Ethnomedicinal plants of Shankaracharya Hill ...

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 170 (2015) 255–274

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Ethnomedicinal plants of Shankaracharya Hill, Srinagar, J&K, India Kewal Kumar a, Yash Pal Sharma b, R.K. Manhas c,n, Harpreet Bhatia b a b c

Department of Botany, Government Degree College for Women, Udhampur 182101, J&K, India Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu 180001, J&K, India Department of Botany, Government Degree College, Kathua 184104, J&K, India

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 21 March 2015 Received in revised form 8 May 2015 Accepted 9 May 2015 Available online 22 May 2015

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Primitive human societies have always relied on plants and plant products for various remedies. In certain areas, these folk medical prescriptions are endemic and have survived through ages from one generation to the next through word of mouth. They do not exist as written knowledge. The present study was undertaken with an objective of documenting the ethnobotanical information of medicinal plants of Shankaracharya Hill by taking the help of local herbalists, elderly and knowledgeable people. Material and methods: The data was quantitatively analysed using use-value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (Fl%) indices. Results: Total 130 plant species from 57 families and 111 genera were ethno-medicinally utilized by the 103 informants interviewed in the present study. The most used families were Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae and Brassicaceae. The medicinal plants were mainly herbs (79.2%). Leaves were the most used (27.6%) plant part followed by whole plant (14.8%), root (11.4%) and seed (10.5%). The most important species on the basis of UV were Viola odorata, Taraxacum campylodes, Aesculus hippocastanum, Artemisia absinthium, Daucus carota, Thymus serphyllum, Ephedra gerardiana and Salvia moorcroftiana. The values ICF ranged between 0.93 and 0.76. Only Epilobium hirsutum recorded 100% Fl. Some of the most important medicinal plants with high Fl values were Tribulus terrestris, Asparagus officinalis, Trifolium repens, Anemone biflora, Melia azedarach, A. absinthium, Lonicera quinquelocularis, Rosa webbiana, D. carota, Oxalis corniculata and Potentilla reptans. Conclusion: The contribution of plant parts collected through destructive methods was 29.5%. Harvesting of roots, rhizomes, bulbs and corm kills the parent plant and could be a severe threat for survival of the often rare and slowly reproducing medicinal plants, and therefore need sustainable utilization and conservation strategies. Ethnomedicinal species like A. absinthium, A. hippocastanum, D. carota, M. azedarach, T. campylodes, T. serphyllum, T. terrestris having high number of citations, UV and FL should be analyzed for phytochemicals and pharmacology. & 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ethnomedicinal plants Fidelity level Informant consensus factor Shankaracharya Hill Use-value

1. Introduction Primitive human societies have always relied on plants and plant products for various remedies. In certain areas, these folk medical prescriptions are endemic and have survived through ages from one generation to the next through word of mouth. They do not exist as written knowledge. Indigenous people developed this knowledge through practical experience and skill to solve the problems that they faced on day to day activity (Sharma et al., 2012; Bhatia et al., 2014). The Kashmir Valley has a long history of utilization of herbal medicines through the system of Ayurveda and Unani. The inhabitants

n

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.K. Manhas).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.05.021 0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

of this region are called Kashmiri People who speak Kashmiri Language. The earlier Kashmiris were all ‘Brahmins’ (descendents of Aryans) (Kachroo and Nahvi, 1994). It was in the late 13th century that Islam spread into the valley and it became a blend of both Hindu and Islamic culture. After that, Unani system of medicine emerged under the patronage of Mughals during 16th–18th century and gained popularity as an effective system of medicine (Hussain, 1996). Therefore, the Kashmiri people have been living in close association with plants since time immemorial. They attribute some medicinal property to almost every plant species. Plants are intricately woven with their social, cultural and religious customs and also satisfy their bioaesthetic and ethical needs. The Kashmiri people are still using plants for curing most of their ailments, the knowledge of which is confined to them. Kashmir Himalaya, one of the biotic provinces of the Himalayas, and a part of biodiversity hotspot, supports a rich and unique floristic

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K. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 170 (2015) 255–274

Table 1 Demographic description of the informants and Spearman correlation analysis. Female

Male

28 (27.2%)

75 (72.8%)

0.5 Age group 20–29 30–39

5 (17.9%) 5 (17.9%)

40–49

5 (17.9%)

50–59

3 (10.7%)

60–69

2 (7.1%)

70–79

6 (21.4%)

80–89 0.5 Educational qualification Never attended school

2 (7.1%)

8 (10.7%) 15 (20.0%) 11 (14.7%) 13 (17.3%) 13 (17.3%) 10 (13.3%) 5 (6.7%)

Number of informants

Attended school for 1–5 classes

14 (50.0%) 5 (17.9%)

Attended school for 6–10 classes

4 (14.3%)

Intermediate (12th class) 3 (10.7%) Graduate 2 (7.1%) 0.5 Spearman’s correlation coefficient (n ¼103; α ¼0.05) r Age of the informant vs no. of plants Age of the informant vs sharing of information about plants Education level vs no. of plants Education level vs sharing of information about plants

0.473nnn 0.233n

18 (24.0%) 22 (29.3%) 23 (30.7%) 6 (8.0%) 6 (8.0%) P o 0.001 0.018

0.301nn 0.002 0.304nn 0.002

Values given in the table are number (percentage contribution), r – correlation coefficient, P – probability, α –significance level. nnn

Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

nn n

diversity including a rich repository of medicinal plants and the traditional knowledge associated with these plants (Dar et al., 2002). The Shankaracharya Hill, a part of Kashmir Himalaya situated in Srinagar, is one of the very few areas left in the city where plants grow freely in their natural habitat. It harbours a rich diversity of medicinal plants and is also one of the last reservoirs of a number of endemic species like Astragalus leucocephalus and Anemone biflora. A lot of work has been done to explore the medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalaya from time to time by various workers (Ara and Naqshi, 1992; Kaul, 1997; Kapahi et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2004; Wani et al., 2006; Tantray et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2011; Bhat et al., 2012; Baig et al., 2013; Jeelani et al., 2013; Lone et al., 2013, 2014; Hassan et al., 2013). But, the ethnomedicinal potential of the Shankaracharya Hill has not yet been explored. So, an attempt has been made with the help of local people including local herbalists, elderly and knowledgeable people to document the ethnobotanical information of medicinal plants of Shankaracharya Hill.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area and ethnographic background of the local people The Shankaracharya Hill is located between 341040 35.56″ and 341 050 25.08″N latitude and 741500 03.16″ and 741510 08.63″E longitude, covering an area of approximately 138.35 ha. It represents one of the extension tail tips of the Zabarwan range in Srinagar

and lies in south-east of Srinagar at a distance of about 4.5 km from the Clock Tower, Lal Chowk and 17.5 km from Dachigam National Park. Average height of the Hill is nearly 300 m i.e. from 1572 m to 1880 m above mean sea level. It bears a prevailing northerly trend and shows a gradual increase in its height till it merges with the majestic snow-clad Waterway Mountains in the south-east (Dar et al., 2002). It offers mountainous, precipitous and actively eroding slopes and scraps topography, sometimes with differently dissected terrain. It is also punctuated by numerous spurs, ravines and cliffs all along its area. The Hill has a great religious value and is so named due to the presence of a temple called Shankaracharya Temple at its top. The temple is thought to be the oldest shrine in Kashmir and an attraction for tourists all over the world. 2.2. Data collection Ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants of Shankaracharya Hill was collected from informants living around the hill and visitors during April, 2009 to September, 2014. Total 103 informants were interviewed (75 males and 28 females). All the informants were Muslims. They have religious reservations on the conversation of females with the males of other religions. These religious bindings also assure their (females) restricted visits to the Shankaracharya Hill. All the female informants were interviewed by taking the help of a female colleague. The information was collected through questionnaires and interviews focussing mainly


on the respondent’s education, health problems treated, diagnosis and methods of treatment, local name of the plant, growth-form, plant-part used, methods of preparation and application of medicinal plants. Surveys were organized periodically during the flowering season of most of the plants so as to get maximum information and also to cross check the information provided by the local informants during the earlier visits. The reliability of the gathered information was confirmed by visiting and interviewing the informant at least thrice. Fresh plant specimens collected from the Hill were shown to different informants to get relevant ethnobotanical information. Often they were accompanied to the field for the identification of plant species and authentication of plant specimens collected from the Hill. All the collected plant specimens were pressed and dried using blotting papers and then mounted on the herbarium sheets as per the standard protocols. These voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K, India vide voucher no. mentioned in Table 2. Plant specimens were identified by using relevant standard literature including various regional and local floras (Hooker, 1872–97; Nasir and Ali, 1970; Singh and Kachroo, 1976, 1994; Sharma and Kachroo, 1983; Polunin and Stainton, 1984). Help was also taken for identification of plant specimens from the herbaria of University of Kashmir, University of Jammu, IIIM, Jammu, Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehradun and Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. The International Plant Names Index (http:// www.ipni.org) was followed for the botanical nomenclature of species. The plant specimens were submitted to the Herbarium of Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K, India. 2.3. Data analysis The data collected through interview of the informants was analysed using three different quantitative indices viz., use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (Fl %). The relative importance was calculated employing the use-value (Phillips et al., 1994), a quantitative measure for the relative importance of species known locally: UV ¼ Σ U=n where U is the number of use-reports cited by each informant for a given species and n refers to the total number of informants. Use values are high when there are many use-reports for a plant, implying that the plant is important, and approach zero (0) when there are few reports related to its use. The use value, however, does not distinguish whether a plant is used for single or multiple purposes (Musa et al., 2011; Bhatia et al., 2014). To test homogeneity of knowledge about the medicinal plants, the informant consensus factor (ICF) was used (Heinrich et al., 1998). Before performing the analysis, all the ailments were broadly classified into various categories on the basis of Heinrich et al. (1998) and Bhatia et al. (2014). The ICF was calculated as ICF ¼

nur nt nur 1

where nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use category and nt refers to the number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants. ICF values are low (near 0) if plants are chosen randomly or if there is no exchange of information about their use among informants, and approach one (1) when there is a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if information is exchanged between informants (Gazzaneo et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2012). Because many plant species may be used in the same use category, it is interesting to determine the most preferred species used in the treatment of a particular ailment (Musa et al., 2011),

257

which can be done with the fidelity level (Fl %) of Friedman et al. (1986): Fl ð%Þ ¼

Np 100 N

where Np is the number of use-reports cited for a given species for a particular ailment and N is the total number of use-reports cited for any given species. High Fl value (near 100%) is obtained for plants for which almost all use reports refer to the same way of using it, whereas low Fl value is obtained for plants that are used for many different purposes (Musa et al., 2011). The Spearman’s correlation coefficient was also employed to evaluate whether there was significant (p o0.05) correlation between (i) age of informant and number of ethnomedicinal plant species known; (ii) age of informant and sharing of information about medicinal plants; (iii) educational level of informant and number of species reported/known; and (iv) educational level of informant and sharing of information about medicinal plants.

3. Results 3.1. Informants The informants were mainly the local inhabitants living at the foot-hills of Shankaracharya Hill. Persons coming from various parts of Srinagar city to collect medicinal plants or other forest products were also interviewed. A total of 103 informants were interviewed during the study. All the informants follow Islam. They primarily composed of males (72.8%). Female informants were educationally poor of which 50.0% had never attended school and 17.9% had attended only 1–5 classes. Education level of males was comparatively good with 76% of them being literate. Spearman’s correlation coefficient analysis shows that age of the informants was significantly (r ¼0.53, po0.001) correlated with the number of medicinal plants known, which means that they acquire the ethnomedicinal knowledge with growing age. Age of the informants was negatively correlated (r¼ 0.23, p o0.020) with sharing of information of medicinal plants. Educational level of the informants was negatively correlated (r ¼0.28, p o0.004) with the number of medicinal plants known and positively correlated (r ¼0.35, p o0.001) with sharing of information about medicinal plants (Table 1). 3.2. Floristic characteristics of medicinal plants Total 130 plant species from 57 families and 111 genera were used by the informants in the study site (Table 2). The most used families were Asteraceae (14 genera and 15 species), Rosaceae (8 genera and 14 species), Lamiaceae (8 genera and 8 species), Fabaceae (6 genera and 8 species) and Brassicaceae (6 genera and 6 species). As many as 38 families were represented by only one species. The medicinal plants were mainly herbs (79.2%) and trees (14.6%) (Fig. 1). Leaves were the most used (27.6%) plant part followed by whole plant (14.8%), root (11.4%) and seed (10.5%) (Fig. 2). The contribution of plant parts collected through destructive methods (whole plant, root, bulb, rhizome, corm, and seedlings) was 29.5%. 3.3. Use-value (UV) Use-value (UV) indicates the importance of a species to the informants and the local ethnomedicinal system. The most important species (Table 2) of the present study were Viola odorata (UV ¼2.45), Taraxacum campylodes (UV ¼1.74), Aesculus hippocastanum (UV ¼1.14), Artemisia absinthium (UV ¼ 1.14), D. carota

258

Table 2 Ethnomedicinal plants, their description, ethnomedicinal methodology and use value. Family

Herbarium sheet number

Common name

Aesculus hippocastanum L.

Sapindaceae

JUH-14705

Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle

Simaroubaceae

Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham

Lamiaceae

Altitude Flower colour

Flowering

Part used

Horse chestnut, Handoon Buckeye

Tree

1600– 1700

White

May–June

JUH-14907

Tree of heaven

Brath

Tree

1580– 1700

Yellow green

May–July

JUH-14867

Bugleweed

Jan-i-Adam

Herb

1600– 1700

Pale lilac

April– October

Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Brassicaceae Cavara and Grande.

JUH-14763

Garlic mustard

–

Herb

1600– 1800

White

April– August

Alcea rosea L.

JUH-14813

Hollyhock

Saza posh

Herb

1750– 1800

Light pink

July– September

Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae

JUH-14785

Slim amaranth, Ganhar Slender pigweed

Herb

1580– 1650

Light green

July– September

Anagallis arvensis L.

Primulaceae

JUH-14779

Pimpernel, Red Chari Baben, chickweed Jung mani, Chari saben

Herb

1580– 1800

Orange

April–July

Anemone biflora DC.

Ranunculaceae

JUH-14680

Batkul

Herb

1600– 1750

Pale purple

March– April

Anthemis cotula L.

Asteraceae

JUH-14769

Stinking chamomile

Du Posh

Herb

1580– 1680

White

April– September

Arctium lappa L.

Asteraceae

JUH-14817

Greater burdock

Cheerkachh, Phagorra

Herb

1580– 1700

Purple

July– September

JUH-14770

Wormwood, Absinthe

Chhuma-Jom, Tethwan

Herb

1600– 1700

Pale yellow

May– August

Oil extracted from seeds is applied externally as a cure 117 1.14 against severe back pain (31), joint inflammation (11), sprain (6) and rheumatism (28). Paste of powdered seeds in mustard oil is applied on the head half an hour before hair wash to get rid of dandruff (5). Seed decoction and seed paste are applied on the frostbite affected area (4), abscess (6) and piles (26). 14 0.14 Bark Bark decoction is administered for the expulsion of intestinal worms (5). Juice of bark is mixed with milk and taken twice a day to cure diarrhoea (6) and hematochezia (3). 72 0.70 Leaves Leaf extract is mixed with sugar and taken orally as antacid (11), anti-spasmodic (2) and anti-dysenteric (7). Leaf extract is effective in malarial fever (5) and jaundice (10). Leaf juice is used to cure oral ulcers (2), acts as blood purifier (11), anti-diabetic (4) and hairtonic (9). Decoction of whole plant is used to wash hair to get rid of lice (11). Leaves Leaf paste is styptic (7), antiphlogistic (2) and is applied 27 0.26 around abscess (3) and boils for quick healing (7). Leaf extract is given orally to cure cough (5) and asthma (3). 10 0.10 Roots, flowers Oral intake of root extract cures fever (3), cold (2), urinary tract infections (2) and acts as demulcent. A fine paste of fresh flowers is applied topically on throat to counteract inflammation (3). 52 0.50 Whole plant Plant paste is applied on the skin to remove dryness (12) and to make it healthy and glowing. Seeds are heated in mustard oil and then used as poultice to cure joint and bone dislocation (6). Plant extract is antipyretic (17), anti-dysenteric (6) and anti-spasmodic (11). 29 0.28 Whole plant Topical application of leaf extract on the scalp checks hair lice (23). Plant extract mixed in few drops of mustard oil is applied to cure gout (3) and dermatitis (3). Bulb Paste of powdered bulb in clarified butter is styptic and 23 0.22 is applied on boils (4), burns (4), cuts and wounds (15) as antiphlogistic. 35 0.34 Whole plant Plant paste is applied externally on piles (6). Flower decoction is administered in asthma (6), cold (12), fever (2) and arthralgia (4). Leaf powder is applied on burns as antiphlogistic (5). 5 0.05 Leaves, root Leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds (1) and boils (2) for quick healing. Powdered roots are taken with water against body pains (1). Root powder is also taken as diuretic (1). Leaves A pinch of dried and powdered herb is taken with milk 117 1.14 in epilepsy (1) and fever (4). Plant extract is blood purifier and is applied on the ringworm (1 0 3) and scabies (2) affected site. Twigs of Artemisia absinthium, Fumaria indica and Swertia chirayita are placed in water overnight and the next morning, filtrate is administered

Artemisia absinthium L. Asateraceae

Ethnomedicinal methodology

ΣU

Life form

Malvaceae

Vernacular name

UV

Seeds


Botanical name

Asteraceae

JUH-14849

Sea wormwood, Old woman

Murin, Moori

Herb

1650– 1800

Asparagus officinalis L.

Liliaceae

JUH-14879

Garden asparagus

Moswal, Paragloss

Herb

1600– 1650

Berberis lycium Royle

Berberidaceae

JUH-14739

Indian barberry, Boxthorn barberry

Rasaunt, Kaw dachh

Herb

1600– 1750

Cannabis sativa L.

Cannabaceae

JUH-14786

Hemp

Bhange, Charas

Herb

1580– 1750

Capsella bursa-pastoris Brassicaceae (L.) Medik. Cardamine impatiens L. Brassicaceae

JUH-14692

Krala mund

Herb

JUH-14870

–

Herb

Carduus nutans L.

Asteraceae

JUH-14738

Chari Tomool

Herb

Carum carvi L.

Apiaceae

JUH-14940

Shepherd’s purse Narrow leaf bittercress Musk thistle, Nodding thistle Caraway

Zeera

Herb

1580– 1750 1580– 1750 1580– 1750 1580– 1780

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Ex D.Don) G.Don

Pinaceae

JUH-004

Cedar

Deodar

Herb

1600– 1800

Celtis australis L.

Cannabaceae

JUH-14696

Brimij

Tree

1600– 1700

Centaurea iberica Trev. ex Spreng.

Asteraceae

JUH-14727

European nettle tree, Mediterranean hackberry Iberian starthistle, Iberian knapweed

Herb Cruss, Krets, Kratsch, Krech, Krotz Kond

1580– 1750

Zewa dawda Kual, Ganhar

1650– 1700

JUH-14848

Epazote, Wormseed, Mexican tea

Herb

41 0.40

56 0.54

28 0.27

4 0.04 12 0.12 3 0.03 42 0.41

17 0.17

3 0.03

22 0.21

4 0.04 259

Dysphania Amaranthaceae ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants

19 0.18


Artemisia maritima L.

against malarial fever (1). Plant extract along with Swertia chirayita is anti-diabetic (6). heads greenish May– Leaves, Leaf extract in very small doses is administered against October shoots, seeds intermittent fever (3) and is applied externally on abscess (5). Dried herb is taken in the form of a decoction to expel intestinal worms (5). Decoction of seeds is used as expectorant (6). Greenish July–August Leaves, Paste of leaves and young stem is applied on joints to yellow flowers, seeds cure arthralgia (12). Paste of flowers is applied on the head to relieve headache (9). Seed decoction releases urinary stones (8) and is also given to females in irregular menstrual cycle as emmenagogue (12). Yellow May–June Root, fruits, Oral intake of root extract acts as diuretic (5) and also seeds releases kidney stones (6). Root is rubbed on stone in a drop of water and the paste so formed is applied externally on eyesores (6), bleeding piles (5) and also acts as styptic (4). Decoction of soft root peel in sugary water relieves dyspepsia (3) and also acts as aperient (7). Root decoction is given for lowering blood pressure (8) and also maintains blood sugar (6). Paste prepared from fresh fruits is applied for quick healing of wounds (6). yellowish July– Leaves Leaf juice is used as ear drop to check otalgia (5). Leaf green September paste is used as anti-venom against poisonous insect bite (2). Topical application of leaf paste on burns (2) and boils acts as antiphlogistic (1). Oral intake of leaf extracts cures asthma (3) and acts as aperient (5). Leaf juice obtained after crushing leaves is spread on a cloth which is then tied around limbs to relieve severe pain (10). White March–May Leaves Leaf paste is styptic (3). Leaf extract is effective in lowering blood pressure (1). White April–June Whole plant Whole plant extract is effective in curing asthma (12) and hay fever (4). Purple June– Roots Root decoction acts as blood purifier (3). August White April–June Seeds Hot seed decoction is anti-spasmodic (5), anti-flatulent (3), carminative (4), digestive (2), appetizer (6), cures chronic menstrual disorders (12), and leucorrhoea (7). A pinch of dried and powdered seeds is taken with lukewarm water empty stomach for reducing weight (3). Bluish Green June– Stem, bark Oil extracted from stem and bark is used against skin (female cone) October rashes (3), external ulcers (4) and itching (4). The oil is also massaged on the body and head to relieve arthralgia (5) and headache (1), respectively. Greenish March Leaves External application of leaf infusion alleviates burning sensation of soles (1). Leaves are crushed in curd to make a paste which is then applied on herpes affected body part (2). Purple June– Flower Young plants are cooked as vegetable and fed to ladies September after child birth as galactagouge (3) and for overcoming asthenia (4). Ash obtained after burning the whole plant is mixed with clarified butter to make a fine paste which is then applied on burns and wounds as styptic (5) and antiphlogistic (5). Paste of flower heads is applied topically to check eczema (5). Green August– Whole plant Paste of crushed aerial parts is applied on the scalp one October hour before hair wash to get rid of dandruff (2). A

260

Table 2 (continued ) Botanical name

(syn. Chenopodium ambrosioides L.) Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Family


Common name

Vernacular name

Life form


Flowering

Part used

JUH-14802

Creeping thistle, Canada thistle

–

Herb

1580– 1750

Pink purple

June– September

Clinopodium vulgare L.

Lamiaceae

JUH-14921

Wild basil

Batak panjel

Herb

1580– 1750

Pink purple

May–July

Colchicum luteum Baker

Colchicaceae

JUH-14679

Yellow colchicum

Suranja, Virkim posh

Herb

1700– 1850

Yellow

March– April

Corm

Conium maculatum L.

Apiaceae

JUH-14784

Hemlock

Mohra kach

Herb

1600– 1750

White

May– August

Fruits

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Convolvulaceae

JUH-14746

Field bindweed Harangi, Soi Posh, Thurae posh, Threir Lesser swine Taribod cress

Herb

1580– 1800

Pale pink

May– October

Whole plant, root

Herb

1580– 1700

Pale green

May–July

Aerial part

Brassicaceae Lepidium didymum L. (Syn. Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith) Rosaceae Cotoneaster racemiflorus (Desf.) K.Koch Crataegus rhipidophylla Rosaceae Gand. (Syn. Crataegus oxyacantha L )

JUH-14857

Aerial parts, young inflorescence, roots Leaves, flowers

JUH-14711

Redbead Cotoneaster

Lunu, Lenu

Shrub

1650– 1750

White

April–May

Leaves

JUH-14712

Hawthorn

Reng, Rhing

Tree

1650– 1800

White

April–May

Leaves, fruits, young twigs

Cuscuta capitata Roxb.

Convolvulaceae

JUH-14806

Dodder

Kukli poth

Herb

1580– 1700

Ivory white

June–July

Whole plant

Cuscuta europaea L.

Convolvulaceae

JUH-14809

European dodder

Wazul kukli poot

Herb

1650– 1750

Pale pink

June–July

Whole plant

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Poaceae

JUH-14946

Bermuda grass

Daramum, Dra Herb moon, Kach

1600– 1800

Green or purplish spike

May– November

Whole plant, inflorescence

Cyprus rotundus L.

Cyperaceae

JUH-14947

Nut grass

–

Herb

1580– 1800

Red to brown spikelet

June– October

Rhizome

Daucus carota L.

Apiaceae

JUH-14855

Wild carrot

Gazzar

Herb

1580– 1650

White

June– September

Roots

ΣU

spoonful of oil extracted from the plant is taken orally for the expulsion of intestinal worms (2). 8 Root decoction is taken orally for the removal of intestinal worms in children (3). Decoction of aerial parts is used as emetic to counteract poisonous substance intake (5). 9 Dried and powdered leaves and flowers are consumed orally with water in case of abdominal pain (4). Leaf extract is used as tonic for overcoming stomach weakness (5). 37 Fine paste of powdered corm in clarified butter is applied on the head, kept overnight and washed the next morning to get rid of dandruff (6) and lice (13). Corm heated in mustard oil is used as poultice to relieve arthralgia (18). 8 Although the plant is highly poisonous causing paralysis and even death, yet its powdered fruits are used to relieve stomach ache (5), reduce the sensitivity of nerves (1) and act as sedative (2). Plant extract is administered as aperient (2), antipyretic 11 (3) and also strengthens the liver (4). Root decoction is used as aperient (1) and diuretic (1). 8 Extract of aerial parts checks flatulence (3) and dyspepsia (2). Young shoots are eaten as salad for easy digestion (3). 2 Crushed leaves are boiled in water till a thick slurry is formed which on cooling is applied around abscess for quick healing (2). 18 Tea made from leaves is used as heart tonic (2). Intake of both fresh and dried fruits acts as aperient (3), digestive (1), diuretic (5), and cardiotonic (2). Young twigs are used as tooth brush to cure dental caries and check halitosis. 8 Plant paste is applied on scalp to check hair fall (3) and dandruff (2). Oral intake of plant extract cures tonsillitis (1) and chest pain (2). Plant paste is applied on the scalp one hour before hair 18 wash to get rid of hair lice (3), as anti-dandruff (3) and anti-hair fall (12). Decoction of the inflorescence is used as blood purifier 63 (19) and also checks hematochezia (3). Whole plant extract is useful in the treatment of dropsy (2), syphilis (3), headache (3), cough (2), cold (5) and fever (4). Leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds (2), and warts (5) to counteract inflammation. Dried plant is powdered and taken with milk as aphrodisiac (6), diuretic (6) and aperient (1). Plant extract is given as blood purifier to cure skin diseases (2). External application of rhizome paste both in fresh and 7 dry form checks abscess (4), inflammation (1) and itching (2). Root extract is prescribed in painful urination (2), urine 107 retention (9) and other bladder disorders (22). Root juice is prescribed in relieving palpitation (4), cough (3),

UV

0.08

0.09

0.36

0.08

0.11

0.08

0.02

0.17

0.08

0.17

0.61

0.07

1.04


Asteraceae


Olive-leaved daphne

Gandh lenu, Vethru

Herb

1600– 1700

Creamish white

April–May

Roots, Bark, leaves

Datura stramonium L.

Solanaceae

JUH-14796

Jimsonweed, Datura, Devil’s apple

Datur

Herb

1580– 1700

White

July– September

Leaves, seeds

Consolida incana (E.D. Clarke) Munz. (Syn. Delphinium incanum Royle) Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl

Ranunculaceae

JUH-14790

Grey knight’sspur

Mori

Herb

1650– 1750

Blue to pale blue

July–August Roots, seeds

Brassicaceae

JUH-14702

Flix weed

Khaempa, Chari laschij, Mazen gassa

Herb

1580– 1750

Yellow

March–May Whole Plant, seeds

Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf

Ephedraceae

JUH-14942

Asmani buti Somlata, Gerard joint fir, Joint pine

Herb

1650– 1750

Yellow (Male strobilus)

April–June

Fruits, Shoots

Epilobium hirsutum L.

Onagraceae

JUH-14899

–

Herb

JUH-14820

–

Herb

Ray floret pink to white

July– September June– October

Leaves

Asteraceae

1580– 1700 1580– 1750

Pink purple

Erigeron canadensis L.

Great willow herb Horseweed

Euphorbia helioscopia L.

Euphorbiaceae

JUH-14756

Sun spurge, Mad woman’s milk

Gursuchel, Gur Herb sotsul

1600– 1800

Yellow green

April–June

Root, seeds, latex

Ficus carica L.

Moraceae

JUH-14892

Common fig

Anjeer, anjoor

Tree

1650– 1750

Green May– (Infructiscence) August

Fruit

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Apiaceae

JUH-14811

Fennel

Jangli Bodian

Herb

1580– 1650

Yellow

June– November

Seeds

Fragaria vesca L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14795

Wild strawberry

Buans, Ingra, Maw Kual

Herb

1580– 1680

White

April– August

Leaves, fruit, root

Fraxinus excelsior L.

Oleaceae

JUH-14875

Ash, European ash, Common ash

Hum

Herb

1600– 1750

Dark purple without petals

April–May

Bark

Young leaves, seedlings

Decoction of young leaves is anti-dysenteric (5), cures ulcers (1) and bleeding piles (2). Extract of leaves and seedling is taken orally as uterine stimulant (2) and also cures oral ulcers (3). Plant extract is used as expectorant (5) and diaphoretic (4). Oral intake of root extract is useful in the expulsion of intestinal worms (4). Latex is applied on warts (15) and fungal infections (14). Fruits are eaten as aperients (2). Three ripe fruits in a glass of water are kept overnight and this infusion is taken as ‘Sharbat’ against fever (6), cold (3), cough (6), leucoderma (8), leprosy (4), and for the release of kidney stones (5). It increases the number of RBC’s and also enhances immunity (4). Milky latex is applied on warts (4), acne (5), and scabies (3). Dried fruits are eaten as spermatogenic (4) and aperient (3). Fruit paste is applied topically to counter inflammation (2). Fresh shoots are chewed to cure dyspepsia (2) and acidity (3). Seeds boiled in milk are administered to cure chest (1) and kidney pain (2) and also act as aperient (4). Topical application of fruit juice cures sun burns (2) and blemishes (2). Leaf extract is antipyretic (3). Fruits are eaten as such to relieve dyspepsia (3) and also act as aperient (4). Tea prepared from dried roots checks arthralgia (5) and asthenia (4). Root extract acts as demulcent (1). Ash obtained after burning the bark is applied topically on skin as astringent (2) and a pinch is taken orally with water as diuretic (2) and antipyretic (3). Leaf extract is

6 0.06

14 0.14

10 0.10

25 0.24

81 0.79

5 0.05 13 0.13

42 0.41

59 0.57

12 0.12

24 0.23

26 0.25 261

JUH-14721


Daphne oleoides Schreb Thymelaeaceae

bronchitis (2), dropsy (5) and jaundice (28). Oral intake of root juice overcomes anaemia by increasing haemoglobin content (32). Root decoction is useful as aperient (1). Paste of bark is applied topically on cuts and wounds (1) as antiphlogistic. Leaf paste is applied around abscess (2) and boils for quick healing (2). External application of leaf paste acts as anti-venom against insect bite (3) and is styptic (3). Fresh leaves soaked in hot mustard oil are fastened over the affected part to get relief from inflammation (5). Paste of powdered seeds in mustard oil is massaged on joints to curb arthralgia (3). Roots are used as stimulant (2), tonic (2) and alterative (3). Cotton soaked in root extract is applied at the site of aching tooth (1). Seed paste in clarified butter is applied on abscess (2). Powdered seeds and young shoots are effective in flatulence (5). Whole plant decoction acts as painkiller (6). Fresh leaves are eaten with milk as antipyretic (8). Leaf poultice is applied externally on ulcers (2). Person suffering from smallpox is made to sleep on a bed covered with its leaves for early recovery (4). Fruit juice is effective in cough (5), cold (7) and bronchitis (10). Extract of fresh and young shoots curbs arthralgia (3). Shoots are used as tooth-brush to check tooth decay (21). Decoction of young shoots cures cough (10), cold (9) and is also used as nerve tonic (11). Leaf paste is applied on oily skin to get rid of acne (5).

262


Family


Common name

Papaveraceae

JUH-14747

Indian fumitory

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Asteraceae

JUH-14787

Galium aparine L.

Rubiaceae

JUH-14693

Galium verum L.

Rubiaceae

JUH-14889

Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet

Geraniaceae

JUH-14743

Shahtar

Life form


Flowering

Herb

1580– 1800

Pale pink

April–May

Whole plant, leaves

Guasca, Gallant – soldier, Potato weed Cleavers –

Herb

1580– 1650

Yellow white

June– October

Herb

1580– 1800

White to greenish

April–June

Leaf, stem, flowering shoots Aerial parts

Lady’s bedstraw, Yellow bedstraw Wallich geranium, Wisley jewel

–

Herb

1650– 1750

Yellow

June–July

Whole plant

Rathen joth, Kaw ashud

Herb

1600– 1700

Mauve pink

June– September

Root, leaves

1600– 1800

Yellow

May–June

Geum urbanum L. (Syn. Rosaceae Geum roylei Wall. ex F.Bolle ) Hedera nepalensis K. Araliaceae Koch

JUH-14734

Wood avens, Bennet’s root

Gogli mool

Herb

JUH-14818

Himalayan ivy

Pal walnu

Herb 1650– climber 1750

greenish white

Oct– December

Hypericum perforatum L.

JUH-14778

St. John’s wort

Therma, Basant

Herb

1650– 1780

Yellow

April–June

Fabaceae Indigofera heterantha Brandis (Syn. Indigofera gerardiana Baker)

JUH-14733

Himalayan Indigo

Zand, Kats, keiche

Shrub

1700– 1800

Purple to pink

May– August

Iris kashmiriana Baker

JUH-14719

Kashmir iris

Sossan, Mazarmond

Herb

1600– 1700

White

April–May

Hypericaceae

Iridaceae

Part used


prescribed against arthralgia (3), obesity (3), dropsy (4), jaundice (4) and kidney stones (5). Decoction of the aerial parts is filtered and the filtrate is used for bathing to cure rheumatic pain (3). Plant extract mixed with milk is taken twice a day to cure dyspepsia (4) and is anti-spasmodic (3). Plant extract is also taken as cooling drink (4). Whole plant is mixed in Kashmiri herbal decoction called Sharbat and is given to ladies post delivery for healing internal injuries and overcoming asthenia (5). Leaf extract is taken as diuretic (2), diaphoretic (1), anthelmintic (1), aperient (2), and blood purifier (2). Leaf and/or stem paste is styptic (1).

Dried and powdered aerial parts are mixed with clarified butter to make a paste which is then applied on wounds for quick healing (5) and soothing inflammation (3). Extract of the whole plant is administered in anaemia (3), kidney stones (4), epilepsy (4), and also acts as diuretic (3).

Fresh leaves are chewed in case of toothache (2) and bleeding gums (1). Leaf paste prepared in clarified butter is styptic (1). Root paste is applied on dark circles around the eyes (5). Root extract is administered in chronic diarrhoea (4) and dysentery (6). Herbal tea prepared from roots curbs rheumatic pains (8). Finely minced bark is kept in mustard oil for 1 or 2 days and then this oil is massaged on the scalp and whole body to get rid of dandruff (2) and dryness of skin (2), respectively. Root Root extract is prescribed in diarrhoea (3), dysentery (3) and dyspepsia (4). Leaves heated in mustard oil are used as poultice to relieve arthralgia (4). Berries Ripe berries are eaten as aperient (5). Leaf decoction is used as hair wash to get rid of lice (6). Leaf paste is applied around boils (7) and abscess for quick healing (5). Leaves Leaf paste is applied on wounds (5), burns (16), sores (9) and ulcers (9) as antiphlogistic. Tea prepared from leaves cures asthenia (4), bronchitis (3) and also acts as diuretic (3). Stem, flowers, Young twigs are used as tooth brush to check tooth root decay (5) and halitosis (1). Flower juice is styptic (2). Young stems and flowers are boiled in water and soup so prepared is taken orally to improve digestion (1) and eye sight (10). Topical application of root paste curbs myalgia (11). Rhizome, Decoction of rhizome is administered on asthma (4), roots bronchitis (5) and releases kidney stones (5). Paste of root in clarified butter is applied on head to relieve headache (6).

ΣU

UV

27 0.26

1 0.01

8 0.08

14 0.14

31 0.30

14 0.14

23 0.22

49 0.48

30 0.29

20 0.19


Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

Vernacular name

Leaf decoction is effective in tuberculosis (10), and leucorrhoea (5). The leathery pericarp of unripe fruit (rind) is finely ground and then applied on alopecia affected site to promote hair growth (1). Bark and rind of the unripe fruit is used to clean teeth (11) and strengthen gums (23). It is also boiled in milk till the volume is left one-third and then this extract is used as hair dye (6). Intake of unripe kernel acts as aperient (5). Ripe kernel is eaten as memory enhancer (4). Leaf extract is administered in cough (7) and is antispasmodic (11). Plant latex possesses narcotic and sedative properties and is therefore used to cure insomnia (1). Seeds are eaten as sedative (2). Leaf and root paste is styptic (3) and is applied on ulcers (4) and wounds as antiphlogistic (5).

65 0.63

Leaves

Leaf paste is styptic (4) and soothes inflammation (5).

9 0.09

April–July

Whole plant

30 0.29

Yellow

June– August

Fruits, leaves

1580– 1750

Pink purple

July– September

Whole plant, leaves, Stem

Herb

1650– 1750

Pale pink

April–June

Leaves

Herb

1580– 1680

White

May–June

Leaves

Posh-i-Gassi

Herb

1580– 1700

Yellow

April– November

Aerial parts

White cedar, China berry tree

–

Tree

1580– 1680

Pale purple

May–June

Fruit, Bark

JUH-14748

Indian sweet clover

–

Herb

1600– 1680

Yellow

May–July

Leaves, Seeds

Moraceae

JUH-14695

Tree

April–May

Fruits

JUH-14872

1600– 1700 1580– 1750

Pale green

Moraceae

White Tul mulberry Black mulberry Shah tul

Whole plant’s extract checks anxiety (1), excessive sweating (6), palpitation (9), nausea (4), and vomiting (5). Leaf extract is given to expel intestinal worms (5). Fruit pulp is used as skin moisturizer (5). Ripe fruits are rich source of vitamin C and are eaten as such to increase haemoglobin content (6). Leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds (4), burns (3) as antiphlogistic and also promotes quick healing. Oral intake of plant extract is recommended in diarrhoea (3) and dysentery (7). Stem of old plant is chewed for curing toothache (9) and oral ulcers (5). Young leaves are boiled and eaten as aperient (6). Leaf extract is diuretic (5). Leaf paste is applied on wounds (5), boils (1) and burns (2) to soothe inflammation. Leaf extract acts as antispasmodic (9), aperient (2) and appetizer (4). Leaf decoction cures cough (4) and cold (5). Leaf paste is applied on joints to curb arthralgia (3). Oral intake of plant extracts acts as anthelmintic (17). Aqueous extract of plant has anti-microbial activities (1). Leaf extract has lenitive properties and is used against constipation (6). Fruit extract is taken as antidote to snake bite (12) and also maintains blood sugar (27). A pinch of dried and powdered bark taken orally with water is used as antipyretic (4) and anthelmintic (19). Leaf extract is used as aperient (2). Leaf paste is applied on the skin to remove acne (3) and to make the skin look healthy, glowing and young (1). Seed powder is taken with lukewarm water to expel intestinal worms (2) and also acts as antipyretic (1). Fruits are eaten as aperient (4).

Pale green

April–May

Leaves, Fruit

Ripe fruits are eaten as aperient (5) also have cooling effect (8). Leaf paste is styptic (6) and is applied on cuts and wounds (5) as antiphlogistic. Fruits are made into a local preparation called ‘Murrabaha’, a spoonful of which cures pharyngitis (5). A fine paste of powdered bark in clarified butter is applied on burns as antiphlogistic (4).

33 0.32

Juglandaceae

JUH-14874

English walnut, Dun, duon Common walnut

Herb

1580– 1650

Green

May–June

Leaves, bark, fruit wall

Lactuca dissecta D.Don

Asteraceae

JUH-14728

Prickly lettuce, Split-Leaf Lettuce

–

Herb

1580– 1800

Pale purple

April–May

Leaves, Latex

Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M.Johnst. (Syn. Lithospermum arvense L.) Lonicera quinquelocularis Hard. Lotus corniculatus L.

Boraginaceae

JUH-14689

Field gromwell, – Corn gromwell

Herb

1600– 1750

White,Pink

April–June

Seeds

Caprifoliaceae

JUH-14709

Translucent honeysuckle

Pakhur

Shrub

1580– 1700

Pale yellow

April–June

Fabaceae

JUH-14925

Bird’s foot trefoil

–

Herb

1650– 1750

Yellow

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Solanaceae

JUH-14847

Tomato

Rowan gun

Herb

1580– 1700

Malva sylvestris L.

Malvaceae

JUH-14773

Common mallow

Gur sachal, Sotzhal

Herb

Malva verticillata L.

Malvaceae

JUH-14865

Marrubium vulgare L.

Lamiaceae

JUH-14731

– Chinese mallow, Cluster mallow Ganda soi, White horehound Troper, Traper

Medicago lupulina L.

Fabaceae

JUH-14741

Black medick

Melia azedarach L.

Meliaceae

JUH-14751

Melilotus indicus (L.) All.

Fabaceae

Morus alba L. Morus nigra L.

Herb

19 0.18

14 0.14

18 0.17

35 0.34

23 0.22

29 0.28

7 0.07


Juglans regia L.

62 0.60

9 0.09

4 0.04

263

264

Table 2 (continued ) ΣU

Botanical name

Family


Common name

Vernacular name

Life form


Flowering

Narcissus tazetta L.

Amaryllidaceae

JUH-14839

Yamber Zal

Herb

1580– 1680

White

March–May Bulb, Flowers

Bulb is powdered to form a paste which is applied around abscess (8) for quick healing. Decoction of flowers is useful in headache (7), cough (5), cold (5), and is also used as brain tonic (4).

29 0.28

Nepeta cataria L.

Lamiaceae

JUH-14819

Common Narcissus, Bunched flower narcissus Catnip, Catswort

Gandh soi

Herb

1650– 1750

White

June– August

Whole plant

33 0.32

Oxalis corniculata L.

Oxalidaceae

JUH-14745

The creeping wood sorrel

Check chein, Seh Bergi

Herb

1580– 1800

Yellow

May–July

Whole plant

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder Phlomoides spectabilis (Falc. ex Benth.) Kamelin & Makhm. (Syn. Phlomis spectabilis Falc. ex Benth.) Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks.

Hamamelidaceae JUH-14762

Parrotia

Pah, Poh, Hatab

Tree

1750– 1800

Creamish white

April–May

Stem

Plant extract is taken orally as anti-spasmodic (1), antidysenteric (1), as expectorant for cough (2), cold (2) and fever (4). Leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds (3), burns (6) and boils (3) as antiphlogistic. Leaves are chewed as such to check dental caries (5) and halitosis (6). Chewing of fresh leaves checks toothache (6) and halitosis (2). Leaf infusion is administered to infants in case of convulsions (2). Leaf juice is applied topically to remove warts (3) and is used as eye drop to cure cataract (20). Leaf and root extract are prescribed against diarrhoea (3) and dysentery (4). Plant extract acts as blood purifier (5), diuretic (6), checks flatulence (2) and malarial fever (2). Oil extracted from stem is massaged on the body to check body aches (2) and dermatitis (4).

Phaghurn

Herb

1650– 1800

Pink purple

May–July

Leaves

Oral intake of leaf decoction checks cough (3) and cold (4).

7 0.07

Resin is applied externally on boils (4), cuts and wounds (1) as antiphlogistic and styptic (2). Resin is also applied on cracked heels quick healing (5). Resin is mixed with milk and given twice a day in case of influenza till total recovery (4). Leaf decoction taken orally cures cough (3), asthma (2) and bronchitis (2). Seeds are taken with milk as aperient (2). Leaves are cooked as vegetable and eaten to increase eye sight (6). Bathing with plant decoction cures skin diseases (2). Leaf paste is styptic (2) and is also applied topically on abscess to help them ripen (3). Leaf paste is styptic (4) and is applied on cuts and wounds (5) to counteract inflammation. Seed decoction cures gastric and peptic ulcers (4), irritable bowel syndrome (3), diarrhoea (5) and dysentery (2). Plant extract is prescribed in bronchitis (2), asthma (3) and hay fever (4). Decoction of bark in vinegar is taken orally against diarrhoea (4), dysentery (5) and hernia (3). Cotton soaked in this decoction is applied at the site of aching tooth (2). Fresh leaves and floral heads along with seeds are bruised and then applied to eyes for curing conjunctivitis (3). Bark and leaf paste is applied on cuts and wounds as cicatrizant (3). Leaf extract is used as antidote to snakebite (3) and insect bite (8). Fresh leaf juice is used as eye drop to

16 0.16

Part used

JUH-14890

Pinaceae

JUH-003

Indian blue pine, Five leaved pine

Kayiur, Yar

Tree

1600– 1700

Young cones green, Mature cone brown

May– October

Leaves, resin

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantaginaceae

JUH-14725

Ribwort plantain, Narrowleaf plantain

Phatal Kachh, Veuth Gulla

Herb

1580– 1800

Green

May– November

Leaves, seeds

Plantago major L.

Plantaginaceae

JUH-14783

Broadleaf plantain, Common plantain

Loqout gulla

Herb

1580– 1800

Greenish brown

June– October

Leaves, seeds, whole plant

Platanus orientalis L.

Platanaceae

JUH-14852

Oriental plane

Boin, bune

Tree

1800– 1850

Greenish red to April–May purple

Bark

Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd

Lamiaceae

JUH-14749

Wrinkled leaf isodon

Sloi

Herb

1600– 1750

Pale purple

Leaf

August– October

UV

55 0.53

4 0.04

22 0.21

32 0.31

20 0.19

20 0.19


Lamiaceae


(Syn. Plectranthus rugosus Wall. ex Benth.) Polygonum aviculare L.

cure conjunctivitis (4). Leaf decoction cures cough (3) and pharyngitis (2). Polygonaceae

JUH-14768

Polygonaceae Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre (Syn. Polygonum hydropiper L.) Populus ciliata Wall. ex Salicaceae Royle

JUH-14917

Common knotgrass, Birdweed, Pigweed, Lowgrass Marshpepper knotwood

Kayakshua

Herb

1580– 1750

Pink

June– October

Aerial parts, fresh leaves

Topical application of leaf paste around the boils helps in their quick healing (3).

3 0.03

Pipla, Marchwangan gassa

Herb

1580– 1680

Pink

June– October

Leaves, stem

Leaf paste is styptic (5) and antiphlogistic (4). Extract of the whole plant is given in diarrhoea (2), bleeding piles (1) and painful menstruation (2). Decoction of the plant act as appetizer (3). Twigs are used as toothbrush (Miswak) to check tooth decay (6) and halitosis (1). Bark decoction is prescribed as tonic (2), stimulant (2) and blood purifier (3). Bark extract is used for cleaning ulcers (3), wounds (2) and is taken orally as blood purifier (2). Resinous secretion of buds cures cold (3). An ointment prepared from leaf buds checks haemorrhoids (4). Juice obtained after crushing the plant is effective in overcoming jaundice (4), bronchitis (1) and also releases kidney stones (2). Seed decoction is useful in the expulsion of intestinal worms (3) and also acts as febrifuge (5). Whole plant is cooked as vegetable and then eaten to improve eyesight and blurred vision (5). Whole plant decoction acts as antipyretic (3), antiinflammatory (3) and anti-spasmodic (6). Leaf paste is applied on aching tooth (9). Oral intake of leaf extract checks oral ulcers (3). Plant paste is applied on the skin to soothe itching (4) and inflammation (2). Plant extract taken orally to cure fever (2). Fruits are a rich source of vitamin C and are eaten as such for overcoming asthenia (1), strengthening the immune system (4) and regulating heart and liver functioning (4). Infusion of bark checks cold (3), cough (2) and is antipyretic (2). Fruits are eaten as diuretic (1) and also help in breakage and removal of urinary stones (2). Seeds along with kernel are burnt to ash which is applied on ring worm affected site and also relieves joint pains (3). Seeds are taken daily with lukewarm milk empty stomach as aperient (4). Seeds are also cooked with fish and eaten as a dish to compensate protein deficiency (4). Massage with seed oil cures arthralgia (5). Leaves are crushed and the paste so formed is applied on cuts and wounds (5), burns (4) and boils (3) to soothe inflammation and also for quick healing. Leaf extract is taken with water to expel intestinal worms (2). Fruits are eaten as aperient (3).

17 0.17

JUH-14902

Himalayan poplar

Panjaeb, Parim Tree phrast

1600– 1650

Green

March– April

Bark

Salicaceae

JUH-14901

Italian poplar, Black poplar

Kashur phrast

Tree

1580– 1700

Green

April–May

Bark, Leaf buds

Portulaca oleracea L.

Portulaceae

JUH-14903

Purslane, Pigwed, Little hogweed

Nuneer, nunar, Herb Gul dopahar

1580– 1700

Yellow

July– November

Whole plant, seeds

Potentilla reptans L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14916

Creeping clinquefoil

Marroach

Herb

1580– 1680

Yellow

April– October

Whole plant, leaves

Potentilla supina L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14881

Bushy clinquefoil

–

Herb

1580– 1680

Yellow

May– August

Whole plant

Prunus cerasus L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14856

Sour cherry, Wild cherry

Alchie

Tree

1700– 1800

White

March– April

Fruit, bark

Prunus armeniaca L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14908

Apricot

Charae-kuj, Tser, Cheer

Tree

1680– 1750

Pale pink to pink

March– April

Seed

Prunus persica (L.) Batsch

Rosaceae

JUH-14699

Peach

Chachen kual, Tree aru, Chon nun, Arr

1650– 1750

Pink

March– April

Leaves

Prunus tomentosa Thunb. Punica granatum L.

Rosaceae

JUH-14698

Nanking cherry Hapat meuv

Shrub

Pink

JUH-14753

Pomegranate

Tree

March– April May–June

Fruits

Punicaceae

1600– 1800 1650– 1750

Dan, Anar, Daen

Red to orange

20 0.19

24 0.23

8 0.08

19 0.18

16 0.16

14 0.14

3 0.03 17 0.17

265

Leaves, Seeds, Fruit juice is administered as tonic to anaemic fruit, bark individuals (2) and if taken with warm water twice a day cures dysentery (2). Ash obtained after burning seeds is styptic (3). Oral intake of seed extract at bedtime is prescribed for one week to cure insomnia (3). Fruits are eaten as such for strengthening the heart (2). Leaves are burnt and ash is applied on gums to

14 0.14


Populus nigra var. italica Münchh.

14 0.14

266


Family


Common name

Vernacular name

Fagaceae

JUH-14882

English Oak, Common oak

Ranunculus arvensis L.

Ranunculaceae

JUH-14858

Corn buttercup Gur-sochal

Ranunculus muricatus L.

Ranunculaceae

JUH-14765

Spiny fruit buttercup

Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fabaceae

JUH-14714

Rosa moschata Herrm. (Syn. Rosa brunonii Lindl.)

Rosaceae

Rosa multiflora Thunb.

Flowering

Tree

1650– 1750

Pale green

April

Herb

1600– 1750

Yellow

April–May

–

Herb

1650– 1750

Yellow

March– June

Black locust

Kekar

Tree

1580– 1750

White

April–May

JUH-14766

Himalayan musk rose, Musk rose

Krim gulaab, Krich

Shrub

1600– 1750

White to pink

May–July

Rosaceae

JUH-14935

Shrub

JUH-14716

1650– 1750 1650– 1800

White to Pale pink Pink

May–July

Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Rosaceae Royle

Multiflora rose, Baby rose Webb’s rose, Arwal, Aewal Wild rose gulaab

April–June

Rubia cordifolia L.

Rubiaceae

JUH-14777

Manjithi, Common madder, Indian Mazait madder

Herb

1600– 1800

Pale yellow

June–July

Rubus fruticosus L.

Rosaceae

JUH-4804

Common Daen Chanch Blackberry Arrowleaf dock -

Shrub

1600– 1800 1600– 1750

Pale pink to white Pale pink

May– October May–June

Spinach dock, Patience dock

Herb

1580– 1700

Green

May–July

Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae

JUH-14717

Rumex patientia L.

JUH-14761

Polygonaceae

Hum


Abij, Abuj

Shrub

Herb

Part used


check gum bleeding (1) and halitosis (1). A spoon full of powdered bark is taken as astringent (3). Fruit, seeds, Fresh green fruits are eaten as aperient (3). A spoonful bark of dried and powdered seeds and bark is given in diarrhoea (4). Decoction of bark and seeds is used as a mouthwash for treating inflamed gums (5) and pharyngitis (2). Leaves, Whole Decoction of whole plant is effective in diarrhoea (3). plant Leaf extract is prescribed in intermittent fever (3) and asthma (1). Aerial parts Whole plant decoction is taken orally as a cure for periodic fever (2), asthma (2) and arthralgia (3). Leaf paste is styptic (3), and is applied on cuts and wounds (2) and abscess (3) as antiphlogistic. Leaves Dried leaf powder is styptic (3). Leaf decoction is antispasmodic (4) and relieves acidity (4) and dyspepsia (3). Pinch of flower powder is taken with water to cure gastritis (3), duodenal (3) and gastric ulcers (6). Paste of ash prepared in mustard oil is applied on boils as antiphlogistic (1). Petals, Flower extract is used as eye drop for checking Flowers ophthalmological disorders (2). Paste of fresh petals is applied on face to cure acne (3) and blemishes (3). Leaf and flower juice is applied on wounds for soothing inflammation (4). Dried and powdered flowers are consumed with honey to check diarrhoea (3). Flowers Syrup prepared from flowers is taken orally against epilepsy (2) and insomnia (3). Flowers, root Paste of petals is administered with honey to counter chest infections (4). Juice of petals is poured into nostrils to cure nasal bleeding and nasal swelling (3). Petal extract is given in hepatitis (5), jaundice (12) and other liver disorders (4). Root extract is useful as aperient (12). Flowers are made into a local preparation called ‘Khambir’, a spoonful of which is taken daily as brain tonic (6) and memory enhancer (5). Roots, leaves, Root paste is topically applied on burns (6) as antistem phlogistic. Root extract is anti-spasmodic (19), antidysenteric (7), cures jaundice (5), bronchitis (5), rheumatism (9), abnormal uterine bleeding (6), internal and external haemorrhage (5), releases stones in the kidney, urinary and gall bladder (8). Stem and leaf decoction is useful in the expulsion of intestinal worms (2). Root extract lowers blood pressure (2). Fruits, roots Fruits are eaten as such to cure anaemia (3). Root extract is emetic (3). Leaves Leaf paste is applied on cuts, wounds (3), and burns (4) as antiphlogistic. Leaf extract is taken orally to counter the intake of some poisonous substance or insect intake (2). Juice of stem and flowers is applied to cure acne (4). Leaves, root Root and leaf decoction is taken orally as aperient (3). Root extract is applied on the ring worm affected site (4). Roots heated in mustard oil are used in the form of

ΣU

UV

14 0.14

7 0.07

15 0.15

27 0.26

15 0.15

5 0.05 51 0.50

74 0.72

6 0.06 13 0.13

16 0.16


Quercus robur L.

Life form

Salicaceae

JUH-14862

White willow

Boteh vir

Tree

1580– 1700

Pale green

March–

Stem, Leaves, bark

Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth.

Lamiaceae

JUH-14722

Kashmir salvia

Gankual, Sholur

Herb

1580– 1750

Pale lilac, White

April–June

Leaves, root

Crassulaceae Rosularia adenotricha (Wall. ex Edgew.) C.A. Jansson (Syn. Sedum adenotrichum Wallich ex. Edgew) Senecio vulgaris L. Asteraceae

JUH-14737

Hairy Sepal Sedum

Rohne-Halah

Herb

1600– 1800

White with pink keels

May–July

Whole plant

JUH-14713

Common groundsel, Old man in the spring

–

Herb

1580– 1750

Pale yellow

Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.

Brassicaceae

JUH-14941

Dandi Hak

Herb

1600– 1750

Yellow

Solanum americanum Mill. (Syn. Solanum nigrum L.)

Solanaceae

JUH-14797

Hedge mustard, Tumbling mustard Black nightshade

All year but Leaves profuse flowering in June– August. April– Seeds, whole August plant

Kambai

Herb

1580– 1700

White

May– September

leaves, fruit

Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.

Asteraceae

JUH-14710

Common sowthistle

Dudije, Dadhege

Herb

1600– 1700

Yellow

April–June

Aerial parts

JUH-14850

Common chickweed

Nickhack, Losdhi

Herb

1580– 1800

White

March– April

Whole plant

Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae

Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund (Syn. Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H. Wigg.)

Asteraceae

JUH-14718

Common dandelion

Hand

Herb

1580– 1800

Yellow

March– November

Leaves, root, latex

Thymus serpyllum L.

Lamiaceae

JUH-14688

Breckland thyme, Wild thyme

Jangli javind, Javen

Herb

1580– 1750

Pale purple

May– October

Whole plant, seeds

Topical application of fresh leaf paste is styptic (3) and also cures dermatitis (4).

24 0.23

76 0.74

29 0.28

7 0.07

267

16 0.16 Seed paste is applied on the outer boundary of eyes to cure conjunctivitis (4). Extract of whole plant is taken orally to check measles (5) and asthma (4). Seed powder is antipyretic (3). Leaf paste is applied on ulcers (4) and wounds (7) as 57 0.55 antiphlogistic and demulcent. Leaf decoction is antispasmodic (8) and also relieves cough (10). Leaf extract is prescribed in haemoptysis (6), piles (10), dysentery (4) and liver enlargement (4). Fruits are edible and used as tonic for overcoming anaemia (4). 30 0.29 Oral intake of plant extract is useful in checking intestinal ulcers (3), dyspepsia (4) and fever (4). It is also given to ladies post delivery for quick recovery and overcoming asthenia (5). Plant decoction is prescribed as blood purifier (6) and for controlling blood pressure (8). 23 0.22 Plant extract is prescribed as anti-pyretic (2), cures chest congestion (2), cough (4) and cold (5). It is also used as antacid (4) and anti-spasmodic (4). Plant paste in Sesamum orientale oil is massaged on joints to relieve arthralgia (2). Leaves are cooked as vegetable and given to pregnant 179 1.74 ladies at the time of delivery for reducing labour pains (36) and also act as galactagouge (41). Decoction of leaves is given twice a day post delivery to ladies to overcome anaemia (23). Root decoction serves as hepatic stimulant (16), hepatoprotector (8) and also cures jaundice (10). Oral intake of root extract treats gall stones (6) and urinary disorders (9). Plant latex is applied on warts (5) and fungal infections (4). Dried herb is used as a poultice on fractured bones (14). Plant extract is taken orally as antipyretic (7). 92 0.89 Whole plant decoction cures flatulence (4), urinary troubles (6), menstrual disorders (11) and releases kidney stones (6). Fresh leaves are crushed to make a fine paste which is applied on cuts and wounds (16).


Salix alba L.

poultice to relieve itching of skin (5). Root and leaf extract treats dyspepsia (2) and jaundice (2). Fresh and tender twigs are used as tooth brush to clean teeth and check tooth decay (3), halitosis (4) and to keep gums healthy and strong (6). Leaf decoction is taken orally to relieve headache (3), fatigue (2) and pain in legs (2). Bark decoction is administered in arthralgia (3). Leaf extract is prescribed in fever (1). Leaf paste is styptic (6) and is also applied on hard abscess to soften it (5). A pinch of dried and powdered roots is taken orally with lukewarm water during cough (4) and cold (17), stomach ache (11), dysentery (6) and fever (11). Roots are boiled in water and steam inhaled to cure cold (9) and cough (7). Plant juice is applied on skin eruptions (4), rashes (4), burns (13) and blisters (3). Plant extract is administered orally as aperient (2) and also treats dyspepsia (3).

268


Family


Common name

Vernacular name

Life form


Flowering

Part used


Seeds are eaten as such to relieve stomach ache (11). A local preparation of the plant made with fish called fish curry also relieves flatulence (13). Seed oil is applied as antiseptic on cuts and wounds (6), boils (10) and burns (9). Leaf paste is applied on joints to cure arthralgia (5) and gout (4).

ΣU

UV

1700– 1800

Yellow

May–June

Leaves

Bullhead, Devil’s weed, Goathead,

Meitcher Kund Herb

1600– 1700

Lemon yellow

June– September

Leaves, fruits

Wazul Batak lout GagarLuth, Tri patur

Herb

1580– 1700 1580– 1700

Pale pink

May– November May– August

Seed

JUH-14774

Strawberry clover Red clover

Fabaceae

JUH-14798

White clover

Herb

1580– 1700

White

June– September

Whole plant

Tulipa clusiana DC. (Syn. Tulipa stellata Hook.) Ulmus wallichiana Planch

Liliaceae

JUH-14697

Lady tulip, Tulip

Safeed batak lout, Batak neur Neuw

Herb

1600– 1750

April–May

Bulbs

Extract of bulbs is used as tonic to overcome asthenia (2).

2 0.02

Ulmaceae

JUH-14884

Herb

1580– 1600

March

Bark

Dried and powdered bark is applied on abscess (2) and ringworm affected body part (3).

5 0.05

Urtica dioica L.

Urticaceae

JUH-14772

The Himalayan Bren elm, The Kashmir elm Soi Common nettle, Stinging nettle

Purplish outside, whitish within Whitish green

Herb

1580– 1750

Green

July– November

Leaves, roots, whole plant

58 0.56

Verbascum thapsus L.

Scrophulariaceae JUH-14913

Common mullein

Dandashah, Gedhar tabacco

Herb

1580– 1800

Yellow

May– October

Verbena officinalis L.

Verbenaceae

Blue vervain, Common vervain

Hutmool

Herb

1600– 1650

Pale purple

June– October

Leaf paste is styptic and is also applied on the scalp before hair wash to get rid of dandruff (3). Topical application of leaf paste in mustard oil checks arthralgia (5). Leaf extract is administered orally as tonic for female reproductive health (9) and also regulates menstrual cycle (12). Leaf extract is taken orally to check epistaxis (4). Whole plant is rubbed on the body to cure body pain (5) and arthritis (4). Root extract is taken orally for the excretion of uric acid (4). Leaf decoction is taken orally for curing urinary tract infections (12). Leaves, Flowers are kept in water overnight and this infusion is flowers, seeds taken orally to cure cough (3), asthma (2), bronchitis (3) and pneumonia (2). Leaf extract is used as ear drop to check otalgia (4). A pinch of dried and powdered seeds is taken with milk at bedtime as aphrodisiac (5). Leaf and flower extract is taken orally to cure pharyngitis (4). Leaf and flower paste is applied on face and dry skin as emollient (3). Root, leaves, External application of root paste is used as anti-venom whole plant against snakebite (4). Whole plant extract is administered to check epilepsy (5) and to regulate

Asteraceae

JUH-14791

Kashmir Salsify Tharnoo

Zygophyllaceae

JUH-14812

Trifolium fragiferum L.

Fabaceae

JUH-14900

Trifolium pratense L.

Fabaceae

Trifolium repens L.

JUH-14832

Herb

Dark pink

Whole plant, flowers

9 0.09

Oral intake of leaf extract is prescribed for the removal of stones of urinary bladder (5) and kidney (3). Leaf extract is aphrodisiac (2), cures sexual weakness or impotency (16). Dried and powdered seeds are administered as diuretic (1), for treating congestion (2), headache (2), hepatitis (3) and gout (3). They are also considered astringent (4), diuretic (3), tonic (5) and anti-dysenteric (4). Seeds are eaten as such to check dyspepsia (3).

53 0.51

Powdered herb is administered in the form of tea as expectorant against whooping (6) and dry cough (12). Plant extract is taken orally as anti-spasmodic (9), checks gout (6) and dermatitis (5). Oral intake of flower decoction cures cough (4). Whole plant extract is used as blood purifier (12), and is also prescribed in arthralgia (2).

42 0.41

3 0.03

14 0.14

26 0.25

24 0.23


Herb

Tragopogon kashmirianus G. Singh Tribulus terrestris L.

Plantaginaceae

JUH-14723

Speedwell, Lichi Kuch Corn speedwell

Herb

15801750

Pale blue

April-May

Whole plant

Veronica persica Poir.

Plantaginaceae

JUH-14754

Persian speedwell, Bird’s eye speedwell

–

Herb

1580– 1750

Pale blue

Nov– December March– June

Whole plant, leaves

Viola odorata L.

Violaceae

JUH-14837

Sweet violet

Numposh, Banafsh

Herb

1650– 1750

Violet, White

March– April

Flowers, root

Xanthium strumarium L.

Asteraceae

JUH-14834

Rough cocklebur, Common cocklebur

–

Herb

1580– 1680

Pale green

September– Leaves, fruit, October whole plant

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (Syn. Ziziphus vulgaris Lam.)

Rhamnaceae

JUH-14767

Jujube

Brar, Bre

Tree

1600– 1750

Pale yellow

May–June

Fruit


Veronica arvensis L.

menstruation (3). Oral intake of leaf extract acts as febrifuge (4) and also expels intestinal worms (2). It is also prescribed as tonic in arthralgia (6). Decoction of whole plant is alterative (4), anti-scorbutic 34 0.33 (5) and diuretic (3). It is also used as a remedy for scrofulous affections and in paste form is applied topically for healing burns (11), ulcers (1), whitlows (2) and the mitigation of painful piles (8). Oral intake of plant extract cures dyspepsia and is anti- 21 0.20 spasmodic (1). Paste of dried and powdered plant in mustard oil is applied on abscess (2), boils (2), burns (8) and skin allergies. Leaf extract is used as expectorant (2). Flower and root decoction checks cough (52), cold (52) 252 2.45 and bronchitis (36). Flowers and sugar are mixed in 1:3 ratio, kept in a pot for about 15-20 days and the preparation so formed, locally called ‘Khambir’ is administered against oral ulcers (12). Petals are made in the form of syrup which is used against throat infections (49). Decoction of fresh flowering herb is used as diuretic (23) and blood purifier (28). Leaf paste prepared in mustard oil is applied on head to 19 0.18 relieve headache (7). Leaf decoction is prescribed against malarial fever (3). Topical application of the paste of fruits and/or whole plant in Sesamum orientale oil is effective in curbing arthralgia (3), myalgia (4) and dermatitis (2). Fruits are eaten as appetizer (26), aperient (5) and blood 73 0.71 purifier (23) and also check haemorrhage (3). A spoonful of seed powder is taken daily with warm water to check jaundice (14). Fruits are used in the preparation of a traditional Kashmiri drink ‘Sharbat’ which is administered to ladies post delivery (2).

269

270


Climbers, 0.8%

Shrubs, 5.4%

Trees, 14.6%

D. carota was important species in these categories and Colchicum luteum, Indigofera heterantha, M. azedarach, Ziziphus jujuba recorded high value of Fl in two categories.

4. Discussion 4.1. Informants

Herbs, 79.2%

Percentage contribution

Fig. 1. Percentage contribution of various life-forms of ethnomedicinal plants. 30.0 27.6 25.0 20.0 14.8

15.0

11.4

10.5

10.0

8.6 5.7 5.2

5.0

3.8 3.3

3.8 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Others

Shoots

Latex

Rhizome

inflorescence

Bulb

Stem

Aerial parts

Bark

Flower

Seed

Fruit

Root

Whole plant

Leaves

0.0

Plant part Fig. 2. Percentage contribution of various plant parts used in the ethnomedicinal preparations.

(UV ¼1.04), Thymus serpyllum (UV ¼0.89), Ephedra gerardiana (UV ¼0.79) and Salvia moorcroftiana (UV ¼0.74). 3.4. Informant consensus factor (ICF) All the ailments cured by the medicinal plants found at Shankaracharya Hill were clustered into 16 categories. The values of informant consensus factor (ICF) ranged between 0.93 (diabetes and parasite categories) and 0.76 (fever category). Other important categories were andrological/gastrological/birth problems (ICF¼0.92), liver complaints (ICF¼ 0.92), respiratory disorders (ICF¼0.91) and gastrointestinal problems (ICF¼0.91). On the basis of species used and citations, gastrointestinal problems (82 species and 856 citations), dermatological diseases (63 species and 414 citations), other ailments (52 species and 389 citations), circulatory diseases (45 species and 308 citations) and respiratory problems (44 species and 455 citations) were the most important ailment categories (Table 3). 3.5. Fidelity level (Fl %) The ailment categories were further analysed using fidelity level (Fl) to assess the most important species of a category. Critical appraisal of Table 4 shows that only Epilobium hirsutum recorded 100% Fl. Some of the most important medicinal plants with high Fl values were Tribulus terrestris, Asparagus officinalis and Carum carvi (andrological/gastrological/birth problems), Trifolium repens and Rubus fruticosus (circulatory problems), A. biflora and Galium aparine (dermatological), M. azedarach (diabetes), A. absinthium (gastrointestinal), Lonicera quinquelocularis and Rosularia adenotricha (inflammation), Rosa webbiana and D. carota (liver complaints), Tragopogon kashmirianus (muscular-skeletal problems), Oxalis corniculata (ophthalmological), Cuscuta europaea (other), Anagalis arvensis (parasite), Potentilla reptans (physical pains), Crataegus rhipidophylla, Urtica dioica, D. carota (urological).

The men in this region regularly perform most of the outdoor activities. Most information which women reported was acquired second-hand. As expected, men were able to provide more detailed information about the medicinal plants present in the Shankaracharya Hill. Dan Guimbo et al. (2011) also reported the greater knowledge of male populace in outdoor resources. Significant values of Spearman’s correlation coefficient show that informants attain the information about ethnomedicinal plants with age and experience. This observation is in line to some other studies done by Ugulu et al. (2009) and Dan Guimbo et al. (2011) who also reported that knowledge increases with age, and Phillips and Gentry’s (1993) proposition that knowledge increases not only with age but also with frequent application of that knowledge. The knowledge of medicinal plants decreased significantly with the increase in education level of the informants. The educated informants had less information about the medicinal plants than the illiterate or less educated informants. The results agree with the study by Begossi et al. (2004), in which the highest levels of medicinal plant knowledge were found among the older members of the population. Zent (2001) also reported a negative association between formal education and traditional knowledge among Piaroa of Venezuela, Quinlan and Quinlan (2007) in Bwa Mawego, Commonwealth of Dominica, West Indies, and Bhatia et al. (2014) in Udhampur district of J&K, India. This could be attributed to the impact of modernization (including urbanization and advent of formal education) and the very poor system of sharing indigenous knowledge (through word of mouth, with maximum secrecy and only along family lines) on medicinal plants to the younger generation (Lulekal et al., 2013; Bhatia et al., 2014). More than 70% of the world’s population relies mainly on traditional herbal medications (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991; King, 1996; Pei, 2001). Loss of traditional knowledge by any means may alter healthcare seeking behaviour as the sectors of health care realign in modernizing communities. Such changes in behaviour could present additional challenges for struggling health care systems in developing nations (Quinlan and Quinlan, 2007). 4.2. Floristic characteristics Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae and Brassicaceae are the most dominant families in the flora of Srinagar (Singh and Kachroo, 1976, 1994) and also in the medicinal flora of the present study. Almeida and Albuquerque (2002) reported the family Lamiaceae as the richest in species citations whereas Bennett and Prance (2000) reported families Lamiaceae and Asteraceae as the most dominant medicinal plant families. Plant species from Fabaceae and Asteraceae families have been documented for antimycobacterial activity in different reviews (Gautam et al., 2007; McGaw et al., 2008). Fabaceae is characterized by the presence of coumarins, pyrrolizidine and quinolizidine flavonoids (Wink, 2010). Brassicaceae has fibre (butyrate acid), vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, especially glucosinolates as main constituents (Campbell et al., 2012). Butyrate acid has anti-inflammatory effects, and helps regulate apoptosis and immune function (Blaut and Clavel, 2007).


271

Table 3 Ailment categories and informant consensus factor (ICF). Ailment category

Diseases

Aphrodisiac, delivery, galactagouge, impotency, menstrual disorders, spermatogenic, syphilis Andrological/ gastrological/birth problems Circulatory diseases Anaemia, bleeding, blood pressure, blood purifier, epistaxis, hematochezia, styptic Dermatological diseases Abscess, acne, blemishes, boils, cuts & wounds, dandruff, dermatitis, dropsy, itching, ringworm, scabies, warts Diabetes Diabetes Fever Antipyretic, fever, hay fever, intermittent fever, malaria, pneumonia Gastrointestinal Abdominal pain, abdominal spasms, acidity, anthelmintic, appetizer, constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery, problems dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion, intestinal worms, nausea, oral ulcers, pharyngitis, piles Inflammations Antiphlogistic, burns, sun burns, whitlow Liver complaints Jaundice, hepatitis, liver enlargement, liver strengthening Muscular-Skeletal Arthralgia, convulsions, joint & bone dislocation, fractured bones, gout, myalgia, sores, sprain, problems rheumatism Ophthalmological Conjunctivitis, cataract, eye sight, eye sore, opthalmia problems Other ailments Anxiety, asthenia, bleeding gums, brain tonic, epilepsy, fungal infection, hair fall, hair growth, insomnia, kidney stone, memory enhancer, perspiration, sedative, tonic, tooth decay Parasite Lice Physical pains Body pain, chest pain, headache, kidney pain, otalgia, toothache Poisoning Insect bite, poisonous substance intake, snake bite Respiratory problems Asthma, bronchitis, cold, cough, halitosis, influenza, whooping cough Urological problems Diuretic, painful urination, urinary bladder disorders, urinary bladder stone, urinary tract infections

The medicinal plants were mainly (79.2%) herbs. This may be due to the dominance of herbaceous habit in the local flora (Singh and Kachroo, 1976, 1994; Lone et al., 2014) because of the harsh xeric and cold conditions prevailing in the study site and dominance of Cedrus deodara in the Northern aspects. Both, the environmental conditions and dominance of Cedrus deodara prevent the growth of seedlings into trees as in the former case the resources are limited whereas Cedrus deodara has allelopathic effects on the seedlings of other plants. Gazzaneo et al. (2005), Muthu et al. (2006), Lulekal et al. (2013) and Bhatia et al. (2014) also recorded the dominance of herbs in the medicinal floras of their respective studies. The contribution of plant parts collected through destructive methods was 29.5%. Harvesting of roots, rhizomes, bulbs and corm kills the parent plant and could be a severe threat for survival of the often rare and slowly reproducing medicinal plants of the area. The plants collected by using these methods, especially those who propagate through rhizome, bulb or corm, need sustainable utilization and conservation strategies, although, no effort to conserve and sustainably utilize these resources was found in the region. Moreover, despite harvesting these medicinal plants from the wild environment of Shankaracharya Hill, no attempt of in situ conservation was observed to save fast eroding medicinal plants of the district by the locals. In this case, there is urgent need for enhancement and refreshing the traditional culture of medicinal plant uses by organizing workshops, meetings and conferences and ensuring youth participation in such events. Also, while conducting such awareness programs, people need to be encouraged to conserve medicinal plants by domesticating them in their home gardens, where possible because at present the empowerment of local communities to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity is increasingly becoming an important policy shift as most of the local people in rural areas depend on natural resources for their livelihood (Njoroge et al., 2010). 4.3. Use-value Ethnomedicinal plants like V. odorata, T. campylodes, A. hippocastanum, A. absinthium and D. carota, with high use-value also

No. of plant species used (nt)

Use citations (nur)

ICF

17

205

0.92

45 63

308 414

0.86 0.85

4 31 82

43 126 856

0.93 0.76 0.91

30 12 31

157 133 233

0.81 0.92 0.87

9

60

0.86

52

389

0.87

5 23 7 44 22

56 138 39 455 153

0.93 0.84 0.84 0.91 0.86

find mention in other studies (Duke, 1985; Kirtikar and Basu, 1999; Peirce, 1999; Queralt et al., 2005; Nadkarni, 2009; Malik et al., 2011; Bhatia et al., 2014). V. odorata contains alkaloid, glycoside, saponins, methyl salicylate, mucilage and vitamin C (Stuart, 1989) that have been reported to possess antioxidant (Ebrahimzadeh et al., 2010) and diuretic properties (Vishal et al., 2009), and used against bronchitis, cancer, cough, fever, urinary infections, rheumatism, sneezing, kidney and liver disorders (Kirtikar and Basu,1999; Nadkarni, 2009). T. campylodes is a rich source of minerals particularly potassium (Hook et al., 1993) as well as iron, magnesium, zinc, potassium, manganese, copper, choline, selenium, calcium, boron and silicon (Queralt et al., 2005) and a rich source of vitamins A, C, D, and B complex (US Department of Agriculture, 2003). The principal extract and medicinal constituent of A. hippocastanum seed is aescin, a mixture of triterpenoid saponin glycosides (Duke, 1985; Schulz et al., 1997). Aescin decreases the transcapillary filtration of water and proteins (Weiss, 1988). It has been used to treat a wide variety of inflammatory and oedematous conditions, to reduce swelling associated with bruises, fractures, brain trauma, post-operative and post-traumatic soft tissue swelling, and acute thrombophlebitis (Weiss, 1988). Thymus serpyllum, E. gerardiana and S. moorcroftiana were the other medicinal plants with high use value. The main components of the essential oil of wild Thymus serpyllum are thymol, γterpinene and β-cymene (Rasooli and Mirmostafa, 2002; Raal et al., 2004). The essential oil is powerful antibiotic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal and disinfectant that enhances the immune system and fights infections, acts as an emmenagogue, carminative, and stimulant, and also relieves rheumatism, gout, and sciatica (Raal et al., 2004; Aziz and Rehman, 2008). Thymus serpyllum is also an important remedy for ailments of the respiratory, digestive, and genito-urinary system (Aziz and Rehman, 2008). The chief constituents of E. gerardiana is ephedrine, which contains alkaloids like L-ephedrine and D-pseudoephedrine, and is used to treat cough, asthma, hay fever and bronchitis (Garla et al., 2011; Ishtiaq et al., 2013). Nadkarni (2009) reported that the seeds and roots of S. moorcroftiana are used as emetics, antitumor agents and also as a

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Table 4 Fidelity level (%) of the important species for different ailment categories. Category

Botanical name

Andrological/gastrological/birth problems

Tribulus terrestris L. Asparagus officinalis L. Carum carvi L. Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund

16 12 12 41

30.2 29.3 28.6 22.9

Circulatory diseases

Trifolium repens L. Rubus fruticosus L. Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Dacus carota L.

12 5 23 32

85.7 83.3 31.5 29.9

Dermatological diseases

Epilobium hirsutum L. Anemone biflora DC. Galium aparine L. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Euphorbia helioscopia L.

5 15 5 5 15

100.0 65.2 62.5 35.7 35.7

Diabetic

Melia azedarach L. Berberis lycium Royle

27 6

43.5 10.7

Fever

Amaranthus hybridus L. Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl

17 8

32.7 32.0

Gastrointestinal problems

Artemisia absinthium L. Medicago lupulina L. Conium maculatum L.

103 6 5

88.0 85.7 62.5

Inflammations

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hard. Rosularia adenotricha (Wall. ex Edgew.) C.-A. Jansson Veronica persica Poir. Datura stramonium L. Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M.Johnst.

5 16 8 5 5

55.6 55.2 38.1 35.7 35.7

Liver complaints

Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle Daucus carota L. Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

16 28 14

31.4 26.2 19.2

Muscular-Skeletal problems

Tragopogon kashmirianus G. Singh Colchicum luteum Baker Indigofera heterantha Brandis

5 18 11

55.6 48.6 36.7

Ophthalmological problems

Oxalis corniculata L. Indigofera heterantha Brandis Plantago lanceolata L.

20 10 6

36.4 33.3 27.3

Other ailments

Cuscuta europaea L. Clinopodium vulgare L.

12 5

66.7 55.6

Parasite

Anagallis arvensis L. Colchicum luteum Baker Hedera nepalensis K. Koch

23 13 6

79.3 35.1 26.1

Physical pains

Potentilla reptans L. Xanthium strumarium L. Cannabis sativa L.

9 7 10

37.5 36.8 35.7

Poisoning

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd Melia azedarach L.

5 11 12

62.5 55.0 19.4

Respiratory

Cardamine impatiens L. Lactuca dissecta D.Don Anthemis cotula L.

8 7 12

66.7 36.8 34.3

Urological

Crataegus rhipidophylla Gand. Urtica dioica L.

5 12

27.8 20.7

treatment for haemorrhoids and the leaves serve as agents against the guinea worm and itch, and in the form of a poultice they are applied to wounds. 4.4. Informant consensus factor (ICF) The values of ICF in the present study ranged from 0.76 to 0.93. The high value of ICF indicates highest share of similar plant use information within a community (Sharma et al., 2012) and is in line to the earlier studies of Ugulu et al. (2009), Sharma et al. (2012), Lulekal et al. (2013) and Bhatia et al. (2014, 2015). According to Heinrich et al. (1998), high ICF values are important to identify plants of particular interest in the search for bioactive

Citations

FL (%)

compounds. The highest number of species was used for the treatment of gastrointestinal and dermatological ailments, which is in agreement with the categories in the work of Heinrich et al. (1998), Andrade-Cetto (2009) and Bhatia et al. (2014). The main reasons for higher cases of gastrointestinal and dermatological disorders may be attributed to the poor sanitation facilities (Bhatia et al., 2014). 4.5. Fidelity level (Fl%) The fidelity level (FL) is useful for identifying the inhabitants most preferred species in use for treating certain ailments (Alexiades, 1996). The values of Fl varied between 0.9% and


100%. Generally, FL of 100% for a specific plant indicates that all the use-reports mentioned the same method for using the plant for treatment (Srithi et al., 2009). Plants that are not widely used and did not show high use value are used for very specific therapeutic purposes, and we therefore found high FLs for these plants. In the present study, only Epilobium hirsutum had 100% fidelity for the dermatological category. This finding suggested that there is a well-defined selection criterion for this use category (Gazzaneo et al., 2005). Plants with low use values and/or FLs are not necessarily unimportant, but having low use values indicates that traditional knowledge about them is at risk of not being transmitted and that it may be gradually disappearing (Chaudhary et al., 2006).

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