new profession. Of course, the profession of social work must be viewed in ..... izuÄavanju zanata u Karlovcu (How do trade school pupils learn ing their trade in ...
ETHNICITY IN EASTERN EUROPE A CHALLENGE FOR SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
DARJA ZAVlSEK, JELKA ZORN, LILJANA RIHTER, SIMONA Z. DEMSAR EDITORS
Title of the book/Naslov knjige Ethnicity in Eastern Europe: A Challenge for Social Work Education Editors/Urednice Darja Zaviršek, Jelka Zorn, Uljana Rihter, Simona Žnidarec Demšar Proof reader/Lektoriral Michael C. Jumič Book series/Naslov knjižne zbirke Anti-racist Social Work Photographs on the book cover/Fotografiji na naslovnici Lay out/Oblikovanje in postavitev Dražena Perić Published by/Založila Fakulteta za socialno delo Print/Tisk: Formatisk Ljubljana 2007
IASSW-AIETS
CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 364(4-014) ETHNICITY in Eastern E urope: a challenge for social work education I Darja Zaviršek... [et al.j editors. - Ljubljana: Fakulteta za socialno delo, 2007. - (Book series Anti-racist social work) ISBN 978-961-6569-09-5 1. Zaviršek, Darja 233155072
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Marina Ajdukovic, Vanja Branica and Lucija Vejmelka
The Male and/or Female Beginnings of Social Work Education in Croatia: An Analysis of Graduation Theses Topics
Introduction Social work education was introduced in Croatia in 1952 through a two-year study program offered at the School of Social Work. The first generation was enrolled in the 1952/1953 aca demic year and contained 34 students. Classes began in March 1953. In the fall of 1953, the second class, also containing 34 students, was enrolled. There were more men (19) than women (15) in the first generation. The first graduation theses were pub lished in 1955.1 Sources dealing with social work as a profession and with social work education in this period are rather scarce. They include curricula, some professional literature, narratives o f the first generations of students and graduated social workers (Ajdukovic, Kljaic 2006), analyses of documents of institutions where the first social workers were employed, etc. One way to learn about the profession of social work at the time is to look at which issues were considered crucial for social work in this initial period. This can be done by analyzing the topics of graduation theses. It can be assumed that the selection of topics for graduation theses was influenced by two sets of circumstances - the professional interests of advisers and the general social con sensus about major social problems, socially appropriate methods for dealing with such problems, and the public perception of this 1
A list of students and graduates, as well as the program curriculum, is presented in a monography published on the occasion the 50th anniversary of the Social Work Study Program in Zagreb. Ajdukovic, M. (ed.) (2002). 50 godina Studija za socijalni rad: 1952-2002. Zagreb: Social Work Study Center, Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb.
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new profession. O f course, the profession o f social work must be viewed in context. In this case, one must bear in mind that the establishment of the School of Social Work in Zagreb, and later in Ljubljana, Slovenia and other Republics o f the Socialist Federative Republic o f Yugoslavia, took place under unique social, political, and ideo logical circumstances. Although administrative socialism was being abandoned at the time (Puljiz 2006), the authorities’ need to promote socialism was still very strong. According to Puljiz (2006: 18, 22): At the very beginning, the socialist authorities tried to first, strengthen the new order by controlling basic production assets and main economic resources; second, solve acute social prob lems caused by the war, especially the problems of fighters in the National Liberation War and victims of fascism, and establish basic social welfare systems for workers and public officials; and third, push for the rapid modernization and industrial develop ment of the country by attempting to open up new possibilities for the poor, decrease agrarian overpopulation, and improve the living conditions of the rural population, which was the largest and poorest social stratum. However, given that the socialist authorities were promoting the egalitarian values of a classless society, their ideological dogma compelled them to take into con sideration the aspirations of the working class (on whose behalf they were in power) for a better life. This meant that they had to improve the living standard and social security of the poor work ing class. In short, professional work began to be more highly valued, and the bureaucratic and voluntary approach to social problems declined. In addition to representing the working class and improving living conditions, other values, such as the idea of gender equal ity (Zavirsek 2006) and the idea o f brotherhood and unity among different nations and ethnic groups, were also present. These values, together with the governing structure’s wish to protect the socially endangered strata of society and deal with social problems in a comprehensive manner, and in line with the abandonment of the view that social problems would disappear with the development of socialism, formed the preconditions for the development of a comprehensive system of social welfare
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237
which would distinguish Yugoslavia from other socialist countries. They also sparked the development of social work education in the republics o f the former Yugoslavia in the 1950s. The first school for social work was founded in Zagreb. Later, schools were estab lished in Slovenia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedo nia (Zavirsek 2006). The school for social work in Croatia was founded by prominent figures like Eugen Pusic, Valerija Singer and Tatjana Marinic who had visited foreign countries through the UN exchange program and gained valuable experience, which they later used in the creation of the curriculum (Ajdukovic 2002; Puljiz 2006). The values and knowledge that the teachers at the school for social work imparted to their students laid the groundwork for the further development of the profession. Over time, this set of values and knowledge was modified, supplemented, and developed. Although the establishment o f social work education is considered a turning point in the development of the social work profession in Croatia, recent research has shown that social work in fact has a much longer history, one which begins with the activities of civil society and other organizations, which are considered the predecessors o f social work (Prlenda 2005; Ajdukovic, Branica 2006). Nevertheless, the development of social work education marks its institutionalization, and is an unmistakable sign of the existence of social work as a profession. By transferring the values they had learned in class to the workplace, the first educated social workers set out on the long journey to establish this new profession in Croatia.
Research Methodology The following study considers the particularities of the devel opment of social work education in the 1950s in Croatia, as well as the development of social work as a “female” profession in the late 19th and early 20th century in the socio-political context of capitalism. The goal of this study is to determine to what extent the theses of the first graduates maintain the described situation in Croatia and concur with the traditional development of social
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work as a female profession in Europe and North America. This is all the more interesting because women played a key role in the establishment of the School of Social Work. Professor Eugen Pusic, a member of the Croatian Academy of Arts and Sciences, described the establishment o f the school as follows (2004: 146): The situation after the Second World War in Croatia was a result of a combination of general policy and particularly favorable circumstances. Croatia had a very strong tradition in all three areas: law, pedagogy, and medicine, and had a fine tradition of voluntary charity organizations. There was sufficient knowledge and determination to continue on this journey. But something unique to Croatia, something that others did not have, was perhaps of crucial importance - a group of social activists who participated in the national liberation movement and the National Liberation War. I am referring to women such as Tatjana Marinic, Jana Koh and Valerija Singer. These Partisan women, who later came to Zagreb and worked on social policy, wielded authority even over the Party. Only in this way was it possible to overcome the regime’s strong opposition to the idea of educating social workers. This must be made clear. The authorities worked on the assumption that the destiny of the people can be shaped only by sweeping social changes. Means of production and production technology develop and clash with relations of production. Relations of productions are abolished in revolutions, and new relations of production come about and solve all problems. The individual approach was considered wrong; it was considered an indication of civic individualism. If capitalism is abolished and socialism is introduced, then there are no social problems. This opposition to the education of social workers could hardly be overcome by anybody else but us, in Croatia, primarily because of the Partisan women who were active in this field. Taking this into account, our research focused on the following: 1. Determining whether any differences in topics of graduation theses can be traced to the gender o f the authors. Were there “female” and “male” research topics? 2. To determine the extent to which topics directly connected with the socialist system are present in the graduation theses. 3. To determine the extent to which the issue of ethnicity is addressed in the graduation theses. We conducted a content analysis of the titles of graduation theses written in the first five years o f the program (1955 to 1960). There were 171 graduates during this period, 99 men and 72
THE MALE A N D / O R FEMALE B E G G I N I N G S OF SOCIAL W OR K EDUCATION.
239
women; the gender make-up of the first classes was quite different than today. The analysis encompassed all graduation theses of the first five classes. Analysis criteria suited to the objectives of the research were constructed. The topics o f the graduation theses can be divided into two general fields: social work and social policy. There are a number of thematic subcategories within each field. The field of social work includes more subcategories than the field of social policy. Students wrote more theses dealing with social work, and fewer theses dealing with social policy (Table 1). If we compare the fields and subcategories with the curricula from the academic years 1952/53 to 1960/61, it is evident that most categories can be connected with courses that the students attended. The curricula in different academic years vary in terms of the number of courses and the titles of particular courses, but there do not seem to be any essential differences. A greater number o f courses deal with social work and the methodology of social work than with social policy. At the time, social policy was not a separate course, but was incorporated into courses such as Social Welfare and Working Relations and The History o f Social Services. Courses directly connected with social work dealt with particular social problems and user groups, such as Children and Youth, In valids,, and The Elderly. In addition to these courses, the curricula contained courses pertaining to legislation and other fields (psy chology, sociology, pedagogy, social medicine). If we examine the topics that students opted for most frequent ly, we see that Social Policy in General is the largest subcategory. The term reflects the diversity of thesis titles; today all these the ses would fall under the heading o f social policy. A closer look at the curriculum, however, makes it clear that the theses were connected with courses dealing with social problems and the structure and functioning of the social welfare system. Two other topics frequently appear: Child Welfare and Persons with Special Needs. Each o f these two topics is associated with a particular course. In the curricula of the 1956/57 to 1960/61, the subtopic persons with special needs was covered in two courses: Social
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Protection and Rehabilitation o f the Mentally Disabled and So cial Protection o f War Invalids, Victims o f Fascist Terror and the Families o f Functionaries.
Analysis of the Topics of Graduation Theses with Regard to the Authors’ Gender Data on the number of enrolled students show that professional social work attracted both women and men. Nevertheless, an analysis of interviews with representatives of the first graduating classes of social workers (Ajdukovic, Kljajic 2006) showed that the key reasons for choosing this profession were somewhat different than today. Interviews with students of social work from this period showed that scholarships awarded to students of social work, as well as the possibility o f residing at the School of Social Work, were significant factors for both men and women. On the other hand, female students mentioned that they had chosen to study social work in order to help others and work with people more frequently than male students. This is clear in the following statements (Ajdukovic, Kljajic 2006: 131, 181,182): I was trying to decide between agronomy and social work. I am really interested in nature and I love animals, but the circum stances in my family were difficult, and my father directed me towards the field in which I could start working sooner. However, the main reason for social work was my love for humanity (Mileva Arbutina). My social background was the deciding factor, because I could not study anything else since I did not have a scholarship. My parents could barely feed their five children. I wanted to study mathematics. The Ministry was awarding 2200 dinars for social work, and this was a good decision, because you would have a profession after that... I enrolled because I could not study what I wanted, and it was like this with many people in my generation. We enrolled because we were poor, and with social work you could both live and study, and the professors would transmit the spirit of taking care of the poor (Ivan Hrzic). If we look at the thematic subcategories of graduation theses with regard to the authors’ gender, we can see that an equal number of men and women wrote about social work. On the other hand, men wrote more frequently about topics pertaining to social policy.
T H E MALE A N D / O R FE M AL E B E G G I N I N G S OF S O C I A L W O R K E D U C A T I O N . . .
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Within the category of social work, men and women generally opted for different subcategories. Women more frequently select ed topics concerning child welfare and casework. Men tended to write about socio-pathological phenomena, such as delinquency and alcoholism. Two topics can be called male topics, because women did not write about them at all: social medicine and lei sure. Men and women exhibited an equal interest in topics which deal with persons with special needs and the elderly. Men wrote about social policy more frequently than women, focusing on family policy, social security, and demography, which was not the topic of any graduation theses written by women.
Table 1. Particular graduation theses topics with regard to the authors sex
SOCIAL POLICY
SOCIAL W O R K -FIE LD S TOPICS
M
F
X
TOPICS
M
F
X
CHILD WELFARE
9
17
26
SOCIAL POLICY IN GENERAL
23
14
37
PERSONS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
11
11
22
FAMILY POLICY
7
3
10
GERONTOLOGY/THE ELDERLY
6
5
11
SOCIAL SECURITY
8
3
11
DELINQUENCY
7
3
10
DEMOGRAPHY
5
5
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
3
1
4
MARGINAL GROUPS
1
1
SOCIAL MEDICINE
7
7
LEISURE
6
6
CASEWORK METHODOLOGY
2
11
13
SPECIFIC AREAS
3
4
7
RESEARCH
1
1
I
54
52
106
I
45
20
65
- the most frequent topics o f graduation theses are marked in gray - the topics that women did not write about are marked in light dark gray
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We also wanted to find out if any social problems were more closely connected with a particular gender. On the basis of our analysis, we can conclude that graduation thesis topics are not gender sensitive. Out of a total of 171 graduation theses, eight dealt with women’s issues. These mostly dealt with working women (Appendix 1). In the titles of graduation theses dealing with particular social problems, the category of social welfare users was usually writ ten using a gender-neutral plural which does not reveal whether these theses dealt with men or women. For instance: Demografs ka i ekonomska analiza staraca smještenih u domu (Demographic and economic analysis of the elderly living in homes) or Kako sprovode slobodno vrijeme učenici u privredi koji se nalaze na izučavanju zanata u Karlovcu (How do trade school pupils learn ing their trade in Karlovac spend their leisure time).2 In 8 cases, the title reveals that a thesis dealt with a particular social problem among men or women. Most of these theses (5) were on delinquency. Four o f them dealt with delinquency among men and one with delinquency among women. Two dealt with the issue of alcoholism among men (Appendix 2). This clearly shows that there are no indications of gender sen sitivity with regard to some typical women’s issues of the period, such as the exposure of women to domestic violence or balancing work and family. Such a lack o f gender sensitivity can also be seen in the use of the male grammatical gender when addressing particular problems, user groups, etc.
The Analysis of Topics on the Socialist System The titles o f the graduation theses were analyzed according to two criteria: a) connection with the socialist political system and b) connection with the war. The analysis of the titles in the first five years of the social work study program (N=T71) shows that there were more gradu ation theses dealing with the socialist system in general (23, or 2
The two plurals are: starci (“old persons”) and učenici (“pupils”). They may refer to both males and females.
THE MALE A N D/ O R FEMALE B E G G IN IN G S OF SOCIAL WO RK EDUCATION.
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13.45%) than with the war (13 or 7.6%). Even fewer theses reveal a clear connection to the socialist po litical system in their titles (6). Those that do primarily deal with social management. Table 2. Topics o f graduation theses dealing with the socialist system. Graduation theses written by men are marked in gray and graduation theses written by women in white. S tudent
G raduation date
G raduation th e s is to p ic
Latas Đorđe
September 25,1956
Elementi popuiacione politike SFRJ (Elements of the population policy of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia)
Rajman Ivan
December 30,1957
Društveno upravljanje socijalnim ustanovama (Social management of social institutions)
N o v e m b e r1 1 ,1958
Društveno upravljanje u socijalnom osiguranju za grad Zagreb (Social m anagem ent in the social security in the city of Zagreb)
December 22,1958
Uloga narodnog odbora kotara Virovitice u poslovima socijalne zaštite (The role of the national committee of the district of Virovitica in social welfare)
November 12,1959
Društveno upravljanje u soc. ustanovama Zagreba (Social management in the social institutions in Zagreb)
November 18,1959
Socijalna politika i socijalna zaštita kroz program SKJ (Social policy and social welfare through the program of the The League of Communists of Yugoslavia)
ilar CeranDulibić Marija
(5) )ng the >eniod, ing be ing
243
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Interestingly, however, some graduation theses (12) do in fact seem to be indirectly connected with the socialist system. The titles of these theses show that they deal with the influence of a particular company (founded under socialism and in accordance with the socialist economic dogma) on the community where it was founded and on the occurrence and solution of a particular social problem.
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Table 3. Topics o f graduation theses dealing with the socialist system - companies. Graduation theses written by men are marked in gray and graduation theses written by women in white. S tu d e n t
G raduation date
Čavec Vladim ir
October 6, 1956
Švarcer Ksenija
October 13, 1956
Pospihalj Mirko
March 18, 1958 ■
Analiza nekih socijalnih faktora radništva Tvornice šibica "Drava” Osijek (An analysis of some social factors of the laborers at the Drava Match Factory in Osijek)
C ukrovA nte
December 9, 1958
Analiza ozljeda na radu u brodogradilištu “3.maj” Rijeka (Analysis of industrial accidents in the 3. maj shipyard in Rijeka)
Mekić Nusret
October 21, 1958
Seljaci-industrijski radnici (u tvornici “Đ.Đaković” u Slav.Brodu) (Peasants - factory laborers (in the Đ. Đaković factory in Slavonski Brod))
G raduation th e s is to p ic Žene u Varaždinskoj industriji svile (Women in the Varaždin Silk Factory) .................... ..................... “Dalmatinka”kao ekonomski, socijalni i društveni faktor u području Sinjske krajine (Dalmatinka as an economic, community and social factor in the area of Sinjska krajina)
Milihram Franjo
October 30, 1958
Provedba socijalnog osiguranja u poduzeću “Varteks”Varaždin s posebnim osvrtom na socijalni rad u poduzeću (Social security in the Varteks factory in Varaždin, with special emphasis on social work in the factory)
Mikić Dušan
November 23, 1958
Seljaci radnici u “Jugomontu" (Peasant laborers at Jugomont)
March 10, 1959
Analiza problema radnica s umanjenom radnom sposobnosti u tvornici “Josip Kraš” (Analysis of problems of female laborers with diminished working capacity at the Josip Kraš factory)
June 9 ,19 5 9
Potreba organiziranja društvene prehrane u Novoj industriji Vrbovsko (The need to organize a mess at the Nova Industrija Vrbovsko factory)
Ćulić Stevan
December 15, 1959
Sindikalna podružnica tvornice keksa i kruha “Sloboda” kao faktor u rješavanju socijalnih problema u kolektivu (The Union branch of the biscuit and bread factory Sloboda as a factor in solving social problems in the collective)
Dujaković Nikola
November 4, 1959
Neki problemi radnika poluseljaka Tvornice vijaka Knin (Some problems of laborers-peasants in the Knin Screw Factory)
Radotović Tomislav
October 16, 1959
Neki problemi samohranih majki trikotaže “Biser” u Bjelovaru (Some problems of single mothers in the Biser Knitwear Factory in Bjelovar)
■
Hečimović Kaja
Vučinić Radovan
,
TH E MALE A N D / O R FE M AL E B E G G I N I N G S OF S O C I AL W O R K E D U C A T I O N .
mies. leses
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Theses which do not explicitly mention the socialist system, but deal with a particular phenomenon (primarily leisure) of a particular social stratum (laborers and the rural population) can also be found. Such a division clearly reflects one of the dominant values of socialism. Examples of such topics are given in Table 4.
ie
an a of
ce al yin
Table 4. Topics o f graduation theses dealing with a particular social stratum. Graduation theses written by men are marked in gray and graduation theses written by women in white.
Graduation date
Graduation thesis topic
March 22, 1955
Kako se koristi slobodno vrijeme u radničkoj obitelji (How is leisure time spent in a laborer’s family?)
Orban Miroslav
March 22,1955
Kako se u porodici službenika koristi slobodno vrijeme (How is leisure time spent in a clerk’s family?)
Požega Branko
March 22,1955
Kako provode slobodno vrijeme oni koji privređuju (How do family providers spend their leisure time?)
Despi Vladislav
March 22,1955
Kako porodica provodi slobodno vrijeme (zemljoradnici, zanatlije, penzioneri i studenti) (How does a family spend its leisure time (farmers, artisans, oid-age pensioners and students)?)
Ferega Zora
December 5, 1955
Kako naši radni ljudi provode svoju starost (What do our working people do in their old age?)
Student
G ašparić Ivan
paj
ÜT Đ.
i rad yin i the at
■n if
