Ethnobiological survey of traditional medicine practice

Topclass Journal of Herbal Medicine Vol. 2(6) pp. 140-148, 26 June, 2013 Available online at http://www.topclassglobaljournals.org ISSN 2315-8840 ©2013 Topclass Global Journals

Submitted 7/06/13

Accepted 19/06/13

Full Length Research Article

Ethnobiological survey of traditional medicine practice for Men’s reproductive health in Oyo State, Nigeria *Borokini T.I, Clement M, Dickson N.J and Edagbo D.E Plant Genetic Resources Unit, National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB), Ibadan, Nigeria ******************************************************************************************************************************* ABSTRACT A comprehensive survey of traditional medicinal practices was carried out between November 2008 and January 2012 in 16 different locations across the State, with the aim of documenting the traditional medicinal practices. This article focuses on the traditional medicinal practices used for the treatment of men’s reproductive issues, sexually transmitted infections and baldness in men. Semi-structured questionnaires and open-ended informal interviews were administered during series of repeated visits to a total of 31 respondents. A total of 33 herbal remedies for the treatment of 7 men’s reproductive problems and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), which include syphilis, low sperm count, weak penile erection, gonorrhea, remedy for thunderbolt, prevention of STDs during intercourse as well as baldness; however, 18 of the 33 described remedies were for men’s weak penile erection and low sperm count. In addition, 37 plants, 3 animal parts (dog, centipede and snail) and 7 other ingredients were involved in the herbal remedies described. The mode of administration of the herbal treatments varied from oral administration (drinking, chewing and eating), making incisions to topical application; while the method of preparation varied widely. In addition, the 37 plants spread across 23 plant families, with Cucurbitaceae having the highest number of species representatives, followed by Caesalpiniaceae and Liliaceae. The role of indigenous knowledge in the medicinal practices for the treatment of skin infections was observed in this study and the preservation of these indigenous knowledge is hereby advocated. Key words: Infertility, syphilis, gonorrhea, baldness, traditional medicinal practices, Oyo state, Nigeria *******************************************************************************************************************************

INTRODUCTION Infertility is a worldwide problem, affecting 8-15% of the couples in their reproductive age (Boivin et al., 2009; Audu et al., 2003; Puscheck and Woodad, 2009). Between 8 and 12% of couples around the world have difficulty conceiving a child at some point in their lives, and in some areas that figure reaches one-third or more of couples (Sciarra 1994; WHO, 1991). However, the incidence varies from one region of the world to the other, being highest in the so-called infertility belt of Africa, of which Nigeria is inclusive (Okonofua, 2003). In some parts of this belt, infertility is said to constitute up to 65% of gynaecological consultations (Idrisa, 2005).

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Borokini et al, 2013e.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.141

Concern about low sperm counts was raised dramatically in 1992 with publication of a meta-analysis of published studies for sperm counts in men without fertility problems that had been reported over the preceding about 50 years (Carlsen et al., 1992). This showed that average sperm counts had fallen by approximately half in this time period. This finding, which has been reinforced by further analysis of even more studies (Swan et al., 2000). Infertility is a common problem with 10–15% of couples having difficulty conceiving. Previous studies have documented a prevalence of about 40–50% in African society (Ladipo, 1987; Anate, 1991; Chukwudebelu et al., 1979), 29% in Bangladesh (Chowdhury et al., 1981), 23% in Singapore (Ratnam et al., 1976), while a study on 1000 infertile couples in the USA recorded 30% infertile men. The fact, however, is that the issue of infertility and decreasing birth rate is widespread. In the developing world, the average woman is reported now to have 3.9 babies over a lifetime compared with 5.9 in the 1970s. Infertility seems to be on the increase in Nigeria. The prevalence rates of male infertility in Nigeria are high, ranging from 20-25% (Anate and Akeredolu, 1994; Nwabuisi and Onile, 2001; Akande, 1987; Ajarbo et al., 1981; Kuku et al., 1974; Awojobi et al., 1983). Institution based incidence of infertility recently reported from some parts of Nigeria are: 4.0%, 11.2% and 48.1% respectively from llorin (North central), Abakaliki (south-east) and Oshogbo (South west) (Abiodun et al., 2007; Umeora et al., 2008; Adeyemi et al., 2009). Owolabi et al. (2013) noted a high rate of abnormal semen quality of male partners of infertile couples in Ile-Ife, Osun State. The most comprehensive study of infertility-a WHO study of 5,800 infertile couples seeking help at 33 medical centers in 22 developed and developing countries-found that men were either the sole cause or a contributing factor to infertility in more than half of couples. Overall, the studies found that female causes accounted for between 25-37% of infertility worldwide (with larger proportions in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia), male causes accounted for between 822%, and both male and female causes accounted for between 21-38% (Cates et al., 1985). In Nigeria, infertility is a social stigma for the childless couple. Traditional attitudes and cultural practices in Nigeria esteem high fertility and large families even in modern times (Ekwere et al., 2007). For the man, children bring social status and proof of virility, an attitude that boosts the male ego. The infertile man has a deflated sense of self-worth and self-fulfillment (Ekwere et al., 2007). Infertility affects both men and women. Yet women, particularly in developing countries may bear the sole blame for childless marriages; in many areas infertility is a socially acceptable basis for divorce by the husband (Singh, 1996; Leke et al., 1993; Yeboah et al., 1992). In some developing countries, for example Nigeria, infertility is the leading reason for gynecological

consultations (Okonofua, 1996). Where infertility is widespread, couples seeking help can place a heavy burden on limited health care resources. Consultations and gynaecological treatments are very expensive in Nigeria, coupled with the fact that the ratio of Nigerians to physicians was 1:16,400, while the ratio of traditional healers was 1:110 (African Health Monitor, 2003). Therefore, traditional medicine seems to be a cheaper and easily accessible alternative for infertile couples. And in response, traditional medicine practitioners have responded to frequent demands for herbal drugs for treating series of reproductive issues in men and women. All forms of media, both print and audiovisual are being used frequently for making repeated advertisements on drugs for treating weak penile erection, loss of libido, low sperm count and to boost sexual energy in men in Nigeria. As a result of the constantly increasing demand for herbal remedies for the treatment of male impotence and other related reproductive diseases, there is the need for the documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge of the medicinal plants and their use for treating men’s reproductive problems. This comprehensive ethno-biological study was carried out to document traditional medicinal practices in Oyo State. This article, focusing on the traditional medicinal remedies for men’s reproductive problems, is part of the findings from the general ethnobiological survey done in Oyo State. METHODOLOGY Study Area Oyo state was established in 1976 from the defunct Western Region, with the total estimated population of 6,617,720 people (National Bureau of Statistics, 2007) 2 mainly Yoruba people. The land area is 28,454km . The indigenes are mainly Oyo, Ibadan, Oke-Ogun and Ibarapa peoples, and notable cities include Ibadan (the State capital), Oyo, Ogbomosho, Saki, Okeho, Iseyin, Kishi, Eruwa and many others. The state is divided into thirty-three Local Government areas. Greater parts of the state fall within Guinea savanna, while Ibadan is classified as a derived savannah. The southern fringes of the state are still being dominated by tracts of rainforests. Oyo state is located in Southwest region of Nigeria (Figures 1 and 2) between latitude 8˚00 N and longitude 4˚00 E. The main indigenous occupation of the people is farming, while arts and crafts are popular in Oyo town. The areas visited during this study include Saki (Saki West LGA), Sepeteri (Saki East LGA), Apata (Ido LGA), Oyo (Atiba LGA), Ikoyi (Orire LGA), Ayetoro (Kajola LGA), Karimu village, Abule Tapa (Iwajowa LGA), IdiAyunre, Buso-gboro (Oluyole), Iseyin (Iseyin LGA), Fiditi (Afijio LGA), Ebedi and Modeke (Oorelope LGA), Ayepe


Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing Oyo State

Figure 2. Map of Oyo State, Nigeria

(Oriire LGA), Bode (Ibadan South East LGA) and Idere (Ibarapa Central LGA). Ethnobiological Survey The main data sources consisted of a series of semistructured and open-ended questionnaires as well as

informal interviews administered on local herb sellers, hunters, herbalists and other groups of people rich in traditional medicine knowledge. The administration of questionnaires and informal interviews were done for three years, between November 2008 and January 2012. This involved repeated visits to the selected respondents in the areas visited. The questionnaire administration and interviews were done in their native language (Yoruba


Table 1. Demographic data of the respondents on the traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N 1

2

3

4

Demographic information Gender Male Female Age category (years) Below 30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Above 70 Highest level of education No formal Primary Secondary Diploma Degree Main Occupation Hunter Civil servant/retired Herb seller Herb collector Herbalist/Priest/Priestess

language), while the information gathered was sorted, the local names of plants mentioned were interpreted to their respective biological names using the publication by Gbile and Soladoye (2002) and other relevant previously published research papers.

Frequency (n=31)

Percentage

13 18

41.9 58.1

0 0 21 5 2 3

0 0 67.7 16.1 6.5 9.7

18 10 2 0 1 1 2 16 2 10

58.1 32.3 6.4 0 3.2

3.2 6.4 51.6 6.4 32.3

secondary school leavers (Table 1). Furthermore all, except the retired civil servant, claimed that they inherited their vocation from their parents, and possibly their ethnomedicinal knowledge as well. It should be noted that all the respondents were Yoruba speaking people of Oyo state.

RESULTS Ethnobiological survey The result is a compendium of traditional medicine practice in Oyo state compiled over a period of three years, with focus on skin-related infections. Respondents’ identity Table 1 indicated that a total of 31 people were interviewed for traditional medicine practice in Oyo state, 13 of which were males while the remaining 18 were females. All the herb sellers interviewed were women and in addition, majority (21) of the respondents was within the age range of 40 and 50 (Table 1). The occupations of the respondents include a Government civil service retiree, 16 herb sellers, 10 herbalists, 2 herb collectors and a hunter (Table 1). Only 1 of the respondents was a University graduate, majority (18) were illiterates, while the rest were primary school leaver or drop-outs and

A total of 33 herbal remedies for the treatment of 7 men’s reproductive problems and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), which include syphilis, low sperm count, weak penile erection, gonorrhea, remedy for thunderbolt, prevention of STDs during intercourse as well as baldness; however, 18 of the 33 described remedies were for men’s weak penile erection and low sperm count (Table 2). In addition, 37 plants (Table 3), 3 animal parts (dog, centipede and snail) and 7 other ingredients (Table 4) were involved in the herbal remedies described. The mode of administration of the herbal treatments varied from oral administration (drinking, chewing and eating), making incisions to topical application (Table 2); while the method of preparation varied widely. The methods encountered in this study include infusion, decoction, maceration, spraying, squeezing, burning/charring, soaking (in water), grinding/pounding, drying and


Table 2. Traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of Men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N 1

Disease Prevention of STDs during intercourse

2

Men’s reproductive problems

3

Venereal diseases

4

Syphilis

Plants, parts used, preparation and dosage Grind the head of Centipede with a seed of Aframomum melegueta. Make an incision with the solution on the cap of the penis before the intercourse. Grind Irvingia gabonensis seed cotyledons and soak in water for a day. Add two spoons of honey and drink half a glass cup once daily. In addition, chew five small Daucus carota roots and one Cucumis sativus fruit a day, all for two months without intercourse to treat low sperm count Get two pieces of Allium ascalonicum bulb or more, cook with water, then squeeze the water from the Allium ascalonicum bulb into a separate container, add same quantity of honey, mix and cook for five minutes, then pour in a bottle. Take two tablespoonfuls in the morning before breakfast and at night to treat low sperm count Grind and mix young fruits of Momordica charantia with snail fluid and take it orally once a day to treat low sperm count Boil Telfairia occidentalis seeds and eat to increase sperm count Chew Griffonia simplicifolia stem like chewing stick as aphrodisiac Chew the roots of Sphenocentrum jollyanum like chewing stick every morning to treat loss of libido in men and also as an aphrodisiac Grind eight Starchtarpheta cayenensis leaves and rub the paste on Musa sapientum fruit, then roast the Musa sapientum fruit and eat it to treat impotence and low sperm count Soak the root and leaves of Senna podocarpa, Senna alata, Allium ascalonicum and potash till the next day. A glass cup of the herbal mixture is taken every morning before breakfast for three days to treat seminal discharge in men. Boil three big white Allium cepa bulbs until they are soft, squeeze the juice and filter it. Add equal quantity of honey, stir and boil again to boiling point. Store in a bottle, and take one spoonful after each meal everyday to treat weak penile erection Squeeze Sesamum indicum leaves with small water, filter it. Add a tin of milk and two spoons of pure honey. Drink this twice daily to treat weak penile erection Peel and dry mature and unripe Musa sapientum, dried leaves of Mucuna pruiriens, mix and grind together, add honey and use orally to treat weak penile erection Spray Mucuna pruriens fruit hairs on public region and scratch, to allow blood flow on the penis to treat weak penile erection Grind root of Grewia venusta and put in a bottle and add honey. Then cut a small stem of Carpolobea lutea stem and scrape it to the shape of the bottle where the mixture is, steer the mixture in the bottle with the stick and lick the remains on the stick, it hardens the penis. Boil Cola nitida root, with Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale rhizomes in water and drink to treat weak penile erection Boil Moringa oleifera flower and drink with a tin of concentrated milk, then boil 120g of powdered bark in 600ml of water for thirty minutes. Take 30ml of the mixture and one tablespoon of honey three times daily for a month to treat premature ejaculation and thinner semen Air-dry and grind the leaves of Griffonia simplicifolia into powder and add two tablespoon to pap to treat male infertility Get and squeeze good quantity of Psidium guajava leaves in a cup, add two cups of water to make three glass cup of quantity. Take one glass cup daily for three days. Then, eat sufficient Daucus carota roots and one Cucumis sativus fruit. It is expected that after five days, sperm count will increase in men. This can be repeated if necessary. Grind raw Glycine max and Arachis hypogaea seeds together into powder, add to pap and take it at once with roasted Musa sapientum fruit. Then, take many Daucus carota roots to boost sperm production. Slice Cassia alata leaves into small shreds. A spoon full with hot pap is taken early in the morning daily to treat veneral diseases Take the decoction of Lawsonia inermis root orally to treat syphilis Rough Citrus limon fruit juice and Senna alata leaf extract are mixed and taken to treat syphilis


Table 2. Contd.

5

Thunderbolt remedy

6

Gonorrhea

7

Baldness

Pound dog intestines, 200 Aframomum melegueta rhizomes, 200 red Cola nitida nuts, 200 white Cola acuminata, 200 Secamone afzelii leaves together and dry it in the sun. Use the solution to prepare waist bead and use during sexual intercourse Burn immature Cucurbita maxima seeds for twenty minutes extract the juice; add the five Citrus aurantifolia fruits cut in pieces, the Ananas comosus fruit juice and potash. Allow it for two days to ferment. Take two spoons every three days for two weeks. Take two spoons every three days for three weeks to treat gonorrhoea Boil/squeeze Senna alata leaves, add potash and drink to treat gonorrhoea Grind dried Senna alata flowers and eat with pap to treat gonorrhoea Boil bark of Terminalia catappa and drink to treat gonorrhoea Get a big and matured Citrullus lanatus fruit, remove the seeds, cut into slices and placed in Citrus aurantifolia fruit juice, till next day. Add little potash the morning of the next day. Take a glass cup before breakfast and another glass cup after dinner to treat gonorrhea Jatropha curcas and Mezoneuron benthamianum roots are soaked in water and the patient drinks a glass cup twice daily to treat gonorrhoea Burn and eat Jatropha curcas seeds to treat gonorrhea Take the decoction of Lawsonia inermis root orally twice daily to treat gonorrhoea Cut Gongronema latifolium roots into pieces and pour in a bottle, soak with water for three days. Drink half a glass cup dose twice daily for four weeks. Then soak potash, fifiteen Ampicilline capsules in soda water for a day and take one-quarter glass cup three times daily to treat gonorrhea Mix same quantity of olive oil and honey together, heat for two minutes in a pot and Cannabis sativa leaf, stir thoroughly and apply on the bald head

pulverization into powder and many other variant methods (Table 2). In addition, the 37 plants spread across 23 plant families, with Cucurbitaceae having the highest number (5) of species representatives, followed by Caesalpiniaceae (4) and Liliaceae (3). DISCUSSION This study has revealed and documented a number of herbal remedies used for the treatment of infertility in men, sexually transmitted diseases and other male related issues, such as baldness. The use of Carpolobia lutea, Musa sapientum and Terminalia catappa for the treatment of reproductive challenges in men has been previously reported by Gill (1992). Furthermore, Baljinder et al., (2010) agrees with the use of Allium sativum, Cissus quadrangularis, Cocos nucifera, Cola acuminata, Cymbopogon citratus, Garcinia kola, Piper guineense, Sesamum indicum and Zingiber officinale in the treatment of male infertility. Afolayan and Yakubu (2008) also agree with the reported use of Terminalia catapa, Musa paradisiaca and Piper guineense in the treatment of male infertility. Igoli et al., (2005) reported the use of Anthocleista djalonensis and Newbouldia laevis in the treatment of male infertility among the Igede people of Nigeria. The use of Carica papaya, Carpolobia lutea, Citrullus lanatus, Lonchocarpus cyanescens, Spondias mombin, Aframomum melegueta and Irvingia gabonensis on the treatment of male infertility has been reported by these respective authors (Kafaru, 1994; Burkill, 1985;

Yativ et al., 2010; Aiyeloja and Bello, 2006; Lawal et al., 2010). Thunderbolt is a kind of local charm men place on their wives when suspected of infidelity, and victims of such thunderbolt are expected to experience misfortunes or death. Therefore, it is interesting to note that traditional medicine has herbal preparations can induce problems, it also offers preventive and curative measures to them as well. Herbal preparation for preventing thunderbolt was also described in this study, which is not to promote sexual promiscuity, but for scientific documentation of indigenous knowledge, providing basis and foundation for further pharmaceutical research. Androgenetic alopecia (AGA), also known as common baldness, hereditary baldness and androgenic alopecia is the most common cause of hair loss in men (Sinclair, 2004). Alopecia means hair loss. The adjective androgenetic describes the two dominant causal factors, namely genetic susceptibility and androgens (Sinclair, 2004). There are no data on the number of people affected by AGA in Nigeria, but it is generally a widespread problem among men and some women as well, usually associated with age. A herbal remedy was described for the recovery of baldness in this study which the respondent defended that it was effective. Syphilis is a systemic disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum. This disease has been reported as one of the common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in Nigeria. The route of transmission is almost always sexual contact although there may be vertical transmission, transmission via blood products and via


Table 3. List of plants used for the treatment of men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N 1

Plant Name Aframomum Schum.

melegueta

(Rosc.)

K.

Family

Local/Common name

Part used

Zingiberaceae

Atare, alligator pepper

Fruit

2

Allium ascalonicum L. Backer

Liliaceae

3 4 5 6 7

Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill. Cannabis sativa Linn. Carpolobia lutea G. Don. Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f Cola acuminata Schott. & Endl. Cola nitida (Vente) Schott & Endl. Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Daucus carota L. Glycine max (L.) Merr. Gongronema latifolium Benth. Grewia venusta Fresen. Griffonia simplicifolia Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex. O’Rorke) Baill

Liliaceae Liliaceae Bromeliaceae Cannabaceae Polygalaceae

Alubosa elewe, Leafed onion, Shallot, wild onion Alubosa, onions Ayuu, garlic Ope-oyinbo, pineapple Marijuana Osunsun, cattlestick

Cucurbitaceae

Bara, water melon

Fruit

Rutaceae Rutaceae Sterculiaceae Sterculiaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae Apiaceae Papilionaceae Asclepiadaceae Tiliaceae Caesalpiniaceae

Osan wewe, Lime fruit Lemon Obi abata, Kola Obi gbanja, kola Cucumber Elegede, pumpkin Carrot Soya, soybean Madunmaro, Utazi Ogbolo, Raisin

Fruit, leaf Fruit Fruit Fruit Leaf Leaf, root Root Seed Root, leaf Root, bark stem

Irvingiaceae

Oro, bush mango

Seed

21

Jatropha curcas L.

Euphorbiaceae

22

Lawsonia inermis L. Mezoneuron benthamianum Herend. & Zarucch

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

23

(Baill.)

Lythraceae

Lapalapa funfun, physic nut Laali, Henna

Caesalpiniaceae

Amuranju, senifiran Ejinrin-were, bitter gourd

24

Momordica charantia Linn.

Cucurbitaceae

25

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Moringaceae

26

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC

Papilionaceae

27

Musa sapientum Linn.

Musaceae

Ewe-igbale, horse radish tree Esisi, eesi, werepe, velvet bean Ogede agbagba, Plantain

28

Psidium guajava L.

Myrtaceae

Gurofa, Guava

29

Secamone afzelii (Schult.) K.Schum

Asclepiadaceae

30

Senna alata L. Roxburgh

Caesalpiniaceae

Ailu, secamone Asunwon oyinbo, candle bush

31

Senna podocarpa (Guill & Perr) Lock

Caesalpiniaceae

Asunwon ibile

32 33 34 35 36 37

Sesamum indicum L. Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre Starchtarpheta cayenensis Telfairia occidentalis Hook.f. Terminalia catappa Linn. Zingiber officinale (Roscoe)

Pedaliaceae Menispermaceae Verbenaceae Cucurbitaceae Combretaceae Zingiberaceae

Ekuku, Sesame Akerejupon Aworoko, Fluted pumpkin Furutu, Tropical almond Ata-ile, ginger

Bulb Bulb Rhizome Fruit Leaf Stem

Seed, root Root, leaf Leaf, root Leaf, fruit, whole plant Leaf, seed, flower, root Fruit hairs Fruit, sap Stem, leaf, flower Leaf Leaf, flower Root, leaf Leaf Fruit, root Leaf Leaf Bark rhizomes


Table 4. List of other ingredients used for the treatment of men’s reproductive problems in Oyo State, Nigeria

Potash Honey Soda water Milk

Water Ampicillin capsules Olive oil

intravenous drug use (Ophori et al., 2010; Adegoke et al., 2011). Reports in late 2001 by World Health Organisation (WHO) showed that 12 million people become infected with syphilis each year (Campos et al., 2008). Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have continued to be a major health problem in sub-Saharan Africa especially with the recent resurgence of syphilis (Adegoke et al., 2011). In Nigeria, in the Federal Medical Center (FMC) Abakaliki, Ebonyi state, a prevalence of syphilis of 3% has been recorded (FMoH, 2001). In University College Hospital, Ibadan, a seroprevalence of 4% was reported. 1.5% of pregnant women attending antenatal care clinics were infected with syphilis in 2005. The prevalence ranged from 0.0% in Abia state to 7.6% in Rivers state. Studies of the prevalence of syphilis in similar populations in Nigeria reported prevalence of 14.0% in Abakiliki (Uneke et al., 2006), 2.1% in Enugu (Nnoruka and Ezeoke, 2005). It was even 2.0% among HIV seronegatives in Abakiliki (Uneke et al., 2006). Among blood donors in Benin the prevalence of infection was 8.0% (Adegoke et al., 2011), 2.93% in 2008 and 1.9% in 2009 (Salawu et al., 2010). Interestingly, some researchers reported 15% among apparently healthy university students (Ophori et al., 2010) and 4.6% in a paramilitary agency (Nwokedi et al., 2005). Higher prevalence of syphilis has also been reported among different groups in other countries. It was 11.3% in HIV seropositives in India (Turbadar et al., 2007), 10.9% among street dwellers in Ethiopia and 1.3% among blood donors in Ethiopia (Moges et al., 2006). According to WHO (2001), an estimate 17 million people are infected with Gonorrhea in Sub-Saharan Africa. The disease may be transmitted through the vagina, cervix, rectum, pharynx (throat), or eyes. In men, Neisseria gonorrhoeae infects urethra and is usually with symptoms, causing dysuria and acute urethritis with a purulent discharge. Among women, Neisseria gonorrhoeae infects the cervix, urethra, vulva and rectum. Rectal infections occur in up to 40% of women infected with gonorrhoeae. Generally, in about 95% of patients, gonococci can be found in urethral discharge or urine sediments. The infection may spread to prostrate, bladder, and epididymes, causing inflammation and swollen epididymes and may lead to sterility (Cheesbrough, 2000). Globally, STDs are a major cause of infertility, longterm disability and death with severe medical and

psychological consequences for millions of men, women and infants (WHO, 2001). For example, genital ulcerations and inflammation caused by syphilis are implicated as cofactor making infected individuals 3 to 5 times more likely to acquire HIV if exposed to the virus through sexual contact. Unless prompt diagnosis and treatment of syphilis are performed, serious complications including male and female infertility may result, and in pregnancy, adverse outcomes such as stillbirth, prenatal death and serious neonatal infection may result (Schmid, 2004). Therefore, the use of herbal remedies offers less expensive, more accessible and effective way of managing infertility, sexually transmitted infections, baldness and other related diseases. As a result, the documentation of these herbal remedies will help preserve the indigenous knowledge about the treatment of these diseases and create awareness about the herbal remedies used for these diverse diseases in the Internet and scientific community and the general public at large. REFERENCES Abiodun OM, Balogun OR, Fawole AA (2007). An etiology, clinical features and treatment outcome of intrauterine adhesions in llorin, North-central Nigeria. West Afr. J. Med. 26:298-301. Adegoke AO, Akanmi O, Dirisu J (2011). Risk of transfusion-transmitted syphilis in a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. North Am. J. Med. Sci. 3(2):78-81. Adeyemi AS, Adekunle DA, Afolabi AF (2009). Pattern of gynaecological consultations at Ladoke Akintola University Teaching Hospital, Osogbo. Nig. J. Clin. Pract. 12:47-50. Afolayan JD, Yakubun MT (2008). Erectile dysfunction management options in Nigeria. J. Sexual Med. 6:1090-1102. African Health Monitor (2003). Traditional Medicine: Our Culture, our future. A magazine of the WHO Regional Office for Africa 4:1. Aiyeloja AA, Bello OA (2006). Ethnobotanical potentials of common herbs in Nigeria: A case study of Enugu state. Edu. Res. Rev. 1:6-22. Ajarbo LN, Ezimokhai M, Kadiri A (1981). Male contribution to subfertility in Benin-City, Nigeria. Trop. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2:23-56. Akande EO (1987). Problems of infertility in Sub-Saharan Africa. Dokita 16:23-27. Anate M (1991). The infertility couple problem: role of Family Planning Clinic. Nig. Med. Pract. 21:26-32. Anate M, Akeredolu O (1994). Attitude of male partners to infertility management in Ilorin. Nig. Med. Pract. 27:46-49. Audu BM, Massa AA, Bukar M (2003). Clinical presentation of Infertility in Gombe, North-Eastern Nigeria. Trop J. Obstet Gynaecol. 20:93-96. Awojobi OA, Nkposong EO, Lawani J (1983). Aetiological factors of male infertility in Ibadan, Nigeria. Afr. J. Med. Sci. 12:91-94. Baljinder S, Vikas G, Parveen B, Ranjit S, Dharmendra K (2010). Pharmacological potential of plant used as aphrodisiacs. Int. J. Pharm. Scns Rev. Res. 5:104-113. Boivin J, Bunting L, Collins JA, Nygren KG (2009). International estimates of infertility prevalence and treatment seeking: Potential need and demand for infertility medical care. Hum. Reprod. 24:2379-2380. Burkill HM (1985). The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. The Whitefriars Press Limited, Great Britain, 960pp. Campos LN, Guimaraes MDC, Carmo RA, Mel APS, Oliveira HN, Elkington K, Mckinnon K (2008). HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B and C prevalence among patients with mental illness: a review of the literature. Cad. Sacide publica, Rio de Janeiro, 24 sup 4, 5607-5620. Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE (1992). Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. Brit. Med.


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