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Int. J. Technology and Globalisation, Vol. 6, Nos. 1/2, 2012
Establishing a space sector for sustainable development in Kenya Peter M.B. Waswa* Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, 33-208, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA E-mail:
[email protected] *Corresponding author
Calestous Juma Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 79 John F. Kennedy Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract: To expeditiously address fundamental national development needs e.g., health, education, food security and natural resource management; Kenya needs to invoke space-based technologies. A vibrant domestic space sector further spawns a plethora of other space-related opportunities – congruous with the government’s long-term planning strategy; Kenya Vision 2030. We specifically analyse Kenya’s technological environment, and then characterize phase-by-phase technological evolution it requires to establish a space sector and become self-reliant in space technology for sustainable development. Kenya needs to build human, organisational and societal capacity through ‘leapfrogging’ technology transfer mechanisms. Mastering satellite engineering, earth observation and acquiring launch capability constitute the priority areas. Keywords: Kenya; space technology; Vision 2030; sustainable development; absorption capacity; technology transfer; capability hierarchy; leapfrogging; developing countries; scientific development. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Waswa, P.M.B. and Juma, C. (2012) ‘Establishing a space sector for sustainable development in Kenya’, Int. J. Technology and Globalisation, Vol. 6, Nos. 1/2, pp.152–169. Biographical notes: Peter M.B. Waswa is a Cambridge, Massachusetts-based Space Systems Engineer with experiences at NASA and EUMETSAT. His research interests are in space systems engineering and new applications of space technology for development. He has co-authored several spacecraft system engineering papers in submission to America Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics publications. He has Master of Science Degrees in Astronautics and Space Systems Engineering from Massachusetts Institute of
Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
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Technology and International Space University in France. He received his Electrical Engineering Degree from Jomo Kenyatta University. Calestous Juma is Professor of the Practice of International Development and Director of the Science, Technology and Globalisation Project at Harvard Kennedy School. He also directs its Agricultural Innovation in Africa Project. He is a former Executive Secretary of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and Founding Director of the African Center for Technology Studies in Nairobi. He has been elected to the Royal Society of London, US National Academy of Science and the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World, among others. His latest book, The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa, was published by Oxford University Press in 2011.
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Introduction
This paper charts a policy path for Kenya to establish a sustainable space sector as an integral part of its national development agenda. Moreover, we shall rationalise national investment in space technology by highlighting the developmental areas of application coupled with the inherent multiplicative merits of a spirited local space sector. As exemplary corroboration, the Indian and Brazilian space sectors avail illuminative cases that embolden the argument for Kenya’s quest to establish a space sector.
1.1 Why Kenya needs a space sector Kenya recently launched a development blueprint officially known as Kenya Vision 2030. This long-term national planning strategy is intended to transform the country into a “newly industrialising, middle-income country providing a high quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030” (Government of the Republic of Kenya, 2007). The virtually untapped immense potential affiliated with space technology avails a unique opportunity to expedite Kenya’s targeted developmental dreams. Establishing a vibrant local space sector will substantially abet the government’s development agenda by directly fulfilling two of the three pillars stipulated in the strategy – ‘Economic’ and ‘Social’. By inaugurating a space sector, Kenya will embrace a plethora of opportunities that include job creation, scientific research stimulation, high-tech innovation promotion, industrialisation advancement, promoting a sense of national pride and confidence among its citizens. A number of publications (NRCNA, 2002; UNCOSA, 2008; UNOOSA, 2006; Wood, 2008) have argued exhaustively the compelling role of space-based technology in sustainable development of industrially developing countries. Briefly, space-based technologies and capabilities that facilitate national development include •
earth observation, i.e., remote sensing
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satellite communication
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satellite position and navigation systems (see Table 1).
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Table 1
Developmental needs and areas of space technology application in Kenya
Development need
Areas of space technology application
1 Improving food security
Water catchments management Monitoring land use Control of land degradation Drought mitigation and proofing Monitoring of crops and cropping systems Ground water prospecting Fisheries forecasting
2 Health
Disease surveillance and epidemiology District level Health Geographic Information System (GIS) Tele Medicine network National drugs distribution network
3 Education
Tele-Education network
4 Environment management
Vegetation monitoring Water conservation and management A forestation plans and forest mapping Coastal zone regulation monitoring Mining impact assessments Urban sprawl and land use monitoring Monitoring desertification Land and atmospheric pollution monitoring
5 Disaster management and response
Flood damage assessment Drought monitoring Flood plain GIS Flood zoning analysis Emergency response GIS Land slide zoning
6 Infrastructure development
Road connectivity planning and analysis Land use mapping and monitoring Urban mapping and GIS Digital villages and community information kiosks VSAT communications network Universal television coverage
7 Atmospheric and oceanic monitoring
Weather monitoring and forecast Climate monitoring Oceanography and marine life monitoring
8 Natural resources management
Mineral exploration Mining planning and monitoring Lumbering planning and monitoring Wildlife management
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Space-based remote sensing not only simultaneously monitors land surface, oceans and the atmosphere, it also covers a wide area instantaneously. Satellite communication functions independent of terrestrial communication networks. Therefore, satellites are enablers of communication in remote areas, on sea-fairing vessels, aeroplanes in the air and on the ground where the terrestrial communication network has been negated due natural disasters. The precise location information provided by Global Navigation Satellite Systems is used in conjunction with Earth observation images and ancillary information in geographical information systems mainly for navigation. The proposed space sector in Kenya will stimulate hi-tech scientific research and innovation within the local scientific community thereby expanding the knowledge capacity and sophistication of the national innovation system. Moreover, in line with the Vision 2030, employment opportunities will be created in the industries that will fabricate the innovated hi-tech space products and in the greater supporting space sector manufacturing base. Space technology has been proven to have a high rate of ‘spin-off’ into other areas of application (Greenberg and Hertzfeld, 1992). Examples include computer technology, recreation, health and medicine, manufacturing technology, environmental and resource management, public safety and transportation. Consequently, not only will space technology advance other facets of innovation but also the intrinsic organisational and management practises cultivated will be beneficial to other sectors of the economy. Categorically, the space sector shall, therefore, leapfrog industrialisation in line with the government’s vision. The space sector will indirectly contribute towards satisfying the ‘Political’ pillar in Vision 2030 strategy. Space captures the imagination of the public like no other discipline. A vibrant, successful national space program will spawn a new national pride and confidence among the citizenry due to their country's accomplishment – joining the elite ‘space club’. Consequently, this will escalate confidence in the citizenry to confront and conquer other challenges as one country, further augmenting their socio-political camaraderie bonds. Consequently, a local space sector is already well-nigh entwined with the national long-term development strategy as presently contrived.
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The global space sector
Modern space science is only about 50 years. The launch into orbit of the first man-made satellite called Sputnik, on 4 October 1957, by the Soviet Union herald the beginning of modern space technology. The ensuing space race set off the cold war between the two post-WWII global dominant powers. As argued by Dupas (1995), in Figure 1, the leadership in space innovation occurs in waves. The first wave was led by development in science exploration and manned space flight, the second wave by military space and presently information space programs will likely lead space development. Consequently, the third wave avails a favourable environment for new entrants into the space sector like Kenya to use. The global space sector is presently characterised by a mixture of multilateral and bilateral inter-governmental collaborations, for example, the multinational International Space Station (ISS), NASA-ESA Cassini-Huygens Mission to Saturn and numerous mulch-partner Earth observation mission like Global Precipitation Measurement. Other emerging trends in conducting space missions include building smaller cheaper
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spacecraft (unlike the traditional monolithic ones), flying spacecraft in formation and constellations and aircraft-assisted mid-air launch systems. Multi-governmental collaboration will continue to relatively dominate efforts in manned space flight and inter-planetary and deep space exploration missions. However, Earth observation and communication missions will involve multinational undertaking to a relatively lesser extend. The former has attracted considerable private sector participation. Figure 1
Waves of space technology development (see online version for colours)
A new rationale for manned space flight entails multinational collaboration for return to the Moon, Mars and beyond, partly with technologies developed on ISS. Satellite communication and Earth observation missions have direct implications on development, hence are more attractive to new entrants like Kenya. In brief, the present tendency towards smaller, cheaper more efficient missions embracing a collaborative sense in function and development unlocks an opportunity for a country like Kenya to integrate space in its national development agenda as a means to accelerate national sustainable development.
2.1 Space technology capability hierarchy Space is a hostile, exceptionally hazardous and unforgiving environment that demands unparalleled precision, timing and patience for man and his machines to successfully operate. Different countries have varying space technological capabilities, which can in principle be hierarchically grouped as shown in Figure 2 (Leloglu and Kocaoglan, 2003). Both complexity in space technology and cost increase as one ascends the schematic. Consequently, the number of countries decreases with increasing technology complexity and cost, hence a pyramid structure. Although the capability levels appear to be explicitly contiguous, a country may have partial capability of a level above it in various forms. A nation at a given capability level possesses all the capabilities below it.
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‘Users’ are merely consumers of products and services generated by space technology conceived by other nations. They have no capacity to influence the outcome or customise what they either purchase or receive freely. Virtually all countries belong to this category including Kenya.
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‘Space Systems Operators’ have the necessary ground operations capability in place to monitor, control and maintain space assets they may own in orbit to guarantee sound system availability. Operators can control data reception and unlike ‘Users’, they influence and can customise the products and services of space technology. However, they do not have the technological capability to independently design and manufacture the in-orbit and terrestrial infrastructure concerned. Examples include Indonesia and partially Nigeria.
•
‘Spacecraft Manufacturers’ have the technical know-how to design, fabricate, integrate, test and deliver a functional space system including the supporting ground infrastructure. Manufacturers have more flexibility in influencing the products and services because they can customise on-orbit operations after launch and also during design stages. Examples include South Korea, Brazil and partially South Africa.
•
‘Launch Capability’ countries have the technology to deliver independently satellites into designated orbits. They possess a space transportation system capability. This group has relatively fewer members – USA, Russia, China, European Space Agency (ESA) members, Japan, Ukraine, India and Israel. Most recently, Iran joined this group in February 2009 by launching its first domestic satellite into Low Earth Orbit.
•
‘Human Space flight’ – The technological capability to safely put human beings into orbit and safely return them to earth is the most exigent to accomplish. Consequently, only two nations, USA, and former Soviet Union (Russia) enjoyed this capability for a long time. However, in 2003, China became the third nation in the world to acquire this capability.
Figure 2
Hierarchy of space technology capabilities
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Lessons from India and Brazil
In our quest to establish a space sector in Kenya, we examined how other countries have approached and tackled this challenge. To fully exploit space technology for sustainable development, learning from the experiences of such case studies is wise but not sufficient. We need to be innovative in formulating a customised course for Kenya augmented by our predecessors’ experiences. As developing countries, India, and Brazil have faced (and continue to face) development challenges similar to those confronting Kenya. Unlike Kenya, these two countries have integrated space technology in their arsenal to confront development challenges with tremendous success. After examining the Indian and Brazilian space sectors (BNSC, 2003; ESCAP, 2007; Chamon, 2006; Jayaraman et al., 2006; Kasturirangan, 2006; LOC, 2008; Sundararajan, 2006, 2007), we make a number of observations helpful to Kenya. Specifically, we examined the policies India and Brazil adopted for organisational frameworks and impacts of space on their national development agendas. Both India and Brazil ventured into space primarily to expedite their national development agenda. Immediately after independence in 1947, the visionary leadership in India recognised the importance of science and technology, and space in particular to lift their people out of poverty. Brazil, building on a rich aeronautical history, similarly ventured into space to meet its development needs. Consequently, a country’s leadership that adopts space for national development makes a necessary visionary decision to expedite national development. Despite leading a newly independent young nation, the Indian leadership was bold enough to venture into the akin, nascent field – space. Similarly, Brazil decided to pursue space technology when the field was still in its infancy. It is, hence, important for a nation to be courageous and confident in its abilities to establish a space program and reap it benefits. Indian and Brazilian space programs were initiated with a vision to directly extend the benefits of the space technology to society at the grass-roots level. A country’s space program should directly serve the socio-economic needs of the common masses to facilitate successfully national development. A well-stipulated vision springing from explicit objectives of a country’s space program is paramount for a successful space program. The vision should detail the key performance indicators that will measure the country’s progress in the space technology. Good organisation is vital to realise a successful space program. A nation’s space technology innovation system must be creatively structured to maximise inherent strengths and also efficiently exploit opportunities that will fill-in technology deficiency gaps. India and Brazil have comprehensive organisational structure, tweaked over time purposely to manage their space programs efficiently and hence ensure a sustained connection between national developments needs at the grass-roots level and technological applications in space. A nation venturing into any hi-tech field especially space must start by patiently building a robust local knowledge base. Both India and Brazil initially invested heavily to nurture domestic skilled space technology expertise before initiating further technological investments. A space technology neophyte needs to cooperate with other established players to acquire the necessary technological capacity through appropriate technology transfer mechanisms. Re-inventing the wheel is folly and naive. Moreover, multilateral
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cooperation is a continuous trend; for instance, India still cooperates with more than 20 different countries. Consequently, a country must be creative in establishing and adopting cooperation mechanisms that will facilitate expeditious skills transfer. India and Brazil pursued different domains of space technology simultaneously to acquire an all-round comprehensive space technology capability. Establishing a space sector, therefore, requires concurrent initiation of programs in launch vehicles and space propulsion systems; satellite systems engineering, manufacture, test and integration technology; space sciences; payload development; ground control station systems and space communication technologies. The space sector should initiate and maintain a domestic space industrial base by innovating technology, incubating new firms that employ the technology, and provide a market for the space technology and services offered by these nurtured firms. In this manner, money spent by the government on space remains in the country. To illustrate, India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and the operational Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle vehicles have more than 70% of components coming from Indian industry, and ongoing efforts aim to increase this figure to 100%. Space is a dangerous, risky and an unforgiving place. Similarly, space technology is complicated, risky and relatively expensive. As a country develops its capabilities in space, there will be failures that may even involve fatalities. Reasonably, a new player should appreciate this disconcerting fact, but still, soldier on, taking every precaution to mitigate the associated risk. A new entrant must plan to progress from being a technology recipient to a technology developer and eventually a technology exporter. A continuous, steady technological capacity growth in a nation’s space program is essential to guarantee eventual self-reliance in space technology.
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Kenya space sector characterisation
The space sector envisioned for Kenya must strive to meet consistently the grass-roots needs of ordinary Kenyans in fostering national socio-economic development. Moreover, not only must the space program remain relevant to the public, it is imperative for it to be built on solid principles of professionalism, transparency, accountability, excellence, cost-effectiveness and team culture. However, the challenge squarely rests in the hands of Kenyans – it is people and not well-laid-out plans that will make it happen.
4.1 Kenya space sector developmental objectives As mentioned earlier, the fundamental objective of a Kenyan space program would be to expedite the improvement of socio-economic conditions of all ordinary Kenyans. Although space technology can be applied to overcome a wide range of obstacles facing humanity, we highlight application areas pertinent to Kenya’s immediate developmental needs as listed in Table 1, partially based on India’s experience (Kasturirangan, 2006). The above-listed developmental needs and corresponding areas of space technology application are not exhaustive; other areas in which space technology can be applied to facilitate Kenya’s national development needs do exist. Moreover, new ways of applying space technology for development continue to be revealed.
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4.2 Challenges in establishing a space sector in Kenya To set up and efficiently run a space sector from scratch is a challenging task that cannot be understated. However, other formidable hurdles too do beleaguer Kenya in the desire to establish a space sector. Though some of these barriers are unique to Kenya, majority are attributed to Kenya being an industrially developing country with an agri-based economy. We proceed to explore these impediments and suggest means to either surmount or mitigate them. •
Lack of awareness: Because of the low proliferation of space-based remedies to national development challenges, it is not surprising to find that Kenyan policy makers and other stakeholders are unaware of the capabilities offered by space-based technologies. Space technology is chiefly viewed enigmatically as expensive, esoteric and detached from development objectives at the grass-roots level. Space technology is, hence, not explored as a potential source for solutions to national development needs. With increased efforts to raise awareness and visible success in countries that Kenya wish to emulate, the lack of awareness trend will eventually reverse.
•
Lack of skills: Kenya presently does not possess all the necessary knowledge and skills required to establish and efficiently run a space sector from scratch. Consequently, Kenya will need to build a competent, local space technology capacity from scratch. This is a relatively slow process that requires careful planning and investment, by no means a trivial undertaking. The effort in this paper intends to contribute towards addressing this challenge.
•
Lack of scalable infrastructure: By and large, Kenya hardly possesses an already established infrastructure with dual use or that can be easily scaled or converted to sustain space technology. For instance, if there was already existing technology capability to manufacture military self-propelled missiles, it is feasible to upgrade this capability to launch vehicle application; communication satellite transponder technology can be extended from the capacity to manufacture telecommunication systems and so on. Absence of already established infrastructure for the proposed space sector to piggyback on and intensify compounds the challenges Kenya has to face. The space sector infrastructure will have to be established from scratch.
•
Limited capital: Investments in space technology are lumpy, involve long gestation periods and risky. Kenya is not a very wealthy nation and lacks mineral reserves like oil or gold that can quickly generate the necessary capital to invest in space technology. However, this should not be a show-stopper because the returns on space investment are unquestionable. Efficient national budgeting complimented by other thoughtful progressive financing mechanisms avail a way forward.
•
Limited willing partners: Certain countries with established space programs may be reluctant to partner with Kenya and transfer space technology. No country wants to be philanthropic with space technology because of the investments involved, national security and fear of encouraging competition to its domestic space industry. Therefore, Kenya may find itself in a situation with limited willing space technology transfer partners.
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Restrictions on transferable technology: Although Kenya may secure cooperative partners willing to transfer space technology, this will be subjected to some restrictions. Space technology is dual use, consequently many aspects of it, for example, tangible parts, subsystems, software and technical processes, are subjected to heavy export control by the countries of origin. Such restrictions may hamper the process of building space capability in Kenya. This can, however, be overcome to some extend by cooperating with as many partners as possible and cultivating ingenious innovativeness with the skills already transferred.
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Undue conditional technology transfer: Some technology transferring countries may apply political and policy pressure on Kenya to buy space technology systems from them as a precondition to initiate cooperation or for continued technology transfer. Such barriers will hinder steady build-up of Kenyan competence in space technology. Engaging multiple collaborating partners and being smartly innovative with the skills already acquired provides a means to overcome this setback.
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Unfair competition: As Kenya’s industrial capacity to manufacture hi-tech space systems matures to export standards, it is likely to face competition from well-established countries that unfairly protect their industries. This skewed competition maybe in the form of protected markets or subsidised competitors. Participation in regional and preferential trading blocs would hand Kenya a way to weather this competition.
•
Poor leadership, retrogressive policies and lack of political support: For the space sector to commence and succeed, it requires a solid political and policy backing. However, not all political quarters concerned may be willing to support this initiative for one reason or the other. Moreover, some government policies in their present form may work against the smooth establishment of a space sector. As evident in other initiatives, poor leadership will always be a risk stalking the setting up of a successful space program in Kenya. Crucially, the pursuit of space technology should be explicitly laid out and understood by all stakeholders to guarantee all levels of political and policy backing. Only then can the highly talented minds in Kenya make this initiative bear fruit.
4.3 Kenya’s space technology absorptive capacity Drawing on work by Cohen and Levinthal (1989, 1990, 1994), the national absorptive capacity concepts broadly refer to a country’s ability to assimilate technology and independently use the technology successfully. Though initially conceptualised in relation to manufacturing firms, other authors like Lorentzen (2005) have articulated the protraction of this concept to a national scale. Absorptive capacity relates a country’s ability to use external technology with domestic research and development for sustainable development. A country’s absorptive capacity for science and technology increases by doing research and development, ensuring easy availability of information and efficient communication, and ability to understand current and future technology trends. Therefore, to yield long-term benefits, Kenya’s domestic absorptive capacity must match external knowledge being transferred through research and development and present a ready access to relevant information.
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In formulating a path to establish a space sector in Kenya, we evaluate the local absorptive capacity for space technology under three designations – Human, Organisational and Societal. a
Human absorptive capacity
This addresses the capacity of individual Kenyans to assimilate space technology. More than 150,000 students are enrolled in Kenyan public and private universities (UWN, 2008). Moreover, other Kenyan students pursue college education abroad out of which more than 7000 Kenyan students are officially enrolled in US colleges alone. These figures have been rising steadily and this trend is envisioned to persist because the government and private entities continue to establish new higher institutions of learning. College graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) subjects are particularly pivotal in facilitating assimilation of space technology in Kenya. This is because space technology can be divided into the following five very broad STEM areas: •
spacecraft systems engineering
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launcher and space propulsion systems
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information and communication networks
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humans in aerospace
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aerospace/astronautical science.
Consequently, the existing potential for individual Kenyans to assimilate space technology because of a rich STEM subject legacy will necessitate only broadening to include space technology-specific subjects. Furthermore, Kenyan professionals in the Diaspora working in the space industry and locals involved in the Kenya-Italy, San-Marco space collaboration project strengthen the domestic Human absorptive capacity. b
Organisational absorptive capacity
The ability of Kenyan institutions to assimilate space technology is addressed here. A significant organisational absorptive capacity is already present in the form of higher institutions of learning – some national, regional and international organisations. Kenya has eight public and 17 private universities (with either full or interim charter (UWN, 2008)); consequently, there exists significant organisational capacity to assimilate space technology training and research requirements. Specialised STEM universities like Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Science and Technology, and Kenya Multimedia University are particularly poised to play a leading role in absorbing space technology training and research requirements. On the contrary, national institutions and research laboratories that cater specifically to space technology require to be established from scratch. Institutions of this calibre are conspicuously absent; hence, we address this issue deeper in Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3. Regional organisational capacity in Kenya is stalwart in the application of Earth observation data and GIS at the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) in Nairobi. The East African Community further provides the organisational capacity to facilitate regional policy and inter-governmental cooperation in space technology. The Kenya-Italy San-Marco space project collaboration is the only active inter-governmental organisational capacity in space technology. However,
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as a member of International Telecommunication Union, United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and other similar organisation, Kenya enjoys the services accorded to all signatory states. Therefore, this position broadens international organisational absorptive capacity of space technology. Considerable improvements will, hence, be required in Kenya’s organisational absorptive capacity in general. c
Societal absorptive capacity
Societal encompasses the political, legal and governance framework in the Kenyan society. As a republic with three independent arms of government – executive, judiciary and parliament – Kenya has the necessary societal capacity to facilitate the establishment of a space sector. Moreover, with elections held every five years and the ongoing constitutional reforms serve to strengthen this capacity. Kenyan embassies existing in potential space technology collaboration partners like USA, ESA countries, India, China and Russia further enhance Kenya’s societal absorptive capacity.
4.4 A road map for Kenya In this section, we detail the process of establishing a space sector in Kenya. We outline the proposed space sector constituent elements and their objectives, phase-by-phase targets, technology transfer mechanisms and priority areas among the other characteristics concerned.
4.4.1 Technology capability evolution The proposed Kenyan space sector is envisioned to transcend the space technology pyramid according to the phase-by-phase progression shown in Figure 3. The progression plan outlines the main activities per stage and characterises a path of steady progression from infancy to maturity as the sector grows from ‘User’ to ‘Manned Spaceflight’ capability. As Kenya embraces space technology for development from scratch, there will be a construction period characterised by heavy resource investment and exploitation period when the country experiences benefits of space technology for development. •
Phases 1 and 2
The necessary legal and political enabling environment is laid-out during these infancy phases. In Phase 1, the government and all other stakeholders will formulate relevant policy and enact the appropriate laws and legal framework to guide the space sector. Further, the space sector objectives, measures of performance and key performance indicators are articulated here. Organisation of the space sector is planned in Phase 2, resulting in a space sector organisational framework (see Figure 4). Furthermore, immediate and long-term focus areas are also identified at this stage. The technology level in these phases is still at ‘User’ level and would take up to 6 months to accomplish the tasks. •
Phases 3 and 4
In Phase 3, Kenya would commence the establishing of a space sector by starting to build capacity in priority areas based on the conceived organisational framework (see Figure 4). Capacity development should cover human, organisational and societal
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capacities. Identification and engagement of all possible technology transfer collaboration partners should begin in this phase. In Phase 4, deeper capacity expansion would be pursued and should include milestones such as achieving domestic sounding rocket capability and launch of Kenya’s first experimental satellite by a collaborating partner and or domestic technology included in satellites launched by the collaborating partner(s). The technology level in Phase 3 is still primarily at ‘User’ level, while in Phase 4 is at ‘Operator’ level. Childhood phases would take between 5–10 years. •
Phases 5 and 6
In the Adolescence phases, Kenya would possess the basic support industry infrastructure in place and hence be capable of independently designing and fabricating space technology parts and subsystems. As technological capability grows, the domestic sector would have the means to design, fabricate, integrate and test complete space systems. These phases would take between 5 and 25 years and the technology capability will be at the ‘Manufacturers’ level. •
Phases 7 and 8
The Maturity phases imply a stage when Kenya is on the frontline of space technology. These phases provide an opportunity for Kenya to become a leader in a given space technology niche that it would have identified during the technology growth stages. Kenya should achieve launch capability here, then later venture into moon, inter-planetary and deep space exploration missions, and pursue manned spaceflight. This stage could be achieved within 30 years after domestic space technology inception. The outlined phases are not explicitly contiguous; there is a diffusion of technology capabilities between the adjacent phases. The phase-by-phase evolution does not imply prior acquisition of 100% technology competence before advancing to a subsequent phase. Figure 3
Proposed Kenya space sector phase-by-phase evolution and technological capability growth
4.4.2 Organisational framework and elements delineation We propose the organisational structure in Figure 4 for the Kenya space sector. This is an initial framework bound to evolve as the space sector matures. We describe here the fundamental functions of stakeholders included in the framework. The government is represented in the framework by the highest administrative authority in the country. This is either the president or prime minister. This entity represents the interests of all Kenyans and its main function is to provide financial capital investment, regulation and policy framework within the space sector.
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The Space Commission will be a team of eminent scientists and planners that facilitate policy formulation and identify most of the priority application areas for space development. The Autonomous Department of Space would oversee the implementation of space technology applications within the framework by directing activities of the main space technology implementing national institutions below it. Also, it would coordinate activities with other government agencies. Figure 4
Proposed Kenya space sector organisational framework
The national space technology implementing agencies are structured according to the main developmental areas of space applications. They include National Remote Sensing Agency whose main function is to undertake all remote sensing activities ranging from acquisition and processing of remote sensing data, GIS data distribution, and Earth observation payload development. The National Meteorology Agency is the equivalent of the present Kenya Meteorology Department but with a self-proficiency to develop and operate space-borne weather observation platforms. The National Space Education Council facilitates and coordinates space education in the country. It would work with higher education institutions to introduce space technology subjects in the university curriculum, first at bachelor’s level, then masters and PhD programs would follow. Further, the National Space Education Council would oversee the establishment of a National Space University modelled along the lines of International Space University and SUPAERO in France. This will be a graduate school specialising in space technology research, space policy and law, and space technology management.
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The proposed Kenya National Space Agency would be the main technical driving force of the Kenyan space program. It will spearhead research, innovation and implementation of space technology for development. To carry out its functions effectively, the agency’s organisation must ensure intellectual autonomy, provide a conducive environment for innovation and build performance-oriented systems. The National Space Agency will have headquarters to oversee its core technological activities implemented in centres segmented according to their main areas of space technology concentration. We propose the agency to initially establish five national research and development centres plus an educational and outreach office. The centres are •
Launch Vehicles and Propulsion Centre that will focus on the development of launch capability, space propulsion and space transportation systems.
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Space Systems Technology Centre shall carry out research and development in spacecraft systems engineering, space information networks, ground control and related systems.
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Master Ground Operations Centre will conduct mission planning, ground operations, and Launch and Early Orbit Phase (LEOP) activities. This centre will further operate and maintain the necessary ground segment infrastructure including Telemetry Tracking and Command (TT&C) network.
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Earth Observation Science Centre will manage and operate Kenya’s scientific Earth Observation satellites, which is an important field, meant to help us understand our planet. This centre’s activities include conducting research and development in Earth science observation technology and instruments.
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The Space Science Centre is responsible for conducting exploration of the solar system and deep space, astronomy and planetary science. This centre will conduct research on the origins of the universe and formation of the solar system using instruments on the ground and in space.
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Education and Outreach Office will provide a means of creating awareness of the space agency’s work among the public.
Moreover, this office will reach out to students in the education system at all levels to motivate them to pursue space careers. Another task will be to coordinate internship programs and oversee visiting researchers and scholars from academia programs on behalf of the agency. Representatives of this office will be found at every laboratory centre.
4.4.3 Priority areas Kenya’s priority should be to build a competent domestic human capacity. This will necessitate introduction of aerospace, aeronautics and astronautics programs in all the universities with engineering programs. Further, space and earth science programs will have to be strengthened or established as well. A specialised space studies graduate level college needs to be set up. These initiatives are best carried out in partnership with universities worldwide that have had a strong legacy in the targeted fields. Similarly, the space agency’s priority will be to develop launch and Earth observation capabilities.
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Earth observation missions carry remote sensing payload instruments that have a wide range of applications to meet development needs like meteorology, cartography, disaster response and so on as outlined in Table 1. Technology transfer partners are most likely to be other space agencies like NASA, ESA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Indian Space Research Organisation and institutions like America Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA); international organisations – International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research; and leading universities and research laboratories
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Conclusion
As stated by Steenhuis et al. (2007), technology transfer is a socio-technical process implying the transfer of cultural skills accompanying the movement of machinery, equipment and tools. As Kenya builds capacity in space technology, it is important to encompass this holistic paradigm of technology transfer. Though technology can be transferred either through ‘catch-up’ or ‘leapfrogging’ mechanisms (the latter involves skipping some intermediate technology developmental stages), Kenya should pursue ‘leapfrogging’ in space technology transfer. This approach encourages domestic innovation and expedites the path to technology frontline. Proliferation of locally developed software applications in the domestic mobile phone and ICT sectors is a good example where technology leapfrogging is already happening. Steady growth is vital. Initially, the specialised centres of the National Space Agency can start as departments under the same roof, then, relocate elsewhere as full centres as they mature. To ensure equitable employment distribution and national education stimulation, it is important for the centres to be spread all over the country and not just clustered around Nairobi. For example, the San-Marco launch site in Malindi can host the Launch Vehicles and Propulsion Centre due to its legacy, whereas Masinde Muliro University can be the nucleus for space systems research. The Kenyan space sector must be innovative and entrepreneurial in meeting developmental goals by identifying niche areas in the global space sector to exploit. Particularly of interest is the commercial space tourism that offers opportunities such as hosting of spaceports. As indicated earlier, the current information wave of space development augurs well with the entrepreneurial notion. Nimble, lean and innovative space sectors will exploit opportunities more efficiently than the traditional, ungainly and overly regulated agencies with armies of workers on the ground. Evidently, it would not be prudent for Kenya to pursue this entire quest alone. Kenya should bring on board other countries in the East African Community in areas that would be of mutual benefit. Most of the space applications for development can be seamlessly scaled to neighbouring countries and those outside the region. Kenya should, hence, spearhead regional cooperation in using space for development through vehicles such as a regional or continent-wide meteorological agency, strengthening RCMRD functions and capability to enable it operate space-borne Earth observation platforms, data distribution networks and in-house value-adding services. In addition, by establishing space technology capacity development, educational and R&D infrastructure as proposed here, Kenya will become a leading centre for space technology training within the region and beyond.
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Unequivocally, space technology will expedite government efforts to develop the country into a newly industrialising country by 2030. A domestic space sector generates a multiplicative development effect and enables making Kenya ‘customise’ space applications for its own consumption. Such a position is preferable to the current one where Kenya is a mere ad hoc user of space technology products and services conceived elsewhere without any significant capacity to influence the source.
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