds and manages the risks, while the public sector specifies the level of service required and ultimately owns the assets) being committed to more than 1.6 billion square feet of commercial and industrial property, 300 manufacturing plants, and nearly $2 billion in financing support for energy upgrades [22]. The President’s Climate Action Plan [24] highlighted specific areas for building stronger and safer communities and infrastructure. Specific actions included: 

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Directing agencies to support climate-resilience investment: Barriers to making climate-resilient investments can be contributed to ineffective policies. Federal agencies will be directed to identify and remove counterproductive policies that increase vulnerabilities; agency grants and technical assistance will be used to support more resilient investments in sectors such as transportation and disaster relief. The Department of Housing and Urban Development is already a recipient of a grant to take sea-level into account due to Hurricane Sandy. Boosting the Resilience of Building and Infrastructure: A panel of experts from The National Institute of Technology will focus on disaster-resilience standards in order to develop a comprehensive, community-based resilience framework and provide guidelines for consistently safe buildings and infrastructure. Transit and rail have been reserved as potential funding sectors for building enhanced preparedness into their planning efforts. Promoting Resilience in the Health Sector: Due to the impact of climate change The Department of Health and Human services are considering launching an effort to create sustainable (the balance between social, environmental and economical concerns) and resilient hospitals. PPPs have been recognized as the most prominent procurement process as a means to provide best practices and guidance on

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affordable measures to ensure that the health industry’s medical system is resilient to climate impact. There have been indications that the biggest challenge of sustainability in the built environment relates to existing home, offices and infrastructure. It has been estimated in the UK that around 60 per cent of the building stock that will exist in 2050 has already been built. In Germany the Federal Housing, Urban and Transport Ministry has announced an ambitious energy reduction program to upgrade all pre-1984 properties in Germany by 2020, using a system of loans, grants and tax incentives (this is similar to the President’s (Obama’s) Climate Change Action Plan). It is anticipated that this retrofitting building upgrade program will make a significant contribution to Germany achieving its goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 40 per cent by 2020 [11]. Parametric Modeling (BIM) and Energy Analysis The modern approach to parametric modeling has evolved from joining the attributes of the two major forms of solid modeling (boundary representation – parameterized boxes, cones, spheres, pyramids and extrusions and constructive solid geometry – combining algebraic expressions and Boolean operations). The evolution initiated with parameters defining shapes automatically and then allocating flags to mark which had been modified so only the changed parts were rebuilt.

Figure 1 – Curtain Walling Family Parametric Table (Revit Structure 2012) However, because changes could alter other objects a “revolver” was introduced to analyze the changes and choose the most efficient order to update them. For example; if a window is placed in a wall according to the offset from the wall-end to the center of the window, the default dimensioning would also be done this way in later drawings. The key advantage of parametric design over 3D CAD is that instead of designing an instance of a building element such as a particular wall or door; a designer defines an element class or family which defines 5

a mixture of fixed and parametric geometry (a set of relations and rules to control the parameters by which element instances can be generated). An example of such definitions may be; the door and windows locations must not overlap each other or extend beyond the wall boundaries [6]. Figure 1 demonstrates how the mullion and portioning and dimensions are defined via a parameter table. It has been advocated that the concept of BIM is to build a building virtually, prior to building it physically, in order to simulate potential problems, and analyze potential impact, a process known as bi-directional virtualization. BIM authoring tools such as Autodesk Revit, Bentley Architecture, Gaphisoft ArchiCAD and Nemetschek Vectorworks concentrate on designing aspects. However, tools that support clash detection, energy analysis, sustainable design analysis, code compliance, and construction cost estimating, such as Autodesk Navisworks for clash detection; Ecotect and IES VE-Ware for energy analysis; and Solibri Model Checker for rules-based (including code compliance) model checking enable teams of professionals to leverage databases of statistical, technical, or financial information and complex algorithms to conduct detailed analysis of specific designs [21]. However, intelligent models require a common data exchange standard. At present the two most prevalent models for exchanging energy related data in the Architect, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry are the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) and Green Building XML (gbXML). 

IFC is a neutral and open specification data model that describes building and construction industry data. It has an object-based (object-oriented meaning the base entities could be specialized by sub typing - allows a term to have (belong to) more than one type) file format with a data model developed by buildingSMART alliance (www.buildingsmartalliance.org/).

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gbXML is a schema developed by Green Building Studio (formerly GeoPraxis), and the California Energy Commission Public interest Energy Research (PIER) Program, and the California Utilities (Pacific Gas and Electric company, Southern California EDISON and Sempra Energy Utility) to enable interoperability between building design models and engineering analysis tools such as e-Quest [8].

Figure 2 illustrates the process flow of an energy analysis of a Business Process Diagram (BPD – is a network of graphical objects, such as, activities and flow controls that are defined in a sequence of performances). BPDs are advantageous to software developers because they can implement these workflows exchanges into an executable code [14]. It was part of a process that tested the benefits of transferring nD information through BIM XML for Web services and plug-ins exchanges in order to advance key decisions at an early design stage through faster information exchanges and collaborative work. The test involved the MiraCosta Oceanside Campus, part of the California Community College Comprehensive Master Plan 2011 for which 6,000 buildings facility conditions were assessed.

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Figure 2 – The Process Flow of an Energy Analysis System [14]

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Start Process

Responsible Party

Adjust Cloud BIM for Energy Analysis

Occupancy Lighting Schedule

Contractor

Mechanical Contractor

Create and Assign Thermal Zones

Mechanical Engineer

Assign Outside Design Criteria and Energy Targets

Assign Room lighting Schedule

Import Excel Data to Cloud BIM

Is model ready for simulation?

No

Space Type Mechanical Library System Library

Analyze Energy Demand and consumption

Energle

Mechanical Engineer

Energy Analysis Assumption Model

Yes

Energy Assumption Tariff

Mechanical Engineer

Review Energy Anaysis Results

Mechanical Engineer

Prepare Report for Documentation

Results acceptable ?

No

End Process

Yes

Figure 2 highlights the capabilities of Energle – FM: a Web-based wireless sensor connected to the Onuma System (www.onuma.com) interface via Web service application performance interfaces, the application monitors as-is conditions, such as, energy usage based on temperature, humidity, CO2, and Lux Level [18; 16]. Figure 3 demonstrates the scope of implementing BIM XML and energy analysis via Cloud (“applications delivered as a service over the Internet and the hardware and system software in data centre’s that provide those services” [2]) platforms. The process (which was tested at MiraCosta) successfully implemented energy performance analysis directed at identifying energy usage and energy demand for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) zoning and incorporated 3D –design, 4D – time and 5D – costing BIM applications.

Figure 3 - Scope of Cloud BIM Applications [14; 15] High-Performance Building Attributes In the US, windows have been estimated to cost owners approximately $40 billion / year in energy bills, however according to [19] they have the technical potential to be net energy suppliers to all buildings in all climates. The core approach is to minimize thermal losses and optimize the collection of sunlight to offset other heat losses in cold climates and minimize solar gain in cooling periods while using natural ventilation to reduce overall cooling system energy usage in hot climates. The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), (a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratory) have simulated the performance of a wide range of technological solutions and quantified their impacts on the overall energy use of the entire US residential and commercial building stock.

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Figure 4 - Simulation Tools and Databases Supporting Fenestration Design [19, pp14] “Image, as published in the August 2013 issue of the Journal of the National Institute of Building Sciences, with permission from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.” At LBNL detailed market studies are supported to explore achievable savings that can be captured, based on building codes, price, aesthetics and other market forces. LBNL have identified that four classes of technologies and one systems solution may result in the new zero energy façade vision. The technologies include; 1) highly insulating windows – the goal is to produce solutions with an insulative value (U-Factor) < .2 BTU/f2-hr-F (relating to BTU (int)-inch/hour-square foot-°F conversion factors - thermal Conductivity), while maintaining the potential for high solar gain, ideally a solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) >.5, the solution would require design attention to glazing, glazing edges and sash/frame; 2) solar control – the majority of today’s development is focused on dynamic control of intensity ‘photochromic’ (PC – a reversible change in color or shade when exposed to light of a particular frequency or intensity), thermochromic (TC – the property of substances to change color due to a change in temperature), electochromic (EC - changing color when a burst of charge is applied) as well as control of the direction of transmitted light; 3) daylight redirection – due to the costly maintenance requirements associated with reflective, refractive and diffractive optics to control and redirect light smaller scale, reflective blind structures and prismatic microstructures applied directly to glass are been investigated; 4) ventilation – operational windows that permit ventilation requiring hardware and some level of integrated control with HVAC operation. Figure 4 identifies the exploratory process that can now be examined via a suite of tools, for example:  Window Therm; Allows rapid design and optimization of a complex window that meets virtually any thermal performance need,  Radiance, COMFEN, , EnergyPlus, Simergy; Allows the energy role of fenestration for any climate orientation and building type to be modeled and optimized,

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The tools on lower row of Figure 4 are associated with calculating energy and day lighting impacts in spaces or buildings, (http://windows.IBL.gov/software).

However, the complexity of the interactions between the various actors (sustainability, safety / security, resilience, accessibility, cost, aesthetics and functionality) for developing or refurbishing a building to meet a high-performance can present major decision challenges with regards to performance data (where are we now and where are we going?), communication, consensus, connections and human behavior. Figure 5 demonstrates the multiple decisions required for connecting these actors and their subsidiaries [5].

Figure 5 – The Complex Interactions of High-Performance Building Attributes [6] The following section will examine an existing urban BIM/ICT – Facility Management model and its architecture in order to advance decision making for environmental performances of buildings in the US. Case Study ‘The Empire State Building’ (ESB) The ESB is one of the world’s tallest buildings and has 12.8 million sq ft of leasable office space, which contributes to a significant impact on the environment due to the process involved in operating and maintaining the building. In order, to establish ESB as one of the most energy-efficient and sustainable retrofits for existing buildings, five dedicated project partners were recruited from several key backgrounds including; project advisor – Clinton Climate Initiative, project manager – Jones Lang LaSalle, operations reviewer – Empire State Building Operations, energy service company – Johnson Controls Inc. and design partner and peer reviewer – Rocky Mountain Institute. The team developed a four-phase iterative process and rigorous cost/benefit analysis (“total social benefits anticipated from a project are compared with the social costs and a decision is taken on the project by the use of the decision rule: invest if the present value of benefits exceeds the costs [3]) to design an optimal solution based on the group’s action goals: 10

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The initial phase ‘identifying opportunities’ involved the project team investigating energy usage between April 2007 and May 2008 and then brainstorming over 60 energy-efficiency ideas and strategies such as, occupant comfort requirements, passive measures, system impacts, system design characteristics, technology, controls and charged operating schedules. The second phase focused on developing an eQuest energy model for cost/benefit analysis of future improvements, modifications and operational changes. Within the second phase the design team calculated the net present value (NPV – estimate the economic worth of the project in terms of the present worth of the total net benefit) of selected energy efficiency strategies. In the third phase, four different goals were created: 1) to maximize NPV, 2) to balance NPV and carbon dioxide savings for a zero NPV, 3) to maximize carbon dioxide savings for a zero NPV and 4) to maximize carbon dioxide savings overall. These financial implications demonstrated the potential carbon dioxide emission reduction for different packages and the increase cash flow for each package.

The final eight strategies with their identified solutions are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Eight Energy-Efficiency Strategies and Identified Solutions [13, adapted from pp 358 - 374] 11

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The final phase of development, involved the project team iteratively modeling the package measure to optimize economic and environmental benefits such as choosing the correct package for determining the sustainable retrofit strategies.

Table 2 identifies that in 2008 the capital budget for energy related projects at the ESB was $93 million, plus the increase cost of $13 million produced a new project capital cost of $106 million. However, the estimated annual savings in energy costs was $4 million suggesting a little over 3 and a quarter years paying back the incremental costs. Also, in 2008 the ESB had 0 per cent energy savings the new capital budget predicts a savings of 38 per cent. The findings of the ESB case study identified that: i) quicker and simpler tools for creating the energy and financial models would help in accelerating the process, ii) policies and regulations need to be used to incentivize deeper savings and to make the process cheaper and transparent – “Federal stimulus money, city or state mandated retrofits, and more shared data on opportunities and performance will make retrofits faster and cheaper”, iii) the availability of capital is a major hurdle and a variety of innovative solutions that work for large, small, owner-occupied, and leased spaces is needed [4].

Table 2 – Incremental Cost for Eight Energy-Efficiency Strategies [13, pp 372] The Future of Designing Retrofitted Environmental Buildings A comprehensive approach to the understanding process of the Web, relates to the concept that the Web is a graph (specifically named graph – a set of Resource Description Framework; which makes statements about Web resources in the form of subject-predicateobject expressions) of document nodes identified by Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). The URI references physical resources on the Internet such as namespaces, which are a collection of element and attribute names, used in an XML document and are guaranteed to be unique and connected by hyperlink arcs expressed in a Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) [10; 26]. 12

Figure 6 – Components of an Object Hyperlinking Scheme [Adapted by the Authors from: 7] The author’s idea is to enhance object hyperlinking (extending the Internet objects and locations in the real world) for retrofitted buildings by attaching object tags (contains pieces of information) with Universal Resource Locator (URL – Web address) as meta-objects to create or describe particular objects such as HVAC equipment or specific materials in a building to tangible objects for example; a class within an environmental policy document. The objects would be originally read by a wireless mobile device (via sensors reading virtual tags or radio frequency identification device) and the information (specific policy) about the objects (i.e. required ventilation of a room) would be retrieved via Semantic Web (the ability to represent knowledge in a form suitable for automated processing) and viewed in a BIM model. Figure 6 outlines the process in a diagrammatic format, however in order for the sensors to acknowledge what entity it is reading the objects would have to be tagged individually for example; a constant drop in temperature may indicate the various types of heating equipment required. The process would require a Resource Syndicate System to transfer associated material from a server to a client for example; the client sends an HTTP Get message to a recognized server (hosting the correct policy document). In practice an engineer would be able to speed up decisions about what type of equipment or material should be eradicated or added to the building design in accordance to the specific regulations of the building code identified. The BIM model would not only virtually present a platform to quickly redesign the model but also feed directly the data required for making 13

the decision for example; a cost engineer would now have faster updated material to send and receive costs from a data model library stemming from the correct options identified from a range of Air Handling Units. Conclusion The term ‘resilience’ – thinking for designing-out vulnerabilities in the built environment is a major challenge to the US economy as it requires investment in several areas: communities, health-sector, building and infrastructure. With regards to buildings, technical advancements in American products to improve energy efficiency are an essential component of designing consistently safe buildings and infrastructure. This paper recognized the capability of intelligent modeling through BIM and the data exchange standards used to provide interoperability between some of the industries’ leading ICT energy analysis products. The California Community College Comprehensive Master Plan 2011 provided a platform for testing and designing a schema ‘BIM XML’ for an Urban BIMFM model that transferred data such as energy between various nD products. The advancements in high-performance buildings was emphasized through; The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory by demonstrating the various simulations tools and databases available for supporting decisions in relation to fenestration design. However, the complexity of interactions between various high-performance building attributes is a mind field as illustrated in Figure 4. The ESB was chosen as a desktop observation study to investigate the financial impacts of having an open collaborative model featuring urban BIM-FM energy analysis and cost benefit analysis techniques. The results identified an initial predicated energy saving of 38 per cent and a financial payback period of 3.25 years on incremental costs. However, the main findings of the ESB case study identified a series of actions such as, using quicker and simpler tools for creating the energy and financial models in order to accelerate the process and apply policies and regulations that encourage deeper savings that will make the process cheaper and transparent. The final section of this paper briefly outlined a system architecture that may possibly enhance design and cost decisions through linking Semantic Web with BIM in order to detect the correct policy at a faster rate, thus encouraging more options to be investigated at the feasibility stage. References 1. Amadeo, K: Unemployment Rate, About.com US Economy, (2013), http://useconomy. about.com/od/economicindicators/p/unemploy_rate.htm. 2. Armburst, M., Fox, A., Griffith, R., Joseph, A.D., Katz, R.H., Konwinski, A., Lee, G., Patterson, D.A, Rabkin, A., Stocia, I. and Zaharia, M: Above the Clouds: A Berkeley View of Cloud Computing, Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences University of California at Berkeley, (2009) htt://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/2009/EE, 10/02/2009. 3. Bowers, J: Sustainability and Environmental Economics, An Alternative Text, Published Pearson Prentice Hall, Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England (1997). 4. Campbell, I., Quartararo, R., Malkin, A.E., Baczko, K. and Lovins, A: Empire State Building Case Study, Cost-Effective Greenhouse Gas Reductions via Whole-building Retrofits: Process, Outcomes, and What is Needed Next, (2012), http://www.esbnyc.com/documents/sustainability/esboverviewdeck.pdf. 5. Colker, R.M: Environmental Performance of Buildings: Linking Research to Policymaking, National Institute of Building Sciences, 1090 Vermont Ave., NW Suite 14

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Alan Redmond PhD System Engineering UCIrvine Post Graduate Student | Extension [email protected]

Bob Smith PhD Tall Tree Labs [email protected]

Deke Smith National Institute of Building Sciences [email protected]

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