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EUSER Publishing

European Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research

ISSN 2312-8429

Vol. 1, Nr. 3, September 2014

International Advisory Board

Prof. Dr. Catalin Zamfir, Director, ICCV, Academia Romana Prof. Dr. Emilian Dobrescu, Academia Romana Prof Dr. Elena Zamfir, University of West, Timişoara, Romania Prof Dr. Misu Jan Manolescu, Rector,University of Oradea, Romania Prof. Dr. Emilian Dobrescu, Institute of Sociology, Academia Romana Prof. Dr. Mame S.Sutoko, Rector, Widyatama University, Bandung - Indonesia Prof. Dr. İsmail Hakki Mirici, President, WCCI, Turkiye Dr. Sandro Knezovic, Seniour Research Fellow, Institute for Development and International Relations, Zagreb, Croatia Prof. dr. Siebren Miedema, Educational Foundations Department, Faculty of Psychology and Education, VU University, Amsterdam Slađana Živković, PhD.College of Applied Technical Studies. Serbia Univ.-Prof. Dr. Matthias Scharer, Innsbruck, Austria Adem Sallauka, General Secretary, University of Prizren, Kosovo Dr. Sokol Pacukaj, MCSER, Italy Edith Dobre, Romanian Academy

Editorial Board Editor in Chief Prof. Assoc. Dr. Ahmet Ecirli, Hena e Plote Beder University,Tirana, Albania

Editors Dr. Sokol Pacukaj, PhD, MCSER, Rome, Italy Dr. Iulian Stanescu, ICCV, Academia Romana Mihaela Ioana Danetiu, EUSER, European Center for Science Education and Research

Executive Committee Members Prof. Assoc. Dr. Ahmet Ecirli, Hena e Plote Beder University,Tirana, Albania Dr. Iulian Stanescu, ICCV, Romanian Academy Simona Maria Stănescu, ICCV, Romanian Academy Mihai Dumitru, ICCV, Romanian Academy Mihaela I. Danetiu, EUSER, European Center for Science Education and Research Bianca Serb, EUSER, European Center for Science Education and Research

About the Journal

EJSER publishes conference proceedings as special edition provided that the review process is relevant. The topic as well should be in the scope of the journal. The main aim of the EJSER is to serve the interests of contemporary and specialized academic works about different theories and practices in the social and education al area that seek to promote the analysis issues with social, cultural, technological, political and economic perspectives. EJSER welcomes a wide range of original articles, research papers, proposed models, reviews of current literature, book reviews etc. The language of articles should be English.

Publisher

Key title: European Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research Abbreviated key title: Eur. j. soc. sci. educ. res. ISSN 2312-8429 (Online) Copyright© 2014 EUSER-European Center for Science Education and Research Bergstr. 22, 72108 Rottenburg, Deutschland [email protected]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................................................................................5 A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL SPEECH OF FOUR CANDIDATES OF RASHT CITY COUNCIL ELECTIONS IN 2013, WITH A VIEW TO FAIRCLOUGH APPROACH ...............................................................................8

MAHSHID SADAT NAGHIBZADEH JALALI..................................................................................................8 BAHADOR SADEGHI ............................................................................................................................8 IN TERMS OF MUSIC TEACHERS, THE EVALUATION OF MUSIC TYPES IN THE CURRICULUM FOR MUSIC IN SECONDARY EDUCATION IN TURKEY............................................................................................................................19

GÜLNIHAL GÜL ...............................................................................................................................19 DISCRIMINATION, ASSIMILATION, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY IN TAHAR BEN JELLOUN’S LEAVING TANGIER .25

DERYA EMIR ...................................................................................................................................25 A BRIEF HISTORICAL, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF ALBANIA IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY ............................................................................................................................................................................34

DR. SOKOL PACUKAJ.........................................................................................................................34 LEXICAL CONFIGURATION IN ADHAN: A SEMANTIC PERSPECTIVE .........................................................................44

MOSTAFA SHAHIDITABAR ..................................................................................................................44 MOHAMMAD AMIN MOZAHEB ..........................................................................................................44 THE UNEMPLOYMENT OF TODAY AND TOMORROW IN ROMANIA ............................................................................52

MICTAT GARLAN ...........................................................................................................................52 THE ROLE OF MUSIC IN THE SHADOW PLAY “HACIVAT AND KARAGÖZ” ...............................................................64

AYHAN HELVACI ..............................................................................................................................64 ASSESSMENT OF ROLE IN NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR HUMANITARIAN EFFORT IN REFUGEE CAMPS WORLDWIDE ......................................................................................................................................68

FESTINA BALIDEMAJ .........................................................................................................................68 ALBINA BALIDEMAJ ..........................................................................................................................68 IDENTIFYING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS’ PERCEIVED COMPETENCE AND NECESSITY REGARDING IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT METHODS AND THEIR FREQUENCY OF USE .....................74

YURDAGÜL GÜNAL .........................................................................................................................74 THE EVALUATION OF MUSIC EDUCATION DOCTORAL PROGRAM IN TERMS OF CONTENT AND APPLICATION WITHIN THE SCOPE OF ULUDAG UNIVERSITY SAMPLE..............................................................................................81

RASIM EROL DEMIRBATIR ..................................................................................................................81 MARITIME ENGLISH LANGUAGE RESTRICTEDNESS ...................................................................................................89

SANELA KOVACEVIC ..........................................................................................................................89 ATTITUDES AND COSTUMER BEHAVIOUR ....................................................................................................................98

MALUSH KRASNIQI...........................................................................................................................98 DRITA KRASNIQI ..............................................................................................................................98 THE APPLICATION OF ENGLISH SYLLABUSES BY TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE TEACHINGLEARNING PROCESS, IN KORÇA REGION ...................................................................................................................105

MSC. EDLIRA XEGA ........................................................................................................................105 WHICH PARTIES COUNT? - THE EFFECTIVE NUMBER OF PARTIES IN THE ALBANIAN PARTY SYSTEM ..........123

ANJEZA XHAFERAJ ..........................................................................................................................123 CONCEPT OF FREEDOM IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF FICHTE .......................................................................................131

ERMELA HOXHA ............................................................................................................................131 GLOBAL EFFECTS AND CONDITIONS OF GOVERNANCE IN AN INDEPENDENT KOSOVO ...................................136

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ADEM SHALA ................................................................................................................................136 EXPLORING THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN ADVANCING THE GOALS OF EDUCATION FOR ALL AMONG ADULTS IN NIGERIA ..................................................................................................148

ORIM, BRIAN AGEM ..................................................................................................................148 IMPACT OF MUNICIPALITIES ON BRANDING PROCESS OF CITIES: EXAMPLE OF KIRŞEHİR MUNICIPALITY...154

ASST. PROF. DR. MUSTAFA KOCAOĞLU ..........................................................................................154 EUROPEAN INTEGRATION: ONE ELECTORAL PROMISE NOT TAKEN ....................................................................159

ILDA RUSI, ....................................................................................................................................159 DİGİTAL REVOLUTİON: EUROPE AT THE LEAD OF NEW TECHNOLOGİES .............................................................166

RADA CRİSTİNA IRİMİE ....................................................................................................................166 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCES TRAINING IN AN INFORMATION AGE ......................................................184

AZİZE SERAP TUNÇER......................................................................................................................184 DOBRUJAN INTERCULTURALITY – GERMAN VERSUS TURKISH CULTURE ...........................................................188

PHD UNIVERSITY ASSISTANT EDITH-HILDE KAITER................................................................................188 PHD LECTURER OLGA KAITER ...........................................................................................................188 GLOBALIZATION AND HEALTH IN KOSOVO ................................................................................................................193

ALBINA BALIDEMAJ ........................................................................................................................193 FESTINA BALIDEMAJ .......................................................................................................................193 IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLES ON JOB TEACHERS STRESS ..................................................199

FERIT HYSA ..................................................................................................................................199 ELECTRONIC SERVICE QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION: EVIDENCE FROM ALBANIA.......................................205

DR. SHPËTIM ÇERRI ........................................................................................................................205 EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION ON SELF-CONCEPT .......................................................212

FATMA NESRIN DABAKOĞLU ............................................................................................................212 INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF ALBANIA. GRAVITY MODEL .........................................................................................220

ABDULMENAF SEJDINI, PHD ............................................................................................................220 ILIRJANA KRAJA, MSC .....................................................................................................................220 LEGAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF BANKRUPTCY PROCEEDINGS IN ALBANIA AND THEIR ROLE IN THE PROTECTION OF STAKEHOLDERS ...............................................................................................................................229

BLERTA ALIU .................................................................................................................................229 SOCIAL PROTECTION FOR ORPHANED AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN KENYA: INITIATIVES, OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES ..........................................................................................................................................................235

JOSEPH MISATI AKUMA ..................................................................................................................235 THE EFFECT OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDİTURES ON ECONOMİC GROWTH. THE CASE OF ALBANİA ...............242

LORENA ÇAKERRI ...........................................................................................................................242 MIGENA PETANAJ ..........................................................................................................................242 OLTIANA MUHARREM.....................................................................................................................242 INTERNATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS OF THE FOOD INDUSTRY IN EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES ......254

MALGORZATA JUCHNIEWICZ ............................................................................................................254 KATARZYNA ŁUKIEWSKA ..................................................................................................................254 ECO-CRITICISM AND NATURE WRITING .THE TRAILS OF THE AMERICAN APPROACHES ..................................266

TIDITA ABDURRAHMANI, DR. ...........................................................................................................266 EDUCATION POLICY FOR GLOBALIZATION: THE MALAYSIAN EXPERIENCES ......................................................279

ALIS PUTEH...................................................................................................................................279 AHMAD ZAIDI JOHARI .....................................................................................................................279 6

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SUBHAN M.MEERAH......................................................................................................................279 GENERAL TASKS AND AUTHORIZATIONS OF POICE INPRELIMINARY PROCEDURE IN KOSOVA .....................286

MURAT HULAJ ..............................................................................................................................286

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A Critical Discourse Analysis of Political Speech of Four Candidates of Rasht City Council Elections in 2013, with a view to Fairclough Approach Mahshid Sadat Naghibzadeh Jalali M.A Candidate of Applied Linguistics, Department of Foreign, Languages, College of Humanities, Takestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran [email protected] Bahador Sadeghi PhD of Applied Linguistics, Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics, Department of Foreign Languages, College of Humanities, Takestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran Abstract The current study is based on a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) approach of Rasht City Council Candidates' speeches, slogans, posters, and other campaign and propaganda tools used to take part in City Council Elections. Four candidates were selected in this study from whom two candidates were finally successful in the City Council Elections and the other two were not. All of four candidates had different academic education, working records, behavioral characteristics and thought tendencies. They filled a questionnaire prepared by the researcher containing their biographical information, purposes, motivations, kinds of political propaganda, organizational or other kinds of support, if any, and something else. Researcher also used a controlled interview asking some questions about the important factors influenced on the candidates' succession or fails including occupation, thought tendency, type of sloganeering, discourse techniques and so on. It should be noted that researcher considered some available sloganeering instruments like posters, CDs of lectures, pictures and slogans used by the candidates in Rasht City Council Election Process. Then the collected data were analyzed and compared to each other to identify the candidates' thoughts and ideas represented in their speeches. Based on Fairclough framework, this study investigates how the candidates try to justify their ideas and persuade their audiences by utilizing suitable ideological discourse structures in their speeches. Also the aim of this paper is to analyze and compare the candidates' speeches in order to discover the ideological strategies, power relations and persuasive techniques underlying their speeches and to identify the most important factors influenced on their success and fail.

Keywords: Discourse Analysis (DA), Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Political Discourse, Rasht City Council Elections 1.

INTRODUCTION:

Discourse Analysis (DA) is regarded as a method to explain and analyze the results of any political elections. In fact discourse analysis techniques seem to be able to identify a general approach toward election and politics through considering some problems, issues and questions. Also the area of sloganeering and propaganda is treated as the area of discourse struggle. Based on this assumption, political parties who can give dominance to their discourse over others' discourse will succeed in political competition and any political party who fails in election campaign he/she will leave the election competition area. This is discourse that enables us to identify each candidate's capabilities and insight in order to have the best choice in elections. In this direction, our understanding of politics and present conditions of our city and country is very important. So a dominant discourse is the one that can find the main problems and requirements of a society and submit a suitable response to them.Furthermore discourse analysis aims to show how changes in the use of language can be seen as a sign of general social and cultural changes in a society, which again have to do with changes in power relations. By doing so, 1

*Corresponding author. Tel.:+98 9125516329

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critical discourse analysis (CDA) also has a special function in promoting interdisciplinary scientific work (Fairclough, 1992:72).Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a branch for Discourse Analysis commonly used for analyzing political spoken and written texts. Fairclough (1995),a pioneer in modern CDA, defined it as:The kind of discourse analysis which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causalityand determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social and culturalstructures, relations and processes; to investigate how such practices, events and texts arise out of and areideologically shaped by relations of power and struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of theserelationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony. The concept of hegemony was proposed by Antonio Gramsci (1971). In a Gramscian view, politics is seen as a struggle for hegemony. Hegemony emphasizes how power depends upon achieving consent and the importance of ideology in sustaining relations of power. There is also a broader definition of CDA offered by Fairclough (1995) and Fowler (1996) saying that CDA treats discourse as a social practice and analyzes the influence of social, political and cultural contexts on discourse. Since CDA sees discourse as both produced and shaped by ideology, it stresses the essential linguistic characteristics of social relationship, social structures and the power distributed among them. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is used in different fields. However politics is regarded as the most important social fields in which CDA plays its valuable role that sometimes is called political – critical discourse analysis containing both political discourse and critical discourse. Based on contemporary approaches in CDA, political – critical discourse analysis deals with the reproduction of political power, power abuse or domination through political discourse, including various forms of resistance or counter-power against such forms of discursive dominance (Fairclough 1995; Van Dijk 1993). In the book of Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language in 1995, Fairclough stated that language is connected to social realities and bring about social change. In the above-mentioned book he argues that government involves the manipulation and use of language in significant ways, and is particularly concerned with the linkage between Language, ideology and power relations within society. In "Language and Power", Fairclough distinguishes between power "in" and "behind" discourse. The former is concerned with discourse as a place where relations of power are actually exercised, for example power in "face-to-face" spoken language (as all of the candidates under this study confirmed it), power in cross-cultural discourse where participants are from different ethnic groupings and hidden power of discourse of the mass media. The latter (power behind discourse) states that how orders of discourse are shaped by relations of power. The term "Ideology" has several definitions out of which Fairclough chooses two: the first definition states that ideology is "any social policy which is in part or whole derived from social theory in a conscious way" and the Marxist definition according to which ideologies are, when struggle for political power is at issue, "ideas which arise from a given set of material interests" (Fairclough 2001a:77). Fairclough also (1995b) regarded the description of the formal features of text as an important element of CDA. Van Leeuwen (1996) also offered several techniques that social actors can use in their speech such as: exclusion, inclusion, suppression, thematization, activation, passiviation, personalization, depersonalization, determination (including symbolization, reverseness and implicature) and indetermination, association and dissociation, differentiation and indifferentiation, beneficiation, backgrounding, abstraction, generalization, subjection. In this paper, these techniques have been used to analyze the candidates' speech and specially their slogans. In Critical Analysis of candidates' speech, we can say that one of the most important factors for political candidates to be succeeded in any election campaign is the use of skillful language and their ability to persuade and impress their audiences. Discourse is not just a mental and lingual issue but it contains thoughts, emotions and excitements. The priority of a discourse is not necessarily rooted in reasoning power of that discourse but the priority of a discourse is a variable of mental and rational factors on one part and emotional, inductive and persuasive factors on the other part. It is crucial to state that discourses are partial and positioned, and social difference is manifest in the diversity of discourses within particular cultural contexts. In this direction, the content of political propaganda is also very important in political election area. The more a political discourse is related to the general political culture of a society, the more the success percentage of that discourse will be. One important point in political-critical discourse analysis is that a successful political discourse is the one that moves toward the expected willingness and desires of a society. In Iran, for example, there are different cultural criteria that help a political discourse to be dominant in election campaigns, including: being management-oriented and program-oriented, having religious thoughts, fighting with immorality and corruption, bravery toward foreigners, willingness to stability and safeguarding the interests of the people, willingness to social and cultural

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freedoms, submitting effective strategies to have suitable interaction with others, simple-living and avoidance of luxury and so on. Considering all above-mentioned explanations, this study is intended to use of Fairclough framework adopted from three important items of Language, Ideology and Power to analyze the results of Rasht City Council Election in 2013. This paper also uses of Fairclough approach to detect the candidates' discursive skills and structures and to discover how ideological strategies, persuasive techniques and power relations can help them to have a dominant discourse to attract the voters and to succeed in City Council Elections. 2.

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Discourse analysis and its purposes:

Fairclough (1995) defines a discourse analysis as an analysis method which includes linguistic description of the language text, interpretation of the relationship between the (productive and interpretative) discursive processes and the text, and explanation of the relationship between the discursive processes and the social processes. In addition, McCarthy (2000) states that discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used. In other words, the focus of discourse analysis is not only on the pattern of language but it is also considering the context of text. Shabanali Bahrampoor (2001) pointed out to the purposes of DA as follows:       

To clarify the relationship between author, reader and text To clarify deep structure of text production or discourse analysis process To identify the effect of text (general linguistic system) and context (social, historical, political, cultural, …) on discourse To identify special conditions of discourse producer To show variability of meaning To manifest the relationship between text and ideology To create a new method and technique in studying text, media, politics and so on

There are some areas of DA such as speech act, pragmatics, conversation analysis, genre analysis, theories of politeness, indirectness, general discourse, discourse and cultures and critical discourse analysis. This study has used a critical discourse analysis in order to fulfill its purposes. 2.2. Critical Discourse Analysis and its Emergence: The present study has used the method of Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) for its purposes. CDA appeared in the 1980s as an approach toward the combination of language studies and social theory (Fairclough 1992) and it stems from a critical theory of language which sees the use of language as a form of social practice. CDA has been used in different subject areas. After publication of some important books such as Teun Van Dijk's Prejudice in Discourse (1984), Norman Fairclough'sLanguage and Power (1989), and Ruth Wodak's Language, power and Ideology (1989), CDA has emerged as a significant paradigm of research within linguistics. Fairclough (1989, 1995), as a pioneer in modern CDA, identified his approach to a study of language as "critical language study" and proposed some approaches such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, conversation analysis and discourse analysis. It tells us how language can be represented from different point of view. It is a kind of relationship between or among ideas, power, language and the ordering of relationship within society. Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271-80) summarize the main tenets of CDA as follows:      

CDA addresses social problems Power relations are discursive Discourses constitutes society and culture Discourse does ideological work Discourse is historical The link between text and society is mediated 10

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Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory Discourse is a form of social action.

CDA tells us why individuals say what they say; what is the intentions underlying their statements. In direction of handling these kinds of questions, another broad definition is offered by Fairclough (1995) and Fowler (1996) as follow: "CDA treats discourse as a social practice and analyses the influences of social, political and cultural contexts on discourse. Since CDA sees discourse as both produced and shaped by ideology, it stresses the essential linguistic characteristics of social relationships, social structures and the power distributed among them. 2.3. Fairclough model for CDA Fairclough's (1989, 1995) model for CDA consists three inter-related processes of analysis which are related to three interrelated dimensions of discourse. These three dimensions are: 1.

The object of analysis (including verbal, visual or verbal and visual texts).

2.

The processes by means the object is produced and received (writing/ speaking/designing and reading/listening/viewing) by human subjects. The socio-historical conditions which govern these processes.

3.

According to Fairclough (as stated in Language and Power) each of these dimensions requires a different kind of analysis: 1. 2. 3.

Text analysis (description): It is the stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text. In the case of description, analysis is generally thought of as a matter of identifying and 'labeling' formal features of a text in tenns of the categories of a descriptive framework. Processing analysis (interpretation): is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction – with seeing the text as the product of a process of production, and as a resource in the process of interpretation. Social analysis (explanation): is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context – with the social determination of the processes of production and interpretation and their social effects.

Fairclough refers to what goes on at each of these stages as 'analysis', but it should be noted that the nature of 'analysis' changes as one shifts from stage to stage. In particular, analysis at the description stage differs from analysis at the interpretation and explanation stages. Also Fairclough argues that in order to interpret the features which are actually present in a text, it is necessary to make clear what other choice might have been made, and to discover the systems of options in the discourse types which actual features come from. Fairclough distinguishes between three types of value that formal features may have: 1. 2. 3.

Experiential values: It is a trace of or a cue to the method in which the text producer's experience of the natural or social word is represented. It deals with content, knowledge and beliefs. Relational value: It is a trace of or a cue to the social relationship which are enacted via the text in the context. It deals with social relation among people. Expressive value: It is a trace of or a cue to the producer's evaluation of the bit of the reality it relates to. It deals with social identities.

4. 2.4. Political discourse Politics is a social activity that can be defined, first and foremost, as a struggle for power, between those who are in power and those who are not but would like to be, although it can also be defined as a set of cooperation strategies carried out by some social institutions with a view to solving some social conflicts (Chilton 2004:3). Inherent properties of politics are a clash of interests, persuasion and manipulation, imposition of opinions as commonsensical, defining allies and opponents. According to van Dijk, "discourse" refers to a description of all genres in politics or to politicians’ discourses, so in politics "discourse" is "a socially constituted set of such genres, associated with a social domain or field" (van Dijk 1998:196). Political speech is a genre of political discourse and is part of public discourse. Also Fairclough (1995; Van Dijk 1993)

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argued that political discourse analysis pays to reproduction of political power, power abuse or domination and it is based on various forms of discursive dominance. 2.5. Power and ideology in critical discourse analysis: Ideology which manifests itself in all levels of society is a societal and national phenomenon. It goes beyond our habitus, extending to power struggles in society (Fairclough, 1989). Ideology also can be defined as systematic ideas or ideals which form a base for economic or political theory. Ideologies have a role in legalization of power abuse by dominant group. In politics, different ideologies struggle together for dominance. In this area language forms related to oral and written political text can signal the power by discovering the specific ideology embedded in them. Also power is signaled by a politician control of a social and political occasion by using of specific genres. In " Language and Power" Fairclough argued that power and ideologies are not linked to particular groups of people or linguistic forms or permanent attribute of a person or social group but ideology is linked to discourse and other moments of social practices. He also emphasized that orders of discourse vary in different social cultures. In this process all social orders of discourse are put together as a hidden effect of power. Languages provide a fine vehicle for differences of power in hierarchical social structures, because different ideologies struggle for dominance. There are several factors which are important in power in language. Power signaled not only by grammatical form within an oral or written text but also by a person control of a social or political occasion by using of the text genres. Fairclough has emphasized that power can be exercised through physical violence and through the manufacture of consent, whereby those who have power can exercise it and keep it by coercing others to go along with them (Fairclough, 2001b, pp. 27-28). Fairclough has been very interested in the role of language in producing, maintaining and transforming unequal power relations and no doubt this has influenced on his perspective. 2.6. Van Leeuwen techniques Van Leeuwen (1996) offered several techniques to be used by social actors as follows: Inclusion and Exclusion deals with incorporating and deleting the social agents intentionally or unintentionally. Suppression means making hidden. It also means excluding both social actors and their activities so that no trace is left in the representation. Backgrounding is a kind of exclusion that leaves traces in the representation. It means that something is deleted in a specific activity but its effect or trace is manifested in other part of the clause. Thematization deals with paying more attention to a word or phrase. In Activation social actors are presented as active and dynamic forces in an activity. InPassivization social actors are presented as undergoing an activity. Personalization and depersonalization: the former occurs where something inanimate takes the characteristics of human being and in the latter human being takes characteristics of inanimate things. Determination: it occurs when the character of social agent is clear but in indetermination this character is vague and unspecified. In Determination social agent may be one person or consisted of several individuals. The former itself is from three types including a) Reverseness in which social actor has two different and reversal roles, b) symbolization in which an ideal and symbolized agent is replaced by a social agent, c) implicature is an inference meaning created at the result of floating one or more conversational maxims of Grice. Association means two or more social actors associate to each other to perform a social activity and we use of "," among the agents but in dissociation two or more social actors are participated in a social activity and we use of "or" among the agents. It means that the social activity can be done by each of them not all of them. Differentiation and indifferentiation: differentiation is a kind of separation between two social agents, social activities or social conditions (such as separation between rich and poor people). In Beneficiation the social agent benefits from a social act. Beneficialization may also be realized by participation. In this case beneficialized agent is recipient or client in relation to a material process or receiver in relation to a verbal process. In Abstraction a special characteristic is abstracted from a group of people and it refers to the members of that group. Generalization and specification: in the former social actors can be represented as classes but in the latter social actors can be represented as specific identifiable individuals. 3.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

With a view to Faircough's framework, this paper intends to analyze, compare and contrast the Rasht City Council candidates' speeches, slogans, posters, trackers and interviews for City Council Election in 2013 in order to find out how

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the candidates try to persuade and justify their audiences to be succeeded in elections. In general the purpose of this study is summarized in two parts as follows:   4.

To detect the candidates' discursive structures, persuasive techniques and power relations based on Fairclough approach in order to have a dominant and justifiable discourse to attract the voters and to succeed in City Council Elections. To identify the ideology underlying each candidate's speech and slogans.

METHODOLOGY 4.1. Participants:

Four candidates were selected accidently in order to meet the purpose of this study, from among them two candidates (Mr. A and Mrs. Sh1) were selected from City Council Office in Rasht*, Iran who were succeeded in the Elections on 2013, and the other two Candidates (Mr. D and Mr. R) - who experienced a fail in the Elections - were introduced by one of themembers of Rasht City Council Office. 4.2. Data source The data used in this study included a questionnaire (attached in appendix), oral interviews, trackers, posters having different figures and slogans, CDs of the candidates' propaganda and some written interviews in publications. 4.3. Analytical framework The framework used in this study was that of Fairclough's (1989, 1995). Fairclough emphasized on discourse structures and formal features of oral and written text in order to have an effective interpretation. He also stressed on the use of language in significant ways, and his framework is particularly concerned with the linkage between Language, ideology and power relations in order to have a dominant speech. This study also used Van Leeuwen social actors' techniques (1996) - all of them described in literature review - to analyze the candidates' statements and specially their slogans. 5.

SAMPLE ANALYSIS

Statements of Mrs. Sh. as the candidate succeeded in Elections: In general, my main reason to attend in City Council Elections was my serious willingness to serve the civilized people of Rasht city. This is my belief that city councils are not places to do political activities; instead, city council should have efficient plans to manage the city, to provide comfort and security for people and to promote the city's growth and development proportionate to the spread changes of the country and of the world. In my weekly publication [Guilan Child (Farzandane Gil)], I pointed to some propositional plans to improve the city management as follow: 1. to create conditions to participate people in city programming, 2. to increase official health and to create a customer-oriented system in municipalities, 3. to revise municipality's income system, 4. to construct the sport, cultural and amusement places in the city. Another reason that persuades me to attend in Elections was the weak presence of women in city councils area. I emphasized that we, women, can reinforce the woman's management role through our active presence in the field of civil management areas. I had no slogan, no special propaganda or political meetings and no protection by any political parties. I had only some posters with a single figure and I submitted my plans and propositions in my weekly publication for the audiences. The most important factors influenced on my success are as follows: to trust in God, protection of my family members and my presence in national media of Guilan Center (both in radio and television) for 23 years. Media helped me to be an introduced character among Rasht people. Also I stress the need to observe the codes of Islamic government.

[*] Because of observing confidentiality, the use of the candidates' full name is avoided. [*] I'd like to thank all members of Rasht City Council Office and the candidates who help for this research reported here. 1

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5.1. CDA of Mrs. Sh text Mrs. Sh. – who is the editor-in-chief of a weekly publication (Farzandane Gil) – used media discourse as a part of her campaign propaganda in City Council Election time so the nature of power relation enacted in her discourse is not completely clear; in this respect, Mrs. Sh.' discourse involves hidden relation of power as Fairclough called it "power behind discourse". Media discourse is a kind of one-sidedness discourse in which candidate doesn't know who is among the audiences and what they say is addressed to ideal subject. Different candidates have different kinds of strategies for problem solving. Through detailed describing of a long list of her plans and programs in her weekly publication, Mrs. Sh. tries to show how much problems exist in Rasht City and how she tries to resolve them; by this persuasive strategy, she stimulates the sense of hope in audience. In respect to the women's role she emphasized on more active presence of women in city management in order to strengthen the position of women in their social and public life. By using of the words "emphasize" and "point out" she shows a type of power in her statement. Another characteristic of Mrs. Sh.' statements is that she used Van Leeuwenpersonification technique saying "media helped me..." that is a compensatory tendency to give impression o teaching each of the people handled in mass as an individual. In her final statement, Mrs. Sh. used the phrase "Islamic Government". Although she never speaks about her political tendency, this phrase is the nodal point of Principalists party in our country; he also used the word "stress" in this sentence that can be good indicators of ideologies underlying her speech. The subject position of Mrs. Sh. is a female so she used of another strategy to claim solidarity with women and articulate their desire, hope and wills. She applied a relational value by using pronoun "we". Cultural values were also influenced in her success. She received a lot of votes because of her justifiable appearance, firm character and religious thoughts indicating the social identity of the woman political candidate in Islamic country. Statements of Mr A. as the candidate succeeded in Elections: My main purposes to attend in Rasht City Council Elections are divided in two parts: internal motivation involves my inner apprehensions arising from the problems of management policy that I saw in my city; external purposes involve the problems of Rasht people that persuade me to work as a useful servitor for my city's people; and I think that all of us should manipulate our all efforts to resolve our city's problems. The crucial factors influenced on my success are to trust in God, protection of my family members, my good working records, propaganda such as posters and interviews in publications, but I have to emphasize that the most effective factor was my presence in the most areas of the city and having face to face speech with people, receiving their comments and propositions and submitting my plans and strategies to resolve the current management problems of the city; and finally I requested people for helping me to solve the all mentioned problems. Students, youth and common people cast the most amounts of votes for me. On the subject of women role I have to say that women were my first working group; I believe that women are able to act in some fields better than men and I 'm not agree with any limitation for women in any social activity. During Elections, I had a policy saying that "we do our work and we pay no attention to others"; but in fact, in social, electoral and political processes, you cannot do your work separately through ignorance of political parties, political events and competitors, so a candidate have to observe moderation and to handle the type of his/her political interaction with parties, competitors and influenced individuals. Slogan: 1. We need no young consulters, we need young managers. 2. Efficient management, Active citizen, an Advanced city. 5.2. CDA of Mr. A. text At the beginning of his speech, Mr. A introduced himself as a servitor of people. By this technical register, he used two techniques simultaneously; one of them is persuasive technique because he uses emotive language to create a sense of consensus in audiences, and the other technique is using of relational value because of politeness in his language. Also through describing his plans, he used persuasive strategy of problem resolution combining relational elements of conversational discourse. When he says "all of us", he expresses solidarity with relational elements of a more traditional political discourse type and when he uses of modal verb "should" he shows authority in his speech, so we can also see a sign of power relation in this statement. Mr. A frequently used face-to-face discourse during his campaign propaganda in City Council Election and he declared that it was the most effective measure in his succession. In face-to-face discourse he designed his 14

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contributions for the particular people he was interacting with. He knew who his audiences were, so he tried to adapt the language heused and to decide to keep this adapting based on the feedback he got from his audiences. The most characteristic of face-to-face discourse is that the nature of power relation enacted in it is often clear. In his tracker, Mr. A named several responsibilities undertaken in several companies. Fairclough believes that statement of responsibilities is another sign of power relation in politicians' discourse. He also requested people for helping him. In "Language and Power", Fairclough believes that there is a close relationship between request and power. Concerning the women's role, Mr. A. emphasized on his objection forany limitation of woman' political and social activity. The strategy existed in this statement is using of disagreement. According to Fairclough, candidates use disagreement in their speech in order to exercise influence and power. Also in the mentioned sentence, an experiential value is usedbecause of being negative (I don't agree with any limitation …). Negation is the basic way to distinguish what is not the case in reality from what is the case. In final part of his speech, Mr. A. encouraged political candidates to have a moderate interaction with political parties and influenced individuals. Through analysis of this sentence, we can detect some ideological strategies. Although he never speaks about his political tendency, it seems that his thoughts are close to Reformist party because moderation and political interaction are from the moments of Reformists. Also in his slogan he said "we want young manager". By this sentence he used another persuasive technique introducing himself as a capable manager to persuade the audiences. Statements of Mr. D. who failed in Elections: I lived in Rasht city for many years having different responsibilities and I wished I make my city so beautiful and pleasant with Islamic architecture that people have more comfort and enjoy from living in their city. I was sure that my management records in security, disciplinary and transportation could help me to meet these purposes. From among different types of propaganda I selected these items: being among dear people of Rasht to have an honest speech with them, presence in mosques and social meetings and printing some posters. I failed in City Council Elections but I have to say that my intense tendency towards jurisprudent leadership (VelayateFaghih) and our country's system was from effective reasons to receive the clean vote. Slogan: Yesterday's sacrifice, Today's management, Tomorrow's development 5.3. CDA of Mr. D text All candidates contribute to the emergence of a new hegemonic discourse in their political discourse. Referring to his presence in the War imposed by Iraq and to risk his life for defending our country, Mr. D. used of a persuasive strategy to stimulate people's sense of sympathy. He also pointed to all of his responsibilities in security, disciplinary and transportation areas. This statement of responsibility is another sign of power relation. Mr. D. also believes in the effect of face-to-face discourse with people during the Election campaign that is also other sign of power.There are some ideological strategies beneath Mr. D.' statements, for example sing of some words such as "Islamic architecture" and "presence in mosques" are indicator of his religious thoughts; he also said that his tendency towards "Velayat" is resulted in receiving clean votes by him. By using of the word "Velayat", he clearly introduced himself as a proponent of Principalists because "Velayat" is nodal point of Principal party in Iran. Also the phrase "clean vote" has an expressive value. Also using of the phrase "dear people of Rasht" shows a kind of politeness in his discourse and has relational value based on Fairclough framework. Mr. D. had a single slogan in which we can see Van Leeuwen'sdetermination technique.This technique has several types. One of them is reverseness that is used in this slogan. It means that social actor has reversal roles. Also multitemporal reverseness is used in the slogan. We have three times of yesterday, today and tomorrow. Statements of Mr. R. who failed in Elections: Concerning my motivation to attend in City Council Elections, I can point to my sense of personal duty, willingness to try for constitutive changing, development and public welfare, absorbing the certain capitals and promotion of tourism industry, and finally developing the qualitative and quantitative level of amusement places. I think that all of us can play our role based on our capabilities and specialties to create a developed city. I failed in Elections but I believe that the most important factors to be succeeded in any Elections is spending much money and 15

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performing efficient campaign propaganda. I received my votes by youth and athletes; I seriously stress that I had no affiliation to any party including principalists or reformists. In respect to women's role I can say that they can act even better than men in some social fields; and my final speech is that in order to succeed in any elections spending enough money and performing massive propaganda are from the most effective items. Slogan: Truthfulness, Management, Developed city 5.4. CDA of Mr. R. text At the beginning of his speech, Mr. R. described his attendance in City Council Election as a "personal duty" for developing the city. This phrase has an expressive value. But the main point of Mr. R. is that he seriously declared that he is not affiliated to any political parties. He separated himself from both Principalists and Reformists. By using of "seriously declare" he somehow shows a power in his speech. In another sentence, he showed that he has some capabilities and background knowledge in business and absorbing the certain capitals and acted as a unifying factor that want to work with people to meet their common goals. He used of the phrase "all of us"; this is deictic technique that candidates use in order to create a close relationship with the audiences; this is also persuasive technique. Also in political speech, when a candidate uses the phrases such as "we", "all of us" and like these, he/she serves corporate ideologies which stress the unity and solidarity of a people. Also when electoral candidates use the expressions indicating solidarity, they really speak about relational value. He used also experiential value when he emphasized he had no affiliation to any party (negative sentence). As other candidates, Mr. R. prepares a long list of his responsibilities and his plans and purposes in his trackers all of which have the theme of power relation. Mr. R.' slogan involves three words. Truthfulness, management, a developed city, by all of which he tried to use of persuasive techniques to justify the audience. 6.

CONCLUSION

In direction of making this paper, CDA has been a useful instrument to analysis, to compare and to contrast of political speeches of Rasht City Council Candidates, because it helped to realize the interdependency of language and ideology; ideology and socio-cultural practice; and socio-cultural policies. CDA also made possible to excavate meaning from the candidates' utterances enabling more accurate interpretations of their statements. Also the content of each candidate's speech was analyzed based on Faircloughian pattern to discover their hidden ideologies, power relation, persuasive technique and formal features manifest in their interviews, slogans, posters, questionnaire, trackers and other propaganda items. The main axis and content related to the candidates' campaign propaganda were excavated based on their repetition and emphasis and their strategic slogans. In this study the theme of power was achieved through the manipulation of technical registers, imperative sentences to invite people to make an ideal city, statement of responsibility of people and themselves, modal verb (such as should), urges, stresses and statement of disagreement. Also we saw that how different candidates tried to impose upon the context for their strategic purposes. They produced various types of problem resolution integrating with the use of relational values which indicated unity or solidarity (such as: we, all of us …) and authority (such as speaking on behalf of people). Undoubtedly, there were some similarities in the speeches of candidates as regards the formal features and linguistic elements used to explain their ideological beliefs. Three of them stressed the effect of face-to-face discourse in electoral discourse. The main point that I want to make is that although in society such as Iran - where power relationships are clear and stable - we cannot expect to find a great deal of ideological diversity, there is also some degree of ideological difference so that ideological uniformity is never completely achieved. In general, the result of this study showed that, CDA can be regarded as a valuable opportunity to identify all hidden realities such as power, ideological strategy, persuasive technique and linguistic device underlying a politician discourse which has been naturalized.

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REFERENCES

English sources: Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power: Published in the United States of America. By Longman Inc., New York. Complete Citation: Henderson, R. (2005). A Faircloughian approach to CDA: principled eclecticism or a method searching for a theory? Melbourne Studies in Education, 46 (2), 9-24.ISSN 0076-6275. Accessed from USQ ePrintshttp://eprints.usq.edu.au Fairclough, N. (1999). Global Capitalism and Critical Awareness of Language.Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language, Lancaster University, LA1 4SE. Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis-The Critical Study of Language. London: Longman. Fairclough, N., Notes for Norman Fairclough’sAnalysing Discourse: Ch 4 (V3) Genres & Generic Structure. Fairclough, N. Analysing Discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London and New York. BĂRBULEŢ, G. (1918). Discourse Analysis with Michel Foucault & Critical DiscourseAnalysis with Norman Fairclough. Universitatea, Alba Iulia. Hashemi, M. R., &Ghanizadeh, A. (2012). Critical discourse analysis and critical thinking: An experimental study in an EFL context. Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Janks, H. (1996).Critical Discourse Analysis as a Research Tool.University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. BHATIA, A. (2006). Discourse & Society: Critical discourse analysis of political press conference. Vol17(2): 173– 203,10.1177/0957926506058057. The online version of this article can be found at: http://das.sagepub.com/content/17/2/173. Mc Carthy, M. (2000). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Matić, D. (2012). IDIOLOGICAL DISCOURSE STRUCTURES IN POLITICAL SPEECH: Original Scientific paper. Komunikacijaikultura online, Godina III, broj 3. Viberg, B. (2011). In the name of freedom: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Political Discourse in the Inaugural Speeches of George W. Bush and Barack H. Obama from a post-colonial perspective: English Linguistic Essay. EN1C03 V11. Brokensha, S. (2011). NOTICING US AND THEM CONSTRUCTIONS: THE PEDAGOGICAL IMPICATIONS OF A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF REFERRING IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE. Per Linguam 2011 27(1):56-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5785/27-1-98. Rashidi, N.&Souzandehfar, M. (2010).A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE DEBATES BETWEEN REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS OVER THE CONTINUATION OF WAR IN IRAQ. Van Dijk, Teun A., What is Political Discourse Analysis. Universiteit van Amsterdam. Ainsworth, S., Discourse Analysis as Social Construction: Towards Greater Integration of Approaches and Methods. The University of Melbourne, Parkville Victoria 3010 AUSTRALIA. Weisberg, M., Three Kinds of Idealization: supported by National Science Foundation grant SES-0620887. University of Pennsylvania. Rahimi, F.&Riasati, m. j. (2011). Critical Discourse Analysis: Scrutinizing Ideologically-Driven Discourses. Critical Discourse Analysis: Scrutinizing Ideologically-Driven Discourses, Vol. 1 No. 16. Sahragard, R.&Davatgarzadeh, G. (2010). The Representation of Social Actors In Interchange Third Edition Series: A Critical Discourse Analysis. The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS), Vol. 2, No. 1, Ser. 59/4.

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Persian Sources: Soltani, S. A. A. (2004). Discourse Analysis as a Theory and Method Bahrampour, Sh. (2000). "Introduction to Discourse Analysis", Discourse and Discourse Analysis, Tehran: Discourse Culture Tajik, M., &Roozkhosh, M. (2008).Consideration of the 9th period of Iranian Presidential Election. Literature and human sciences faculty journal, No.61 8.

APPENDIXES

The questionnaire submitted to four candidates of Rasht City Council Elections: Questionnaire 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Personal information: Full name: …………………………. Age: ……………… Sex: Male…….. Female ……………. Education: ……………………………… Field of study: …………………………………. Please explain about your purposes and motivation to take part in City Council Elwctions? What slogans you have used in City Council Election? What kinds of sloganeering or propaganda you have used to be succeeded in City Council Election? Please explain about the most important factors influenced on your succession (in case of succession)? e.g. occupation, being handsome, beauty, thought tendency, type of your sloganeering and so on? Have you been received any financial or other kinds of supports by anybody or any organization? How? How do you evaluate women and their management role in society? Which group of people cast the most amounts of votes for you? (e.g. adolescences, students, athletes, market men, common people and so on) Explain about the role of propaganda, picture and posters in your succession? In case of fail, what are your recommendations to be succeeded in a future election?

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In Terms of Music Teachers, the Evaluation of Music Types in the Curriculum for Music in Secondary Education in Turkey Gülnihal GÜL Uludag University [email protected] Abstract Along with the establishment of the Republic, a song repertoire consisting of transferred songs was previously endeavoured to be formed by taking school music samples of foreign countries and writing Turkish words below them. Afterwards, with the same percept, an imitation songs repertoire was attempted to be formed by our composers. Since the 1950s, the idea that school music should be on the axis of folk music and that music education should be carried out through school music samples composed from the close environment of the child has begun to take place. Together with the various developments since the 1970s, the tendency towards soft music has strengthened in society and also interest in Turkish classical music has increased. Moreover, since the 1970s, soft and classical music samples have begun to be used in music education, which was built on folk music in 1968. Thus, high school music teaching programs which went into effect in 1986 were prepared accordingly. Today, the sense that bringing to the classroom appropriate samples of vital music types in society, getting the student to learn at least one example of each music type and introducing these types is dominating. In this study, music types in middle school music teaching programs in Turkey were endeavoured to be evaluated in terms of music teachers. The subject was researched with the case study method which is one of the qualitative research methods. The oriented exemplification method was used in the study and 5 music teachers working in a middle school participated in the study group. The data was analysed by forming the necessary coding and themes. According to the obtained findings, results and suggestions were given place. Keywords: Music Education, Music Types, Music Teaching Programs, Middle School

Introduction Important developments have been made in music education together with the education revolution initiated by the leadership of Atatürk after the announcement of the republic (1923). Within this context, music lessons have started to be compulsory in primary and middle schools (Gül & Bozkaya, 2010). It is seen that since 1924, music education is carried out from the music concept and theory related to tones, and upon this understanding, the education given at Music Teacher School training music educators was built with the effect of trying to place international art music conception. in the following years, the view arose that the Turkish Music Education System should be organised by having its resource based upon school songs from Turkish Folk Music. Within this context, this thought is enhanced with the view of Paul Hindemith(1895-1963) who prepared a report during the establishment of Ankara State Conservatoire (1936) and said, “….The song repertoire of music lessons in schools should be taken from the magnificent, rich repertoire of the former and strong Turkish Folk Music” (Gedikli, 1999). However, in those years, it is seen that it took time for Turkish Folk Music to be in the repertoire of educational music as it could not find a place extensively at a national level within the widespread music types and carried on as the music of the countryside. Beginning from the 1950s and together with the 1960s, the concept that school music samples should set out from the child him or herself and his/her close environment and be on the axis of folk music became important (Dinçer, 1988). Furthermore, nursery rhymes and various folk songs were started to be given place extensively in music education (Dinçer, 1988). in this context, significant changes happened in Turkish school music in the 1968 program; school music education entered the process of configuration by being based upon folk music and it took its place in the program (Bozkaya, 2001). Different developments have begun to take place since the 1970s. While the tendency in the society towards popular music was enhancing, the Ministry of National Education prepared high school popular music competitions. Moreover, the interest in Turkish Classical Music became stronger. Thus, the program in the new curriculum for secondary education which was put into effect in 1987(1986) was prepared in accordance with this statement: “Getting the student to sufficiently comprehend the technical features and values of our national music which is a whole with its classical and folkloric types so that he/she can be an active member of his/her society and introducing this art practically” (Çevik, 1989). 19

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Along with these developments, in the society, the idea of bringing suitable samples of music types to the classroom became widespread. To study this subject and to reach scientific results, a symposium about “The Place of Music Types in Education” was organised at Fatih Education Faculty in Karadeniz Technical University on 26-28 April 1993 (KTÜ, 1993). An important change occurred in the Turkish Education System in 1994; by having it raised to 8 years, compulsory education was evaluated within the scope of primary education. According to this, with the Board of Education and Discipline of the Ministry of National Education Decision No. 298 dated 22.04.1994, the Curriculum for Music Lessons in Primary Schools, which has been accepted according to be tried out and developed since the academic year 1995-1996, was also re-organized by being divided into 3 periods as 1st, 2nd, 3rd grades, 4th, 5th grades and 6th, 7th and 8th grades. It could be said that the program is an example for a work in terms of the technique used in the preparation of a program. The opinion, “As well as with the obtainment of a shared music repertoire it requires, the common, primary music culture which gives place to the principal music types vital in our country and which preserves, reinforces and develops our national unity and solidarity has been essentially taken” was given place in the information related to school music education in the general explanations part of the program (MEB,1994). Thus, the idea that all the music types vital in our country should be in the program was obtained after long searches (MEB,1994). In 2006, towards the general aim and principles of the Turkish National Education, the preparation of a music repertoire which gives place to local, regional, national and international music types and which also has music types reinforcing our national unity and solidarity as well as facilitating our integration with the world was essentially taken in the curriculum for music lessons that was prepared and applied with a constructivist approach (MEB, 2006). When the article related to the field is analysed, the following are observed: Firstly, a study made by Göner (2006) reveals that songs are appropriate for the age of children, more place is given for contemporary songs but there is a need to increase the number of songs and folk songs in music course books in primary schools. Secondly, the students of Varış and Cesur (2012) are generally interested in popular music activities and not in classical music activities. Also, the content of the music lesson does not motivate students to listen to different music types. Thirdly, samples of education music and Turkish Folk Music are mostly allowed for in the teachers books of Gün Duru(2013), but having examples of Turkish Folk Music related to all areas in these books is useful in terms of putting forward our musical variety. Finally, Köroğlu (2014) reached the conclusion that songs students enjoy singing and contemporary songs which appeal to children and which are appropriate for the developing and changing conditions of society could be added to the curriculum for music lessons. In this study, starting from the idea that art is a universal language and that it is not just an important component of a national culture but also of an international one, the current situation of curriculum for music lessons in secondary education was researched in terms of music types as well as with what the possible developments may be in the future. This was also endeavoured to be put forward with data regarding the opinions of music teachers. Related to music types given place in the curriculum for music, the purpose of the research is to specify the opinions of music teachers working in junior high schools. Regarding this purpose, the subproblems below have been specified: 1. What are the views of teachers related to which music types should be allowed for in music timetables in secondary education? 2. What are the views of teachers related to how adequate music types in music programs in secondary education are in having the aims and objectives achieved in education? 3. In terms of tune structure and the meaning of words of music types in the repertoire of music programs in secondary education, what are the views of teachers related to their feature of having suitability for the class level? 4. What are the views of teachers related to the students’ interest in the types of music in lessons? 5. With regard to the practices of music education, what are the preferences of directors related to music types and what are the views of music teachers related to the requests of the directors in this aspect? Method Research model, study group and information about the collection and analysis of data are included in this section. Research Model

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This study is a qualitative case study which is directed towards the evaluation of music types in the curriculum for music in Turkey’s secondary education in terms of music teachers. The most essential feature of the qualitative case study is researching one or more cases thoroughly (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2006). Study Group Typical case illustration which is one of the oriented illustration methods was used in the research. Oriented illustration methods are useful in discovering and explaining facts and cases in many situations. The purpose of typical case illustration is forming an opinion about a specific field by working on normal situations and then the aim is informing those who do not have knowledge about this field, topic, practise or novelty (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2006). Through this illustration, it will possible to have an idea about the opinions of music teachers related to music types in the curriculum for music in Turkey’s secondary education. This illustration group was formed by 5 music teachers working in junior high schools and who participated voluntarily in the research. The Collection of Data A semi-structured interview form prepared by the researcher was used for the collection of data in the research. Questions are previously specified in semi-structured interviews and data is collected with the questions (Karasar, 1999). First of all, a literature review was made when the questions were being prepared and the effect of music types in the curriculum for music in junior high schools was focused on during the process and duration of music lessons. A semi-structured interview form was prepared by turning fundamental topics into themes. At the end of this process, a trial interview was carried out. Through the prepared interview form, meetings took place with the participants. The Analysis of Data In the research, the opinions of the participants were taken in writing on the semi-structured interview forms. A number was given to the interview papers. The data obtained from the research was organized into significant sections by the researcher, and these sections were encoded. These formed codes were used in the analysis and organization of data. Findings Themes and according to these themes, codes and sub codes were specified by the researcher as the result of the analysis of the responses the participants gave to the interview questions. Findings related to the specified codes and sub codes have been analysed below. The Opinions of Teachers Related to Music Types Needed to be Given Place in the Curriculum for Music in Junior High Schools The music teachers who participated in the interview believe that the music types in the curriculum are appropriate but they also consider the necessity of a program consisting of outstanding classical music samples that will develop the admiration of students and appeal to them and which also includes works of the specific representatives in jazz music and selected samples from our traditional music. “I think the types in the program are appropriate. However, the most known samples of classical music should be given place and through this, polyphonic music should be tried to be made loveable.” (P.1)1 “I have observed that students are not aware of nearly all the music types except the ordinary samples of current popular music. At this point, I think outstanding samples of classical music works, works of specific representatives in jazz music and samples of our folk and classical music at the appropriate level of students’ appreciation should be included in the program in order to broaden the horizon of our students in terms of music types.” (P.2) “I think all music types should be allowed for in general terms without details.” (P.4) “I think the types in the program are appropriate.” (P.5)

1 P: Participant

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The Opinions of Teachers Related to the Adequacy of Music Types in the Curriculum for Music in Junior High Schools in Accomplishing Education Aims and Achievements Music teachers who participated in the interview specified that they had difficulty in accomplishing the education aims and achievements of music types in the program due to meeting the students for a period once a week. Also, it has been specified that students do not willingly study the samples of Turkish Classical Music and therefore, in this music type, difficulty is experienced in the obtainment of aims and achievements. “We meet the students for an hour once a week. Therefore, I cannot completely accomplish the aims and achievements.”(P.1) “I could never get the children to love Turkish Classical Music. Therefore, I cannot accomplish the aims and achievements relating to this type. I can highly ensure the aims and achievements of samples in Turkish Folk Music and current popular music.” (P.3) “We have a lesson with the students for an hour once a week. Therefore, as a solution, I give an assignment to the students beforehand about the topic in order to accomplish the aims and achievements. Later on, I reach the aims and achievements when I reinforce with song samples relating to the music types, and through this, I think the achievements are more permanent.” (P.5) The Opinions of Teachers Related to the Suitability of Music Types (Turkish Folk Music, Turkish Classical Music, Popular Music, School Music Samples) in the Repertoire for the Class Level in terms of Tune Structure and the Meaning of Words Music teachers who participated in the interview have specified that the sound limit and tune structure of the songs in the repertoire are generally not appropriate in terms of singing and that the tune structure of the songs are samples which would be difficult to be played with a recorder or even not be able to be played at all. They have also specified that the topics and the song samples regarding the topics are difficult for the class level. “Most of the sound limits of the songs in the repertoire are not appropriate for children. They need to be transposed in eartraining. Most of the songs are suitable to be played with a melodica.” (P.1) “Most of them are inappropriate for the class level. According to the class level, a very easy and a very difficult song can come one after the other.” (P.2) “In terms of their tune structure and the meaning of words, the songs in the books are inappropriate for the class level. I am constantly searching for sources.” (P.3) “I think most of the samples of education music in the repertoire are inappropriate. Most of the songs are suitable to be played with only the melodica.” (P.4) “Books are inappropriate in terms of topic explanation, examples and visuals. I don’t think they are prepared conscientiously. for example, the topics and songs in the 5th grade program are difficult for children who have not had a branch teacher until that time.”(P.5) Furthermore, a music teacher who participated in the research has specified that in the current auxiliary sources and books, the samples concerning school songs are inadequate. “The school songs in the auxiliary sources and books are always the same. It is boring for both the teacher and the child.”(P.4) The Opinions of Teachers Related to the Attention of Students towards Music Types in Lessons Music teachers who participated in the interview have stated that students are mostly interested in the samples of popular music and that they enjoy studies which have examples from this type. Also, the teachers have specified that students enjoy studying samples relating to Turkish Folk Music and easy songs with dual beats. However, it has been stated by the teachers that examples concerning Turkish Classical Music do not appeal to students. “Children are interested in all music types. However, samples of popular music and Turkish Folk Music which are prone to their ears are played and sung by them with a greater interest. Also, they highly enjoy playing easy songs with dual beats.” (P.1) “The environment they are in has a great effect. in one district I worked in, children were interested in samples relating to Turkish Folk Music while in another district, students highly enjoyed studying examples concerning rock and popular music. I have difficulty in getting the students to be interested while studying samples from Turkish Classical Music.” (P. 3) 22

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“They are generally interested in current popular songs and samples relating to Turkish Folk Music.” (P.4) The Preferences of Directors Related to Music Types in Practices of Music Education and the Opinions of Teachers about the Directors’ Requests Four music teachers who participated in the research have stated that in their preferences regarding music types they face the restraint of the directors and therefore, they do not adequately feel themselves independent. It is observed that directors particularly prefer practices of music education which have traditional music, request practices from teachers that have music types they listen to and know about and that they do not support studies of various types. Besides this, one participant who specified that his/her work is supported by the school principal said that he/she carries out successful work and that his/her success is greatly affected by the support of the director. “Directors want mostly samples relating to Turkish Folk Music and Turkish Classical Music to be in the practices of music education. They do not encourage music types they don’t listen to or don’t know about. in concerts especially in which there are samples from polyphonic music type, directors become disappointed by thinking there is a disorder and something is not going right. Therefore, selections directed towards types which the directors can understand have to be made when there is a school night or a concert.”(P.1) “I face the oppressive attitude of the school administration in the selection of types and works when there is any kind of musical activity at school. All the samples which will be in concerts have to firstly be approved by the administration. Therefore, I believe that I am certainly not independent in the practices of music education I carry out.”(P.2) “Since most of the directors are aged 45 and over, their preferences are mostly Turkish Folk Music and Turkish Classical Music. When I prepare programs with different types, I cannot make them happy.”(P.3) “My principal prefers to see works which feature traditional music.”(P.4) “In my school, the directors do not intervene in preferences about music types. On the contrary, I must say they support me. I believe that they have a great help in the successful programs I perform.”(P.5) Results and Suggestions Regarding the findings obtained from the research, the following results have been reached: •The music types in the curriculum for music are appropriate, but samples which will develop the admiration of the student are insufficient. •There is difficulty in accomplishing the aims and achievements related to music types due to the tightness of periods. •Teachers experience difficulty in accomplishing the aims and achievements directed towards the samples particularly concerning Turkish Classical Music. •Most of the songs in the repertoire are inappropriate for the class level in terms of sound limit and tune structure. •Most of the songs are suitable to be played with only the melodica. It is difficult to play them with the recorder or they cannot even be played with it at all. •The current auxiliary sources and samples relating to school songs are insufficient. •Students are mostly more interested in samples relating to popular music and Turkish Folk Music than examples from other music types, but directed towards these types, more outstanding samples which will advance the admiration of children should be allowed. •Samples relating to Turkish Classical Music do not appeal to students and during studying, difficulties are experienced. •Teachers face the restraint of directors mostly in the selection of music types and therefore, they cannot feel themselves independent in their work. As part of the obtained results, the following are suggested: •Increasing music periods in the weekly timetable. •Reviewing and re-organising the samples relating to types in the music programs in a way that will advance the admiration of the student. •Regarding the opinions and suggestions of music teachers working in junior high schools, re-analysing all samples concerning music types in terms of tune structure, sound limit and the meaning of words.

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•Selecting songs by taking into consideration the features of the recorder and melodica which are taught along with voice training in secondary education. •Giving music teachers more sources which have samples of education music in order to assist in the selection of music types. •For the purpose of using them in music lessons in secondary education, producing more education materials appropriate for the development level of children at that age-group. Organizing competitions for this and rewarding composers. •Making an anthology by re-evaluating samples of Turkish Classical Music in a way so that they are appropriate for the development level of children and giving place to it in that way in music education in secondary schools. •Ensuring music teachers to use more effectively explanatory music samples about international classical music which will advance the admiration of children. • Having directors assist music teachers in the accomplishment of anticipated aims and achievements in the curriculum for music, and having them avoid personal practices which feature their own preferences. References Bozkaya, İ. (2001). Contemporary Music Education and its Essential Features. The 2000 Symposium in Music. (pp. 225235). Ankara: Neyir Printing. Çevik, S. (1989). Main Problems in Music Teaching. Music Teaching and its Problems in Junior High Schools. (pp. 82-86). Ankara: Set Ofset Printing. Dinçer, M. (1988). How Should Music Education Be in Pre-school Teaching, Primary Schools and Junior High Schools in Turkey? First Music Congress Notifications. (pp. 445-454). Ankara: Evren Ofset Gedikli, N. (1999). Hindemith and the Main Problems of Turkish Music Education. International Art Music with its Effect and Results in Music. (pp. 79-88). İzmir: Ege University Printing House. Göher, F.M. (2006). The Functionality in Practice of Course Books in Primary School. (ed. Atak Yayla, A. and Yayla,F.) National Music Education Symposium. ( pp. 241-247).Denizli: Anı Publishing. Gün Duru, E. (2013). The Reflections of Turkish Music Culture on General Music Education. International Journal of Social Science, Volume 6, Issue 5,(pp. 587-596). I. National Music Education Symposium Notifications. (1993). The Place of Music Types in Education. Karadeniz Technical University Fatih Education Faculty. Trabzon. Karasar, N. (1999). Scientific Research Method, Concepts, Principles, Techniques. Ankara: Nobel Publishing. Köroğlu, N. (2014). Regarding the 2006 Curriculum for Music, the Opinions of Music Teachers in the Secondary Stage of Primary Education. Art Education Journal, Volume 2, Issue 1, (pp.127-141). Ministry of National Education. (MEB). (1994). The Curriculum for Music in Primary Schools. Ankara: National Education Printing House. Ministry of National Education. (MEB). (2006). The Curriculum for Music in Primary Education (1st-8th Grades) Ankara. Varış, A. ve Cesur, D. 2012. The Opinions of Teachers Related to the Functionality of Music Lessons in Junior High Schools. International Journal of Social Science, Volume 5, Issue 7, (pp. 751-768). Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2006). Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences. Ankara: Seçkin Publishing.

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DISCRIMINATION, ASSIMILATION, and CULTURAL IDENTITY in TAHAR BEN JELLOUN’S LEAVING TANGIER Derya Emir Dumlupinar University, Western Languages and Literature Department [email protected] Abstract In today’s multicultural countries, cultural diversity, hybridity, assimilation, and cultural identity are key issues. By focusing on the problem of immigration and its inevitable traumatic results on the migrants, Tahar Ben Jelloun’s Leaving Tangier fully presents Azel (the protagonist) and his acquaintances’ search for identity in terms of history, religion, nationality and cultural identity. Tahar Ben Jelloun’s Leaving Tangier is the story of a Moroccan brother and sister who are burning with the desire to migrate to Spain in order to attain better life. The accomplishment of their dreams actualizes at the cost of some compromises and sacrifices that end with the protagonists’ physical, emotional failure, and annihilation. The winner of Prix Goncourt for La Nuit Sacrée (The Sacred Night) in 1987, a Moroccan novelist Tahar Ben Jelloun is one of the most prolific and important writers of the recent years. As a novelist and critic, Ben Jelloun artfully combines the fact and fiction, past and present, East and West in his works. in this respect, he creates multidimensional writings that can be read and interpreted from several perspectives. Tahar Ben Jelloun’s Leaving Tangier (2006) presents the issues of “wounded childhood,” “solitude,” “displacement,” and “alienation” both individually and collectively in the colonial history of Tangier. This study focuses on the issues of discrimination, assimilation, and cultural identity, experienced by the characters in the novel, resulting from the immigration of individuals from their homelands to Europe in order to find better life conditions. Key Words: Discrimination, Assimilation, Immigration, Cultural identity, Tahar Ben Jelloun, Leaving Tangier, Postcolonial Literature.

Introduction In today’s multicultural countries, the issues such as immigration, assimilation, and confusion of cultural identity are well known discursive concepts. By depicting the relations between Morocco and Spain, Tahar Ben Jelloun’s most recent novel, Leaving Tangier, presents a critical point of view on migration and intercultural exchanges between Morocco and Spain in this framework. Tahar Ben Jelloun is a well-known Moroccan poet, novelist, and short story writer. Published originally in French as Partir, Leaving Tangier is Ben Jelloun’s thirteenth novel. in 1987, Ben Jelloun “became the first Arab writer to win France’s most prestigious literary prize when his novel La Nuit Sacrée was awarded the Prix Goncourt.” (Rifaat, 1991). in his works, he artfully combines fact and fiction, past and present, East and West and creates multidimensional writings that can be read and interpreted from several perspectives. Leaving Tangier focuses on the problem of immigration and its inevitable consequences on the migrants. The novel presents Azel (the protagonist) and his acquaintances’ search for identity in terms of sexual oppression, religion, values, nationality and class struggle. in the novel, the issues such as “wounded childhood,” “solitude,” “displacement,” and “alienation” are narrated as experienced by the characters both individually and collectively in the colonial history of Tangier. This study focuses on the issues of discrimination, assimilation, and cultural identity resulting from the immigration of individuals from their homelands to Europe in order to find better life and chances by referring Ben Jelloun’s Leaving Tangier. Born in Fez, Morocco, in 1944, Tahar Ben Jelloun, at the age of five, “was enrolled in a Koranic school, where he learned to memorize and recite verses from the Koran. Two years later, he entered a Franco-Arab school, studying French in the morning and Arabic in the afternoon. […] in 1971, at the age of twenty-six, Ben Jelloun immigrated to France to complete his studies at the Sorbonne” (Ben Jelloun & Guppy, 1999). Published his first novel, Harrouda, in 1973, Tahar Ben Jelloun is the recipient of several prizes, including the Prix de l’Amitie Franco-Arabe for in 1976, the Prix Goncourt in 1987, and the Prix Maghreb in 1994. He is “one of France’s most celebrated writers” (Ben Jelloun & Guppy, 1999) and his writings “emanate from very real and concrete situations and position him clearly as a postcolonial author on both sides of the Mediterranean, in the Maghreb and in France” (Parekh & Jagne, 1998). Ben Jelloun’s personal, political and intellectual experiences also contributed to his development as a 25

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postcolonial author; he spoke out “injustice, racism, indifference, economic oppression, hypocrisy, torture” (Parekh & Jagne, 1998). Due to his Arab/Islamic heritage, Ben Jelloun’s identity and the medium of expression in his fiction have been questioned much both in France and Maghreb. He is a Maghrebian Francophone writer, and in one of his interviews, Ben Jelloun, in response to the interviewer’s query about the use of French as the medium of expression in his fiction, replied that I belong to a specific category of writers, those who speak and write in a language different from that of their parents. I am a Moroccan, an Arab. My culture is Arab, Islamic, but it was in French, the language of the former colonial power, that I spontaneously expressed myself when I began to write. This is a paradox which stems from a historical situation. […] I don't feel guilty about expressing myself in French; nor do I feel that I am continuing the work of the colonizers. Actually, what I express in French could very well be expressed in any other language. […] in a sense, we Arab writers who write in French are the ones who offer hospitality to the French language! Not only do we adopt it, we invite it home, we transform it, we take it to places where it is not accustomed to go. (Ben Jelloun, 1991) DISCRIMINATION, ASSIMILATION, and CULTURAL IDENTITY in TAHAR BEN JELLOUN’S LEAVING TANGIER The issues of migration and its traumatic results on the migrants have been debated much in multicultural societies. Although immigrants are generally seen as potential threats to the national unity and cohesion, the effects of immigration on the immigrants regarding the constitution of cultural identity, assimilation, and adaptation to a new country have been serious issues that attracted to scholarly studies. Leaving Tangier presents the distressing story of Moroccan characters that endeavor to migrate from Tangier to Spain in order to attain better life conditions. in one of his interviews, Ben Jelloun states that “for an immigrant, life is very different. He is a symbol of the human condition unloved, not recognized, a condition that places each human being at the level of his ability to work. […] My novel Leaving Tangier has a message for the young: Immigration is not a pleasure trip; it is not a fun weekend; it is hard and difficult, because there is racism, humiliation, and loneliness” (Ben Jelloun, 2014). in the novel, regarding their ethic and cultural identity, racial and religious problems in the new country, the migrant characters’ dreams turn into nightmares on the way of immigration to achieve a better life. Throughout the novel, leaving Tangier keeps the characters so busy that they actually lose both their North African and newly gained European identities; they can neither settle nor survive in both of the lands. They are pushed to their fatalistic solitude because of the exclusion of the West; their humanity and physical beings are belittled and humiliated. Regarding the novel and its characters, the novelist states that “this novel was widely read and discussed in Morocco, where I introduced it upon its release. Leaving Tangier was well received in countries very different from Morocco, […]. This is a novel that I rewrote three times by changing the construction. I worked a lot, because I wanted to reach a level where any reader from any country can identify with one of my characters. […] I like my characters, because I identify with each one and put myself in his skin like an actor” (Ben Jelloun, 2014). Located at the northern tip of Morocco, Tangier is a port and a border town. Regarding the colonial history of Tangier, Melvin E. Page states that Until 1956, Tangier had the status of an international city. Although it had a representative of the royal authority, the city was administered by several different countries: France, Spain, England. After World War II, democratic and nationalist Moroccan parties made claims for independence, which was achieved in 1956. Independent Morocco obtained the Spanish colony of Ifni and began making claims to Western Sahara, Ceuta, Melilla, Mauritania, although making these claims was primarily a strategy to divert attention from internal social, political, and economic problems. (Page & Sonnenburg, 2003) The novel opens with the Café Hafa which is located in Tangier with a view of Straits of Gibraltar. The narrator describes the thoughts and actions of the young Moroccans who are sitting at the Café Hafa. The sitters gather at the Café and gaze admiringly the glimmering lights of the Spanish coast. They all share the same dream: to quit Tangier and move to the other side of the Mediterranean coast that promises better life conditions and chances for them: the Café Hafa becomes an observatory for their dreams and their aftermath. Long pipes of kif pass from table to table while glasses of mint tea grow cold, and enticing bees that eventually tumble in, a matter of indifference to customers long since lost to the limbo of hashish and tinseled reverie. in the back of one room, two men meticulously prepare the key that opens the gates of departure, selecting leaves, then chopping them swiftly and efficiently. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) What brings the young Moroccans at the Café Hafa together is to reach the same goal: to land the Spanish shores of Tarifa in order to obtain better life conditions. The novel presents “how poverty, corruption and the lack of employment fuel dreams of leaving Tangier” (Nice, 2009). Azel is the protagonist of the novel and is surrounded by the same feeling of departure

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from his homeland to arrive Spanish shores. He is an inventive, talented but an unemployed boy despite his law degree. Azel is fascinated by the feeling of leaving Tangier and burns within the desire of leaping the other side of the Mediterranean passionately: “the idea of sailing away, of mounting a green-painted horse and the crossing the sea of the straits, that idea of becoming a transparent shadow visible only by day, an image scudding at top speed across the waves – that idea never leaves him now” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Azel believes that he is able to achieve the opportunities in the dream land that he has already failed to catch in his own land: Leaving the country. It was an obsession, a kind of madness that ate him day and night: how he could get out, how could he escape this humiliation? Leaving, abandoning this land that wants nothing more to do with his children, turning your back on such a beautiful country to return one day, proudly, perhaps as a rich man: leaving to save your life, even as you risk losing it [...]. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) While watching the shores of Spain, the survivors of the Café Hafa call the sea “Toutia” which would carry them from homeland to the dream land. Toutia has an ambivalent nature and this ambivalence is explained by the narrator as: “she is a spider that can feast on human flesh yet will sometimes warn them, in the guise of a beneficent voice that tonight is not the night, which they must put off their voyage for a while” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). From the quotation, Toutia sometimes swallows the bodies of unlucky dreamers and sends their dead bodies back to shore. Toutia also warns “them to postpone their voyage when the night is not good enough for departure” (Pireddu, 2009). While the individuals are sitting at the Café, they are sipping mint tea around which the bees are flying and dropping in the glasses. The narrator makes an analogy between the fates of the bees, which are drowned in the dreamers’ big glasses full of mint tea and the dreamers’ positions, who are watching the monstrous waves of Toutia. in this respect, the positions of the dead bees foreshadow the fate of the dreamers who are burning with the desire of leaving their countries for a better life. The analogy between the bees and the dreamers is narrated as follows: In the tall glasses of cold tea, the green mint has been tarnished black. The bees have all drowned at the bottom. The men no longer sip this tea now steeped into bitterness. With a spoon they fish the bees one by one, placing them on the table and exclaiming, “Poor little drowned things, victims of their own greediness”. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Azel is one of the dreamers among the young Moroccans sitting at the Café Hafa. He thinks that landing on Europe will provide him a chance for freedom, but he becomes a kind of victim in the service of Miguel both sexually and emotionally. Azel is living with his mother, Lalla Zohra, and his sister, Kenza. Although he studied law, he is an unemployed young Moroccan man yearning for leaping to the other side of the Mediterranean to acquire a better life. Azel’s innocence and inexperience is narrated thus: Poor Azel, he never had a chance to live, did everything he could to break free – just think, if he’d managed to set out for Spain, by now he’d be a brilliant lawyer or a university professor. [...] a victim of unemployment, of a carelessly negligent system – such a bright boy, well educated, sensitive, warmhearted, what a pity that he got on that damned bus with those bald tires, [...]. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Due to its historical and cultural richness, Tangier has been an international city including Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities. Morocco was exposed to the colonization of many Western countries and the country gained its independence in 1956. Regarding the multicultural status of Tangier, Ben Jelloun notes that for some forty years, until 1957, Tangier had the status of an international city. […] Although it had a representative of the royal authority, the city was administered by several different countries. However, the most widely spoken language, apart from Arabic, was Spanish, […]. There were as many schools as there were countries represented in the city. Young Moroccans had the choice between the Spanish Institute and the Italian school, the American school and the French lycee. At this time cosmopolitanism was a lifestyle, multi-lingualism was not encumbered by the problem of identity, and the Muslims of Tangier lived in the same neighbourhoods as the Christians and the Jews. The Calle Sevilla was known as the Spaniards' street, but Muslims lived in the same buildings side-by-side with the Spaniards and there was no feeling of mistrust between the two. It was a time when Moroccans wondered how nearby Spain, a fairly poor country, could be capable of colonizing them. (Ben Jelloun, 1997) Although the country gained independence, the indigenous peoples were exposed to Western degradation and exploitation continuously. Regarding the constant influence of Western colonization on the country, the former King Hassan II states that “Morocco is like a tree whose roots are in Africa but whose leaves are moved by the wind of Europe” (Antonio Azbitarte, interview on 18 May, 2013). Situated in the northern tip of the country, Tangier’s geographical position was important

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because the city was a meeting place for multiple identities, cultures, and traditions. Regarding the strategic position of Tangier, Michael K. Walonen observes that This colonial presence took on a particularly forceful and idiosyncratic form in Tangier, which had a unique political status, population demographic, and also (and hence) spatiality. Since the nineteenth century an international administration had been in place in Tangier […]. A longtime center for diplomatic relations between Morocco and the nations of Europe, Tangier had for some time been home to an eclectic international population; a port city and a border town on the frontier of a more wealthy region to the north, Tangier had also for some time had its fair share of sex work and trade of contraband goods. As the era of the International Zone moved along, the city’s status as an economic free zone attracted a large number of financial speculators and the idle rich, but intertwined with this, the zone’s climate of moral permissiveness and the access it afforded to commercial sex, particularly of the homosexual variety, attracted an expatriate population looking to free itself from the moral restrictions of its native lands. (Walonen, 2011) Due to its geographic position – the city has a large international port – Tangier attracted and hosted many immigrants and writers such as Paul Bowles, William S. Burroughs, Jean Genet, Mohamed Choukri who all stayed permanently or visited Tangier during different periods of the twentieth century. Among these writers, Paul Bowles, an expatriate American writer, was the one who spent nearly half a century living and writing in Tangier. Neil Campbell quotes one of Bowles’s impressions about Tangier as follows: mixture of cultures, where you might run into a Polish refugee [...] an American construction worker [...] a tailor from Rome and where the past and the present exist simultaneously in proportionate degree, where a very much alive today is given an added depth of reality by the presence of an equally alive yesterday. (Campbell, 2000) Regarding Tangier’s position as a meeting place of multiple identities, cultures, and traditions, Paul Bowles also claimed that Tangier was “an enormous market where goods, information, and people were bought and sold [...] unloaded and reloaded [...] without valid documents to identify them” (Bowles, cited in Campbell, 2000). Bowles’ quotation reflects a colonizer’s perspective which regards Tangier as an enormous market in which people (young naive Moroccans) can be bought and sold like “cabbages or carpets” (Brandabur, 2010). His quote also presents the hopeless situation of the young Moroccans whose identities and individualities are disregarded by the colonizers. in the novel, Ben Jelloun makes reference to Paul Bowles: “an American writer and his wife lived in an apartment building” in Tangier (Ben Jelloun, 2009), who see young Moroccan people as a kind of material to enhance the creativity of their writings. Ben Jelloun depicts the abused positions of the indigenous Moroccans and their exploitation by the Westerners as follows: That type, they want everything, men and women from the common people, young ones, healthy, preferably from the countryside, who can’t read or write, serving them all day, then servicing them at night. A package deal, and between two pokes, tokes on a nicely packed pipe of kif to help the American write! Tell me your story, he says to them, I’ll make a novel out of it, you will even have your name on the cover: You won’t be able to read it but no matter, [...]. That’s what he tells them, without mentioning money […]. They aren’t obliged to accept, but I know that poverty – our friend poverty – can lead us to some very sad places. People have to make do with life, that’s how it is, and me, I see everything, but I don’t say everything. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) As seen in the quotation above, the local Moroccans are in a desperate position due to the country’s colonial history. Although the novel depicts the post-colonial period of Tangier, the young Moroccans endeavor to leave Tangier in order to avoid poverty and suffering. Due to the radical differences between the European culture and traditions and those of theirs, the characters experience ambivalent and conflicting ideas. Despite of his conflicting ideas, Azel is eventually able to leave Morocco by the help of a wealthy Spanish man named Miguel. The encounter between Azel and Miguel happens purely by chance. Miguel Lόpez is “an elegant man who dressed with exquisite taste. […] He spends the summer in Tangier and the rest of the year in Barcelona […]. A generous man, he has a passion for Morocco because of the quality of life there, its infinite variety” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Just before his departure, Azel writes a letter expressing his feelings and passions for Europe. The letter, as opposed to the latter one, expresses Azel’s enthusiasm, excitement, and joy for Spain. By addressing his own land as “Dear country,” Azel states that I finally have the opportunity and good fortune to go away, to leave you, to breathe the air of a new country, to escape the harassment and humiliations of your police. I set out, my heart light, eyes fixed on the horizon, gazing into the future, unsure of what I will do – all I know is that I’m ready to change, ready to live free, to be useful [...]. I am not leaving you forever. O my country, my thwarted will, my frustrated desire, my chief regret! You keep with you my mother, my sister, and a few friends: you are my sunshine and my sadness: I entrust them to you because I will return [...]. (Ben Jelloun, 2009)

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By the help of Miguel, “who is a rich homosexual art dealer and viveur who rescues him from a police dragnet and ultimately gives him a chance to quit his country, Azel can board a plane with a regular visa application instead of risking an arrest or even his life on an illegal trafficker’s boat, and finally lands on the European soil” (Pireddu, 2009). Miguel is a homosexual man: “whenever Miguel forced a man to become involved with him, he regretted it, but he found a kind of perverse pleasure in feeling lonely and sorry for himself. […] He loved the “awkwardness” of Moroccan men, […]. He loved the oil sheen of their skin. and he loved their availability, which marked an inequality in which the relationship was formed, […]” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). As seen in the quotation, Miguel’s perception of the young Moroccans reflects the colonizer’s vision which disregards the native’s individuality and humanity. As Edward Said puts it, in the mind of the West, Arabs are “shown to be gullible, “devoid of energy and initiative,” much given to “fulsome flattery,” intrigue, cunning, and unkindness to animals; Orientals cannot walk on either a road or a pavement (their disordered minds fail to understand what the clever European grasps immediately, that roads and pavements are made for walking); and Orientals are inveterate liars, they are “lethargic and suspicious,” […]” (Said, 1979). Accordingly, Azel is a colonized man and is always in the need of attention of the West in order to materialize his dreams. So, by the help of Miguel – the protective, benevolent, and masculine – Azel, who is depicted as weak, outsider, and feminine, could actualize his dreams. However, as the time passes, Azel is torn by his dreams and the actual nature of external reality. He lives dilemmas because he realizes the complexity between his Moroccan identity and Spanish culture. Lying in the bed in his little room, Azel once again addresses his own country with a letter. As opposed to the previous one, this letter highlights the opposition between the two coasts of the Mediterranean and includes Azel’s yearning, regret, and longings: Here I am, far from you, and already I miss something of you [...]. You know from Morocco you can see Spain, but it doesn’t work like that in the opposite direction. The Spanish do not see us, they don’t give a damn, they’ve no use for our country. I’m in my little room [...]. I’ll try to fall asleep thinking of you, my dear country, dearest and the greatest of my anxieties.” (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Captured by the conflicting ideas, Azel’s disappointment and loneliness reach climax when Miguel forces him to wear women’s clothes for a party that he holds for his guests: Miguel “had invited some thirty people for a disguise party with the theme of “The Orient: Think Pink!” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). While Miguel dresses a vizier of the Arabian Nights, Azel is forced to “wear a caftan, a wig that was almost red, a belt embroidered with gold, babouches, and a veil. Nothing but women’s clothes! Azel realized immediately what Miguel had in mind. […] Miguel whispered in Azel’s ear, ‘you’re going to dance. and you’ll dance like a whore.’ […] He began to dance to some Egyptian music, moving his buttocks […]” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). This scene indicates the abused and humiliated position of the natives at the merciless hands of the colonizers. Azel becomes the “Other” and his humanity and identity are belittled and degraded by Miguel’s capricious manners. in this respect, the hospitality of the West is transformed into a kind of ethnocentrism by Miguel. Although Azel is offered job, luxurious clothes and a safe life by his benefactor, an uncompromising gap occurs between his Moroccan roots and the newly adopted Europeanness. Pireddu observes that “Azel’s increasing distress for his sexual duplicity, weakening, and confusion caused by his relationship with Miguel is the symptom of a greater ambivalence and crisis common to most allegedly Europeanized immigrants in the novel” (Pireddu, 2009). Azel gradually “abandons all thoughts of gratefulness to Miguel for granting him the opportunity to cross the Mediterranean” (Pireddu, 2009). He soon learns that day-dreams can be misleading. As the time passes, he realizes his own complexity that pushes him into condemnation. He begins to feel antagonism toward the country and its culture that he has immigrated. He blames Miguel and Spain because he thinks that they are guilty for creating all the problems. In the novel, dreaming and departure are keywords that obsessively capture mind of the characters. Like Azel, Siham is another character “who yearns no less than Aziz’s family members to migrate to the closest piece of Europe” (Pireddu, 2009). Siham is Azel’s girlfriend and she is provided an employment in Marbella by El Haj. Although she is inexperienced and isn’t being trained for nursing, Siham has to look after a disabled girl, named Widad. Although Tangier is depicted as a city that is incapable to grant security and comfortable life for its residents, El Haj expresses the temptation of Tangier that binds its people together with the feeling of yearning: Don’t go crazy, my dear, you’ll see: even if you leave, you’ll always miss your country. We become so attached to Morocco that we can’t forget it completely, it really sticks to us, like an unseasoned frying pan, and we can’t forget it. I travelled quite a bit in my youth, thanks to easy money and parents who never asked questions. I went far away and wherever I was, strangely enough I missed Morocco. (Ben Jelloun, 2009)

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Despite El Haj’s emotional speech, for Siham “the chances offered by her four-month European visa are a sufficiently good incentive to put up with the emotional distress of her current job situation in Spain rather than falling prey to the compromises to which women have to stoop in her home country in order to survive” (Pireddu, 2009). In the novel, Malika is another character who burns with the desire of leaving her home land for Spain. Fourteen years old Malika is Azel’s neighbor and she is forced to leave the school to work for a Dutch factory where “she sorely missed her days at school and her little forays of escape to the Terrasse des Paresseux to look at the sea” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Like the other characters, she enjoys watching the boats for a long time coming and going and she dreams of herself in a “boat to Algeciras or Tarifa, disembark in Spain, and find a job there. She would be saleswoman, or a hairdresser, or maybe a model” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). This is how the third person narrator expresses the fragmented and traumatic position of the natives who works for the European market: Like her girlfriend Achoucha, the neighbor lady Hafsa, her cousin Fatima, and hundreds of girls in her neighborhood, Malika went off to shell shrimps in the Dutch factory down in the free zone of the port. Every day refrigerated trucks brought in tons of cooked shrimps, caught in Thailand and shipped through the Netherlands, where they were treated with preservatives. in the factory, small hands with slender fingers shelled them day and night, after which the shrimps travelled to yet another destination to be canned before debuting at last on the European markets. in Tangier, the girls were paid a pittance. Even with the best will in the world, only a very few were able to process more than ten pounds. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Exhausted by working for the Dutch company, Malika falls fatally ill. When she is taken to hospital, the doctor exclaims “another victim of those shrimp!” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Malika’s dreams are so powerful that it “wasn’t the examination that frightened her, it was dying – leaving without realizing her dream, leaving without ever having left the country, leaving to be buried in a hole in the cold, cold ground” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Malika becomes gravely ill and she knows that death is waiting for her out in the corridor; she feels the smell of death everywhere in the hospital room. Because of the effects of the medicines, Malika always of dreams at the hospital; she dreams of herself leaving her home country with a passport in her hand: If only I were in France, I wouldn’t be in a hospital – simply because I wouldn’t be sick, because I wouldn’t have been working in a freezing factory, I wouldn’t have caught this lung disease, [...]. I should have left, I should have held on to Azel’s hand and never let go, […] he would never have abandoned me. […] My mother told me the other day that Azz El Arab’s sister has gone to Spain; even her mother, it seems, is about to go rejoin her son and daughter. They are so lucky! (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Malika’s excessive desire to leave Morocco comes true only by her tragic death. Without fulfilling the European dream in her real life, she succeeds in abandoning her Moroccan existence during her premature death: “Malika stopped screaming. It is in eternal silence that quits the country. She has finally left. Forever” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Leaving Tangier narrates the tragedy of the migrants who “turn into paradoxical non-existing human beings” (Pireddu, 2009) because of their estrangement both from their Moroccan roots and from their newly acquired Europeanism. They are “condemned to invisibility by their foreignness even when they are socially and juridically legitimized” (Pireddu, 20009) in Europe. Kenza, Azel’s sister, soon joins to the other migrant characters in order to improve her life. Working as a nurse at a hospital in Tangier, Kenza spends her life waiting for “true love, real, sincere, overwhelming love, and for once, just once, to experience those sublime moments described so tellingly in the films and novels she had adored” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Her mother, Lalla Zohra, forces her to find a handsome husband with fine financial prospects; however, Kenza is quite sure that it is impossible to find such a husband and love in Morocco “not because Moroccan men were incapable of such emotion, but because daily life and public opinion would always stifle true love in the end” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Like Azel, Kenza’s migration is provided by Miguel who agrees to marry Kenza in order to provide her Spanish citizenship. Before her dream of leaving occurs, Miguel converts into Islam and takes the name of Mounir. Eventually, she safely arrives in Spain by the help of Miguel who welcomes her like a princess in Barcelona. She becomes Miguel’s wife on paper. During her stay in Spain, Kenza enjoys her freedom working as a dancer and soon meets a Turkish man, Nazım. However, Kenza’s hopes and desires to find happiness in the adoptive European home soon fail due to her relation with Nazım. Nazım betrays Kenza and she falls in to a deep misery and desperation which lead her to commit suicide. Her shattered dreams and nostalgia for the dream land are acknowledged by Miguel ironically toward the end of the novel. Behaving just as a pragmatic colonial, Miguel decides to send Azel and Kenza back to their homeland because he profits them utmost and annihilates them both physically and emotionally:

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Miguel now realized that there was something terrifying about loneliness of immigration, a kind of descent into a void, a tunnel of shadows that warped reality. Kenza had let herself be caught in the maze, and Azel, well, he had gone desperately wrong. Exile revealed the true dimensions of calamity. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) For both Kenza and Azel, the life in Spain does not correspond to their ambitions, desires and hopes. Both of them are annihilated and corrupted sexually, individually and morally in the dream land. Due to her nostalgia for homeland and her disappointments, Kenza gets the chance to return for homeland on hearing the death of the despotic King Hassan II: “it was then that Kenza felt the hour had come for her to go home at least to Morocco”. (Ben Jelloun, 2009). However, Azel pursues staying in Spain because “there was only one thing he didn’t want: to be sent back to Morocco. The shame, the hchouma, and the hegra, the humiliation – no, never, anything but that […] He had left. Left to return only like a prince, not like garbage tossed out by the Spanish.” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Pireddu states that “despite wrong choices and broken reveries, Azel, now a secret informer for the Spanish police fighting against the terrorism that threatens Europe, still dreams of returning to Morocco like a hero and of appearing on TV” (Pireddu, 2009). According to Pireddu “Azel’s increasing distress for his sexual duplicity, weakening, and confusion caused by his relationship with Miguel is the symptom of a greater ambivalence and crisis common to most allegedly Europeanized immigrants in the novel”(Pireddu, 2009). Azel’s dreams, hopes, and desire for Europe tragically end with his violent death at the end of the novel: “Azel was on the floor, his throat cut, his head in a pool of blood. The Brothers had slaughtered him like a lamb sacrificed for Aid el-Kebir” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Nicoletta Pireddu states that: The evolution of Azel’s state of mind and personal life is symptomatic of the profound trauma generated by the cleavage between what we may call the migrant’s pleasure principle – the easy Europeanization of his dreams – and the reality principle – the concrete social, political, and administrative mechanisms of Euromediterranean relations and of European immigration, laying bare the antinomies of the notion of community and challenging idealized perspectives on hospitality. They are doomed to exclusion on both shores, simultaneously as the hospes, the upsetting stranger demanding hospitality, and the hostis, the enemy, both on the European territory and back to their own homeland. (Pireddu, 2009) Azel’s traumatizing European adventure, along with many characters in the novel, proves the painful truth of Moha’s oracle. in the novel, the migrants’ experiences such as despair, discrimination, identity crisis, inner conflicts, and alienation are significantly uttered by Moha, an eccentric figure of the madman-philosopher. in Leaving Tangier, almost all characters yearn for leaping to the other side of the Mediterranean for improving life, except for Moha. Although he realizes the wrong applications and traumatic positions in his country, Moha criticizes the young Moroccans who are leaving their country easily in order to get better chances in Europe. Pireddu asserts that “haunted by death, Moha deprecates the Moroccans’ facile idealization of departure as the sole remedy for their destitution, and attacks the mirage of Europe and its ideology of discrimination” (Pireddu, 2009). Moha complains that “Leaving! Leaving! Leaving any way at all, at any cost, drowning, floating on the water, belly bloated, face eaten away by the salt, eyes gone. Leaving! That’s all you have come up with for a solution”(Ben Jelloun, 2009). Moha’s denouncement presents Europe’s incongruous policies toward the immigrants. His speech also includes many warnings to the young natives who choose leaving the homeland as an easy solution: This is how Moha puts the painful reality that the native Moroccans will encounter in Europe: [you] want to take off, leave, quit the country, move in with the Europeans, but they are not expecting you, or rather, they are: with dogs, German Shepherds, handcuffs, a kick in the butt, and you think that there’s work over there, comfort, grace and beauty, but my poor friends, there is sadness, loneliness, all shades of gray and money as well, but not for those who come without invitation! Right, you know what I’m talking about: how many guys left and wound up drowned? How many left and got sent back? How many dissolved into thin air and we don’t even know if they still exist, their families haven’t had any news of them, but me, I know where they are: they are here, in my jebella hood, all piled on top of one another, lying low like thieves, waiting for the light in order to emerge, and that’s not a life. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) Moha’s painful voice “brings back to the foreground the sacredness of Africa’s geographical and cultural roots as the main source of safety and redemption” (Pireddu, 2009). He says: “I’m heading for Africa, land of our ancestors, vast Africa, where people have time to take a look at life even if life isn’t generous to them” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Moha clearly expresses the agonizing situation of Africa and its people that have been subjugated and degraded for years by the colonizer countries: “Africa, cursed by heavens, Africa pillaged by Blacks wearing ties, by Whites wearing ties, by monkeys in tuxedos, even by people who are sometimes completely invisible, but Africans know this, they don’t wait to be told what’s going on.” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Racism and racist attitudes are inseparable parts in the history of colonialism. Moha points out that skin color and physical differences provide superiority or inferiority to people. He criticizes his people for behaving like the superior races toward the black Africans. Accordingly, what brings the white Arabs and Europeans together is the issue of racism for which he is anxious. Moha criticizes that: 31

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the Africans losing just a bit more of their souls, while we white Arabs (well, let’s say brown or olive or cinnamon skinned), we feel superior, stupidly despise, with a racism that needed to get some exercise, but when the poor Africans with black skin, we lose our control, we feel justified in looking down on them, we act like certain European politicians, looking down on you when in fact that don’t even see you. (Ben Jelloun, 2009) The novel ends with a part, entitled “Returning” which describes the imagery returning of immigrant characters to their homeland in a dreamy atmosphere, including some mythical allusions. in the last part, not only the novel characters such as Kenza, Azel, Flaubert, Moha, Soumaya, and Miguel, but also some literary figures such as Don Quixote, Emilzola, a librarian in Douala, and M. Panza appear. The author gathers all these characters in a boat, named Toutia, which is mentioned in the first pages of the novel. These characters, who are on Toutia, are the ones that have not found a suitable place either in their Moroccan homeland or in their adoptive home. The ambivalent nature of Toutia is stated by the narrator: “this boat seems both familiar and strange to me” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). Toutia is “a kind of fatal mediator between the two shores” (Pireddu, 2009) that is carrying away the would-be Europeans from their dream land as Europe’s “others” to their own roots. Embarking on Toutia, passengers begin once again an endless journey as spectral characters. The phantoms of Leaving Tangier walk several days “to back to their roots, to their native land, a destiny that has appeared to them as a kind of command, an indisputable order [...]. This is their season, a season for no one but them, for all those who have suffered, who have not found their place in life” (Ben Jelloun, 2009). According to Pireddu, “instead of offering a free zone where exiles, refugees, and immigrants are welcome and protected in view of their future naturalization, Toutia rather generates an ironic “imagined community” (Anderson) made of all the failed and displaced dreamers of Europe, cast off as on a ship of fools without the consolation of a comeback to their own roots” (Pireddu, 2009). Ben Jelloun’s symbolic returning represents the migrants’ hybrid status torn between home and abroad, dream and actual reality, Africa and Europe. Pireddu explains that: migration as is far more than a simple physical displacement from one spot to another in a geographical space. It cannot be measured in meters but rather in change indexes. It is about a rupture in a living continuity and a graft onto another living continuity. They are doomed to exclusion on both shores, simultaneously as the hospes, the upsetting stranger demanding hospitality, and the hostis, the enemy, both on the European territory and back to their own homeland. Neither fully present nor radically absent in either location. (Pireddu, 2009) Consequently, Leaving Tangier presents that regardless of the circumstances and of the outcome of their Mediterranean crossing, migrants turn into paradoxical non-existing human beings. The novel richly includes characters who desire to leap, legally or illegally, the other side of the Mediterranean in order to attain better working and life conditions. Levy notes that the novel “compellingly analyzes postcolonial dreamers and their dreams while critiquing the underside of globalization – the internalized self-hatred that causes one to long for what one is not” (Levy, 2010). Throughout the novel, leaving Tangier keeps the characters so busy that they actually lose both their North African and newly gained European identities. Torn between the different cultural and life conditions in their homeland and Europe, the migrant characters experience alienation, hybridity, and despair. The fulfillment of their dream comes at the cost of compromises and sacrifices that end with the protagonists’ physical and emotional annihilation. Their humanity and identity turn into paradoxical non-existing human beings because of their estrangement both from their Moroccan roots and from their newly acquired Europeanism. They are condemned to invisibility by their foreignness even when they are socially and legally legitimized in Europe. REFERENCES Ben Jelloun, Tahar. (2009). Leaving Tangier. trans., Linda Coverdale New York: Penguin Books. Ben Jelloun, Tahar and Guppy, Shusha. (Fall, 1999) “Tahar Ben Jelloun, The Art of Fiction.” The Paris Review, Vol. 41, Issue 152, pp. 40-62. –––––. (March 1997). “Tangier: myths and memories.” in ed., Roy Malkin The Unesco Courier, pp. 10-14. –––––. (August-September 1991). “Interview: Tahar Ben Jelloun.” in ed., Adel Rifaat The Unesco Courier, pp. 4-6. –––––. “A Conversation with Tahar Ben Jelloun,” available on www.penguin.com/.../leaving-tangier/9780143, accessed on 10/05/2014. Brandabur, A. Clare. (2010). “Colonialism and Orientalism: Images of Paul Bowles in Tahar Ben Jelloun and Mohamed Choukri.” Paper presented at 2010 Lisbon Conference. 32

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Campbell, Neil. (2000). "Dialogic Encounters and Hybrid Routes in the Fiction, Travel Writing, and Translations of Paul Bowles." Transatlantic Studies, ed., Will Kaufman and Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, pp. 171-185. Levy, Michele. (2010). “Tahar Ben Jelloun: Leaving Tangier.” World Literature Today, Vol, 84, No. 1, p. 61. Nice, Pamela. (2009). “Dreaming in Morocco.” in Elie Chalala, ed., AL JADID, Vol. 15, No. 61. p. 45. Page Melvin E. & Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio. Parekh, Pushpa N. & Jagne, Siga F. (1998). Postcolonial African Writers: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook. Westport, CT, USA: Greenwood Press. Pireddu, Nicoletta. (Fall 2009). “A Moroccan Tale of an Outlandish Europe: Ben Jelloun’s Departures for a Double Exile.” Research in African Literatures, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 16-36. DOI: 10.1353/ral.0.0180. Walonen, Michael K. (2011). Writing Tangier in the Postcolonial Transition: Space and Power in Expatriate and North African Literature. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Pub.

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A brief Historical, Political and Social Reconstruction of Albania in the Early Twentieth Century Dr. Sokol Pacukaj Aleksander Moisiu University Email: [email protected] Abstract The purpose of this article is to bring to the attention of researchers the fundamental aspects of the history of the Albanian people after the First World War and especially the 20s. After the independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1913, Albania began the challenges of building a nation from all points of view, political, economic, social, cultural etc. This article describes and analyzes these issues from a brief historical reconstruction from the ancient Illyrians to King Ahmet Zog. The methodology used in this article is qualitative and analytical, with various researches in the Archives of the Italian Army and the Central State in Albania. As a result of this research emerges how fundamental was the role of Italy in those years both from the political and especially economic point of view. Italy had the primacy of the import-export business with the small Balkan state. This primacy Italy still holds today by being the first trade partner. Keywords: Albania, Empire, Kanun, Skenderbej, Indipendence, Italy

1. Introduzione Il saggio che segue è una ricostruzione dei vari aspetti della storia albanese a partire dagli Illiri sino a giungere alla proclamazione della monarchia di Re Zog I, nel 1928; una ricostruzione che non trascura l’aspetto economico e con uno sguardo interessante sui dati demografici inerenti al popolo albanese e alle sue caratteristiche socio-culturali. La storia del popolo shqipetaro viene analizzata dal punto di vista degli italiani intorno agli anni ’20 del XX secolo. La parte introduttiva esamina la storia del popolo albanese, partendo dagli Illiri, passando per la dominazione romana, la conquista turca e la conseguente insurrezione albanese del 1912, sino al predominio italiano e fino alla costituzione in Repubblica nel 1925. L’analisi della situazione albanese prosegue anche nella seconda parte dell’articolo con una breve panoramica delle condizioni politico-sociali, che si basa soprattutto su un’analisi delle varie dominazioni susseguitesi nella regione, fino a puntare l’attenzione su quella ottomana e sulle sue influenze in campo culturale ed economico sottolineando comunque come l’indipendenza del piccolo stato balcanico sia stata possibile grazie al forte spirito nazionalistico e patriottico del suo popolo. Analizzando invece l’aspetto etnico del popolo albanese, si mette in risalto come nel tempo si sia assistito ad uno sviluppo autonomo di unità etniche; la più rilevante divisione etnica ad esempio, è quella esistente tra Gheghi e Toschi e presente tuttora nel territorio albanese. Si pone inoltre particolare attenzione al fatto che gli albanesi siano riusciti a mantenere i tratti originari delle popolazioni illiriche, rimanendo “i campioni più puri della razza illirica”. La terza parte si concentra su aspetti demografici del popolo shqipetaro: viene infatti analizzata la distribuzione della popolazione e notevole attenzione viene posta sulle correnti migratorie che hanno interessato il popolo albanese. Come è stato sottolineato, i rapporti che si sono creati tra l’Albania e l’Italia nel corso della prima metà del ‘900 sono stati molto forti e significativi. E proprio nel corso dell’ultima parte l’attenzione sarà focalizzata sui rapporti commerciali e si evidenzia come il commercio albanese di quegli anni fosse imperniato sulle importazioni ed esportazioni con l’Italia, anche attraverso le linee di navigazione tra i due paesi. Le statistiche del 1923 mostravano infatti come l’Italia avesse il primo posto nel commercio con l’Albania, consolidato nel 1924 attraverso il Trattato di commercio e navigazione che consentì un incremento delle relazioni tra i due Paesi. Infine verranno analizzati anche i confini territoriali dell’Albania, approfondendo gli eventi che hanno portato all’indipendenza albanese e alla definizione dei suoi confini con i paesi limitrofi.

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2. Cenni storici sull’Albania Il riconoscimento dell’unità politica albanese entro confini determinati è recente. Nella storia il territorio abitato da questo popolo appare spesso sotto nomi differenti, frazionato tra unità statali limitrofe. Il territorio abitato dalle predette tribù che hanno dato vita al popolo albanese è alquanto variabile in estensione attraverso i tempi. Dopo un periodo di indipendenza le tribù assoggettate alla Macedonia, fecero parte dell’impero di Alessandro il Grande, esteso dall’Adriatico alle Indie. Con lo scioglimento di questa effimera unità politica ritornarono indipendenti, divise però nei due regni dell’Illiria e dell’Epiro che, dopo le lotte dell’Impero Romano contro la regina Teuta ilirica e contro Pirro, re d’Epiro, ne determinò l’assoggettamento sotto i romani subendo l’influenza della cultura, della lingua e della civiltà latina, insieme a tutta la regione balcanica. Nella divisione dell’Impero Romano (359 d. C.) il territorio dell’Albania, compreso nella circoscrizione della Prefettura dell’Illirio orientale, fece parte dell’Impero bizantino, e divenne il campo della lotta religiosa tra l’oriente e l’occidente. Fino a giungere al XII sec. in cui il paese venne riportato alla dipendenza di Bisanzio alleata della Repubblica di Venezia. Questa situazione incerta venne risolta con l’intervento di un nuovo elemento nella storia albanese, i Turchi, i quali estesero le loro conquiste balcaniche verso l’Adriatico. Gli ottomani furono fronteggiati dagli albanesi in un ventennio di epiche lotte delle quali fu anima Giorgio Castriota o Scanderberg, sostenuto dalla Repubblica di Venezia, dai Papi e dagli Angioini di Napoli e che riuscì a riunire gli albanesi in una unica massa e a vincere tra il 1444 e il 1467 in oltre trenta battaglie eserciti turchi agguerriti e numerosi. Dopo la morte dell’eroe nazionale, Scanderberg, avvenuta ad Alessio (Lezha) nel gennaio 1467, i veneziani che avevano assunto il compito di resistere alla marcia dei turchi, dovettero cedere l’una dopo l’altra le località che ancora tenevano sul litorale albanese. Dal 1500 al 1912 pertanto l’Albania, benché non del tutto sottomessa, costituì una provincia dell’Impero Ottomano e fu così sottratta all’influenza dell’Europa e tenuta in soggezione perché non si sviluppasse il sentimento della solidarietà nazionale. Anché se le insurrezioni albanesi non cessassero, solo verso il 1880 l’Europa incominciò a preoccuparsene, svegliata dalle resistenza opposta dagli albanesi alle cessioni territoriali, decretate nel 1878 dal trattato di Berlino in favore del Montenegro e della Grecia. Venne allora costituita una lega albanese con carattere nazionale, senza distinzione di religione e di relazioni personali, la quale riuscì, nonostante le feroci repressioni turche, a mantenere viva l’agitazione per l’indipendenza con favore anche dell’Inghilterra e soprattutto con l’appoggio delle colonie albanesi all’estero. Da queste ultime partiva attraverso la stampa l’impulso alla resistenza, mentre il governo ottomano tentava di soffocare in Albania anche per mezzo del Patriarcato, ogni manifestazione di nazionalità. Si dovette aspettare il 1912 per assistere all’insurrezione albanese; il 28 novembre 1912 un piccolo gruppo di patrioti albanesi, sbarcati a Valona proclamò l’indipendenza albanese, innalzando la bandiera di Scanderberg ed eleggendo un governo provvisorio presieduto da Kemal bey Vlora [Ismail Qemali]. Il movimento nazionale era favorito dall’Austria e dall’Italia, interessate ad impedire perturbamenti territoriali nell’Adriatico. Per evitare un conflitto europeo, la Conferenza degli Ambasciatori di Londra (17 dicembre 1912) ritenne opportuno riconoscere all’Albania l’indipendenza statale sotto un principe europeo gradito agli albanesi e con il controllo di una Commissione internazionale. La Conferenza degli Ambasciatori aveva deciso che lo sgombero dei greci dall’Albania meridionale, si compisse tra il 1° dicembre 1913 e il 1° marzo 1914. A questa decisione seguirono varie vicissitudini che portarono l’Italia a riconoscere l’indipendenza albanese sotto la sua protezione solo il 3 giugno 1917. Gli austro-tedeschi, battuti anche sul fronte albanese, si allontanarono dal Paese nell’ottobre del 1918 mentre la Francia mantenne fino al giugno 1920 l’amministrazione dei territori già occupati; l’Italia estese la sua influenza anche all’Albania centrale e settentrionale e continuò a collaborare con gli elementi locali sia all’interno del paese, sia presso i consessi internazionali per dare all’Albania un’organizzazione statale, che ne assicurasse lo sviluppo e la vita indipendente. Se non che, nei primi mesi del 1920 una rivolta degli albanesi interruppe l’opera di organizzazione sostenuta dall’Italia. Il dissidio si chiuse con l’accordo di Tirana (5 agosto 1920), in base al quale l’Italia riconoscendo l’indipendenza albanese, sgombrò l’Albania e si riservò soltanto l’occupazione dell’isola di Saseno, a guardia della baia di Valona: il governo provvisorio nazionale di Tirana in cambio si impegnò a far deporre le armi agli insorti.

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Nonostante la temporanea rottura delle buone relazioni tra i due paesi, l’Italia continuò a sostenere gli interessi nelle assemblee internazionali, convocate dopo il conflitto mondiale e non solo vide con favore l’ammissione dell’Albania nella Società delle Nazioni, ma lavorò per consolidare la posizione internazionale, mediante importanti decisioni della Conferenza degli Ambasciatori, che portarono al riconoscimento solenne dell’indipendenza e della sovranità albanese nei suoi confini del 1913 e fu affidata all’Italia la protezione dell’integrità territoriale da eventuali violazioni, a condizione che fosse richiesta dall’Albania o dalle grandi potenze e sempre con l’autorizzazione delle Società delle Nazioni. 3. Condizioni politico-sociali e cenni etnografici Come si può dedurre dagli eventi storici appena descritti, forte è stata la volontà degli albanesi di impegnarsi per la conquista dell’indipendenza e fin dal novembre 1918 riaffermarono con il favore e l’interessamento dell’Italia, il loro desiderio di indipendenza convocando l’Assemblea nazionale e affidando la loro causa e le loro sorti ad un governo provvisorio. Con lo statuto fondamentale del 7 marzo 1925 l’Assemblea nazionale determinava finalmente la costituzione dello Stato nella forma repubblicana parlamentare. Veniva in tal modo dato al Paese un governo unitario in cui l’amministrazione locale era stata organizzata prendendo a modello quella italiana e francese; il territorio venne ripartito infatti in prefetture, sottoprefetture, comuni e villaggi. Le forze armate vennero inquadrate in reparti regolari (gendarmeria), comandati da ufficiali albanesi addestrati durante la guerra nelle bande e nei reparti volontari a servizio dei belligeranti. Il sistema patriarcale costituiva ancora il fondamento dell’organizzazione sociale albanese, con rapporti di diritto non regolati da leggi civili, bensì da consuetudini tradizionali preistoriche, che in genere venivano osservate rigorosamente. Infatti era ammessa la razzia, il sequestro ed il ripudio, era persino consentito ai parenti dell’ucciso di farsi giustizia sulla persona colpevole di omicidio (vendetta di sangue). I sentimenti dell’onore, della fierezza e dell’indipendenza personale erano elevatissimi. Le frequenti contese tra le tribù, le razzie provocate in genere dalla miseria e dalla fame, i contrasti religiosi e ancor di più, la pratica della vendetta del sangue, hanno sviluppato nell’albanese, forza, coraggio, accanimento alla lotta, destrezza nel maneggio delle armi. L’organizzazione patriarcale risaliva alle tribù illiriche che abitarono la regione tra Danubio ed Adriatico nei tempi preistorici. La tribù, comunemente designata in Albania con la parola turca bajrak (bandiera), si compone in genere di diversi fis (parentela, consanguineità), cioè di vari gruppi di famiglie ciascuno dei quali fa capo ad un unico progenitore, spesso molto lontano. Alcuni fis particolarmente numerosi fanno parte di due o più bajrak. Le singole tribù si insediarono su territori aventi buoni requisiti difensivi: dai nomi locali dei territori derivano in genere quelli delle tribù e degli abitanti, così chiamasi Shala la regione e la tribù e Shaljanë (plurale Shaljanet) l’abitante, Këlmendi e Këlmendas (Kelmendasit); Kastrati e Kastratas (Kastratet) etc. Nessuno dei popoli dominatori riuscì ad imporre le proprie leggi tra i Gheghi organizzati in tribù: qui i rapporti sociali furono sempre regolati dal diritto tradizionale consuetudinario che, radicato nella coscienza popolare, è stato tramandato dalle prime generazioni, pur non essendo stato mai integralmente tradotto in formule scritte. Ai tempi di Scanderberg queste norme tradizionali furono in parte raccolte da due codici che si differenziano in vari punti capitali e che sono designati dal nome dei codificatori: Kanuni i Lek Dukagjinit (codice di Alessandro Dukagjinit) e Kanuni i Scanderbegut (leggi di Scanderberg). Il Kanun i Dukagjinit, più diffuso e studiato ha vigore nelle rimanenti tribù, chiamate appunto Dukagjini, e fino a cento anni fa anche in Montenegro. Si tratta di leggi di carattere medioevale – basate essenzialmente sull’adet (consuetudine tradizionale della montagna) – le quali regolano i rapporti di famiglia e di proprietà, stabiliscono il dovere dell’ospitalità ed ammettono tra le sanzioni la vendetta del sangue. Contrasta con i principi morali informatori del diritto di famiglia, di proprietà e di successione, la vendetta del sangue, esagerazione del sentimento dell’onore e del coraggio. Si tratta di un diritto e di un dovere che impone ai parenti maschi dell’ucciso senza giustificato motivo di farsi giustizia sull’omicida o sui parenti maschi di età superiore ai 16 anni. Sono esclusi dalla vendetta le donne, i fanciulli sotto i 16 anni e gli ecclesiastici, i quali sono perciò disarmati ma per delitti gravi la vendetta si esercita su qualunque membro della famiglia del reo. La vendetta può essere attenuata nella sua pratica dalla bessa (tregua, fiducia), voluta e garantita dagli amici dei contendenti contro pagamento da parte del colpevole di una somma da devolversi ad opere pubbliche nel territorio della tribù. Nei più vasti rapporti della vita sociale la bessa è fonte di concordia, di pace e di fiducia, poiché ha il valore della

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verità, della salvaguardia, della fedeltà alla parola data, alla promessa o al contratto e costituisce un solenne impegno di onore al quale l’albanese, anche a costo della vita, in genere non si sottrae. L’influenza della religione sulle condizioni politico-sociali dell’Albania è stata rilevante. La differenza di confessioni religiose, che rende difficile l’organizzazione statale unitaria, ha in passato insidiato la stessa compagine etnica, in quanto la religione ha dato luogo a vere e proprie lotte fratricide, tali lotte sono state erroneamente scambiate per urti di razza, a causa della confusione frequente in Oriente tra appartenenza religiosa ed etnica. Il flusso e riflusso di genti differenti sul suo territorio, la sua posizione intermedia tra popoli di differenti religioni e la maggiore o minore penetrabilità geografica delle sue contrade spiegano il frazionamento religioso della popolazione albanese. Trascurando le minoranze e gli inevitabili melting pot, l’Albania può dividersi nei riguardi religiosi in tre zone, all’incirca corrispondenti alla parte settentrionale, centrale e meridionale del Paese. Dalla distribuzione sommaria degli abitanti secondo le confessioni professate la consistenza delle varie religioni dimostra che i musulmani sono i 2/3 della popolazione e che il resto è metà cattolica e metà ortodossa. Il cattolicesimo diffuso dalla chiesa di Roma in tutto il Paese, fu combattuto e in parte sostituito dall’ortodossia e dall’Islam, ma non è mai stato sradicato dalla montagna nord albanese. L’Islam avvolge la zona cattolica ad est ed occupa tutta l’Albania centrale. I musulmani sono in genere sunniti, non fanatici anzi nelle zone dove i musulmani si mescolano con i cattolici vi è rispetto reciproco e sono frequenti i matrimoni fra individui di confessioni differenti, cosicché spesso si verifica la coesistenza nella stessa famiglia di due religioni. I seguaci del bektashismo sono benvisti dalla popolazione e considerati come uomini spiritualmente superiori perché liberi da pregiudizi, indipendenti da autorità religiose e dal sultano, che mantennero sempre viva la fiamma del nazionalismo albanese; la religione ortodossa è notevolmente diffusa anche nei confini nord orientali, dove però è in maggioranza serba, in minoranza bulgara. Il clero greco è in genere intellettualmente carente, gli alti prelati si occupano soprattutto di politica. Dal punto di vista etnico dalla parte “terrestre”, le correnti esterne, dopo essersi infrante contro il confine montano naturale, vi penetrarono attraverso alcune zone di facilitazione (Metoja e conca dei laghi di Prespa e di Ocrida) con portata e forza attenuate e perciò con poche ripercussioni sulla base etnica originaria. Dalla parte del mare invece, essendo le vie aperte ai popoli mediterranei, si ebbero più intensi e frequenti contatti ma, costituendo l’Albania un Paese di transito per gli occidentali (Roma, Venezia, Italia), e un Paese di espansione per i greci. Le influenze etniche dei primi interessarono soprattutto la zona costiera e le grandi linee trasversali di comunicazione; quelle dei secondi, per la vicinanza territoriale, furono continue ed agirono sulle condizioni sociali del paese anziché sulla compagine etnica. Pertanto sul fondamento originario della gente albanese costituito da tribù illiriche preistoriche, non si sono sovrapposti veri e propri strati etnici né le variazioni derivate dalla vicinanza e dal predominio di altri popoli sono rilevanti. Ad ogni modo gli albanesi non costituiscono ancora una massa antropica omogenea. I caratteri di separazione ed il frazionamento orografico della zona montana determinarono anzi lo sviluppo autonomo di numerose piccole unità antropiche, che si mantengono tuttora separate, anche perché non fu attenuato artificialmente l’isolamento naturale delle varie contrade. Una prima grande distinzione degli albanesi in Gheghi a nord dello Skumbi [Shkumbini] e Toschi a sud è appunto fondata su differenze etniche. I Gheghi, grazie ai caratteri d’isolamento del loro paese montano e al tenace attaccamento alle tradizioni ataviche che con forza di legge inibiscono agli estranei di entrare a fare parte della tribù; i Toschi invece si trasformarono per effetto di influenze esterne meno ostacolate dai caratteri naturali del paese, persino nei riguardi della religione. Le differenze linguistiche tra i due gruppi etnici sono però più apparenti che reali: si tratta cioè di differenze dialettali che si riscontrano in tutti i paesi. Le più sensibili variazioni etniche furono portate dai Romani, i quali con la forza della civiltà latina, riuscirono ad assimilare gran parte della popolazione balcanica. La romanizzazione fu più intensa sul litorale adriatico e nelle contrade percorse dalle vie di penetrazione ed i segni più importanti si riscontrano non solo nei resti delle opere di civiltà e di difesa, nella toponomastica, nella presenza di numerose parole derivate dal latino nelle parlate locali, ma anche in alcuni caratteri somatici e psicologici delle popolazioni. Nelle montagne e nelle contrade discoste dalle grandi strade la purezza etnica delle primitive tribù illiriche non fu però in genere intaccata. I successivi contatti con l’occidente non influirono sulla situazione etnica in Albania, ma soltanto sulle condizioni sociali.

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Con l’inizio della dominazione ottomana, la massa della popolazione shqipetara riprendeva le antiche sedi nelle basse contrade iniziando l’assorbimento delle minoranze slave che si erano venute a creare nei secoli precedenti. La secolare dominazione ottomana non modificò la compagine etnica albanese. Mentre gli shqipetari sono riusciti quasi ovunque ad avere la prevalenza sugli slavi, non hanno opposto resistenza alla penetrazione greca verso il confine sud-orientale, iniziatasi all’epoca turca. L’ellenizzazione dei Toschi, già predisposta da antiche influenze greche, era inevitabile. I confini terrestri sud-orientali dell’Albania del sud non mancavano di vie di penetrazione dalla costa adriatica verso l’interno e proprio da quelle aeree partirono principalmente e si diffusero tra i Toschi le influenze della chiesa ortodossa, del nazionalismo greco e della lingua ellenica, facendo sì che gli albanesi dell’Epiro si ellenizzasse, senza tuttavia che la compagine etnica albanese abbia subito variazioni per opera del sangue ellenico. In sostanza la popolazione dell’Albania meridionale, anche nei paesi dove si è diffusa la lingua, la civiltà e la religione greca, rimane etnicamente albanese, parla la propria lingua e si serve di quella greca soltanto nelle relazioni di affari coi greci. Concludendo, i caratteri etnici originari delle tribù illiriche furono in Albania modificati soltanto nella parte nordorientale del paese dal sangue slavo, nella parte centrale e meridionale dal sangue latino e in Epiro dalla vicinanza dei Greci. Gli albanesi rimangono perciò i campioni più puri della razza illirica, per le loro qualità fisiche e morali (resistenza, sobrietà, intelligenza, spirito di iniziativa, combattività ecc.) e per la resistenza secolare all’assorbimento da parte di altri popoli. Per ciò che concerne l’allontanamento degli albanesi dal loro territorio, ebbe essenzialmente moventi economici o fu dovuta ad aspetti religiosi, flussi notevoli furono diretti in Grecia e in Italia, minori le altre verso la Dalmazia, la Bulgaria e la Romania. Attualmente le colonie albanesi più numerose ed estese sono in Grecia: si tratta di vere e proprie isole etniche disseminate nell’Attica e nel Peloponneso mentre le più antiche colonie albanesi in Italia sono nelle province di Catanzaro e di Palermo, esse furono fondate da mercenari albanesi assoldati dagli Aragonesi per domare le Calabrie (1416) e per combattere gli Angioini (1464). Falliti i tentativi di indipendenza in Albania dopo la morte di Scanderbeg, gruppi di albanesi ortodossi e cattolici scamparono per sfuggire alle persecuzioni dei turchi in varie regioni dell’Italia meridionale. L’emigrazione transoceanica che risale al sec. XIX, si diresse sopratutto negli Stati Uniti nord-americani che tenevano vivo il sentimento nazionale attraverso un’attiva propaganda sostenuta dalle stesse autorità americane, in modo tale che seguono e guidano da lontano anche con contributi finanziari gli avvenimenti politici della madre patria, spesso sotto l’influenza di altri paesi interessati. Va inoltre ricordato che la letteratura albanese fiorì inizialmente soprattutto presso le colonie albanesi all’estero, specie presso gli emigrati d’America. Dall’estero, quindi, tramite la stampa fu mantenuta viva la fiamma del patriottismo e si contribuì nello stesso tempo al progresso linguistico nazionale. 4. Cenni demografici Anteriormente al conflitto europeo 1914-1918 non erano stati accertati ancora con esattezza i valori demografici del popolo albanese mentre, durante la guerra europea per cura dei corpi di occupazione italiano, francese e austro-ungarico si ebbero i primi censimenti attendibili e dai risultati pregevoli nonostante alcuni dati siano generici ed approssimativi per alcuni distretti. L’Albania dell’epoca, basandosi sui confini politici attuali, comprendeva circa 810.000 abitanti su una superficie approssimativamente valutata a 30.000 km2 e con una densità media di popolazione di 27 abitanti per km2. I valori della densità oscillano intorno alla media con il variare delle condizioni naturali geomorfologiche e climatiche e di quelle sociali: così la zona settentrionale è socialmente più arretrata e ha una densità di 20 abitanti per kmq e di conseguenza più bassa della media generale, con valori minimi (12 abitanti per kmq nel distretto di Kiri) nelle Alpi Albanesi. Nell’Albania centrale e meridionale i valori della densità sono in genere più alti della media: per la maggiore fertilità del suolo nei dintorni di Durazzo, di Kavaja e Tirana e nella Malakastra; per la maggiore estensione dei terreni alluvionali coltivabili nelle larghe valli longitudinali della Vojusa e dello Zrinos e nella conca di Korea; e infine perchè questi paesi sono percorsi dalle maggiori vie di comunicazione verso la Macedonia e l’Epiro. La popolazione è alquanto rada soltanto nelle contrade paludose della Musakjà, nelle zone prevalentemente montane dei Golobarda, Jablanica, Mokra, Kamia, Tomorica, Ostrovica e Himara—Griba. In complesso le variazioni della densità media sono positive nella zona collinosa occidentale e nei bacini orientali albano-macedoni, sono negative sulla piana costiera paludosa e lungo l’asse montano 38

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centrale. Entro i confini politici dell’Albania varie località hanno una popolazione variabile da 3.000 (Kruja) a 23.000 abitanti (Scutari) anche se la gran maggioranza degli albanesi è sparsa perciò in numerose piccole agglomerazioni rurali. L’eccedenza della popolazione maschile, che prima della guerra europea (1914-1918) si verificava in tutta la penisola balcanica, è insignificante in Albania (50,1 % di maschi contro 49,9% di femmine). Il fatto si spiega con l’elevata mortalità fra i maschi per la pratica della “vendetta del sangue”. Soltanto il distretto di Tirana ha una forte eccedenza di popolazione femminile (3.600). Nei riguardi delle occupazioni le statistiche confermano che gli Albanesi sono in gran maggioranza agricoltori e pastori (oltre l’80%). Nell’Albania settentrionale il censimento austriaco del 1918 rilevò 319.323 abitanti addetti all’agricoltura e pastorizia e 59.755 abitanti occupati in mestieri diversi. Nelle città e in alcuni distretti (Scutari, Tirana), con più intensa l’attività commerciale, amministrativa e culturale, gli agricoltori si riducevano a 1/4 e 1/3 della popolazione. Non si hanno dati statistici sulla ripartizione della popolazione per età, è accertato però che nel 1918 nel territorio delle tribù nord-albanesi i maschi in età di servizio militare (dai 18 ai 50 anni) rappresentavano il 22% circa della popolazione complessiva . L’incremento migratorio poi è soltanto negativo. Le condizioni economico-sociali non hanno mai attratto in Albania correnti migratorie; per contro l’albanese, assecondato dalla tendenza ereditaria alla mobilità e all’adattamento, è stato sempre spinto a cercare in altre contrade il benessere che il suo paese povero, politicamente soggetto e dominato dai contrasti interni, non poteva procurargli. Le grandi migrazioni in massa verso la Grecia, la Serbia e la Bulgaria e l’Italia erano ormai cessate, ma l’emigrazione transoceanica permanente allontana dal suolo albanese un buon numero di abitanti, nonostante negli ultimi anni parecchi emigrati siano ritornati in patria. Pertanto se la popolazione non è stazionaria o in diminuzione, il suo incremento è pressoché insignificante. 5. L’economia e il commercio L’Albania degli anni 20 era ancora una delle poche regioni europee a tipo di economia patriarcale che ha la sua base sulla pastorizia e sull’agricoltura, essendo le manifestazioni industriali allo stato embrionale. L’attività commerciale che ne derivava rifletteva quindi i prodotti agricoli-pastorali e quei prodotti di importazione necessari al completamento delle necessità di vita; mancava, a causa delle condizioni della viabilità, quel movimento commerciale di transito che fu così fiorente in un passato non lontano e che permise di conquistare un buon posto nel commercio con il Montenegro, con la vecchia Serbia e arrivarono alla formazione di clientele anche nella Dalmazia meridionale, in Romania e in Egitto. Anche fuori patria, a Trieste, Costantinopoli, in Italia, in America e altrove, molti albanesi hanno saputo farsi una buona fortuna. Gli agenti veicolari del commercio albanese erano rappresentati dalla navigazione marittima e fluviale, dalle vie carovaniere e dai “Bazar”. I Bazar erano centri locali dove si smercia tutto quanto è necessario alla vita della regione: pelli, lana, bestiame, tabacco, frutta, uova, formaggi, cereali, farine, droghe di ogni specie, legumi, manufatti di canapa, cotone e seta, cuoi, carbone, legna da ardere, legname da costruzione, ecc. La navigazione era il gran veicolo che metteva in comunicazione le parti litoranee del paese e assicura i suoi rapporti con l’estero. I porti principali erano Antivari, S. Giovanni di Medua, Durazzo, Va1ona, Santi Quaranta, Parga, Prevesa, riuniti con comunicazioni regolari a Trieste, Venezia, Bari, Brindisi, Oboti, lago di Scutari, Corfù, Salonicco e Costantinopoli. La maggior parte del traffico merci si svolgeva con il porto di Trieste, l’antico emporio dei mercati albanesi, i quali ripristinarono quasi totalmente i loro rapporti con quello scalo, dopo la stasi del periodo bellico e prebellico, quando dovettero necessariamente rivolgersi per i rifornimenti ai porti più vicini di Brindisi e Bari. L’Albania era anche raggiunta due volte la settimana a Santi Quaranta [Saranda] dai vapori greci che facevano servizio con Trieste, Bari e Brindisi Nelle relazioni italo-albanesi, Brindisi e Valona rappresentavano le due più importanti teste di linea: Brindisi, rilevante centro ferroviario e stradale della Puglia, dista da Valona appena 70 miglia marine, percorso che poteva essere fatto da piroscafi di media velocità in 5 o 6 ore. Nel 1923 l’Italia aveva il primato nel commercio con l’Albania, superando il solo movimento di esportazione e di 39

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importazione italiano, quello globale di tutti gli altri Stati concorrenti. Occorre però notare che questo primato non è solo una diretta conseguenza della situazione postbellica, perché già si affermava, nel decennio antecedente all’inizio delle ostilità, per opera di agenzie commerciali italiane che riuscirono a rovesciare a favore dell’Italia il rapporto esistente tra il commercio italiano e quello austriaco. Infatti, rispetto all’importazione della bassa Albania, nel 1900 l’Italia era avanti del quintuplo dal commercio austriaco, nel 1904 già si misurava alla pari, e nel 1907 aveva conquistato il primo posto con il doppio sull’Austria. Parallelamente anche il commercio di esportazione si orientava prima della guerra decisamente sull’Italia. Con il trattato di commercio e di navigazione del 20 Gennaio 1924 si sono intensificate le relazioni economiche con il nuovo Stato albanese a vantaggio del prestigio italiano nell’Adriatico segnando un avviamento verso più intimi rapporti fra i due paesi. Le importazioni in Albania riguardavano i soli generi indispensabili, come il caffè, il riso, lo zucchero, poche farine, poco alcool, 15-20 mila casse di petrolio (provenienti dalla Società Italo-Americana e dalla Standard), ed altri quantitativi di coloniali in genere e di prodotti del ferro. Quasi tutto il succitato commercio veniva assorbito dal mercato di Trieste. Per quanto riguarda invece l’importazione di tessuti, stampati di cotone, tele grezze, stoffe di lana e cotone, felpati ed altri, era ridotta agli stretti consumi del paese. Questo commercio era assorbito dalle case industriali italiane del settentrione. L’esportazione dei prodotti albanesi si riassumeva in lane grezze da materassi, pelli ovine e caprine, poche pelli selvatiche di faina, volpe e puzzola, olio d’oliva di Valona e Himara, olive verdi, uova, formaggio, giunchi e poco legname in tronchi (frassino e olmo). I porti in cui giungevano tali prodotti dell’Albania erano Trieste e Bari. Riassumendo, tutto il commercio albanese degli anni ’20 era incentrato su quello italiano esclusivamente o quasi; ciò era dovuto soprattutto alle linee di navigazione; nessun’altra bandiera, all’infuori di quella italiana, aveva dirette e regolari linee di navigazione con i porti albanesi. Sotto l’aspetto monetario l’Albania dell’epoca era uno dei pochi paesi del mondo ad avere ancora il sistema monetario metallico. Occupata durante la guerra da austro-ungarici, italiani, serbi, bulgari, greci e straziata da ogni specie di traversie, ha accettato solo monete d’oro e d’argento, rifiutando sistematicamente buoni cartacei. Le pubbliche amministrazioni usavano come unità il franco-oro, ma nella pratica le unità correnti dell’epoca erano i napoleoni e le corone; come napoleoni erano considerati i pezzi d’oro da 20 franchi dell’Unione Latina e quelli serbi e da 8 fiorini austriaci, mentre per corone s’intendevano, oltre la corona austriaca d’argento, tutti i pezzi da un franco o lira dell’Unione e il dinaro. La corona oscillava secondo il mercato o le variazioni di rapporto tra corona e napoleone erano fissate settimanalmente da una commissione in ogni sottoprefettura e un rapporto analogo veniva fissato per le monete di rame. Per salvare il proprio prestigio in mezzo a tanta confusione monetaria, provvedendo con una moneta nazionale, il Governo provvide all’emissione del “Lek” (100 lek = 20 franchi oro) un buono cartaceo appoggiato da un sistema di garanzia abbastanza complicato per non correre il rischio di perdere il privilegio di un sistema a base veramente aurea. 6. Uno sguardo ai confini albanesi delgi anni 20 Per quanto attraverso i secoli il popolo albanese abbia conservato un’individualità propria, pure l’Albania non ebbe mai come unità a sé stante, propri confini. Negli ultimi anni del dominio ottomano sull’Albania, l’Italia e l’Austria vi avevano influenza preponderante: la prima nel sud e l’altra nel nord. Ma tutti e due furono concordi, nell’interesse della pace, a sostenere l’indipendenza quando nel 1913-1914 la Conferenza degli Ambasciatori di Londra cercò di sistemare tutte le questioni conseguenti le guerre balcaniche. I confini che furono allora assegnati, in modo sommario, allo stato d’Albania, rappresentarono un compromesso tra le aspirazioni albanesi, patrocinate essenzialmente dall’Italia e dall’Austria con l’appoggio della Germania, e quelle montenegrine - serbo - greche, sostenute principalmente dalla Francia e dalla Russia. Dopo la Grande Guerra, attraverso vicende diplomatiche assai complesse e strettamente intrecciate con l’assetto dell’Adriatico, l’Albania riuscì ad ottenere che le venissero riconosciuti i suddetti confini del 1913. Ma ad essi, essenzialmente per appagare in qualche modo qualcuna delle richieste jugoslave, vennero apportate dalla Conferenza degli Ambasciatori di Parigi, il 9 novembre 1921, quattro rettifiche: 

la prima, per assicurare la protezione della città montenegrina di Podgorica e per consentire però allo stesso tempo alle tribù albanesi il libero passaggio dalla piana di Scutari ai loro pascoli montani; 40

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la seconda, per lasciare a Prizren i suoi approcci naturali da ponente ed assegnare, sempre alla Jugoslavia, l’intero clan (tribù) dei Gora;



la terza, per lasciare interamente allo Stato S.H.S. ( Stato dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni) la strada Dibra-Struga;



la quarta, per disporre che il piccolo villaggio di Lin sul lago di Ocrida, che la Commissione del 1913 aveva proposto di lasciare alla Serbia, facesse parte invece dello Stato albanese.

Un’apposita Commissione internazionale, composta da rappresentanti militari dell’Italia, della Francia e della Gran Bretagna, presieduta dal rappresentante italiano, venne inviata nel 1922 a definire sul terreno questa frontiera, dalla foce della Boiana al lago di Ocrida. Successivamente venne ad essa affidato anche l’incarico di definire il confine tra questo lago ed il monte Gramos, nonché di segnare sul terreno il confine dal monte Gramos alla baia di Ftelia, che, la Commissione del 1913 aveva definito solo su una carta molto sommaria, a Firenze. Dovette cioè individuare sul terreno tutta la frontiera terrestre dell’Albania. La Commissione ebbe la facoltà di proporre le piccole rettifiche ai protocolli che, pur sempre producendo il passaggio di una quantità minima di popolazione di uno Stato all’altro, tenessero conto degli interessi economici locali. L’approvazione definitiva fu tuttavia sempre riservata alla Conferenza degli Ambasciatori di Parigi. La Commissione operò sul terreno tra il 1922 ed il 1925; il suo lavoro procedette attraverso molteplici difficoltà di ordine diplomatico e vicissitudini sul posto. Il tracciato della frontiera conseguente alle operazioni di delimitazione è consacrato nei due protocolli di Firenze: del 27 gennaio 1925 per la frontiera greco - albanese e del 26 luglio 1926 per la frontiera jugoslava - albanese. Esso può venire sommariamente indicato nel modo seguente: a) Confine jugoslavo-albanese. - Ha uno sviluppo di 477 km circa. Partendo dalla foce della Boiana sull’Adriatico, segue il corso del fiume sino al villaggio di Gorica; di là lasciando il Tarabosch all’Albania, ed il villaggio di Skia alla Jugoslavia, attraversa il lago di Scutari sino alla baia Liceni Hotit. b) Confine greco-albanese. - Ha uno sviluppo di 257 km circa. Ha inizio al punto comune ai tre Stati; attraversa la penisola di Suhagora, poi il piccolo lago di Prespa, e, seguendo all’incirca la displuviale tra il Devoli (Adriatico) e la Vistrizza (Egeo) giunge alla catena del Gramos; ne segue la cresta per scendere, lungo un costone tra i villaggi di Radati e di Cursaca, al fiume Sarandaporos, che soglie fino al suo sbocco nella Voiussa; c) Segni e documenti di confine. – La frontiera è stata accuratamente indicata sul terreno mediante l’erezione di 353 cippi in cemento e di alcune decine di piramidi ausiliarie; sono stati rilevati i dati necessari a rintracciare con esattezza tutti i cippi. Confine, cippi, piramidi, sono stati minutamente descritti, con l’esposizione di tutti i dati relativi, in appositi documenti annessi ai protocolli di frontiera, che comprendono puro una carta regolarmente rilevata alla scala di 1:50.000, su una striscia di 2 km circa por ogni banda del confine. Il confine stabilito, racchiude una massa compatta di albanesi, massa che soltanto a sud presenta una minore omogeneità, per l’infiltrazione di elementi greci nei distretti di Argirocastro e di Tepeleni; di una piccola minoranza di aromeni (cuzzo-valacchi) e di una minoranza pressoché insignificante di macedoni (bulgari) tra i laghi di Ocrida e di Prespa. Ma gli albanesi che sono al di fuori del confine sono in numero superiore a quelli che popolano l’Albania, e sono ripartiti tra la Iugoslavia e la Grecia. Le rivendicazioni albanesi, dichiarandosi fondate sull’etnografia, vorrebbero pertanto che l’Albania comprendesse i vecchi vilayet (regioni) turchi di Scutari, Cossovo, Monastir, Gianina [Janina], e parte di quello di Salonicco. Le constatazioni che un semplice sguardo sulla carta consente di fare sono tutt’altro che confortanti. A nord, la città e il lago di Scutari sono tagliati da una buona parte del territorio che naturalmente avrebbe dovuto far capo ad esso come avveniva in passato. Ad est le città di Giacova e di Prizren, che avrebbero dovuto formare lo sbocco naturale di tutta la regione montagnosa a cavallo del confine, sono rimaste in Jugoslavia, sicché le popolazioni di buona parte di quelle regioni sono private del loro mercato naturale e sono d’altra parte troppo lontane da Scutari, a cui non sono unite che da lunghe e difficili mulattiere, per recarvisi a vendere i loro prodotti pastorali e ad acquistare i viveri ed i pochi manufatti loro necessari. Dibra è tagliata da buona parte del suo circondario creando difficoltà economiche enormi ai suoi abitanti che non possono vendere e comprare liberamente i loro prodotti. All’estremo sud il grosso borgo di Conispoli che domina dall’alto il canale di Corfù, è separato dal mare, immediatamente sottostante, dalla frontiera non naturale. Non è quindi errato dichiarare che le condizioni economiche attuali dell’Albania siano difficili anche per colpa del confine. Solo l’intensiva valorizzazione dei terreni rimasti in territorio albanese potrà consentire di compensare in parte, economicamente, le amputazioni sopportate. 41

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La Commissione internazionale dei confini si è preoccupata di queste condizioni, e ha effettuato la stipulazione di alcuni protocolli speciali, atti ad alleviarle in parte. Un protocollo regola la navigazione sul lago di Scutari e sulla Boiana; un altro disciplina le comunicazioni tra le regioni di Scutari e di Podgorica con l’alta valle del Lim (regione del Vermosc, Gussinie [Gucia], Plava) per cittadini sia albanesi che iugoslavi. Un altro ancora consente il libero accesso degli albanesi della montagna al loro tradizionale mercato di Giacova, e permette la coltivazione anche nei terreni che la frontiera ha lasciato nello Stato jugoslavo. Un altro protocollo permette l’accesso degli albanesi ortodossi al monastero di S. Naum, rimasto in territorio iugoslavo, sulla sponda sud-orientale del Lago di Ochrida. Sarebbe stato necessario anche conseguire il libero transito degli albanesi sulla strada che collega Santi Quaranta [Saranda] a Corizza [Korça], per Han Calibachi, attraverso il territorio greco: ma non si è potuta risollevare una questione che non è stata discussa nel 1913, quando si è stipulato il protocollo di Firenze, relativo a quel lato della frontiera. Già si è accennato a quali siano le aspirazioni albanesi. Esse sono rappresentate, in parte, in modo tangibile dal fatto che, per quanto si tratti di città e di territori situati in Stati confinanti, il governo albanese mantiene sul suo territorio le prefetture di Cossovo e di Dibra e la sottoprefettura della Ciamuria. Ad esse fanno riscontro le aspirazioni iugoslave e greche, le quali, nel loro complesso, sopprimerebbero quasi completamente l’Albania. Da parte iugoslava le rivendicazioni hanno come programma massimo Durazzo, come richiesta media il Drin, come aspirazione minima una rettifica di frontiera al nord dell’Albania, in modo da garantire il territorio S. H. S. da ogni pericolo proveniente dal territorio albanese. Le aspirazioni greche giungono ad una linea che segue la Voiussa fino a Glisura e poi raggiunge i laghi di Ochrida e di Prespa. Dopo quanto si è detto è evidente che le condizioni dell’Albania rispetto alla sua sicurezza, di fronte all’invasore erano assai difficili. Lo sbocco jugoslavo su Scutari è facilitato dall’immediata vicinanza del confine, sopratutto a sud del lago. L’invasione nel cuore dell’Albania è resa facile attraverso i bacini del Drin Bianco e del Drin Nero, le cui zone montane sono come si è detto, jugoslave: da Dibra a Tirana sono appena 65 km in linea retta. Lo sbocco iugoslavo su Corizza è pure facilitato dalla vicinanza del confine nei pressi di S. Naum, alla rotabile Pogradec-Corizza [Korça]. 7. Conclusioni Il presente lavoro offre un panorama della storia e dei vari aspetti del popolo albanese nel corso del primi del ‘900, un percorso che ci permette di tracciare le vicende che hanno attraversato questo paese, di capire l’Albania e gli albanesi e quindi, di ricostruire un mosaico che si sofferma e analizza dettagliatamente le vicissitudini storiche, economiche, geografiche, le condizioni politiche e demografiche, facendoci conoscere l’etnografia del territorio e rimarcando il ruolo da protagonista dell’Italia soprattutto a partire dall’Indipendenza del 1912. Attraverso la lettura accurata si capisce come le relazioni tra Albani e Italia siano state caratterizzate da rapporti commerciali che hanno fatto dell’Italia il primo partner per le importazioni e le esportazioni di vari prodotti già a partire dai primi anni ‘20. Una politica economica, quella italiana, orientata più alla stabilità dell’area che al suo sviluppo. Una considerazione che diventa quindi ancora più significativa se vista alla luce dei rapporti di cooperazione e commerciali che intercorrono ancora oggi tra i due stati, due paesi accomunati da una storia affine e da protagonisti comuni. Una relazione di lungo corso che ancora oggi è fortemente presente nei settori più importanti dell’economia albanese come il commercio, i trasporti e l’energia. Negli ultimi venti anni la cooperazione è andata oltre l’aspetto meramente economico poiché infatti le intenzioni verso il paese delle aquile, hanno riguardato lo sviluppo sostenibile della società albanese e le relazioni che percorrono i secoli costituiscono un appiglio e un punto di partenza per la storia futura ancora da scrivere. Bibliografia ALMAGIA R., “Intorno al carattere e alla distribuzione delle abitazioni nell’Albania centrale”. Roma, 1915 BAUDIN, G., “Relazione della commissione per lo studio dell’Albania”,1915, Tipografia nazionale di G. Bertero, 1915 BELEGU M., “Politica zogiste e dyerve te hapura 1925-26”, Studimehistorike nr. 1, Tirana, 1971 BIAGINI, A., “Storia dell'Albania contemporanea”, Milano, Bompiani,2005. BOLDRINI, M., “Sull’antropologia e la demografia degli albanesi”, Padova,Cedam 1940 BOURCART I., “L’Albania et les Albanais”. Paris, 1921 CALMÈS, A., “La situation economique e financiare d’Albanie”, Geneve1922 CANIGLIA, B., “Italia e Albania: ottobre 1914 – agosto 1920”, Roma1920 CONSIGLIO, A., “Piccola Storia D’Albania”, Società nazionale DanteAlighieri 1941 CVJIC J., “La Peninsule balcanique”, Colin, Paris, 1918

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DI FENIZIO, F., “Evoluzione passata e prospettive di sviluppo perl’industria mineraria albanese”, Cedam 1940 FAVERIAL, J. K., “Historia e Shqiperise”, Tirane, Plejad, 2004. FERRERO, G., “L’opera dei soldati italiani in Albania durante la guerra”.R. Ricciardi, 1923. GIANNINI, A., “La questione albanese”, Roma, 1925 HOBSBAWN, E. J., “Nations and Nationalism since 1780”, CambridgeUniversity Press, 1982. LENTI, L., “Gli scambi internazionali dell’Albania”, Cedam 1940 LORENZONI, G., “L’Albania agricola, pastorale, forestale”, Cedam 1940; Giornale degli Economisti 1940 META, B., “Politica tatimore e shtetit shqiptar 1925-1939”, Shkenca, Tirana, 1999 MINUNCO, G., “Albania nella storia”, Lecce, Besa, 1995. MYZYRI, H., Historia e Shqiperise dhe e shqiptareve, Siprint, Prizren, 2001. PASTORELLI, P., “Italia e Albania 1924-27. Origini diplomatiche del trattato di Tirana del 22 novembre 1927” 1967 in “ Rivista di studi politici internazionali”. PACUKAJ S. Albania, Antropografia degli anni ’20. Nuova Cultura, Rome, Italy 2011 PITTARD E., “Les peuples des Balcans”, Genève 1920 ROSELLI, A., “Italia e Albania: relazioni finanziarie nel ventenio fascista”, Milano, Il Mulino 1986. SEINER F, “Ergebnisse der Volksszählung in Albanien in dem von den östeizeichischen-ungarischen Truppen 19161918 besetzten Gabiete“. TAJANI, F., “L’ avvenire dell’Albania” Milano, Hoepli 1932 TAJANI, F., “Le comunicazioni albanesi”, Cedam 1940 WEITH G., “La campagna di Durazzo tra Cesare e Pompeo”. Ist. Poligrafico dello Stato, Roma, 1942. Fonti di Archivio AUSSME, Albania, Fondo E-13, Monografie geografiche. Regio Decreto – Legge 15 Ottobre 1925, n. 1856. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 259, pag. 4446. Archivio Centrale dell’Albania.

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Lexical Configuration in Adhan: A Semantic Perspective Mostafa Shahiditabar Imam Sadiq (a.s.) University [email protected] Mohammad Amin Mozaheb Imam Sadiq (a.s.) Uinversity [email protected] Abstract Adhan is defined as the Islamic call for announcing the time of Salah (practice of formal worship in Islam) which is recited by muezzin at mosques. This study aims to explore adhan from a lexical configuration point of view which has been introduced by English linguist Cruse (1986). As an initial step, lexical configuration of Cruse (1986) is explained from lexical semantic point of view. Hierarchy, then is defined which is a set of elements related to one another in a characteristic way according to Cruse (1986). After elaborating on hierarchical chain of meaning in lexical semantics, the adhan text with transliteration and English meaning is provided. Analyzing adhan from the semantic view point of Cruse (1986) confirms that adhan is the symbol of Islamic belief and ideology. It is not a static chain of words but a dynamic melody that invites people to move to worship Allah. It also reports that worshipping Allah needs a movement toward Him and also moving toward Allah needs The Facilitator or the Leader who is aware of the howness of the moving that can show Allah's order and path to people. The Facilitator is Prophet Mohammad (P. B. U. H.) who shows the path of Salvation and Good Deeds. Based on Islamic philosophy, one can reach to Allah by means of Salah. Also, one will reach to Allah by doing what Allah says. This study also introduces a new hierarchy to broaden the lexical configuration proposed by Cruse (1986) as circular hierarchy. Keywords: semantics; lexical configuration, hierarchy, adhan (azan), circular hierarchy

Introduction The adhān (Arabic pronunciation [ʔæˈðæːn]), or Azan (Turkish pronunciation [ˈʔæːzæːn] and Persian pronunciation [ˈʔæzæːn] or other possible dictations and pronunciations) is very common in Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and some other countries. It is the Islamic call to announce the time of Salah, recited by the adhan teller (muezzin) at prescribed times of each day to summon Muslims for prayers (Salah [Arabic] or Namaz [Turkish and Persian]). With regard to etymology, the root of adhan is ʼḏn (Arabic ‫[ أَذَن‬ʔeˈðn]) meaning 'to permit' or uḏun, meaning 'ear'. In the history of Islam, adhan is called out by the adhan teller in the mosque three or five times a day (three times in Iran or five times in Saudi Arabia for example), traditionally and commonly from a minaret. Many purposes are mentioned for adhan but one of the main reasons embarking upon the multiple loud pronouncements of adhan in every mosque is to show and announce a comprehensible symbolic summary of Islamic belief and ideology to the hearer. Review of Literature A review of literature shows that Islamic ideology has been considered from a linguistics point of view, at least by Tavanaei, & Saneipur, (2009), Nasiri, (2009), Yadollahpour, (2009). Tavanaei & Saneipur (2009) discussed about applying parsing rules to discover the cohesion of the text of the holy Qur’an. They divided verses of Qur’an into the minor portions according to parsing rules and concluded that there is cohesion in Qur’an’s text. Nasiri (2009) studies the conceptual domain of Donya (world) in Qur’an from a semantic point of view. This paper also deals with the conceptual of apprised and renounced Donya and its relation to the conceptual domain of Qur’an. Yadollahpour (2009) tried to fix the meaning of human dignity in the discourse of the holy Qur’an with a semantic approach. Among these works, none has investigated a semantic analysis of adhan. Different aspects of adhan as the symbol of Islamic ideology and belief have been taken into consideration by Muslims. One of the aspects of adhan is its reciting by adhan teller. The adhan teller is the most notable person in the mosque in 44

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prayer time since he (not she) is chosen for his talent and ability in reciting the adhan beautifully and loudly for Muslims. Many adhan tellers have tried to recite adhan in the best way like Rahim Moazzen Zadeh Ardabili, Toghi and Galvash among others. As far as the review of the literature is concerned, no linguistic or specifically semantic analysis of adhan has been carried out so far, and this study is believed to be the first study of the mentioned domain. In other words, this study aims to consider adhan from a semantic point of view. More specifically this study strikes to answer the following research questions: 1. How adhan is in accordance with the hierarchy series introduced by Cruse (1986)? 2. What is the central concept of adhan according to lexical configuration? 3. What are some implications of adhan according to lexical configuration? Method Cruse (1986) introduces two types of lexical configurations, namely, hierarchies and proportional series in his seminal work. He categorizes hierarchies into taxonomic hierarchies, part-whole hierarchies and non-branching hierarchies and proportional series into doublets and cluster (for detailed consideration see Cruse (1986)). Hierarchy is a group of elements related to one another in a characteristic way. In the case of hierarchies, two structural types of hierarchies can be distinguished according to Cruse (1986): those with branch, and those which are not capable of branching, because of the nature of their constitutive relations. Cruse (1986) depicts this classification as the following: Table1. Cruse (1986)’s hierarchies (p.12). A

p

B D

C E

(a)

F

Q G

R S (b)

Cruse (1986) points out that relation of dominance is the most fundamental structural relation of any hierarchy, adding that without relation of dominance we do not have any hierarchy at all. In other words, relation of dominance is the vertical relation in the hierarchy. According to the above picture, the relation which connects A to C and B, C to G and F, and B to E and D in (a), and P to Q, Q to R and R to S is what Cruse (1986) calls vertical relation. In addition to vertical relation, a relation of difference is seen in (a) as well. This is called horizontal relation by Cruse (1986) which holds between C and D, G and F, and E and D in (a). Cruse (1986) also speaks about a well-formed hierarchy and requirements of a possible hierarchy. He declares that “in a well-formed hierarchy, the relation of dominance and relation of difference are constant through the structure.” He also points out that “the minimum requirement for a hierarchy is a set of interrelated elements structured by a suitable relation acting as a relation of dominance,” believing that two properties are essential for the relation of dominance of a hierarchy, namely, symmetric and asymmetric. One of the other concepts that is defined in lexical configuration is 'level' which is shown in the following table by Cruse (1986).

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Table 2. Levels in lexical configurations by Cruse (1986, p.12) A

level1

B D

C E

level2

F

G

level3

According to Cruse (1986), each element of a hierarchy occurs at a particular level. In this study, adhan is going to be explored according to one of the most complex types of lexical configurations, namely, hierarchy introduced by Cruse (1986). Adhan as defined earlier is the Islamic call to announce the time for praying recited by the adhan tellers at prescribed times of each day to summon Muslims for prayers. Adhan (in Shia belief) and its meaning, transliteration and translation are presented in the following table: Table 3. Adhan (in Shia belief) and its transliteration and translation Recital

Arabic

Transliteration

Translation

4x

‫هللا اكبر‬

Allahu Akbar

Allah is great.

2x

‫اشهد ان ال اله اال هللا‬

Ash-had an-la ilāha illa llah

I testify that there is no deity except Allah.

2x

‫ان محمدا‬ ‫رسول هللا‬

Ash-hadu anna Muhammadarrasūlu llāh

I testify that Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) is the Messenger of Allah.

2x

‫اشهد ان عليا ولي هللا‬

Ash-hadu anna Aliyan wali-ul-lah

I testify that Ali (P.B.U.H.) is the vicegerent (wali) of Allah.

2x

‫حي على الصالة‬

Hayya 'alas-salāh

Hasten to Pray (salah).

2x

‫حي على الفالح‬

Hayya 'alal-falāh

Hasten to Salvation.

2x

‫حي على خير العمل‬

Hayya- al Khair al amal

Hasten to the Best deeds.

2x

‫هللا اكبر‬

Allah-u Akbar

Allah is great.

2x

‫ال اله اال هللا‬

Lā ilāha illallāh

There is no deity except Allah

‫اشهد‬

Hierarchies According to Cruse (1986, p. 12), a hierarchy is defined as the following manner, “a hierarchy, which need not consist of lexical items, is a set of elements related to one another in a characteristic way.” For analyzing adhan in a characteristic way, its meaning is given, and then it is shown in the hierarchy.

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Table 4. Meanings of different lines of adhan

Allahu Akbar

------→

Allah is great.

------→

Central Concept Allah

Ash-had an-la ilāha illa llah

------→

------→

Allah

Ash-hadu anna Muhammadarrasūlu llāh Ash-hadu anna Aliyan wali-ul-lah

------→

------→

Prophet

------→

Vicegerent

Hayya 'alas-salāh

------→

I testify that there is no deity except Allah. I testify that Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) is the Messenger of Allah. I testify that Ali (P.B.U.H.) is the vicegerent (wali) of Allah. Hasten to Pray (salah).

------→

Salah

Hayya 'alal-falāh

------→

Hasten to success.

------→

Salvation

Hayya- al Khair al amal

------→

Hasten to the Best deeds.

------→

Best deeds

Allah-u Akbar

------→

Allah is great.

------→

Allah

Adhan

Meaning

------→

Results As it is seen in the above table, adhan starts with the name of Allah. Then Allah's name represents in another lexical form. It follows Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H)'s name and his name follows Imam Ali (P.B.U.H)'s name. Calling people to say their prayers (Salah or Namaz) and speaking about Salvation and Best Deeds which are related to praying, are next steps of adhan. At the end, again the name of Allah (God) is told two times. Summary of adhan is shown in the following: Table 5. Summary of adhan Allah Allah Prophet Ali Pray Salvation Good deeds Allah Allah

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As it is seen in the above hierarchy, four central levels are obvious in adhan: level 1: Allah, level 2: Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) and Imam Ali (P.B.U.H) (Allah's Agent), level 3: Pray, Salvation and Good Deeds (Pray related words = Allah's order) and level 4: Allah. Now, the mentioned levels are shown in the following table. Table 6. Different levels in adhan Allah Allah's messenger Allah's order Allah A glance at the above-presented hierarchy shows that adhan starts with Allah and ends in Allah. Also, the central lexicon of all elements of adhan is Allah. But there seems to be a problem with the hierarchy. Allah has dominance over Allah's messenger and Allah's messenger dominates Allah's order, but Allah's order does not dominate Allah but it cannot be seen in the above hierarchy. The authors believe that this problem can be solved by proposing a new type of hierarchy. The researchers of the present study recommend a 'circular hierarchy' as the solution to find out the internal configuration of adhan as it is shown below. Figure 1. Circular hierarchy of adhan Allah

Allah's messenger

Allah's order The above-shown circular is shown in a better way as the following: Figure 2. Full-scale circular hierarchy of adhan Allah

Allah's order Allah's messenger

It can be proved that Allah is the starting and ending point of the hierarchy. In other words, Allah is linked to Allah's messenger, and Allah's messenger’s dominance relates to dominance of Allah's order and Allah's order is connected to His dominance. 48

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If we accept the mentioned proposed hierarchy of adhan, then we can prove some facts about adhan. In the following paragraphs, the mentioned issues will be discussed in details. With regard to the central concept of adhan, as far as the proposed hierarchy is concerned, Allah is the central concept of adhan. In other words, adhan starts with Allah and ends in Allah. It is obvious that adhan contains three semantic domains. They are domain of Allah, domain of Allah's agent and domain of Salah or Allah's order. Allah as the central concept of adhan and Allah domain dominates not only the beginning and end of adhan, but also Allah's messenger and Allah's order domains. In other words, the main semantic lexicon of adhan is Allah. The mentioned movement (circling of adhan) is also visible in its structure. To put it simply, circular hierarchy is implied from adhan’s verbal structure. To explain this point, the verbs in each line of adhan will be presented in the following table. Table 7. Explanation of verbs used in adhan Adhan Allahu Akbar Ash-had an-la ilāha illa llah Ash-hadu anna Muhammadar-rasūlu llāh Ash-hadu anna Aliyan wali-ul-lah Hayya 'alas-salāh Hayya 'alal-falāh Hayya- al Khair al amal Allah-u Akbar la ilāha illa llah

Type of Verb Copula Performative Performative Performative Imperative Imperative Imperative Copula Copula

As it is seen in the table, adhan starts with copula in the first level. Next three levels of adhan have performative utterances (the verb Ash-hadu). Performative utterances are followed by imperatives, and adhan ends in two copulas as it is shown in the following figure according to circular hierarchy: FFigure 3. Performative utterances and imperatives in adhan copula copula

performative

copula

performative

imperative

performative

imperative

imperative imp

It can be pointed out that adhan is started with a copula verb but it changes to apply performative utterances and imperatives.

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As far as the speech act theory is concerned, an action is done in using performatibe utterances. In other words, when a Muslim says Ash-hadu anna Muhammadar-rasūlu llāh, he does an action that is to testify that Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) is the Messenger of Allah. Imperatives are located after performative utterances in adhan. In imperatives' level of adhan, a Muslim is invited to act and hasten to Salah or Salvation or Good Deeds. It means that there is a need to consider imperatives that is assigned from Allah that should be done by Muslims. In other words, there seems to be movement (both verbal movement (performative utterances) and physical movement (imperatives)) in adhan. Briefly summarized, the analysis of the verbs in adhan shows that adhan as the symbol of Islamic belief, is not a static prose but a dynamic melody that invites people to move towards Allah. The other point is that moving towards Allah needs a facilitator to show Allah's order or path. The facilitators are Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H.) and Imam Ali (P.B.U.H.) that demonstrate the path of Salvation and Good Deeds. Introducing a noble hierarchy of lexical configuration As mentioned earlier, Cruse (1986) introduces two types of lexical configurations namely, hierarchies and proportional series in his seminal work, lexical semantics. He categorizes hierarchies into taxonomic hierarchies, part-whole hierarchies and non-branching hierarchies and proportional series into doublets and cluster. A new hierarchy is seen in this study that is called circular hierarchy. It is believed that this new hierarchy could be added to Cruse (1986)’s hierarchies. The hierarchies have been presented below. Figure 4. Cruse (1986)’s hierarchies and the new hierarchy put forth in the current study A B D

p C

E

F

A

Q G

R C

B

S

As it is seen in the above categorization, in circular hierarchy, an element is a central concept in the hierarchy that is A in the picture. In circular hierarchy, the central concept has domination over the whole hierarchy and also the central concept or member of the hierarchy is located in the beginning and ending part of the circle of the hierarchy. It is also possible to say that the central concept is located in the middle of the hierarchy and the other elements are going around the circle as it is shown in the following way: Figure 5. Demonstration of circular hierarchy A

C B

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Conclusion With regard to the first question 'How adhan is in accordance with the hierarchy series introduced by Cruse (1986)?' it can be mentioned that adhan is not completely in accordance with the hierarchy series introduced by Cruse (1986), since according to adhan Allah has dominance over Allah's messenger and Allah's messenger dominates Allah's order while Allah's order does not dominate Allah. The mentioned points cannot be seen completely in hierarchy series introduced by Cruse (1986) and a finer scale is introduced by the authors of the present study to answer the mentioned shortcoming. Regarding the second research question, 'What is the central concept of adhan according to lexical configuration?', it can be said that Allah is the central concept of adhan according to lexical configuration. Considering the third question of the study, 'What are some implications of adhan according to lexical configuration?' it is conceivable that adhan is a dynamic melody that invites people to move towards Allah by showing Allah's path that is Salah. As far as adhan is concerned, moving towards Allah needs a facilitator that is Allah's messengers who are Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) and Imam Ali (P.B.U.H). Dedication To Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H.). Acknowledgements We are greatly indebted to Dr. Akbar Shahiditabar for his constructive comments. References Coseriu, E. (1975). Vers une typologie des champs lexicaux. Cahiers de Lexicologie, 27, 30-51. Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Geckeler, H. (1971). Strukturelle semantik und wortfeldtheorie. Munich: Fink Johnson, M. (1987). The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination and reason. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lehrer, A. J. (1974). Semantic fields and lexical structure. Amsterdam. North Holland . Lutzeier, P. R. (1981). Wort und feld. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Lutzeier, P. R. (1983). The relevance of semantic relation between words for the notion of lexical field, Theoretical Linguistics, 10, 147-178. Miller, G. A. & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1967). Language and perception. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nasiri, R. (2009). Donya in Holy Quran: A semantic study. Quarterly of Quranic Science and Culture, 2. Rasekh Mahnd, M. (2011). An introduction to cognitive linguistics: Theories and concepts. Tehran: SAMT. Searle, J. R. (1975). The taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In Günderson, K (ed.). Language, mind, and knowledge. Minneapolis. Safavi, K. (2009). An introduction to semantics. Tehran: Soore Mehr Publication. Tavanaei, M. H., & Saneipur, M. H. (2009). Constituents of Quran. Quarterly of Quranic Science and Culture. 2. Trier, J. (1934). Das sprachliche feld. Eine Auseinandersetzung. Neue Jahrbucher fur Wissenschaft und Jugenbildung, 10, 428-49 . Yadollahpour, B. (2009). Semantics of human dignity in the conceptual system of the Holy Quran. Quarterly of Quranic Science and Culture. 2. Biographical notes Mostafa Shahiditabar is an instructor of Linguistics. He is a faculty member at Imam Sadiq (P.B.U.H.) University and has published on various topics in Linguistics in several international journals. He has also presented papers in professional conferences. His research interests include discourse analysis, child language acquisition, semantics and Turkish linguistic. Mohammad Amin Mozaheb is a PHD candidate in Applied Linguistics. He is a faculty member at Imam Sadiq (P.B.U.H.) University. His papers appeared in several national and international journals. His research interests cover discourse analysis and writing.

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The unemployment of today and tomorrow in Romania Mictat GARLAN Research Institute for Quality of Life – Romanian Academy Abstract For any political regime the employment and unemployment of active population represents the most pressing social and economic obligation. in Romania, any comparative study before and after 1990, on 2 x 2 decades of different economic policies, can observe the damaging effects which they had forced privatization of state enterprises on the labor market, with over 1,000,000 declared unemployed in 1999, compared to zero unemployed in 1989. After this disaster, and after a short economic rehabilitation, it followed another crisis, with a further increase in unemployment of ANOFM, from 445,000 persons in 2009 to 626,960 persons in 2010 to 740,000 in 2011 of 674,000 in November 2012 , 512 333 persons in December 2013 to 724,000 persons in March 2014. These data indicate that in Romania the crisis is not over yet. in parallel to these developments there have been published the analyzes of the National Commission for Prognosis, but with some significant deviations in two directions. On the one hand, the calculations are made on the formula BIM records, and on the other hand, they are in the direction of a lower estimates. So, in the estimates of performed forecasts for the years 2014 -2017, with trend analysis and analysis of previous years, the total number of unemployed in 2011 was to be of 730 200 persons. in 2012 the total number of unemployed was to be of 701,200 persons, in 2013 of 726,000 persons, of 705,000 persons in 2014, of 690,000 in 2015 and of 685,000 in 2016. Without contesting the effort to accuracy of this Commission and the fact that any forecast includes a dose of risk too, there are obviously immeasurable variables that were not taken into account. We refer to the quality of business environment, revenues polarization, with decreasing trends in wages, to labor migration especially medium and high qualified. We refer to the existing difficulties in the allocation of development credits, to the corruption of officials from the local councils the excess of electoral concerns of governments, with the necessity of different approaches for each of them. With this supplement of fren factors we can say that on prospective 2 years, the registered unemployment from National Institute of Statistics, will not fall below 740.000 persons. To these things, it must be added the volume of more than twice unregistered persons, which means a total of approx. two million persons, this being the actual estimation of the non-employed population, to which has reached in Romania today. Keywords: privatization, unemployment, concepts, causes, effects, ILO rate, ANOFM rate, black job, forecasts

Introduction After 5 years of global economic recession, which appeared from the sovereign debt crisis with austerity policies, but also because of some banking speculations running out of control, it was natural that in the top of issues of social interest to be situated the unemployment and insufficient income. Thus, in a Eurobarometer in autumn 2013, to the question: what are the most important issues facing your country on the first placed fear of unemployment with 49% in August 2013 and of 51% in September, 2013; on the second in the same period (of August and September) placed the economic situation with a percentage of 33%, which is actually a general decline in living standards. in the year 2013, also the Romania communicated unemployment was only 6.7%, the most affected countries being Greece with 26.4% and Spain with 26.3%. But, these figures are relative because an analysis by age groups, at the top of a very early and in whole southern European youth unemployment rates are 100% higher, respectively, 58.4% in Greece, of 55.7% in Spain, 38,2% in Portugal, or 37.8% in Italy. in the case of Romania, the relativity data comes from several sources. A reference example in the recent history of Romania was in December 1999 when it registered over one million unemployed, but to Eurostat, in 2000 it has communicated a rate of only 7.3%.These huge increases of registered unemployment, which represented the greatest crisis in the socio-economic history of the country, were silently neglected by the authority’s time. in our opinion, this time require a remember both for risks involved in, but also for the fact that the employment of active population is the first and most urgent requirement of any political regime, regardless of its guidance. To understand the magnitude of such events requires a retrospective on two decades of different economic policies, one of them national-communist, before 1990 and another after 1990, of such a so-called shock transition, towards a democratic regime. in a paper published in 1994, a former Minister of public administration mentioned that:”In industry in 1992 the activity was carried out in 2,920 companies with 8 million employees, in which 1.817 in public property with 2,782,800 341 employees, in privately property with 44,800 workers, 35 in mixed property with 30.800 employees and 727 in cooperative

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property with 174.400 employees" (O. Cosmancă1, page 22.). This "Communist economic inheritance" with nearly 3000 industrial enterprises, made with great efforts, each of them with its history, in only 10 years of stupid transition, corruption and incompetence in Government, was destroyed in a percentage of 70%. One example was Automobile ARO-Campulung Muscel enterprise, with 40,000 jobs for the population of the region, where in 1990 started a large stealing of parts of the unit, both from the employees as well as the management.. Is reached as a automobile ARO to sell into a 50% damage for each item. and after 2 years, the State, which was the owner of the company, stopped payment huge damages which gathered and the unit closed. But nobody been held accountable, nor any of the employees anf of the management. in the year 1990 in Combinatul de Utilaj Greu from Iasi worked 12,000 employees, this unit being a major producer of "welded structures ", respectively machine tools, wagons, tanks, with manufacturing secrets of "great importance" and with an guaranteed sales market in the world. After 1991, the unit became company Fortus S.A. and it entered into entered into "the process of privatization", but with repeated failures that have disorganized the activity, have reduced the orders, the employees retired, and in 2008 the unit went into bankrupt with debts of millions euros. Another great industrial colossus, set up on a foundation of a firm in 1916 was producing Combinatul Siderurgic Victoria Călan, with 20,000 employees from Hunedoara area in 1989. Between 1990-2000, to the management difficulties as a great state enterprise, added the internal difficulties with stealing and selling of scrap metal from the unit, in desperately practiced by all unit heads, until it was divided in 1998 in 12 companies. But the plummet with damages paid from the state budget continued. in 2000, the remaining companies were privatized through taking over of multinational Arcelor- Mittal, and the staff has been reduced to 1,000 employees. Another case was Semănătoarea Bucureşti Enterprise. in 1990 it had 7,500 employees and it produced 3,500 combines per year, in competition with the most reputable companies in the world. in 1992, it entered ,,in the process of privatization" too, which resulted very quickly to the output block. Following three unsuccessful auctions, by accumulating large debts and by refusing an offer of $ 50 million from New Holland company, in 1998 with the agreement of the union committee of the enterprise, the State property Fund sold 56.7% of its shares, MYO SA – Bucharest Company and the staff has been reduced to 100 employees. So, we go on with many other examples of "1256 enterprises from Romania closed after 1989", which had between 1,000-20,000 employees and from which today remained just a list on the internet. We mention that this analysis does not question of such assessments, "the communism up ", at least for the fact that there were examples of successful privatizations such as Dacia - Piteşti, Aerostar – Bacău, Silcotub Zalău, Azomures-Targu Mures, synthetic diamonds Rami-Bucharest, enterprises that have won on the market and even raised jobs. But, to major shocks with more than one million unemployed in the years 1993 - 1994, which were also resumed in 1999-2000 with over a million unemployed, we obviously believe that no one has learned anything from these events and at that time there was no political interest and no model of economic thinking for Romania. Everywhere missed sanctioning systems, control systems, prevention, audit, management and economic guidance of these processes. in this respect, an evidence was in 2004 when Năstate Government privatized the Petrom Company by selling it to package with Arpechim Refinery to the Austrian Company OMV-Österreichische Mineralölverwaltung, but then, no one in that Government did not realize it would be bankrupt Oltchim SA -Rm. Vâlcea Company, Arpechim Refinery being the main supplier of raw materials for Oltchim Rm. Vâlcea. We note that Arpechim had 13,000 employees in 1995, compared to today when when it comes to its closing, being full of debts, while former Combinat Chimic – Rm. Vâlcea, respectively existing company Oltchim SA had 5,200 employees in 1990, compared to 3.538 in 2010. As a culmination of economic commercial spirit of this government, we have to add that in this privatization of great importance it was included not only the sale of refineries and petrol stations in Romania, but also its oil deposits of $ 14 billion at that time, while OMV firm was 11 times less than Petrom SA (!). After this catastrophic privatization, the number of employees from Petrom-OMV has dropped from 50,000 in 2004 to 26.736 in 2010. Also today, after 10 years of transaction conduct complex negotiations with Petrom - OMV for returning to the Romanian state of the Arpechim Refinery - Piteşti, because it appeared investors who intended to purchase company Oltchim SA, but only with the Arpechim Refinery ! This defective economic and political thinking was characteristic for the most of the processes of privatization and in all governments since the year '90. in order to maintain the market, legal transformation, restructuring and large capitalization of Communist companies, slow therapy would be more appropriate and it have resulted to avoid to their collapse, with 4 million people left homeless as starving.

1 Octav Cosmancă and collaborators,, Judeţele şi oraşele României în cifre şi fapte, Publishing the Department for Local Public Administration, Bucharest, 1994

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Table No. 1 Evolution of unemployment in Romania between 1991-2005 Number of un

Number of registered unemployed at the end of the year

Unemployment

1991

337,4

3,0

-

-

1992

929,0

8,4

-

-

1993

1.164,7

10,2

-

-

1994

1.323,9

10,9

971

8,2

1995

998,4

8,9

968

8,0

1996

652,0

6,2

791

6,7

1997

816,3

9,3

706

6,0

1998

1.025,0

10,4

732

6,3

1999

1.130,3

11,8

790

6,8

2000

100.7,1

10,5

821

7,1

2001

826,9

8,8

750

6,6

2002

760,6

8,4

845

8,4

2003

658,9

7,4

692

7,0

2004

557,9

6,3

680

6,8

2005

523,0

5,9

650

6,5

Year

rate Registered

employed ILO (thousands of people)

Unemployment rate ILO (%)

Source: Statistical Yearbook of Romania 1992 - 2004; Statistical Bulletin 1997-2006 Investigations in households labor (AMIGO) 1994-2005 It should be noted that the phenomenon of large scale unemployment as a result of this transition, did not exist during the communist period in Romania, but it formally imposed together with these processes since 1991 when the Law no. 1/1991 on social protection of the unemployed and their professional reintegration came into effect. Also, a surprise of these disastrous situations, with millions of registered unemployed, was that Romania communicated to Eurostat in 2000 an unemployment rate (ILO) of only 6.8% ! - see table no.1. It is very true that on the labor market, as a reality in motion, between the phenomena of employment, vacancy, part time work or inactivity, are difficult to establish differences, but there were accepted some concepts of statistical practice, thus: The total active population includes the entire the available labor force for producing goods and services, including that one that exceeded a limit of age, variable from one country to another. The active population includes the employed population and the unemployed together and it is representative for employment of population and labor supply. The active civil population includes the employed population and the unemployed, without military personnel within. The employed civil population includes the same categories of persons, without military personnel within. in Romanian statistics, the employed civil population includes the individuals older than working age of 16 years, having a job where carry out activities which generating income, except for the military, of the Ministry of Internal, security services and for employees in the public and political organizations. The active unemployed population represents the one that refers to the unemployed. Inactive population represents the population which is not employed at work but it was not registered as unemployed. For example, based on these analytical indicators it can be calculated the gross rate of activity for population by comparing the active population to the total population or employment rate by reporting employed population, either on age intervals 54

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of the population in labor, either to the available work resources, either to the total population, each of them with significations. But, in terms of operating mode with these concepts and providing indicators for the labor market, between Romania and the European Union there are significant methodological differences starting right at the level of definitions. International Labor Office (ILO) defines the unemployed person as person over the age of 15 years and cumulatively meets the following three conditions: those who don’t have a job (even he was fired or request the resumption of work after a voluntary interruption); they are at the first search for a job, using in the last 4 weeks different methods to fiind it (even those one still employed in a part time work or still in the temporary work period) and who can start work in the next two weeks, to the first offer of a job. As compared in Romania, in accordance with the unemployment Law no. 76/2002, with subsequent amendments and completions, the unemployed are people with aged at least 16 years, recorded by the services of the National Employment Agency (ANOFM), which cumulatively meet at least six conditions respectively: persons who are looking for a job; did not comply the retirement conditions according to the law; persons able to perform a work in complete state of physical and mental health; people who don’t realize or obtain incomes from legal activities, lower incomes than the reference social indicator1; people who can start work immediately if they find a job and have a minimum contribution period of 12 months in the last 24 months, preceding the date registration of unemployment aid compensation request. So, the unemployment rate as the main analysis indicator of labor market is calculated in two ways: Unemployment rate in the sense of the International Labour Office is calculated based on data from - Employment inquiries carried out in households (LFS), representative at the national level as - ratio between the number of unemployed people as defined according to the criteria of the International Labor Office (ILO) and total active population, indicator calculated by the National Institute of Statistics, as follows: total unemployed ILO from inquiries of LFS Unemployment rate (ILO) = -------------------------------------------------------- x 100 active civil population While the unemployment rate, indicator calculated by the National Agency for Employment from Romania (ANOFM), is determined by its registrations and civil active population, communicated by the National Institute of Statistics. More precisely, the unemployment rate is determined as the ratio between the number of unemployed indemnified persons, by the county agencies for employment, respectively ANOFM and the municipality of Bucharest, relative to civil active population, according to the formula: total registered unemployment persons Unemployment rate (ANOFM) = ------------------------------------------------- x 100 active civil population As a result, the differences concerning the unemployment rate are high because NEA takes into account only the unemployed persons. Romanian unemployment law, respectively Law no.76/2002, with subsequent amendments and additions, put a special emphasis on the stages of contribution of the unemployed, the main orientation of this law being the assurance the funding of the budget of unemployment and less the reality employment relations / unemployment in Romania. Thus, unemployment compensation are paid monthly, for 6 months in quantum of 50% of the reference social indicator, but also differentiated according to the stages of contribution, in the following way: 6 months for a period of at least one year of contribution; 9 months for a period of at least 5 years; 12 months, for a period of contribution higher than 10 years. for those who have contributed at least one year, the unemployment compensation is 75% of the social indicator. Other differences by contribution period are: 3% to a contribution period of at least three years; 5% to a contribution period for at least 5 years; 7% to a minimum contribution period of 10 years; 10% for persons with a contribution period of at least 20 years. The only admitted categories of unemployed without compensated stages to the social security contributions are: secondary and higher education graduates; graduates of special schools for persons with disabilities who within 60 days after graduation were not able to employ; persons before military service were not employed and that within 30 days after

1 The reference social indicator value is 500 lei, according to the article 40 from the Law no.76 from 2002 with subsequent amendments and completions, updated in 2014, published on the internet.

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the end of this stage could not employ themselves. Basically, this law has especially in view to achieve a balance accounting between indemnified / non-indemnified less knowing of real situations of the economy. Based on these procedures, the unemployment rate by the National Institute of Statistics of Romania1 was of 7,5% to an active population of 9.732.000 people, of which 9.001.000 employed persons and 731.000 unemployed persons, while that communicated in March 2013 by the Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Protection and Elderly Persons (MMFPSPV) based on registration ANOFM2 was lower, at 5.58% value. in the same communication, MMFPSPV indicated that the number of unemployed would have been only 492 427 people, of which 309.379 indemnizate and 183.048 nonindemnizate. The percentage of unemployed indemnified persons was an average of 62.83%, being higher compared the previous months, their percentage in some counties being much larger. for example, during the same period, at county level, the top 10 places, the percentage of the unemployed persons was represented by counties: Teleorman 79,15%, 77,93%, Dolj 77,93%, Galaţi 77,63%, Buzău 77,11%, Iaşi 76,51%, Vaslui 76,03%, Satu Mare 75,64%, Vrancea 74,34 %, Brăila 73,87%, Covasna 72,90%, etc. Also, differences in unemployment rates between the two institutions may occur because in fact, many people declare in inquiries LFS unemployed of the National Institute of Statistics, but no longer registered at county agencies of the NEA. The problem is permanently between the two unemployment rates there is a difference of 2-3 percentage points, lower the NEA compared to INS, which means there is a difference monthly of approx. 200,000-300,000 unemployed people, respectively very high values, resulting only from calculation methodology ! On the other hand, compared to necessity of estimation real situations, differences in these calculations take into account the total occupied active population, respectively the total number of employees. in this connection, a study made in 2014 by the National Trade Union Bloc put in comparison the registrations of employees at the National Agency of Fiscal Administration (NAFA) 6.55 million workers in 2013, compared with 6,48 million registered employees in the same year at the National House for Health Insurance (CNAS). Calculation differences are even greater between insured persons from the CNAS, compared with those of the National House of Public Pensions (CNPP), where 4.5 million employees pay contributions to the pension fund and 6.5 million employees pay contributions to the health fund. Basically, five different public institutions, namely: the National Agency for Fiscal Administration the National House for Health Insurance, National Institute of Statistics, The Labor Inspection the National House of Public Pensions, and a private one, respectively the Association for Pension Funds with retired registered 6,03 million in October 2013-have different statistics about the employed population. In 2013, the largest differences were noted between those 6,55 registered employees of millions NAFA and 4.3 million people occupied communicated by the National Institute of Statistics. To the question referred by Press of this Institute about the differences between the active population, the number of employees reported in the monthly bulletins (4.3 million people) and low unemployment, of 7%, NIS answered that: "The number of 4.3 million people comes from the monthly research on earnings, which does not include the number of employees small units with less than 4 employees nor armed forces or their assimilated and it has coverage and different reference period compared to the reference period of the survey Labor in households". Referring to unemployed, the answer was: "The number of people registered as unemployed about 730.000 is calculated as a percentage to the total active population, regardless of whether a portion of the active population, are working on the black or is away from the country. Romanians leave the country temporarily to work not included in the system if you are working through employment agencies". Basically, this answer shows that only those officially registered with contracts of employment is the number of employees included in the monthly bulletins (4.3 million). in other words, the very high number of over 2 million people seeking to work abroad, who maintained their domicile in Romania, do not appear in the Employment inquiries carried out in households (LFS-AMIGO) and surveys as a result in estimates of the National Statistics Institute With all these figures relative can make an analysis on the relationship of job seekers using subcategories with restraint data in annual reports NEA. Thus, towards the end of the year 2013, the unemployment rate registered this institution was increasing compared to the year 2012 when on 31 December 2013 had a value of 5,65%. Total number of registered unemployed persons (registered entered plus unregistered unpaid has known a fluctuating trend from 513.349 persons in January 2013, to 428.866 in September 2013 and to 512.333 by the end of 2013.

1 National Institute of statistics, Press release nr. 148 of 21 June 2013, published on the internet http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/somaj/somaj_Ir_13.pdf 2 Labor Ministry, Press Release - Employment, Mobility, Unemployment and Social Protection of the Unemployed people, published on the internet address: http://www.mmuncii.ro/j33/images/buletin_statistic/somaj%20trim%20I%202013.pdf

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The number of unemployed registered persons with unemployment benefits (in terms of stock) has seen also dropping from 208.698 in January to 163.007 people in September and a rise in the last months of the year 2013, reaching 31 December 199.626 at people. in general, increases in the number of unemployed in the summer period correspond to periods of registration in the records, as the young unemployed, high school graduates, while during winter the price increases represent the normal tendencies caused, mainly, seasonal activities, 2013 being similar to the year 2012. Also, the number of unemployed has experienced decreases in benefits, from 208.698 in January to 163.007 people in September and increases at the end of 2013, to 199.626 people. in general, the increasing number of unemployed during the summer periods correspond to the record of the young high school graduates. Comparatively, in winter the increases are normal, and is caused mainly by seasonal activities, 2013 being similar to the year 2012. The records related to gender, it is found that the female unemployment rate was during the analysis period, less than that recorded among men. While the number of unemployed from rural areas is consistently higher than those in urban areas. Since January 2013 and by the end of December the collective included 53.059 layoffs, but practice has shown that many economic agents have reviewed the restructuring programmes, so that the actual personnel layoffs in January and December of 2013 were 22.791 people, i.e. a large share of around 43 percent of the total laid off. What would indicate the economic environment of business foresight capacity, relatively low. It should be noted that in accordance with art. 70 of the labour code, employers are obliged to inform the territorial agencies of labour, within which they are established, the notifications regarding collective redundancies we intend so that people affected by redundancy are entitled to social welfare in accordance with Law no. 76/2002 concerning unemployment insurance and stimulation of employment, with subsequent amendments and additions. About job vacancies registered in 2013, they were higher than in the year 2012. If in 2012 the number of job vacancies reported by employers was 454.366 in the year 2013 the total number of these was 489.024. Of the total of such vacancies registered in 2013 and made available to for people looking for a job, registered in NEA agencies, 53.690 posts have been repeatedly declared by employers against 44.395 jobs declared repeatedly during the same period of the year 2012. Be noted that, while the number of job vacancies increased in 2013 with 7,63% compared with the year 2012, there has been an increase in the number of registered unemployed in 2013 compared with 2012 with 11,28%. The main 10 trades as significant vacancy, declared during the period January-December 2013, were: unqualified worker in the demolition of buildings, masonry lining, mosaic tiles, tiles, tiles, parquet; laborer in the textile industry; truck driver / truck machine; seller; freight handler; laborer to the assembling / mounting pieces; confectioner–assembler of textile articles; trade worker; laborer at maintenance of roads, highways, bridges, dams; laborer for packaging solid and semisolid products. From the evolution of ratio paid unemployed / registered as unpaid persons in the records of employment agencies, it appears that the number of those registered as unpaid recorded high values throughout the year 2013. This represents a big disagreement with permanent basis, between Register of NEA job offers and qualifications unemployed, registered at these local agencies. So, the number of those registered as unpaid was during the year 2013 between 265,000 - 336.000 people / registered as unpaid unemployed persons are, as a rule, persons who either came out of the period of redundancy without having to qualify or do not meet the legal conditions for the redundancy, but resorting to the services of the Agency to find a job. These are people without preparation, or lower education, mostly from rural areas, long-term unemployed, young people under the age of 25 years are over 6 months unemployed and adults older than 25 years, who are unemployed for over 12 months. In 2013 the structure of unemployment by levels of training was the following: 71,44% unemployed persons with no education and primary education, secondary education and vocational education, 21,62% unemployed persons with secondary educational level and post-secondary, 6,94% unemployed persons with university studies. But in general, people with a high education and training appeal in the smallest proportion to these agencies. Regarding the age structure of registered unemployed, we note that the groups groups that are found most unemployed are in the 30-39 years 40-49 years. Both groups have recorded the maximum number of unemployed throughout the year 2013, followed by group under 25 years.

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Starting from a number of 493.775 registered at national level at the end of 2012, during the year 2013 were registered the following inflows and outflows:            

the actual entries in the records of unemployment were of 826.142 persons, effective outflows of unemployment records were of 807.384 people. from the total inflow, 659.484 people who use for the first time to employment services, for support in finding a job. At the end of December 2013, occupations with the highest number of unemployed were: unqualified workers in mixed farms, 82.726 people unqualified workers in manufacturing, 65.404 people unqualified workers in public works, 36.634 people unqualified in construction of buildings, 35.103 people handle merchandise, 27.083 persons, builders and fitters structural metal, 15.246 people, sellers in stores, 9.276 people, other categories.

Regarding the evolutions in unemployment entries as a result of current and collective dismissals of staff (181.886 people) and of the outflows from employment (319.685 people), in 2013 it may be noted that the number of outflows due to employment was significantly higher than the number of people entering through layoff, except for the months of January and December when the obvious seasonal character shows its effects. Overall, in 2013, the ratio of people who left through employment and those ones unemployed through layoffs was almost 2 to 1. From the total number of 181.886 people became unemployed due to layoffs during the year 2013, only 13.787 people come from layoffs as a result of application of the restructuring and privatization programmes of various sectors of activity, the rest of 168.099 persons from came from current layoffs. The areas that have been the most layoffs were mainly:      

civil engineering works, 2.573 people, construction of buildings, 2.039 people, manufacture of chemicals and chemical products, 1.628 people, land transport, transport via pipelines, 1.596 people, activities of services in information technology, 1180 persons, investigation and security activities, 905 people.

Regarding the distribution by regions, by the end of 2013, the regions with the highest unemployment rates were recorded in South West (8,57%), South (7.46%) and South-East (6.67%) regions where rural activities are predominant. There is a discrepancy within regions too, where predominantly agricultural counties coexist with the most developed counties. for example, in the South-West region, there were discrepancies between counties, in regards registered unemployment rate: the maximum level has been reached in the counties: Mehedinţi (10,10%) and Dolj (9.03%) and the minimum one was reached in county of Vâlcea (6,10%). The counties with the highest rates of registered unemployment rates were: Mehedinţi (10,10), Teleorman (10.05), Galaţi (9,05 Dolj (9.03%)%), Vaslui (8,74%) and Dâmboviţa (7.50 percent). The counties with the lowest rates with registered unemployed were: Timis (1.80%), Bucharest (2.06 %, Arad (3.19 %), Cluj (3.59%) and Maramures (3.85 %). in other counties, the unemployed registered rate at NEA varies between 4,04% in Bihor county and 7,83% in Olt county. Between these percentages can be observed very large county differences of about 1/10. Table nr. 2 Distribution of unemployment rate with registered unemployed at the county agencies of NEA in 2013Source: NEA activity report for the year 2013, published online at the following address: http://www.anofm.ro/files/RAPORT%20ACTIVITATE%20ANOFM%20%202013.pd

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But, for overall, Romania is presented with a population of 20 million people in 2013, in which there are 4.3 million employees (from which 3,1 million in the private sector plus 1,2 million in public institutions), 5.3 million retirees and 7,0 million socially assisted persons. About 3 million people are not present in any statistics, they either work illegally or working abroad or working in subsistence agriculture. Due to the absence of at least 2 million jobs and with a ratio of 1,21 retirees to an employee as well as another report of 1.62 to a employee social assistance These relationships demonstrate a dysfunctional economy through which Romania, on a long term is sentenced to a definite backwardness. Serious is the fact that from various causes, the unemployment has a tendency to increase, the most obvious being the dissolution of over 400,000 jobs between 2010-2012 with losses of approx. 11 billion euros from wages, a difficult situation to recover and only on long term. Table No. 3 The evolution of unemployment in Romania from National Institute of Statistics communications in the period 2008 - 2014 Year

Total unemployed ILO

The unemployment rate

2008

575.000 persoane

5,8 %

2009

681.000 persoane

6,9 %

2010

725.000 persoane

7,3 %

2011

730.000 persoane

7,4 %

2012

701.000 persoane

7,0 %

2013

730.000 persoane

7,3 %

2014*

702.000 persoane

7,1 %

* After an estimate disclosed in April 2014 But, in our opinion, the real question has its origins in the destruction of 4 million jobs in the so-called transitional period 1990-2000 in Romania, after which 4 million people of working age had to continue living in their absence. This percentage of 20% of the population entered into long-term unemployment, that most of them either renounced looking for a job, or withdrew in the underground economy or subsistence agriculture, until they come out in all statistical and of employees and unemployed. Subsequently, the remained active population unemployed and without purchasing power and abandoned the country and after the year 2000 has reached an unprecedented phenomenon in its history, the migration of more than 2 million people to Western Europe. This is the main cause of a whole procession negative effects: on pension funds, on the relationship between the employees and retirees, with the complex phenomenon of demographic aging, and others. It is obvious that in the absence of major reforms of the country's re'industrialization, there will be a massive decrease in population in Romania, estimated by the National Institute of Statistics, from 20 million in 2013 to 12 million inhabitants in the year 2060.

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Another important cause of unemployment in Romania is deficit of professional orientation of youth, with a non-functional adaptation to the labour market. Although youth unemployment has passed 25%, many employers say they cannot recruit young people for jobs because they don’t correspond to offer and they don’t have sufficient experience in this field. in the "Job fairs" of employment agencies the most deficient vacant positions are in the fields of civil engineering, repair ships, production of electronic and electrical components, engines, textiles and ready-made clothes, wholesale and retail, including from bakery. Also, it is noted that, for people with higher education, a large number of faculties produce diplomas and specialists that nobody needs. Recruitment services know well how difficult are found jobs for graduates of faculties from: tourism, justice, European studies, public relations, management, public administration, psychology, sociology, philosophy or letters, because the structure of higher education is not directed to the labor market trends of today. The most popular specializations are: medicine, pharmacy, informatics, automatics, electronics, agriculture and foreign languages. in order not to spend the years of youth life, this educational and vocational orientation and selection process must be controlled on all levels of education. On graduation, to become independent, in addition attached to information acquired, any young person in which state and family have invested funds, time and labor, must have strong professional aptitudes. Unfortunately, this important section of juvenile education is not performed. As a proof, the complexity of modern professional requests, nowadays, most graduates of any level, used to stay one more year at home, "to reorient themselves on the labor market". Others, in finding a job on the capacities, will spend many years of life. for example, in a study done in April 2014, by Samsung Electronics Company from Romania, in partnership with the Ministry of National Education, on a sample of approx. 4,000 secondary school students, between 14 years old and 19 years old, from 15 secondary schools in the cities of Timişoara, Arad, Oradea, Baia Mare, Bistriţa, in the top of most popular were the following careers: lawyers, 15,4% programmer 12.9%, actor 11.4%, computer system engineer 9.8%, surgeon 8.3%, business manager 8.2%, architect 5.5%, secondary school teacher 5.4%, medical psychologist 5.2%, cardiologist 4.7%. We note that these jobs have a liberal character. But, with such trends, if we consider only this period of age, and those 700,000 unemployed persons already registered at the NEA, as relative are these estimates, about 30% of these young people will enter to the employment agencies, until the expiration of the legal period of three months after graduation. Due to the fact that in 2014 only about 130,000 young people have graduated secondary school, approx. 43,000 will be registered at county agencies for employment, so the minimum number of unemployed in Romania in December 2014 will be at least 743,000 of unemployed people in payment. To these estimates are also added other unemployed people because large steel companies are in recession. in 2014, Arcelor Mittal Combinates from Galati and Hunedoara proposed to employees going into voluntary unemployment. Other 300 layoffs were announced at Hunedoara Energy Complex. Slatina Aluminum Plant is at risk of closing.1,300 A total of 1300 employees were on technical unemployment for over two months to the Special Steel Plant in Targoviste. in the near future, either in chemical and petrochemical industry there will be no new jobs. in this section, an example represents the problems of blockage of company Oltchim SA Rm. Vâlcea, which extended for years, with large accumulations of debts to the state, without the perspective of a privatization of lack of buyers. Neither in the banking field there is no prospects for growth, because in 2014 many banks have closed subsidiaries. The only areas where there have been increases are in the automotive industry and high technology (IT). for example, in 2013, the IT sector had an increase of 4% compared to 2012. This is because Romania is the only country of European Union which does not tax salary incomes of employees in the respective fields. in the automotive sector, in the automotive industry, although in 2013 the Romanian automobile market has been stagnant to 2012, however, Romania stayed in first place in the European Union on automobile sales. An insidious cause of unemployment with global effects, specified to the times of today, consists in the discrepancy between technological progress speed installation and training. Following this development, only during the last generation disappeared cinemas, using of landline phones was reduced (phones on the street have disappeared), the number of postal items have restricted, it was eliminated using telegraph, etc. These are only some surface aspects of the present technological revolution, the restrictions being in all economic sectors, from the field of the industrial chemistry to the activity of civil servants. The progress is motivated by the simple fact that instead of employees are preferred robotic services that can work day and night without vacation leaves, maternity, aso and not requiring the payment of additional taxes. On this subject, Carl Frey and Michael Osborne1, in a study entitled ’’The future of employment’’, estimated that in the future decade, in Europe will greatly reduce the number of jobs, about 40-60%. in the opinion of these authors, regarding Romania,

1 Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne, The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerization ?, University of Oxford, 2013, în adresa: www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The Future of Employment.pdf

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the reduction percentages of jobs reach 62%. The most affected are low-wage positions, which in fact are the most numerous. Therefore, it is necessary a new system of higher education, with focus on technology and automation sectors, to which today in Romania are lowest number of candidates for admission. A cause of unemployment specific to Romania is the overcharge labor. in a European ladder points concerning contributions paid both employee and by employer, Romania is number six from 26 countries, with a percentage of 46.25%, being exceeded only by Netherlands, the Czech Republic, France, Poland and Albania. At the opposite pole of the Belgium League, United Kingdom and Ireland, where cumulative contributions do not exceed 30%. Higher taxation of work appeared after 1990, due to the explosive evolution of unemployment. The absence of active employment policies, with massive black employments, has led to decrease in the number of contributors in parallel with the rapid growth in the number of retired persons. in this situation, the governments’ solution was only to increase social contributions. On the other hand, high percentages of labor taxation have restricted required liquidity for the establishment of new enterprises jobs, and the consumption by decreasing the purchasing power of the population, especially favored black labor growth. According to the estimations of some authors, in Romania their number reached about 3.4 million people1. To underline on this subject, that in all electoral campaigns after 1990 was argued the necessity of "enlargement of the tax base" with principal respect to the creation of new jobs. This was not sufficiently achieved during any government Another cause is the insufficiency of foreign and public investments, correlated with the existing unemployment and new jobs requirements. in 2013, although Romania has attracted foreign investments of 2,388 billion euros, increasing by 22.3% from 2012, however they were below the net capital inflow since 2008, when they recorded the highest values of 9,496 billion euros, after 1990 - see table no. 4. Year

Billion euros

Table no. 4

2008

9,496

Net inflows foreign

2009

3,488

direct investments

2010

2,220

Source: National Bank

2011

1,815

of Romania reports

2012

2,138

2013

2,388

For example, in 2013 with the help of foreign investment could generate 6.157 jobs, but at a price down 13% compared to the previous year, when they generated 7.114 jobs. It should be noted that most of these investments take into consideration the privatization through sale of state companies such as: American Airlines Cargo, CFR, Romgaz, Transgaz, Hydro, Nuclear Electrica, Romtelecom and others. for a long time, these units were included in an agreement with the International Monetary Fund for the restructuring of enterprises, but with limited success until now. Regarding public investment, the present minister delegate for the Budget, Mr. Liviu Voinea, at a meeting of the Commission for Social Dialogue dated 4 March 2014 said that the state investment projects for 2012 were 4.7 billion dollars from a total of 11 billion lei (about 2.5 billion euros), and in 2013 this was of 6 billion lei from a total of about 12 billion lei (about 2.7 billion euro) of the state budget. Basically, the top 20 public investment projects in 2013 are half of the investments in 2012. The duration of the projects is about 12 years, majority of the amounts being allocated for highways and infrastructure works. for example, in 2014, of public investment projects engaged, we can mention: completing the barrage of Constanta port for almost 200 million lei, Oradea airport modernization and the extension Drumul Taberei Subway - Pantelimon in Bucharest with 436 million lei allocated. The auction of this study was gained by companies Association Astaldi Spa -Italy, FCC - Spain, with Delta ACM and AB Construct companies in Romania. We remark that only for this work, Astaldi company doubled the staff in Bucharest to 400 employees in 2011, before work, at 870 employees in 2013, a total of 85% of

1 Liviu Voinea, Lucian Albu and collaborators: Informal Economy and its impact on the labor market, published on the internet address: http://www.scribd.com/doc/142168475/Economia-Informala-Si-Impactul-Ei-Asupra-Pietei-Muncii;

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employees being Romanian and 15% were brought in from Italy. Also, Also, constructors’ wages were increased by 2025% in all the associated companies. But, the biggest investments deficit and of employments jobs is due to insufficient absorption of EU funds allocated to Romania, respectively 19,67 billion Euro and national co-financing (the State budget, local budgets and the private sector), of 9 billion euro for the period 2007-2013. But, in 2007-2013 to the present the absorption of EU funds was deeply deficient. for example, to the seven Operational Programmes, during the period from December 2008 - May 2009, Romania has submitted financing projects for three billion euro, of which were approved projects only one billion euro, but payments to beneficiaries were below 100 million euros. The percentage of absorption was under 5%. At the end of September 2013, Romania managed to make reimbursements only for 64 million euro compared to 195 million euro, sum that it had be reimbursed by the European Commission. in august 2013, absorption rate of these funds was only 23.46%. Even with this increase, Romania is still last ranking countries in Europe. Subsequently, for the sums allocated for 2011 and 2012, the Romanian Government has made a proposal to accept the formula "n + 3", which was adopted by the Regional Committee of the European Parliament. If the European Parliament will adopt this measure, then Romania will be able to spend the allocated funds of 2011 until 31 December 2014 and those ones allocated for 2012 will be able to spend up to 31 December 2015. in this way, the risk of losing EU funds will be reduced significantly. With all this development, Romania occupies the last place in the European rankings concerning absorption of funds, with a percentage of 37% at the end of 2013. in circumstances As compared other countries such as Estonia, Portugal and Lithuania were able to absorb 78% of EU funds allocated in the budget year 2007-2013 - see table no.5. Table no. 5 Absorption of EU funds between 2007 - 2013 and money received from EU Member States in the period 2014 – 2020, of the European Commission sources

Member States of the European Union

Sums allocated between 2007 – 2013 (thousands euros)

Percentages paid by EC*

of

Sums allocated for 2014–2020 (thousands euros)

Estonia

3.403

78

3590

Portugal

21.412

78

21.465

Lithuania

6.775

78

6.323

Ireland

751

70

1.139

Greece

20.210

69

15.522

Germany

25489

69

19235

Sweden

1.626

69

2.106

Poland

67.186

67

77.567

Luxembourg

50

66

60

Latvia

4.530

66

4.512

Finland

1.596

66

1.466

Austria

1.204

65

1.236

Spain

34.658

62

28.560

Slovenia

4.101

62

3.075

Netherlands

1.660

62

1.404

Belgium

2.064

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2.284

62

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24.921

59

21.906

France

13449

58

15.353

Cyprus

612

57

736

United Kingdom

9.891

56

11.840

Denmark

510

54

553

Czech Republic

26.526

50

21.983

Malta

840

49

725

Italy

27.958

49

32.823

Bulgaria

6674

49

7.588

Slovakia

11.498

48

13.992

Romania

19.213

37

22.994

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* Includes sums paid by EC as pre-financing and reimbursement Insufficient use of EU funds comes from multiple causes that need separate analysis. It should be noted that until 2013 by using only 37% of the 19.67 billion euro, allocated to Romania, resulting a remaining sum of euro 12.39 billion it could not be capitalize. Such great losses of funds occur in other areas. We refer to ,,black job" with fiscal evasion in this area. It is noted that for a population of 20 million inhabitants,, only 4.5 million are employed with legal papers, with an average salary of 1,700 lei per month (about 380 euro) which must support 5.4 million retirees and about 8.5 million children. There are areas where the percentage on ,,black job" is usually above 60%, such as: in in IT services, 63% in machinery and equipment repairing or 66% in civil engineering, which means that for employees concerned, employers do not pay any form of contribution to the state. Through other forms of tax evasion in 2014, Fiscal Council calculated that only losses to the state budget by not paying taxes on the added value are about 72 billion lei. Other causes regarding unemployment are income polarization and corruption, that expanded on a large scale. in only 24 years of liberal economy, Romania has the most millionaires and billionaires in RON, USD or EUR that it ever had in its history. in contrast, 90% of the population the average wage is 1,700 lei per month, with 900 lei minimum wage. in 24 years also developed the steepest downward trend in of the population of 20 million inhabitants, meaning it had in 1968. Imbalances are extended not only between rich and poor, they became visible also between regions because 10 of the 42 counties of this country, produces 70% of Romania businesses and have 80% of employees. in this respect, our opinion is not like "millionaires and billionaires down", but how can they be capitalized their resources in national interest. Note that if you collect all sums that are lost daily basis, only from insufficient absorption of EU funds, of fiscal evasion and from the undeclared work, their total is of 10 times higher than the foreign and public investments in the last 5 years, which shows that the real resources of our country to eradicate unemployment are internal and not external. Obviously, the question is whether this recession will be unlock, the answer can be only an affirmative one because in the recent Romanian history we can record large economic boom phases, both in the interwar period and in that postwar, performed on completely different socio-political principles. But this subject we'll debate in a future study.

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The Role of Music in The Shadow Play “Hacivat and Karagöz” Ayhan Helvacı Uludağ University Art Faculty [email protected] Abstract The shadow play Hacivat and Karagöz has become an important part of the Traditional Turkish Theatre continuing for centuries. The existing shadow play which still preserves its popularity has become a significant entertainment tool for people. According to the local features of the performed characters and the content of the topic, this art type carried out by reflecting on a screen specially designed puppets from behind a lightened curtain and by playing with the voice of the performer has various music types and its instruments, especially Turkish folk music and Turkish classical music. in this study, within the play, the role of the music which is thought to form an important part of the shadow play was researched and the music and instruments used were analysed. The effect and role of the music within the play was particularly tried to be put forward. Keywords: The Role of Music, The Shadow Play, Hacivat and Karagöz

Introduction Shadow play is based on the projection of shadows of puppets, which are made up of leather,on a white curtain by light coming from their behind. Karagöz curtain is generally made of cotton batiste and has flowers on the edges. Besides, behind the curtain and on the ground are shelves called destgah on which candles are placed. Puppetsare moved by using 60 cm sticks. The action of playing these puppets is called el peşrevi. Some pictures, relevant or irrelevant to the show, are reflected on the curtainbefore the play, and these are called göstermelik.Karagöz figures are composed of figurative drawings based on abstraction. The dominating colors are red on Karagöz and green on Hacivat figure. There are no decorations on Karagözcurtain as an indication of the setting. Therefore,the existence of a setting is figured out only by the words of puppets or sometimes by little descriptions symbolizing the setting. Karagöz is always on the right side of the curtain and Hacivat is on the left. If there are other characters to be used in the play, they enter and leave the curtain from the left side where Hacivat stays. in accordance with their appearances, places like tents, mountains, rocky or bare lands and fields are situated on Karagöz’s side and houses and places of more luxury are placed on Hacivat’s side. Karagöz figures are called puppets. They are generally made of calf, cattle or buffalo leather. Puppets are produced by an old hand journeyman or by Karagözcü, a puppeteer in the play, himself. Karagöz puppeteers are generally a crew of five people. Among Karagöz puppeteers areHayali or Hayalbaz(meaning image creator), who is the master puppeteer, Çırak, the helper of the master puppeteer, Hayali, Sandıkkar, the assistant of Çırak, Yardak, who sings songs and Dayrezen, who plays tambourine (Tekerek, 2008). Shadow play is a kind of art indigenous to eastern cultures and there is different information relating its origin in various sources. in one source, it is stated that it first appeared in China before Christ, and according to another source, it originated in India and passed to Java in the 4th and 5th centuries and spread from Java to the western world. There is no definite knowledge about when shadow play technique is adopted and performed by the Turkish society. According to one belief, it is transferred to Mongolians by the Chinese, then to Turks, and then, in parallel with the direction of the Turkish military excursions, to the West. There are different rumors about when this technique came into existence in Turkish Folk Culture. The most common of these beliefs is that it took place during the construction of UluCami (the Grand Mosque)during the reign of Sultan Orhan between 1324 and 1362. The laborers who took part in the construction of the mosque gathered around Ironmaster Kambur Bali Çelebi(Karagöz) and bricklayer HalilHacıİvaz(Hacivat), both of whom worked in the construction, in order to listen to their cheerful conversation, causing the construction to slow down. Informed about the situation, Sultan got both of them executed. But, later on, Sultan regretted getting them killed and felt so sorry for them that in order to cheer Sultan up and comfort him, ŞeyhKüşteritook off his headwear, called sarık, which is like a curtain,lit a candle behind it to create shadows, took of his çarıks, a kind of sandal worn in those days, and animated the figures of Karagöz and Hacivatbehind the curtain and repeated their cheerful conversation. From that day on, Karagöz and Hacivat plays started to be performed in different squares. Today, Karagöz curtain is called ŞeyhKüşteri square and he is accepted as the father of Karagöz Shadow Play. According to Metin And, shadow play entered Anatolia after Yavuz Sultan Selim, who conquered Egypt in 1517 and got Tumanbay, a Mameluk Sultan, executed on Roda Island on the Nile 64

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River, watched an imagecreator who depicted the execution on a curtain, and brought him to Istanbul wishing his son Kanuni Sultan Süleyman see the performance. Turks took the shadow projection technique behind the curtain from Egypt at the beginning of the 16th century. At first, since there were some irrelevant scenes to each other in Egyptian plays, the same practice was applied in the first Turkish shadow plays. Moreover, there are not any certain characters in Egyptian shadow plays. Therefore, Hacivat and Karagöz’s names are not mentioned a lot with the 16th century. Turkish creativity was added to this new play in time, then, a very colorful and dynamic form was given to it, and after the play took its final form, it spread the areas within the influence area of the Ottoman Empire. This is how shadow play returned back to Egypt, where it originated, in this new form. As a matter of fact, many travelers, while describing the shadow game in Egypt in the 19th century, stated that it was Karagöz shadow game and it was brought to Egypt by Turks and performed mainly in Turkish (And, 1985). In the works of some Islamic Sufis, the image curtain is likened to the World, and human beings and other living creatures are likened to temporary images on the curtain. It is told that an invisible creator moves all the creatures in the universe just like the puppeteer behind the curtain moving the images in the play. There are many documents that show how prevalent shadow play is and that it is one of the most important Ottoman entertainment arts. According to the information gathered from local writers’, such as EvliyaÇelebiand Naima, works, and journals and travel books of Europeans who had been in Istanbul in that era, these plays, which were performed in cafes in Ramadan and at homes, palaces and residences during special occasions such as marriage, birth and circumcision ceremonies, were among the major entertainments ofthe Ottoman society. Moreover, it is possible to see in local and foreign sources that shadow plays were among the favorite entertainment of the Ottoman Palace and public meetings in the 19th century. According to these local sources, during Sultan Mahmut II’s reign, Karagöz shadow plays were performed in eleven different places at nights during the circumcision ceremonies of his sons. Also, some Karagöz puppeteers were allowed to MızıkayıHümayunduring Sultan Abdülaziz and Abdülhamit II’s time (Kudret, 1970). Thanks to its flexible structure, Karagöz and Hacivat shadow plays, which were open to improvisation and dealing with current events,became the most important means of satire of its time. Although not yet popular as they were before, Karagöz and Hacivat plays, which have always been popular throughout history, have lost their potency considerably due to the introduction of theatres, cinema and television one after another with the effects of technological developments. Method in this study, a descriptive method has been used in order to reveal the role of music in Karagöz and Hacivat Shadow Play. According to Karasar (1982), descriptive method is a research which describes an event or a situation taking place in the past or today as it really is. Findings in this part of the study, sources and previous researches on the subject have been examined, discussed by combining them with expert opinions, and interpreted. Our country has a rich folk theatre culture. Our own music has an important place in Karagöz and Hacivat Shadow Play, which is the most noticeable example of this culture. Karagöz and Hacivat Music was examined as a separate subjectfor the first time in the book KaragözMusikisi(Karagöz Music), published by Ministry of Culture Publications, by EtemRuhiÜngör in 1989. It has never been the subject of research in any books published on the subject. However, music used in Karagöz and Hacivat plays has gained a distinctive identity and created a typical type of humor music. in the book written by Üngör, the study of Karagöz Music in terms of musicology can be regarded as the first attempt on the subject. According to the results obtained from this study, it is observed that Turkish music is used with all of its features and diversity in Karagöz and Hacivat Shadow Play. With its compositions, Ağır(Heavy)Semaisi, Yürük(Turkish Nomads)Semaisi, Peşrev(Overtures), Saz(Instrument)Semaisi,Köçekler, Folk songs and Songs, Karagöz music includes all forms of Turkish Music, and, hence, becomes an inseparable part of the play. We can add our characteristic styles, unsystematic beats, to the previous group. for instance, in one of the Karagöz plays, KanlıKavak(Bloody Popler), drum is played with 5, 7 and 9 beat style, and in another play, Tahmis(Extension),Arab’s playing the drum with 7 beat style and BebeRuhi’s playing it with 9 beat style can be given as an example to unsystematic beats. Moreover, Apart from the folk songs of Anatolia and Rumelia, Arabic and Jewish songs related to the play, tunes indigenous to Greek and Armenian culture, and Western musical forms such as 65

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Valse, Polka, and Opera Arias were used when needed. According to Üngör (1989), texts, which gain a different characteristic and depend generally on humor and philosophy, and the compositions, made parallel to these texts, create a special music style. Therefore, this music style can be called Karagöz music. It is observed that the accessible repertoire of Karagöz music is related more to the 19th and 20th century Turkish music. When Karagöz music is studied, it is seen that it is set up on a triple pattern composed of Semai, Gazel(Ode), and Hayal(Imaginary) Songs. Semai: It is one of the small forms of Turkish Art Music (Say, 1992). It carries three meanings in music. The first of these is that it is the name of a triple time and triple beat music style. There are four songns, called Semai, which are among the songs mentioned in the research of Üngör and among the first songs performed at the beginning of the play and have notes and records. The singer of these first songs in the play is Hacivat. Unlike other imaginary songs, only the introduction and chorus parts of Semais are played and sung (Üngör, 1989). Gazel: It is a form which is played spontaneously like Taksim(Improvisation)in Turkish Art Music. Lyrics are generally chosen among the poems in the form of Gazel. It doesn’t have a style. It is independent and without pattern. Exclamations such as ‘ah, of, aman, eyyar etc.(exclamations of mourning in Turkish culture)’ which express sorrow amog lyrics (Say, 1992). The music of Gazelhan(gazel singer)gains value with his knowledge and talent. There haven’t been any indications of Gazel forms’ existence among Hacivat and Karagöz texts. Gazels,which have been performed in a mode up till now, are now being sung like plain texts due to the lack of Karagöz Puppeteers’ musical knowledge and Gazel singing skills. Unlike Semai sung by Hacivat, PerdeGazel is performed by Karagöz (Üngör,1989). Imaginary Songs: Unlike Semai and Gazel, they present a variety. Generally, they are composed of songs and folk songs. Although they make up most of the plays, half of them have disappeared today. Though repeated in some plays, imaginary songs vary by plays. The repeated ones have been special imaginary songs of Karagöz characters. According to the research conducted by Üngör, the most repeated song among imaginary songs is ‘Nice sevmeyeyimdostlarbiracayipdilivar(she has such a good tone, how can’t I fall in love with her?)’ composed by SeyyitNuh, a 17th century composer and in Şehnazmode. Moreover, according to the same research, among the repertoire of 211 songs, 61 songs by Hacivat, the leading singer, 55 by Çelebi, 43 by Zenne, and 26 by Karagöz. in addition, when Karagöz music is studied in terms of mode, the most used songs and their modes are, from the most to the least, 21 songs in Hicazmode, 13 songs in Uşşakmode, 12 songs in Rastmode, 10 songs in Hüseynimode, 10 songs in Nihavendmode. Apart from these, examples of Muhayyerkürdiand other modes of Turkish music were used in plays. The instruments used in Karagöz Shadow Play can be divided into two categories as ‘instruments on the curtain’ and ‘instruments behind the curtain’. Instruments on the curtain are the instrument used in Classical Turkish music such as bağlama(an instrument with three double strings), KaradenizKemençesi (a three string instrument like violin indigenous to the Black Sea region of Turkey), drum, clarion, kabak (a three string instrument like bağlama,but held vertically when played), clarinet and tambourine (http: //turkgolge. sitemynet. Com ). Also, cymbal, tong with cymbals and nakkare (a small kettle drum used in mehter music)are used as curtain instruments. The most important instrument used behind the curtain is tambourine. The use of tambourine is a tradition for Hacivat and Karagöz Puppeteers. There aren’t any plays in which tambourine isn’t used. Because it has an important role especially in the fights of Hacivat and Karagöz, in expressing the jokes, and in the entries and exits of characters, tambourine is seen as an inseparable part of the play. Besides, in order to contribute to the research, an interview has been carried out with Hayali Nevzat Çiftçi, who still performs shadow plays in Bursa, who produces Hacivat and Karagöz puppets, and who is also a master of shadow play figures and puppets, regarding Karagöz music. in the interview, Çiftçi’s opinions about Karagöz music have been the main topic. He has stated that Karagöz music is a contentful and a special kind of music with its own characteristics, and that a Hacivat and Karagöz play cannot be thought of without music, and that music plays a crucial role in the play. His remarks have been found quite important for the research. Conclusion and Discussion As a result of this research, it is found out that the number of written sources is very limited and the performers of this play do it voluntarily and there are very few of them. According to the information, gathered from a couple of sources that could be reached and, and the information and documents taken from Hacivat and Karagöz Museum in Bursa, music occupies an important placein Hacivat and Karagöz Shadow Play and is an indispensable part of plays.The plays also give place to many kinds of music, mainly Turkish music. It is found out that music types,especially, which reflect the features of characters and are related to the theme of the plays are used. It is observed that all the instruments used in front of and behind the curtain are the instruments used in Turkish Folk Music and Turkish Art Music and there aren’t any instruments, 66

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but tambourine in today’s plays, and even the music is played by CD playersand computers today. Even though the number of puppeteers and audience decreased significantly, shadow plays have reached the present day by the efforts of volunteers. Technological advancements shouldn’t be regarded as the reason for decrease in the popularity of Karagöz plays which run the risk of extinction and are among the most important pieces of Traditional Turkish Theatre. The westernization attempts starting from the 17th century showed their effects in the 20th century, the tradition of improvisation, the most important feature of traditional Turkish theatre, was given up, written texts as in the western theatre replaced it. Karagöz plays, dependent on written texts, couldn’t keep up with the age and the cultural developments in human life as no more plays were written, presentation of the same plays repeatedly wasn’t able to attract the attention of the public. Karagöz plays can be as prestigious and common as it used to be only if the tradition of improvisation is used once again. Otherwise, Karagöz plays, which are performed by a handful of puppeteers, will end up with extinction in the pages of history books in the next decades. The most important responsibility for the preservation and presence of Hacivat and Karagöz, an important cultural value of our country’s culture, is on the Ministry of Culture and institutions of art education. The establishment of Departments of Traditional Turkish Theatre within the Conservatories and Faculties of Fine Arts will make these plays contemporary and increase the number of specialists in the field. in addition, the number of people who think that people who are keen on these plays should be supported by the state will increase. Especially, the increase in the number of museums like Karagöz House supported by the metropolitan municipality of Bursa, the continuous performances in these places and opening courses for interested individuals will carry this form of art to future generations and stop its disappearance. References And, Metin. (1985). Traditional Turkish Theatre. İnkilap Kitabevi pg.278. Çiftçi, Nevzat, (2014) Interview, Karagöz Puppeteer, Puppet Making http: //turkgolge. sitemynet. Com http://www.izafet.net/threads/karagoz-oyunlarin-tarihcesi.66115/ Karasar, Niyazi. (1982) Scientific Research Methods:Concepts, Principles, Techniques pg:80 Kudret, Cevdet (1970 ) Karagöz .Bilgi Yayınevi, Vol. 3, pg. 543. Say, Ahmet . (1992), Music Encyclopedia, vol 4 pg: 1123 . Say, Ahmet 1992,Music Encyclopedia, vol 2 pg: 527 Tekerek, Nurhan (2008). Köy Seyirlik Oyunları, Mitos-Boyut Publications, pages.75-76. Üngör,Cevdet (1989), Karagöz Musikisi . Ministry of Culturel Publications, pages.75-76.

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Assessment of Role in Non-Governmental Organizations and Their Humanitarian Effort in Refugee Camps Worldwide Festina Balidemaj University of Minnesota, USA 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, 55455, [email protected] Albina Balidemaj Clemson University, USA Barre Hall, South Carolina, 29634-0312 [email protected] Abstract The relief and humanitarian effort of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in refugee camps worldwide requires prompt, coordinated, and effective interventions. As evident by the physicians and nurses make up of NGOs, a significant portion of such effort is focused on health care issues such as treating, managing, and preventing the spread of infectious diseases of refugees. In this literature-based project, the role of pharmacists in the relief efforts of NGOs is examined. Currently, pharmacists represent a small fraction (~9%) of the non-governmental organizations’ task force, which undermines the invaluable potential of their contributions to the relief efforts. Student pharmacists should also be introduced to the role of non-governmental organizations’ humanitarian efforts and the world of opportunities available in helping people under stress while being exposed to different cultures towards their own professional growth. Keywords: Globalization, healthcare

Introduction According to UNHCR global trends report, there are approximately 36.5 million refugees worldwide due to wars and natural disasters (either natural or man-made). A refugee is a person who meets three general criteria, including being outside of their own country without the choice of returning home due to fear of persecution, or due to race, nationality, political opinion, membership of a particular social group or religion (Heptinstall et al., 2004). An asylum seeker is a person who has lodged an asylum claim with the Immigration and Nationality Directorate at the Home Office without a permission to leave the country until office’s approval (Heptinstall et al., 2004; Burnett and Peel, 2001). For reasons beyond their control, the lives of refugees are interrupted and they are forced out of the safety of their home and country to become homeless. Poverty also drives families to migrate in search for a better life for themselves and their families. Regardless the reason, refugees and immigrants leave home, family, friends and childhood memories to the unknown with so many variables. Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are formed to take care of these disadvantaged individuals under severe circumstances. It is the hard work, knowledge, and dedication of humanitarians that make it possible for the hopeless to survive another day. The number of humanitarian projects and historic military missions is a continuously growing effect due to international instability (Drifmeyer et al., 2003). Most of these non-governmental organizations have a major portion that belongs to the health care, which in turn is run and managed by health care professionals such as physicians, nurses, and many other aides that work tirelessly and willingly in order to make a difference in improving the lives of refugees by preventing diseases and treating the sick. The history of these non-governmental organizations started in the early 1970s and the greatest global expansion of these organizations occurred during the 1990s when the number of them went from 6,000 to 26,000. In addition, there was a dramatic increase in the number of international NGOs that were supported by the US Agency for International Development; it increased from 18 organizations in 1970 to 195 in 2000 (Pfeiffer et al., 2008). Parallel increase in NGOs inside the United States occurred during the same period to manage an African development effort. Non-state organizations funding originate mostly from large donors such as World Bank and European bilateral agencies and has significantly increased (350% between 1990 and 1999) to match a mounting number of refugees around the world (Pfeiffer et al., 2008). 68

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The humanitarian effort of these organizations is invaluable, without a doubt, very beneficial for millions of people worldwide. However it has been reported and it is worth noting that these organizations also have the tendency to lure governmental health workers, especially from third-world countries due to relatively high-paid jobs (5 to 20 times of their original salaries) and resulting in “brain drain” in those countries. This process of employing a small number of bright citizens of a poor country and enriching the lives of only these few individuals and their families leads to health-care management crises paralleled with morale and social problems for the populations left behind (Pfeiffer et al., 2008). In this report, the role of pharmacists in the humanitarian effort of non- governmental organizations is examined. The hypotheses driving this project is that pharmacists have invaluable role in improving the relief effort by the NGOs on refugee camps pertaining to health care. Method This report is literature-based review concerning the relief effort and humanitarian role of non-governmental organizations in refugee camps and the degree of involvement of pharmacists in such efforts worldwide. The literature search was limited to English- language articles using CINAHL EBSCOhost: Advanced Search database and OVID Medline database. Different combinations of keywords were used in literature search that include “non-governmental organizations”, “humanitarian organizations” in combination with terms for specific work location (e.g. “refugee camps”, “war”), “pharmacist roles” and “pharmacist responsibilities.” At the conception of this report, the following questions were raised to guide and focus the studies reported here: First the history of non-governmental organizations and their role in the health-care in refugee camps worldwide. Second, what is the current role of pharmacists in the health-care related efforts of NGOs? Third, what are the advantages of an expanding role of pharmacists in NGOs? Finally, how can the University of Minnesota lead the effort to prepare pharmacists in being a part of the humanitarian missions of non-governmental organizations? Results Health Issues Associated with Refugee Camps and Disaster Regions Asylum seekers and refugees are more susceptible genetically to some conditions just because of their ethnicity. According to the NHS, for example, hemoglobinopathies are more likely to affect only people of a certain ethnicity such as people from Greece, Cyprus and eastern Mediterranean. They also recognize that heart problems and diseases have higher incidence in persons from Africa and Diabetes Mellitus is more prevalent in people from Asia (Burnett and Fassil, 2002 & Taylor and Glair, 1999). It has also been found that the lifetime incidence of depression is heightened by the memories of war’s deaths and destructions (Erickson D’Avanzo & Barab, 1998), which lead to PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) symptoms and other dysfunctional personality traits, including difficulties in employment, irritability, difficulties in relationships, legal matters, medical problems, and so on (Maguen et al., 2009). According to NHS (Nursing Health Standards), we must recognize that refugees and asylum seekers are not ‘vectors of infection’, although the refugee camps put them at a greater risk of infectious or communicable diseases such as malaria, hepatitis, tuberculosis and typhoid (Burnett and Peel, 2001). As a result, participating volunteers and health workers are trained to enhance their own protection as well as to guarantee an effective response to disaster area (Litchfield, 2010). The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is designated to help improve childrens’ health in third-world countries, refugee camps and war zones. The highest rate of mortality in refugee populations occurs in children younger than five years old with common causes of death such as acute respiratory infections, malaria, measles, diarrheal diseases and severe malnutrition (Moss et al., 2006). Other needs of children in complex emergency situations include malnutrition and macronutrient needs, trauma, neonatal health, mental health and many unaccompanied children (especially those with special health-care needs). The best knowledge that has been acquired from death camps was that it is clear that health interventions are best guided by applying the most basic epidemiologic principles such as monitoring mortality and morbidity rates, rapid response to outbreaks of communicable diseases and establishment of surveillance systems (Waldman et al., 1999). In addition to NHS’s rules, regulations, and suggestions, certain conditions such as rheumatic heart disease, poor dental health, respiratory problems, gastrointestinal problems, malnutrition, and ocular conditions that may be ascribed in their

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country of origin during the flight to their refuge destination or during their stay in refugee camps (Burnett and Fassil, 2002). An infectious disease prevalent among refugees and asylum seekers is HIV (mostly in victimized women who have been raped or sexually assaulted), especially in persons fleeing from Africa where antiretroviral therapy is unavailable and unaffordable most of the time and in most countries in Africa (Burnett and Peel, 2001). In relation to HIV epidemic is the rising incidence of tuberculosis because immuno- suppression associated to HIV allows development of tuberculosis. Partners in Health (PIH), a Boston-based non-governmental organization, describes its mission as “caring for patients, alleviating the root causes of the diseases in specific communities and sharing learned lessons with the rest of the world” (Litchfield, 2010), which is perfectly tailored for pharmacists. Pharmacists partnering with NGOs could help prepare for emergencies by developing procedures of standard operations, forms, and data management tools, which can be modified easily for surveillance activities in humanitarian emergency settings (Magloire et al., 2010). Current Role of Pharmacists in the NGOs Relief Effort Currently, all indications suggest a negligible role of pharmacists in the non- governmental organizations and their mission in humanitarian and relief effort. The main health care providers in these non-governmental organizations are predominantly composed of nurses (45%), both registered nurses and nurse practitioners, and physicians (25%) (Solheim, 2005). Among those health-care providers, pharmacists are considered as a minority with about 9% representation in NGOs in the overall NGOs mission related to public health, epidemiology and laboratory researchers (Figure 1). What is quite fascinating is how registered nurses have taken the matters into their own hands and set their own guidelines (Nursing Health Standards, NHS) for their relief effort practice within NGOs worldwide, which can be attributed to either necessity or economic reasons (Burnett and Fassil, 2002 ; Taylor and Glair, 1999). While there is an important role for nurses to play, the knowledge and expertise of pharmacists in the relief effort is invaluable in helping refugees and their family in an extreme environment in accordance with the health care guidelines. The mortality rates in refugee populations are highest among children of ages less than five, which comprise approximately 18% of the entire refugee population (Moss et al., 2006). In addition, children above the age of five tend to exceed the mortality rate of the young children usually after outbreaks (e.g., cholera, or dysentery). It is in this very young population under these severe conditions that pharmacists can be very beneficial in infection prevention and control, antimicrobial stewardship, immunization and treatment of diseases such as diarrhea, measles, malaria, acute respiratory infections, pneumonia and malnutrition. In the following sections, the American Health Systems Pharmacists (ASHP) guideline will be discussed concerning the recommended role of pharmacists in infection control, promoting optimal use of antibiotics, and educating patients as well as the public. P h a r m a c i s ts ’ R o l e i n R e d u c i n g I n fe c ti o n T r a n s m i s s i o n : In order to reduce and control the transmission of infectious diseases, pharmacists have to be involved in the decision making process in disastrous areas. For example, pharmacists are the best-equipped health-care professionals to advise on issues concerning drug handling, storage, labeling and the importance of sterile products and protocols. Pharmacists are also knowledgeable concerning the establishment of pharmacy policies, quality-control programs within any setting (e.g., a refugee camp) and to ensure proper health standards and health precautions. Pharmacists are always striving to update and upgrade the most useful treatment, preventative and risk assessment guidelines, and immunizing as many proper patients (according to immunization guidelines) as there are available resources, as well as promoting screening of patients (ASHP report, 2010). P h a r m a c i s ts ’ R o l e i n P r o m o ti n g O p ti m a l U s e o f A n ti b i o t i c s : Optimal antimicrobial agent usage and promotion is of paramount importance in health care. This is best achieved by collaboration of multidisciplinary professionals, including pharmacy, within the health system management. This ensures proper therapeutic, prophylactic and empirical uses of antimicrobial and antiviral agents. Also, it is very important to utilize effective and efficient systems to eliminate potential drug reactions and potential or preventable errors (ASHP report, 2010).

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P h a r m a c i s ts ’ R o l e i n E d u c a ti n g t h e P u b l i c i n G e n e r a l : The professional development and training of pharmacists make them uniquely positioned to educate the public and fellow health-care professionals about antibiotic stewardship and infection prevention. Pharmacists can achieve this task using different platforms such as conferences and newsletters’ articles on antimicrobial stewardships and resistance, infection prevention control, including the usage of decontaminating products, and proper sterilizing and decontaminating procedures (ASHP report, 2010). Discussion According to the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (2008), the health professionals have to be prepared to educate mothers about appropriate breastfeeding in order to prevent malnutrition and anemia in infants and young children. Social instability, wars, politics, and poverty seem to be here to stay and as a result society, as well as NGOs have to be equipped with all necessary expertise to help the unfortunate when possible. The above mentioned health issues associated with refugee camps and asylum seekers dictate a more pronounced role of pharmacists in the humanitarian and relief efforts of NGOs worldwide through managing patients’ therapy through drug compounding, delivery and administration. The currently limited role of pharmacy in the relief effort and humanitarian missions of NGOs in refugee camps stands in a stark contrast with the evolving role of pharmacy in health care of the industrial nations. The United Kingdom’s Nursing Health Standards (NHS) established a set of standards and regulations for nurses to treat patients most successfully and without difficulty. The NHS guidelines also include which populations were susceptible to what conditions, in order for nurses to be able to promptly recognize a condition based on ethnicity, race, or even culture as another sign in helping when diagnosing and treating patients. Magloire et al. (2010) also explains the idea of working with other organizations by learning from them as well as teaching them what we know and what we learn in the process. He states that preparing for emergency activities should involve partnering with NGOs in order to develop procedures of standard operations, forms, and data management tools, which are modified easily for surveillance activities in humanitarian emergency setting. Further research is needed for developing and evaluating interventions to reduce neonatal mortality in complex emergencies. The development and evaluation of better tools are needed to assess mental health problems in children. Also is it needed to develop and field-test rapid-diagnostic and antibiotic susceptibility tests for Vibrio cholerae and Shigella dysenteriae. Lastly, evaluation of presumptive malaria treatment for children in complex emergencies is much needed (Moss et al., 2006). These areas of research can most likely be covered by graduated doctors of pharmacy. In addition to their expertise in antimicrobial usage and infectious-disease prevention, pharmacists are the only health-care professionals with specialized knowledge on drug-body interactions and the associated methods to optimize their pharmacological benefits with safe, rational, and liable use of medications (Manasse, 2010). Besides prompt and proper health-care delivery, health-care professionals must be knowledgeable about the cultural needs and language of refugees and asylum seekers that can be quite challenging. Otherwise, interpreters provide very accurate and much skilled word for word interpretation between the non-English speaking service user and the health care provider (Heptinstall, 2004). For example, while dealing with foreign women, especially victims of rape, one must keep in mind the cultural values that they may have towards abortion, use of contraception and other values of sexual health (Matthews, 2001). The non-governmental organizations workers and volunteers must be fully trained in order to participate in a response team while undergoing a more competitive recruitment process by organization such as Medecins Sans Frontietes (MSF), otherwise known as Doctors Without Borders. Such training, which goes beyond the basic survival training, enables their workers to help others in life-threatening situations such as neglect, violence, war crimes, epidemics, malnutrition, armed conflict, natural disasters and health care exclusion (Litchfield, 2010). Conclusion Speaking from first-hand experience, both as a camp refugee and a refugee camp volunteer, I hope that this report will

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bring humanitarian role of NGOs into spotlight. The people in those refugee camps are vulnerable yet resilient under circumstances outside their own control. It is not trivial to understand what it feels like to be a refugee (Vernon, 2008). Most importantly, pharmacists have a unique opportunity to help in refugee camps with desperate and most deserving people while advancing the NGOs mission. Towards that goal, the curriculum of the college of pharmacy will best serve its students by preparing them for this new set of challenges with a global context. It did not escape my attention that the involvement of pharmacists in the relief effort of NGOs worldwide would require a new set of skills such as learning foreign languages and cultural awareness, but these are nothing compared with the rigorous educational program they successfully complete. One could envision a pharmacist helping many victims of refugee camps by providing a quick treatment consultation about recent sunburn, simple gastrointestinal problems due to a contemporary lack of meals or change in their diet such as a recurring diarrhea or constipation, lice treatments and so many more health-related issues. In addition, pharmacists are knowledgeable of different states of many diseases and drug therapy managements could be critical in preventing health crises in refugee camp environments. Despite the complexities of urgent child health care in catastrophes, it is known that much of the burden in these situations is malnutrition and infectious diseases, both of which can very well be managed by pharmacists. References Aid-Khaled, N., Enarson, D., & Bousquet, J. (2001). Chronic respiratory diseases in developing countries: the burden and strategies for prevention and management. Bulletin of the World Health Organizations. 79, 971-979. ASHP Reports. (2010). ASHP Statement on the pharmacist’s role in antimicrobial stewardship and infection prevention and control. Developed through the ASHP council on pharmacy practice and approved by the ASHP board of directors on April, 2009, and by the ASHP house of delegates on June, 2009. American Journal of Health-Systems Pharmacists. 67, 575-577. Bauer, GA., Szeinbach, S., Griffith, N., & Siegel, J. (2002). Perceptions of quality and value in state and local pharmacy professional organizations. 59, 1082-1089. Burnett, A., & Fassil, Y. (2002). Meeting the health care needs of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK. An information and resource pack for health workers. www.medact.org/tbx/docs/Asylum_Refugee.pdf (Last accessed: August 12 2010). Burnett, A., & Peel, M. (2001). What brings asylum seekers to the United Kingdom? British Medical Journal. 322, 7284, 485-488. Bustreo, F., Harding, A., & Axelsson, H. (2003). Can developing countries achieve adequate improvements in child health outcomes without engaging the private sector? Bulletin of the World Health Organizations. 81, 886-895. Chakrapani, V., Newman, PA., Shunmugam, M., Kurian, AK., & Dubrow, R. (2009). Barriers to free antiretroviral treatment access for female sex workers in Chennai, India. AIDS Patient Care and STDs. 23, 973-980. Chen, HT., & Liao, Q. (2005). A pilot study of the NGO-based relational intervention model for HIV prevention among drug users in China. AIDS Education and Prevention. 17, 503-514. Desai, S., & Perry, MJ. (2004). Tracking gender-based human rights violations in postwar Kosovo. American Journal of Public Health. 94, 1304-1307. Drifmeyer, J., & Llewellyn, C. (2003). Overview of overseas humanitarian, disaster, and civic aid programs. Millitary Medicine. 168, 975-980. Erickson D’Avanzo, C., & Barab, SA. (1998). Issues in Mental Health Nursing. Nursing Standard. 19, 541-556. Heptinstall, T. (2004). Asylum seekers: a health professional perspective. Nursing Standard. 18, 25, 44-53. Litchfield, SM. (2010). How to help when disaster strikes. AAOHN Journal. 58, 85-87. Litsois, S. 2004. American Journal of Public Health. 94, 1884-1893. Magloire, R., Mung, HK., Cookson, ST., Tappero, J., Barzilayo, E., Dominguez, K., dubray, C., Lindblade, K., Jentes, ES., Willis, M., Tohme, RA., Sprecher, AG., El Bcheraoui, C., & Walldorf, JA. (2010). Rapid establishment of an internally displaced persons disease surveillance system after an earthquake-Haiti. MMWR. 59, 939-945. Maguen, S., Stalnaker, M., McCaslin, S., & Litz, BT. (2009). PTSD Subclusters and functional impairments peacekeepers. Military Medicine. 174, 779-785. Manasse, HR. (2010). Keeping our focus during a difficult time. American Journal Health systems Pharmacy. 67, 43-46. 72

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Matthews, P. (2001). Preventive healthcare for asylum seekers written information provided at a Medact seminar on refugee health in London: March 16, 2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. (2008). Malnutrition and Macronutrient Deficincies Among Bhutanese refugee children-Nepal, 2007. 370-372. Moss, WJ., Ramakrishnan, M., Stroms, D., Henderson Siegle, A., Weiss, WM., Lejnev, I., & Muhe, L. (2006). Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 84, 58-64. Newell, JN., Pande, SB., Baral, SC., Bam, DS., & Malla, P. (2004). Control of tuberculosis in an urban setting in Nepal: public-private partnership. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 82, 92-98. Pfeiffer, J., Johnson, W., Fort, M., Shakow, A., Hagopian, A., Gloyd, S., & Gimbel-Sher, K. (2008). American Journal of Public Health. 98, 2134-2141. Sabri, B., Siddiqi, S., Ahmed, AM., Kakar, FK., & Perrot, J. (2007). Towards sustainable delivery of health services in Afghanistan: Options for the future. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 85, 712-718. Solheim, K. (2005). Patterns of community relationship: nurses, non-governmental organizations and internally displaced persons. International Nursing Review. 52, 60-67. Taylor, G., & Glair, R. (1999). A review of the literature on the health of refugees and asylum seekers. Refugee Health in London: Key Issues for Public Health London. The Health of Londoners Project. Vernon, G. (2008). How to teach trainees about primary care for refugees and asylum seekers. Teaching Exchange. 430-431. Waldman, R., & Martone, G. (1999). Public health and complex emergencies: new issues, new conditions. American Journal of Public Health. 89, 1483-1485. Yadamsuren, B., Merialdi, M., Davaadorj, I., Harris Requejo, J., Pilar Betran, A., Ahmad, A., Nymadawa, P., Erkhembaatar, T., Barcelona, D., Ba-thike, K., Hagan, RJ., Prado, R., Wagner, W., Khishgee, S., Sodnompil, T., Tsedmaa, B., Jav, B., Govind, SR., Purevsuren, G., Tsevelmaa, B., Soyoltuya, B., Johnson, BR., Fajans, P., Van Look, PFA., & Otgonbold, A. (2010). Tracking maternal mortalitydeclines in Mongolia between 1992 and 2007: the importance of collaboration. Bulletin of World Health Organization. 88, 192-198. Figure Captions: Figure 1: Representation of field staff roles broken down into respective percentages. Leading practitioners in refugeecamp settings are nurses (including registered nurses and nurse practitioners), followed by physicians. Pharmacists occupy a small percentage even when combined with other health professions such as public health, epidemiology and laboratory work (adapted from Solheim, 2005).

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IDENTIFYING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS’ PERCEIVED COMPETENCE AND NECESSITY REGARDING IMPLEMENTATION OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT METHODS AND THEIR FREQUENCY OF USE Yurdagül GÜNAL Karadeniz Technical University, Education Sciences Department [email protected] Abstract: This study aimed at finding out secondary school physical education teachers’ overall perception and perceived competence regarding implementing of alternative assessment methods along with frequency of using them. Study participants were comprised of 142 physical education teachers from state schools in Trabzon province during the 2012-2013 education– instruction year. "Teacher Competency" questionnaire developed by Banoğlu (2008) was used. The five-item scale is comprised of four parts. Part one includes demographic data about participants, part two is about “teachers’ overall perceptions regarding implementation of alternative assessment methods" (not necessary-quite necessary), part three includes “teachers’ perceived competence regarding alternative assessment methods” (unsatisfactory-very satisfactory), and the last part is about “frequency of teachers’ using alternative assessment methods (neverquite often)”. Data analysis was done at significance level of 0.05 by using “SPSS for WINDOVS 20”. in data analysis, frequency, percentage and arithmetic mean were calculated from participants’ responses in all of the three parts. Arithmetic mean range was calculated with the logic of 5 columns and 4 ranges. Value of each range was found as 4/5=0,8. Arithmetic mean for teachers’ overall perceptions regarding using of alternative assessment methods was found as X= 3.17. According to teachers, alternative assessment methods are moderately necessary as seen from range values obtained from the questionnaire. Portfolio (x=26.1) was found to be the leading alternative assessment method teachers consider not necessary. It was followed by(x=20.4) concept maps. As for the methods considered rarely necessary; performance task (x=17.6) and peer assessment (x=12.7) were found. Under moderately necessary methods, project (x=22.5) and group assessment (x=26.1) were found. Check list (x=49.3) and self assessment (x=43) were listed as necessary methods. Lastly, quite necessary methods were reported as rubric (x=21.1) and check lists (x=14.8). It was understood that mostly teachers regard themselves competent about alternative assessment methods (x=3.53). They find themselves incompetent mainly in relation with concept maps (3.16) and portfolios (x=3.30). The teachers regard themselves competent about check lists, rubric, project, performance tasks, peer assessment, self assessment and group assessment (3.42-4.22). The study revealed that teachers mostly use alternative assessment methods at moderate level (x=3.06). Performance task was found the most frequently used method (x=3.41). It could be inferred from range degrees in questionnaires that according to overall mean of frequency of teachers’ using alternative assessment methods (x=3.06), the frequency is low (2,62-3.41). Thus, it could be suggested “frequency of teachers’ using alternative assessment methods is mostly not at desired level”. Key words: Alternative assessment methods, education-instruction

Introduction Today rapidly developing science and technology affect not only science world but also entire of the social life and oblige introducing of new arrangements. As a part of this new paradigm, the phenomenon of education is brought into discussion again and seeking is ongoing for new things. in the face of all these changes, individuals are required to acquire new skills in order to adapt to community and improve. Rapid development of science and technology has also brought requestioning of the concept of education. Main concern of many countries in the information era has been bringing up individuals capable of reasoning, understanding, questioning, investigating, and solving problems. New quest is sought for a more effective process of education and instruction. Education systems bringing up individuals with conditioned and stereotyped minds lag behind contemporary developments. Those educated with traditional mentality cannot keep up with developments in science and technology or contribute to overall development of their country. The countries which realize that situation have already started questioning their education systems and practices. Departing point for such questioning is how to educate human beings who can access to, use and produce information (Güneş, 2007).

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With an eye to harmonize Turkish National Education System with changing conditions of the era, Head Council of Education and Morality of National Education Ministry implemented restructured primary and secondary education curricula based on universal approaches such as “life-long learning” and “learning to learn” within the framework of curriculum development. As a result of this implementation, the theoretical background of Turkish curricula switched from a rigid behaviourist approach towards constructivism (MEB, 2005). In this scope, new curricula of Classroom Teaching Programs and Mathematics, Science and Technology, Turkish, Social Studies, Information Technologies, Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge, Physical Education, Visual Arts, English and Music were developed covering the first five grades of elementary education as well as Mathematics, Language and Expression, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Information and Communication Technologies, Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge, Turkish Literature and English for secondary level. Renewed curricula are built on the idea of educating citizens in a way to allow them to investigate, question, learn how to learn, and think creatively and critically (Yıldırım, 2006). A number of approaches and implementations have come up in Turkey as a result of the constructivist approach along with newly developed curricula in effect since 2005. Similarly, within the context of implementing new approaches of learningteaching techniques, new applications were introduced regarding redefining teacher and student roles and also determining learning objectives and learning levels. As a part of the renewed curricula, assessment and evaluation requirement besides expectation from teachers changed as well. Result-oriented assessment and evaluation approach was replaced with process-oriented approach. As for philosophy of instruction, teacher-oriented instruction was replaced with student-oriented instruction. According to constructivist learning, students can learn to learn provided that they are actively involved in learning process and assess themselves within the process. Renewed elementary curricula include not only traditional assessment and evaluation methods but also alternative assessment methods for the learning process. for process assessment, also using of alternative assessment methods such as observation forms, performance tasks, project assignments, self assessment, and group and peer assessment. The changes implemented in the curricula can bear a positive effect on the education system if they are implemented accurately and effectively. for ensuring this, the biggest responsibility falls onto teachers as practitioners. in this process, some studies found challenges during the implementation phase. The studies showed that capacity of teachers is low in relation with functioning of the renewed curricula and assessment and evaluation methods proposed by the program (Erdal, 2005, Çalık, 2007, Ören and Tatar 2007, Tabak, 2007, Gelbal and Kelecioğlu, 2007). Physical education is one of the courses whose curriculum was renewed at secondary education level. Physical education lesson is an integral and complementary part of general education. According to objectives of the lesson and students’ development features, physical education lesson helps students develop healthy, moral, happy and well-balanced personalities at both individual and social extent (Yılmaz and Gündüz, 2007). Main goal of teaching physical education is given in respective curriculum as follows; "to contribute to individuals’ physical, psychomotor, cognitive, emotional and social development, and ensure their life-long participation in physical activities (MEB, 2005). To achieve this goal, students must be involved in gradual learning activities planned for learning by doing-living and must be aware of the extent of their achievement in the end of the activities. To put differently, learners need to be active participants in learning and assessment process. for effective implementation of the renewed curriculum for physical education, alternative assessment and evaluation methods could be useful for process evaluation besides traditional ones. Objectives of physical education course in physical, psychomotor, cognitive, affective and social domains await measuring and assessing. Since learning objectives of the course cover various areas, teachers must have knowledge about, develop, use and assess different types of assessment and evaluation instruments. According to Şirin, Yıldız, Mülazımoğlu and Erdoğdu (2007) study “Teachers’ Views about New Elementary Physical Education Curriculum” launched in “2006-2007” academic year, physical education teachers find the level of practicality of the 6th grade physical education curriculum is “moderate” against sub-dimensions of “overall curriculum and general aims” and “objectives”, while it is “low” for sub-dimensions of “teaching and learning process” and “assessment & evaluation”. In Yılmaz and Gündüz’s (2007) study “Views of Physical Education Teachers in Ankara Central Elementary Schools about Implementation of Assessment and Evaluation Techniques”, it was found that physical education teachers “do not employ at all” the approach of involving students in the process by means of self assessment, peer assessment and group assessment during measurement of student success. However, no study was found in the literature about physical education teachers’ perceived competence and necessity regarding implementation of alternative assessment methods and their frequency of use. 75

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To fill this research gap, this study was carried out to identify physical education teachers’ perceived competence and necessity regarding implementation of alternative assessment methods and their frequency of use. Method Study Group Study participants were comprised of 142 physical education teachers from state schools in Trabzon province during the 2012-2013 education–instruction year. The "Teacher Competency" questionnaire in five-item Likert type scale was used. The questionnaire comprised of four parts was implemented in order to find out physical education teachers’ perception regarding necessity, sufficiency and frequency of alternative assessment methods. Data and Collection Data collection instrument was administered to physical education teachers working in secondary schools at a meeting convening all of the physical teachers from state schools in Trabzon. There are 254 physical education teachers at state secondary schools in Trabzon. Of those, 200 teachers could attend the meeting due to several reasons. 55 of the 200 questionnaires were left out of the study due to missing information. Data collection instrument was developed by Banoğlu (2009). Data Analysis Data analysis was done at significance level of 0.05 by using “SPSS for WINDOVS 20”. in data analysis, frequency, percentage and arithmetic mean were calculated from participants’ responses in all of the three parts. Arithmetic mean range was calculated with the logic of 5 columns and 4 ranges. So, the value of each range was found as 4/5=0,8. Results The aim of present study is to find out secondary school physical education teachers’ overall perception and perceived competence regarding implementing of alternative assessment methods along with frequency of using them. For the aim of this study, answer is sought for following research questions: What is the level of teachers’ overall perception regarding implementation of alternative assessment and evaluation methods? What is the level of teachers’ competence perception regarding implementation of alternative assessment and evaluation methods? What is the teachers’ frequency of using alternative assessment and evaluation methods? Results were presented under respective sub-dimensions. Results from the first sub-dimension of the study; what is the level of teachers’ overall perception regarding implementation of alternative assessment and evaluation methods? Overall arithmetic mean of participant teachers’ perceived necessity of using alternative assessment and evaluation methods was found to be ̅ X= 3.17. Also 49.3 % of the participants (n=70) find check lists necessary, while 8.5 % (n=129) think opposite. 20.4 % of the teachers don’t think that using concept maps is necessary. Only 3.5 % of them regard it necessary. While 21.1 % of the participants find rubrics necessary, 12 % find unnecessary. for project assignments, 19 % of participants think it is needed, whereas 7.7 % have opposite views. Moreover, 4.2 % of the teachers have negative thoughts about performance assignments. 12 %, 10.6 % and 12.7 % of the teachers regard unnecessary alternative methods of self assessment, group assessment and peer assessment, respectively. Lastly, the use of student portfolios is regarded necessary by 9.9 % only. What is the level of teachers’ competence perception regarding implementation of alternative assessment and evaluation methods?

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It was seen that mostly teachers regard themselves competent about alternative assessment methods (x=3.53). The teachers’ highest competence score was obtained from methods such as check lists (x=3.67), self assessment, group assessment (x=3.65), performance tasks (x=3.60) and project assignments (x=3.53), while the lowest competence was found in relation with concept maps (x=3.16) and portfolios (x=3.30). The scores of concept maps and portfolio remained below average. It can be said that teachers perceive themselves competent moderately on these methods. What is the teachers’ frequency of using alternative assessment and evaluation methods? The study revealed that teachers mostly use alternative assessment methods at moderate level (x=3.06). Performance task (x=3.41) and rubric (x=3.29) were found to be the most frequently used methods, while lowest frequency was found with concept maps (x=2.45) and portfolio (x=2.59). Also frequency of peer assessment (x=3.19), group assessment (x=3.21) and self assessment (x=3.12) methods was above average. Discussion Teachers’ perception regarding necessity of implementing alternative methods ranged between quite necessary-not necessary at all. Rubrics and check lists were reported as quite necessary methods. As for the methods regarded less necessary, they were found as concept maps, portfolios and performance tasks. The participants could have responded under negative influence of insufficiency of topics suitable for assessment via concept maps, difficulty of preparing and grading them and lack of samples. Furthermore, the teachers could have had relatively negative perceptions regarding portfolios due to the lack of instruction and examples about them. It is interesting that teachers consider performance assignment unnecessary and rarely use them. Teachers are familiar with that method due to its similarity with homework. in this study, teachers’ perception regarding necessity of alternative assessment and evaluation methods was found to be "moderately necessary" against average values. This finding seems in parallel with Çalık’s (2007) finding “teachers regard assessment and evaluation process in renewed curriculum” and Banoğlu’s (2009) finding “Computer technology teachers consider alternative assessment and evaluation methods on renewed curriculum”. On the other hand, Şirin et al. (2007) found “teachers have negative attitude towards assessment and evaluation methods under assessment and evaluation sub-dimension of new curriculum”. in addition, Doğan and Kutlu (2007) revealed that both teachers and students are not qualified in new assessment and evaluation methods, which affects their perceptions regarding use of them negatively. in our study, it was seen that teachers regard themselves competent about alternative assessment methods. The result seems contradictory with Çakan (2004)’s finding “Secondary school teachers (Physical Education, Painting, Music, Turkish Language, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, etc.,) perceive themselves less competent than their elementary school peers in assessment and evaluation”. According to our study, teachers perceive themselves most competent in check lists, self assessment, group assessment, performance task and project assignment; whereas they have the lowest perception regarding concept maps and portfolios. This seems similar to the findings by Erdal (2005) “teachers are incompetent in using concept maps”, Ören and Tatar (2007) “teachers use concept maps the least”. Also it was seen that teachers often use alternative assessment methods at moderate level. This finding is also in parallel with Şirin et al.’s (2007) finding “teachers use alternative assessment methods at a certain extent” and Tabak (2007)’s finding “teachers do not use them sufficiently”. The highest frequency of use was found with performance task and rubric, the lowest frequency of use was seen in concept maps and portfolios. This result supports Ören and Tatar (2007) citing “one of the least frequently used alternative assessment methods by elementary school teachers is concept maps” and Erdal (2005) suggesting “concept map is the least frequently used method”. It was understood that concept maps and portfolios are the least preferred methods. It can be inferred from the finding that teachers use methods which they think unnecessary less frequently than others. Teachers should be taught well alternative assessment methods, given practical training, and trained about easily accessed sources. in this way, their perceptions regarding necessity of alternative assessment methods and thus their attitude and frequency of use can be improved. Moreover, it deserves further research why teachers do not prefer certain methods. Present study lacks dimensions about using physical suitability and skill tests by physical education teachers. Hence, another study is recommended to be carried out by adding those methods. Bibliography Aydın, H., (2006). Yapılandırmacı toplum.org/pdf/pdf/php=313. [ 5.10.09]

Yaklaşımda

Doğruluk,

77

Gerçeklik

ve

Bilim

Eğitimi

www.universite-

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Arslan, A.S., Avcı. N., İyibil.Ü., (2008). Fizik Öğretmen Adaylarının Alternatif Ölçme-Değerlendirme Yöntemlerini Algılama Düzeyleri. http://www.dicle.edu.tr/yeniweb/suryayin/zgegitimder/sonsayi.htm. [11.10.08] Banoğlu, C., (2009). Bilişim Teknolojileri Öğretmenlerinin Alternatif Değerlendirme Yöntemlerine Yönelik Yeterlilik Düzeyleri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Beden Eğitimi [1-8] Öğretim Programı. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ [10.01.2010] Çalık, S., (2007). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Yenilenen İlköğretim Programlarının Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Süreci Hakkındaki Düşünceleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. 16. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi 5-7 Eylül 2007. Tokat http://www.pegem.net/akademi/kongrebildiri_detay.aspx?id=5064 [11.01.08]. Çakan, M., (2004). Öğretmenlerin Ölçme-Değerlendirme http://education.ankara.edu.tr/ebfdergi/pdser/2004/99-114pdf [24.3.10.].

Uygulamaları

ve

Yeterlik

Düzeyleri:

Erdal, H., (2007). 2005 ilköğretim Matematik Programı Ölçme Değerlendirme Kısmını İncelenmesi Afyonkarahisar İli Örneği. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Afyonkarahisar. Gelbal, S., Kelecioğlu, H., (2007). Öğretmenlerin Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Yöntemleri Hakkındaki Yeterlilik Algıları ve Karşılaştıkları Sorunlar. Uluslar-arası Öğretmen Yetiştirme Politikaları ve Sorunları Sempozyumu. 12-14 Mayıs Bakü. Güneş, F.,(2007). Yapılandırmacı Yaklaşımla Sınıf Yönetimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Karasar, N., (1999). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntem. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Kutlu, Ö.,(2002). Ögretmen Yetistirme Programlarının Yeni Ölçme Ve Değerlendirme Yaklaşımlarını İçerme Düzeyi. Uluslararası Katılımlı 2000’li Yıllarda 1. Ögrenme Ve Ögretme Sempozyumu Bildirisi. İatanbul. Şaşmaz, Ören, F. ve Tatar.N., (2007). İlköğretim Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Alternatif Değerlendirme Yaklaşımlarına İlişkin Görüşleri-I. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 22:15-27. E. F., Şirin Ö. Yıldız, O. Mülazımoğlu, M.Erdoğdu (2007). 2006-2007 Öğretim Yılında Uygulanmaya Başlanan Yeni Beden Eğitimi Dersi Programına Yönelik Öğretmen Görüşleri Tabak, R., (2007). İlköğretim 5. Sınıf Fen Ve Teknoloji Ders Programının Öğrenme Öğretme Ve Ölçme Değerlendirme Yaklaşımları Kapsamında İncelenmesi Muğla İli Örneği. Yılmaz, G. ve N.Gündüz., (2008). Ankara Merkez İlköğretim Okullarında Görevli Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Öğretmenlerinin Ölçme ve Değerlendirme Tekniklerinin Uygulanışına İlişkin Görüşleri. SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, VI(3), 103-111. Yıldırım, M.C. (2006). Yeni İlköğretim Programının Değerlendirilmesi. Ulusal Sınıf Öğretmenliği Kongresi (2,261-268). Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Tables Table1. Range Values of Questionnaire Items Not Necessary

Incompetent

Not at all

1.00-1.80

Rarely necessary

Rarely Competent

Very rarely

1.81-2.61

Moderately necessary

Moderately Competent

Rarely

2.62-3.41

Necessary

Competent

Often

3.42-4.22

Quite necessary

Quite Competent

So often

4.23-5.00

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Table 2. Frequency, Percentage and Averages of Teachers’ Attitudes towards Implementing Alternative Assessment Methods Unnecessar y

Rarely necessary

Moderately necessary

Necessary

Quite necessary

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

X

Check List

12

8.5

16

11.3

23

16.2

70

49.3

21

14.8

3.51

Concept Map

29

20.4

20

14.1

39

27.5

49

34.5

5

3.5

2.86

Rubric

17

12

13

9.2

22

15.5

60

42.3

30

21.1

3.51

Project Assignment

27

19

17

12

32

22.5

55

38.7

11

7.7

3.04

Performance Task

26

18.3

25

17.6

30

21.1

55

38.7

6

4.2

2.92

Portfolio (Student Product File)

37

26.1

25

17.6

29

20.4

37

26.1

14

9.9

2.76

Self Assessment

17

12

14

9.9

30

21.1

61

43

20

14.1

3.37

Group Assessment

15

10.6

15

10.6

37

26.1

60

42.3

15

10.6

3.31

Peer Assessment

18

12.7

18

12.7

30

21.1

53

37.3

23

16.2

3.31

Method

General Average

3.17

Table 3: Frequency, Percentage and Averages of Teachers’ Perceived Competent regarding Implementing Alternative Assessment Methods

Method

Incompete nt

Rarely competent

Moderately competent

Competen t

Very competent

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

F

%

or

Check List

3

2.1

13

9.2

33

23.2

71

50

22

15.5

3.67

Concept Map

10

7

27

19

47

33.1

46

32.4

12

8.5

3.16

Rubric

4

2.8

17

12

31

21

64

45.1

24

18.3

3.64

Project Assignment

6

4.2

16

11.3

34

23.9

68

47.9

18

12.7

3.53

Performance Task

3

2.1

19

13.4

32

22.5

65

45.8

23

16.2

3.60

12

8.5

16

11.3

46

32.4

53

37.3

15

10.6

3.30

Self Assessment

7

4.9

11

7.7

33

23.2

64

45.1

27

19

3.65

Group Assessment

7

4.9

11

7.7

37

26.1

56

39.4

31

21.8

3.65

Peer Assessment

8

5.6

12

8.5

32

22.5

60

42.3

30

21.1

3.64

Portfolio File)

(Student

Product

General Average

79

3.53

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Table 4. Frequency, Percentage and Averages of Teachers’ Frequency of Using Alternative Assessment Methods Method

Never

Very Rarely

Rarely

Often

So Often

f

%

F

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

or

Check List

19

13.4

15

10.6

42

29.6

42

29.6

24

16.9

3.26

Concept Map

43

30.3

19

13.4

55

38.7

22

15.5

3

2.1

2.45

Rubric

18

12.7

12

8.5

41

28.9

52

36.6

19

13.4

3.29

Project Assignment

17

12

18

12.7

54

38

44

31

9

6.3

3.07

Performance Task

10

7

15

10.6

39

27.5

62

43.7

16

11.3

3.41

Portfolio (Student Product File)

34

23.9

27

19

48

33.8

28

19.7

5

3.5

2.59

Self Assessment

21

14.8

20

14.1

38

26.8

46

32.4

17

12

3.12

Group Assessment

20

14.1

13

9.2

46

32.4

43

30.3

20

14.1

3.21

Peer Assessment

23

16.2

10

7

45

31.7

44

31

20

14.1

3.19

General Average

80

3.06

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THE EVALUATION OF MUSIC EDUCATION DOCTORAL PROGRAM IN TERMS OF CONTENT AND APPLICATION WITHIN THE SCOPE OF ULUDAG UNIVERSITY SAMPLE Rasim Erol Demirbatır Uludag university,Turkey [email protected] Abstract Music, with its various functions in human life, is not only an instrument of education but also a field of it. Basically, music education leads an individual to develop a behavior, or forms a behavioral change by changing and developing a gained behavior. Music education is carried out in a planned and programmed way at every level, from kindergarten to university. Besides the training of individuals through music, this situation necessitates some individuals, chosen especially for this training, to be trained in particular fields of music. In Faculties of Education within Turkey’s Higher Education System, the specialization in the field of Music Education in Master’s Degree level has been put into practice with the Higher Education Law No.2547, which took effect in 1982, and institutions were able to constitute only some parts of their academic staff with master’s programs opened until 1990s. There has been a more active education for the last 20 years; however, there isn’t satisfactory music education in our country especially in PhD level. Uludağ University Education Faculty the Department of Music Education (1982) is the fourth well-established educational institution in our country in terms of the date of establishment subsequently after Ankara (1924), İstanbul (1969), İzmir (1973). It has a more than 30-year-experience and knowledge. Master’s Degree Education has been carried out since 1986. Up to now, there have been many graduates, significant contribution to the art and culture of Music with many studies carried out different fields of Music Education, and many scholars have been trained. As of 2013, within Uludağ University Institute of Educational Sciences, Music Education PhD Program has been opened and the education is carried on since then. in this paper, there will be evaluations and introductions in terms of education, syllabus and application regarding this program. Keywords: Music, Music education, PhD Program.

Introduction With its individual, social, cultural, economic and educational functions and versatile effects in human life, music is an inseparable part of life. for centuries, music has been used as an important educational tool and given a place and great importance in social life by giving consideration to its educational role. Music education basically develops an individual’s musical skills or leads to a behavioral change by changing and developing already learned skills. Furthermore, it educates an individual by furnishing him/her with skills necessary for musical hearing-reading-writing, singing, playing an instrument, listening to music, composing music, musical enlightenment-acculturation, developing musical inclination, musical personalization, increasing musical sensibility, musical communication and interaction, and taking advantage of music in different ways. With this educational function, music is an educational instrument. Formal music education is carried out in a planned and programmed way at every level, from kindergarten to university. However, there is another educational function of music, which is being anprofessional education field. This necessitates that some specially chosen individuals be trained in specific branches of music. Thus, branches of music have separated from each other and each has become a professional field itself in time. In Faculties of Education within Turkey’s Higher Education System, the specialization in the field of Music Education in Master’s Degree level has been put into practice with the Higher Education Law No.2547, which took effect in 1982, and institutions were able to constitute only some part of their academic staff until 2000s. It is believed that, although there has been a more productive education for the last 15 years, there isn’t satisfactory music education in our country especially in PhD level, and it looks as if this gap won’t be able to be filled in near future. Nowadays, higher education institutions experience important changes. İnternational student exchange, distant learning regulations, rapid developments in information and communication technologies, adult education and the increase in

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student admission, regional and global increase in competition are some examples of these great changes. The importance of higher education increases significantly day by day. Uludağ University Education Faculty the Department of Music Education (1982) is the fourth well-established educational institution in our country in terms of the date of establishment subsequently after Ankara (1924), İstanbul (1969), İzmir (1973). It has a more than 30-year-experience and knowledge. Master’s Degree Education has been carried out since 1986 (1986-1995 as a part of Institute of Science, 1995-2010 as a part of Institute of Social Sciences and 2010-up till now as a part of Institute of Education Sciences). Up to now, there have been 49 Master’s degree graduates. Moreover, there has been significant contribution to the art and culture of music with 49 studies carried out different fields of Music Education, and many scholars have been trained. In addition to train qualified music teachers of the information society, Uludağ University Education Faculty Department of Education of Fine Arts Department of Music Education aims to be an institution which produces information regarding education and the profession of music teaching, develop itselfcontinuously, offer solutions to society’s problems related to education and music teacher training in national and universal extent by using scientific methods, sets an example with its graduate music teachers, remains at the forefront with its qualitative works of art, and whose members and graduates are proud of themselves(Demirbatır,2005).. As of 2013, Uludağ University Department of Music Education has shown the academic development required for PhD programs and been officially registered by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) to be academically able to give this education. The PhD Program of Music Education Discipline includes two basic aspects in terms of its aims. The first one is to make the graduates of the Master Program more competent in their profession, and the other is to prepare the graduates of the Master Programwho want to become academicians for PhD education.In order to do so, there are some aims to be achieved, which are; to enlighten the candidates’ knowledge of Music Education and pedagogy, to help the candidates correlate Educational Music and the types of music which has gained a place in society and help them find ways to transfer this knowledge to students, to help the candidates learn the national and international modern music teaching methods and literature related to it, and help them pave the wayfor new researches, to keep them well-informed about scientific developments, field studies and literature in music education, andto develop the strategies to prepare proper learning environment and to increase students’performanceby directing this process well. Music Education Field PhD Program Student Quotas and Acceptance Conditions The student quota for The Field of Music Education PhD Program is 5. There is no quota for international students yet. But, some quotas can be given to international students on demand. in 2013-2014 Academic year, 7 students were admitted, 3 in the first academic term and 4 in the second academic term. Candidates holding a diploma of masters with thesis in the field can apply for the program. in addition, there is a requirement for a score of 55 in academic personnel and postgraduate education entrance exam (ALES) and a score of 55 in foreign language exam (YDS). 50 % of ALES, 20% of Masters Diploma Grade and 30% of PhD exam is taken into consideration during the evaluation of student admission. in order to be accepted, a candidate needs to have at least a score of 70. The Number of Credits and Compulsory and Elective Courses in order to get a PhD Degree

ULUDAĞ UNIVERSITY INSTİTUTE OF EDUCATİONAL SCİENCES ACADEMIC YEAR COURSE PLAN

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II. TERM / SPRING

Code Course Title

C

3

3

610 2

ADVANCED MAİN INSTRUMENT C and ITS TEACHİNG METHODS

3

3

Ty pe

C T P L rd .

ADVANCED INSTRUMENT

6103

QUALİTATİVERESEA CH METHODS

C

3

3

610 4

STATİSTİCS

C

3

3

6105

SCHOOL INSTRUMENT and ITS E PEDAGOGY

2

2

617 2

SEMİNAR(COURSE)

C

0

0

6107

CONTEMPORARY TURKİSH PİANO E MUSİC REPERTOİRE

2

2

610 6

PRİNCİPAL MUSİC EDUCATİON E METHODS

2

2

6109

ACCOMPANİMENT WİTH KEYBOARD E INSTRUMENT

2

2

610 8

ADVANCED PİANO TECHNİCS E and ITS TEACHİNG METHODS

2

2

6111

PSYCHOLOGY MUSİC

OF

E

2

2

611 0

PİANO PEDAGOGY

E

2

2

6113

ASTHETİCS MUSİC

OF

E

2

2

611 2

MUSİC EDUCATİON and ITS E ISSUES İN TURKEY

2

2

6115

ADVANCED CHAMBER MUSİC I

E

2

2

611 4

WORLD MUSİC

E

2

2

6117

APPLİCATİONS and ANALYSİS OF E POLYPHONİC MUSİC WRİTİNG I

2

2

611 6

ADVANCED CHAMBER MUSİC II

E

2

2

6119

APPLİCATİONS and ANALYSİS OF E TURKİSH FOLK MUSİC

2 2

2

611 8

APPLİCATİONS and ANALYSİS OF POLYPHONİC MUSİC E WRİTİNG II

2

2

6121

VOİCE EDUCATİON TECHNİCS İN E DİFFERENT AGE GROUPS

2

2

612 0

TEACHİNG METHODOLOGİES OF MUSİCAL HEARİNG and E READİNG

2

2

6123

PEDAGOGİC METHODS OF MUSİC

2

2

612 2

APPLİCATİONS and ANALYSİS E OF TURKİSH ART MUSİC

2

2

612 4

VOİCE HEALTH PROTECTİON

E

2

2

612 6

RECİTAL

E

2

2

ST COURSE STAGE AG E TH ESI S

6101

Total Credits

III. TERM / FALL

MAİN

Ty pe

C Cod T P L rd Course Title e .

E

1 2

Total Credits IV. TERM / SPRING

83

and

1 2

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YET PROFİCİENCY 6177 EXAMİNİATİON

C

0

0

618 2

PHD SPECİALİSED COURSE II

6173 SEMİNAR (THESİS)

C

0

0

619 2

PHD DİSSERTATİON II

6181

PHD SPECİALİSED C FİELD COURSE I

3

0

6191

PHD DİSSERTATİON C I

0

0

Total Credits

0

V. TERM / FALL

Vol.1, No.3, September 2014

FİELD

C

3

0

C

0

0

Total Credits

0

VI. TERM / SPRING

ENS DEVELOPMENT and C 6121 LEARNİNG

3

0

EN PLANNİNG and EVALUATİON İN S61 C TEACHİNG and INSTRUCTİO 22

3 2

0

6183

PHD SPECİALİSED C FİELD COURSE III

3

0

618 4

PHD SPECİALİSED COURSE IV

C

3

0

6193

PHD DİSSERTATİON C III

0

0

619 4

PHD DİSSERTATİON IV

C

0

0

0

Total Credits

Total Credits VII. TERM / FALL

0

VIII. TERM / SPRING

6185

PHD SPECİALİSED C FİELD COURSE V

3

0

618 6

PHD SPECİALİSED COURSE VI

6195

PHD DİSSERTATİON C V

0

0

619 6

PHD DİSSERTATİON VI

0

Total Credits

Total Credits

FİELD

FİELD

C

3

C

0

0

0 0

TOTAL CREDITS: 24 According to the program, students are required to take minimum 24 credits in total. There are 4 compulsory courses. 2 (2x3 credits) of these lessons are in the 1st term and the other 2 (2x3 credits) arein the 2nd term. in addition to compulsory courses, students need to take 6 elective courses, 3 courses for each term and each course is 2 credits. Students take 12 credits of elective courses in two terms in total. These 6 courses are chosen among 21 elective courses. Courses are given by 3 professors, 3 associate professor and 6 assistant professors. THE COURSES AND THEIR CONTENTS IN MUSIC EDUCATION PHD PROGRAM 1st Term Compulsory Courses Advanced Main Instrument By advanced main instrument, it is aimed that students are able to gain advanced skills in their fields (instrument, voice, theory), sing samples of works of Turkish and world-wide known composers, constitute a repertoire and develop skills to sing in front of groups. Qualitative Reseach Methods This course includes, on a basis of basic concepts of science and research, the comparison of quantitative research and theoreticalbases and qualities of qualitative research, planning of qualitative research, data collection methods and material preparation for data collection, analysis of collected data and use of the results in application.

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2nd Term Compulsory Courses Advanced Main Instrument and Its Teaching Methods By advanced main instrument, it is aimed that students are able to gain advanced skills in their fields (instrument, voice, theory), sing samples of works of Turkish and world-wide known composers, constitute a repertory and develop skills to sing in front of groups. in addition, it is aimed that students improve their teaching methods and techniques. Statistics For the education of PhD students doing research with quantitative data, this course includes basic statistical terms and concepts, the classification, process and interpretation of data by statistical methods. Field Elective Courses Principal Music Education Methods Acquiring extensive knowledge and skills by Kodaly and Orff methods, two of the methods used in music education, authentic model building, getting used to the materials used in these models and perform applications by using own authentic materials are the main focus of this course. Contemporary Turkish Piano Music Repertoire The exploration of contemporary Turkish Piano Music Repertoire, analyzing it and creating a repertoire from the beginning level is the aim of this course. Accompaniment With Keyboard Instrument The main focus of this course, which has an extensive content about keyboard instrument techniques, is the improvement of transposition and transcription skills by playing pieces starting from baroque period and the applications of correpetition. Psychology Of Music This course aims to furnish the students with knowledge and concepts regarding music’s relation with psychological processes in an individual, social and cultural level. The course starts with individual psychological processes such as voice and auditory perception, and reaches the subjects of emotion and meaning with music via sophisticated perceptional processes such as intonation in music and perception of melody and time. Advanced Chamber Music I It is a course designed to perform works of chamber music written during contemporary reorganization and teach performers the advanced forms and performances of chamber music. Besides, it aims to evaluate and perform 19th and 20th century chamber music samples with an extensive analysis of this period. Aesthetics Of Music Students acquaint themselves to principal aesthetics theories with the terms beauty and beautiful by beginning the origin of the word “aesthetics”. They search for the formation and development of the expression language special to art of music with an analysis regarding the structure and meaning of works of music in accordance with monophony and polyphony. Applications and Analysis Of Polyphonic Music Writing I This course includes writing and analysis activities in polyphonic musicwithin the scope of advanced theoretical knowledge related to music theory and musical hearing,reading and writing training. in addition to vertical and horizontal polyphonic melody dictation performances, the course involves analysis, recognition of polyrhythmic structures, song analysis, deciphering, solfege and rhythmic reading-writing techniques. Furthermore, it includes contemporary notation techniques and creative studies in the scope of modern music and contemporary teaching methods and techniques related to musical hearing. Applications and Analysis Of Turkish Folk Music The content of this course is the correlative analysis of verbal and written sources, which take a part in the development of Turkish Folk Music, and the studies in the field such as researches, books, presentations, articles and vocalization samples. It also includes the evaluation of data gained.

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Voice Education Techniques in Different Age Groups Voice education is a process which differs considerably according to age groups. This course includes the teaching of methods and techniques related to voice education before puberty, during puberty and after puberty. Pedagogic Methods Of Music Pedagogical methods in music researches have gained importance in both theory and practice since the 20th century. The application fields of these methods have expanded with the widespread use of pedagogical methods in practice and musicology’s becoming a scientific discipline itself. in this course, the application fields of pedagogical methods in music and the application of pedagogical methods to music are the main concerns. School Instrument and Its Pedagogy The use of instruments and setting a model so as to use these instruments by getting accustomed to the instruments which are being used and which will be used in schools is the main goal of this course. Compositions, experimental studies and applications for school instruments are also of great importance. Advanced Piano Techniques and Its Teaching Methods It is a course specially designed to introduce the new approaches in today’s music. The study of the introduction, learning, application and teaching methods of 20th century contemporary piano techniques is aimed at in this course. Music Education and Its Issues in Turkey In this course, the research of system approach and the qualifications of education system, the place of music education in Turkish Education System, music education programs and the basic concepts they depend on, the qualifications of music education programs in different countries in kindergarten, primary and secondary education levels, the problems caused by music education applications in Turkey and attempts to solve them is the main focus. Education planning for music education in the future is also a subject of this course. World Music To discuss the social and cultural features of music by learning ethnical music in various parts of the world is the goal of this course. Also, this course introduces the Indian culture and music with a wide range of listening exercises by extensively giving a lot of information about Indian music philosophy, structure, theory and application. Applications and Analysis Of Polyphonic Music Writing II This course includes writing and analysis activities in polyphonic music within the scope of advanced theoretical knowledge related to music theory and musical hearing, reading and writing training. in addition to vertical and horizontal polyphonic melody dictation performances, the course involves analysis, recognition of polyrhythmic structures, song analysis, deciphering, solfege and rhythmic reading-writing techniques. Furthermore, it includes contemporary notation techniques and creative studies in the scope of Contemporary Turkish music and modern music and contemporary teaching methods and techniques related to musical hearing. Advanced Chamber Music II It is a course designed to perform works of chamber music written during contemporary reorganization and teach performers the advanced forms and performances of chamber music. Besides, it aims to evaluate and perform 19th and 20th century chamber music samples with an extensive analysis of this period. Teaching Methodologies Of Musical Hearing and Reading Rhythmic, melodic and harmonic analysis that constitutes music’s structure,all tonalities, main modes and developments causing atonal music, 12 voice systems and their structures, melodic and harmonic hearing studies formed by these structures, musical reading techniques, resources in local and foreign literature and developed educational materials are the subject of this course. Applications and Analysis Of Turkish Art Music The content of this course is the correlative analysis of verbal and written sources, which take a part in the development of Turkish Art Music, and the studies in the field such as researches, books, presentations, articles and vocalization samples. It also includes the analysis of data gained by evaluation by using statistical and other research methods in a critical way.

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Voice Health and Protection The voice formation process in human body is a quite complicated one. Learning the systems taking part in this formation, the organs in these systems and their duties, the things need to be done to be able to use the voice in an effective and healthy way for years constitute the content of the course. Piano Pedagogy This course includes the introduction of basic piano teaching methods to beginner, intermediate and advanced piano students beginning from kindergarten, the activities to form a rich piano repertoire by examining various piano teaching methods used in the past and being widely used now. Recital It is a performance oriented course designed for PhD students having taken Advanced Main Instrument Course. With this course, PhD students are able to present their studies, make preparations for their recitals and get used to preparation and presentation levels of their studies. Conclusion Uludağ University Institute of Educational Sciences Department of Music Education is an institution which aims not only to conduct theoretical and applied scientific researches in the field of education and teaching, especially in Music teaching, in a graduate level, but also to train distinguished music teachers and researchers who have professional competency and sensibility, performand compose music, contribute to the development of society’s musical culture in a national and universal level, have analytical and critical thinking ability, communicate well, and who are at peace with themselves and others, creative and constructive. It also aims to present music education programs to some institutions on subjects that society requires, do researches and organize scientific and artistic activities intended to enlighten the personnel in educational institutions(Demirbatır,2005). The institution has a long-established education tradition with the history of 34 years of undergraduate and 30 years of graduate programs. With this, it is one of the most forefront educational institutions of the country which train music teachers. As of 2013, Music education PhD Program has been opened in order to make the graduates of Music Education Master’s program not only more competent in their professions, but also to make those who want to be academicians ready for PhD level. The program is sustained by 12 faculty members, 9 within the field of Music Education and another 3 from other fields. The curriculum and facilities are approved by the Council of Higher Education. The capacity of Uludağ University in terms of faculty members, adequate facilities, library and access to electronic publications is relatively high. Cooperation between universities, both national and international ones, is not only given importance but also supported considerably. With the thought that universities can perform their tasks in a pioneering and effective way and achieve their expected goals only with researchers who are qualified, who are dedicated to education and research and who follow the contemporary education applications and developments in the world, it is observed that music education becomes more and more important in the globalizing world day by day. Therefore, in addition to related institutions and researchers, international cooperation also needs to be supported more. References Berki, T. & Sağer, T. (2003). Türkiye Üniversitelerinde Müzik Eğitimi Doktora Ders Programları Üzerine Bir İnceleme (An Analysis of Music Education Ph.D. Curriculums in Universities in Turkey). Cumhuriyetimizin 80. Yılında Müzik Sempozyumu (Music Symposium in the 80th year of Turkish Republic). İnönü University, Malatya, p.264-268. Demirbatır,R.E. (2005). Toplam Kalite Yönetimi Işiğinda Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Bölümü Müzik Eğitimi Anabilim Dali (A General Outlook on Uludag University Education Faculty Music Education Department in the Light of Total Quality Management). I. İstanbul Müzik Öğretmenleri Sempozyumu (1st İstanbul Music Teachers Symposium). Eskioğlu, Itır. (2010). YÖK’ün Lisansüstü Program Açma Ölçütleri Hakkında Analitik Tartışmalar ve Müzik Eğitimi Alanı Örneği (Analytical Discussions on Higher Education Council Criterias for Opening Graduate Programs and Music Education

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Area Example). International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications. Antalya,Turkey. P.987-999. ISBN:978 605 364 104 9. Köse, S. (2009). Tarihsel Süreç ve Günümüzdeki Görüntüsü ile Müzik Eğitiminde Lisansüstü Programlar (View of Graduate Programs in Music Education in Historical Process and Present Day) 8.Ulusal Müzik Eğitimi Sempozyumu (8th National Music Education Symposium). Ondokuzmayıs University, Samsun, p. 99-110. Uçan, Ali, (2005). Müzik Egitimi Temel Kavramlar-ilkeler-Yaklaşımlar ve Türkiye’deki Durum, (Approaches to Music Education Basic Concepts-principles and Situation in Turkey), Evrensel Müzikevi, III. Press. 265–269, Ankara. ISBN 9757436-16-X . http://www.yok.gov.tr/web/guest/icerik/-/journal_content/56_INSTANCE_rEHF8BIsfYRx/10279/17377 Lisansüstü Eğitim ve Öğretim Yönetmeliği. Retrieved June 23, 2014. http://egitimbilimleri.uludag.edu.tr/egitimbilimleri/default/konu/id/41/read/Y%C3%B6netmelikler.jsp U.Ü Lisansüstü Eğitim ve Öğretim Yönetmeliği. Retrieved June 23, 2014.

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MARITIME ENGLISH LANGUAGE RESTRICTEDNESS Sanela Kovacevic [email protected] Abstract Maritime English is a specific register. Therefore, it requires a specific treatment. This paper implies the restricted aspect of a complex system such as English for specific purpose in the nautical education and profession. The sophisticated system of the maritime English makes it a plain instrument of communication. The opposite “tides” govern the system: creative and economical tendency. The creative side of the maritime language is evident in the forming of new words and meanings, combining of existing units, various metaphors, etc. We have tried to look into certain subregisters within Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) by pointing to the main characteristics. Seaspeak is a vital instrument of communication on board a ship. The importance of English language has always been emphasized, especially the importance of the standardized maritime phrases used in vessel-to-vessel vessel-to-port communication. By trying to encode the Maritime English world, we will look into the structure of Maritime English communication terms and phrases. However, we cannot make artificial borders between Maritime and General English. These two registers intertwine and it is impossible to eliminate Maritime English from General English and vice versa. As far as restricted aspect of Maritime English is concerned, Standard Marine Communication Phrases are used in both ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communication. Keywords: SMCP, linguistic, restricted language, lexicology, maritime terms, discourse analysis, pragmatics, seaspeak, specific purpose, ship, sail, rudder, derrick, VHF-equipment, needs analysis.

I Introduction The Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) is a set of key phrases in the English language (which is the internationally recognized language of the sea), supported by the international community for use at sea and developed by the IMO.They aim to explain:1) external communication phrases – ship to ship & ship to shore communication; 2) on-board communication phrases – communication within the ship. The SMCP were adopted by the 22nd Assembly of the IMO in November 2001 in a resolution which also promoted the wide circulation of the SMCP to all prospective users and all maritime education authorities. The SMCP includes phrases which have been developed to cover the most important safety-related fields of verbal shore-to-ship (and vice-versa), ship-to-ship and on-board communications. The aim is to reduce the problem of language barriers at sea and avoid misunderstandings which can cause accidents. As navigational and safety communications from ship to shore and vice versa, ship to ship , and on board ships must be precise, simple and unambiguous, so as to avoid confusion and error, there is a need to standardize the language used. This is of particular importance in the light of the increasing number of internationally trading vessels with crews speaking many different languages since problems of communication may cause misunderstandings leading to dangers to the vessel, the people on board and the environment. in 1973 the IMO Maritime Safety Committee agreed at its twenty-seventh session that, where language difficulties arise, a common language should be used for navigational purposes and that language should be English. in consequence the SWNV was developed, adopted in 1977 and amended in 1985. in 1992 the IMO Maritime Safety Committee at its sixtieth session instructed the IMO Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation to develop a more comprehensive standardized safety language than the SMNV, 1985, taking into account the changing conditions in modern seafaring and covering all major safety-related verbal communications. At its sixty-eighth session in 1997 the IMO Maritime Safety Committee adopted the Draft Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) developed by the IMO Sub Committee on Safety of Navigation. The Draft SMCP, following international trials, was amended at the forty-sixth session of this Sub-Committee and final consideration given at the IMO Maritime Safety Committee. Under the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers, 1978, as revised 1995, the ability to understand and use the SMCP is required for the certification of officers in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or more. Committee at its session in the light of remarks received by the Organization. 1.1 Position of the SMCP in maritime practice The Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) has been compiled: - to assist in the greater safety of navigation and of the conduct of the ship, 89

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- to standardize the language used in communication for navigation at sea, in port-approaches, in waterways, harbours and on board vessels with multilingual crews, and - to assist maritime training institutions in meeting the objectives mentioned above. These phrases are not intended to supplant or contradict the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 or special local rules or recommendations made by IMO concerning ships' routeing, neither are they intended to supersede the International Code of Signals, and when applied in ship's external communication this has to be done in strict compliance with the relevant radiotelephone procedures as set out in the ITU Radio Regulations. Furthermore, the SMCP, as a collection of individual phrases, should not be regarded as any kind of technical manual providing operational instructions. The SMCP meets the requirements of the STCW Convention, 1978, as revised, and of the SOLAS Convention, 1974, as revised, regarding verbal communications; moreover, the phrases cover the relevant communication safety aspects laid down in these Conventions. Use of the SMCP should be made as often as possible in preference to other wording of similar meaning; as a minimum requirement users should adhere as closely as possible to their wording in relevant situations. in this way they are intended to become an acceptable safety language, using English for the verbal interchange of intelligence among individuals of all maritime nations on the many and varied occasions when precise meanings and translations are in doubt, increasingly evident under modern conditions at sea. The accompanying CD/Cassette is designed to familiarize users with the pronunciation of the phrases. 1.2 Organization of the SMCP The SMCP is divided into External Communication Phrases and On-board Communication Phrases as far as its application is concerned, and into PART A and PART B as to its status within the framework of the STCW, 1978, as revised. PART A covers phrases applicable in external communications and which may thus be regarded as the replacement of the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary, 1985, which is requested to be used and understood by the STCW Code, 1995, Table AII/I. This part was enriched by essential phrases concerning shiphandling and safety of navigation to be used in on-board communications, particularly when the Pilot is on the bridge, as required by Regulation 14(4), Chapter V, SOLAS 1974,as revised. PART B calls attention to other on-board standard safety-related phrases which, supplementary to PART A, may also be regarded useful for Maritime English instruction. 1.3 Position of the SMCP in Maritime Education and Training The SMCP does not intend to provide a comprehensive Maritime English syllabus which is expected to cover a far wider range of language skills to be achieved in the fields of vocabulary, grammar, discourse abilities, etc., than the SMCP could ever manage… However, PART A in particular, should be an indispensable part of any curriculum which is designed to meet the corresponding requirements of the STCW Convention, 1978, as revised. in addition, PART B offers a rich choice of situations covered by phrases well suited to meet the communication requirements of the STCW Convention, 1978, as revised, which are implicitly expected to be satisfied by mariners. The SMCP should be taught and learnt selectively, according to the users` specific needs rather than completely. The respective instruction should be based on practice in the maritime environment and be implemented through appropriate modern language teaching methods. 1.4 Basic communicative features The SMCP builds on a basic knowledge of the English language. It was drafted on purpose in a simplified version of Maritime English to reduce grammatical, lexical and idiomatic varieties to a tolerable minimum, using standardized structures for the sake of its function aspects, i.e. diminishing misunderstanding in safety related verbal communications, thereby endeavouring to reflect present Maritime English language usage on board vessels and in ship-to-shore/ship-toship communications. This means, in phrases offered for use in emergency and other situations developing under considerable pressure of time or psychological stress as wells as in navigational warnings, a block language was applied 90

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which sparingly uses, or frequently omits, the function words the, a/an, is/are as done in seafaring practice. Users, however, may be flexible in this respect. Further communicative features may be summarized as follows: avoiding synonyms avoiding contracted forms · providing fully worded answers to "yes/no"-questions and basic alternative answers to sentence questions · providing one phrase for one event, and · structuring the corresponding phrases after the principle: identical invariable plus variable. 1.5 Typographical conventions ( ) brackets indicate that the part of the message enclosed within the brackets may be added where relevant; / oblique strokes indicate that the items on either side of the stroke are alternatives; ... dots indicate that the relevant information is to be filled in where the dots occur; (italic letters) indicate the kind of information requested; ~ tildes stand for the invariable part of an aforementioned standard phrase which is followed by a variable addendum II LINGUISTIC RESTRICTEDNESS AND ACCURACY IN SAFETY-RELATED COMMUNICATION 2.1 Procedure When it is necessary to indicate that the SMCP are to be used, the following message may be sent: "Please use Standard Marine Communication Phrases." "I will use Standard Marine Communication Phrases." 2.2 Spelling 2.2.1 Spelling of letters When spelling is necessary, only the following spelling table should be used: Letter Code Letter Code A Alfa N November B Bravo O Oscar C Charlie P Papa D Delta Q Quebec E Echo R Romeo F Foxtrot S Sierra G Golf T Tango H Hotel U Uniform I India V Victor J Juliet W Whisky K Kilo X X-ray L Lima Y Yankee

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M Mike Z Zulu 2.3 Responses 2.3.1 When the answer to a question is in the affirmative, say: "Yes, .... " - followed by the appropriate phrase in full. 2.3.2 When the answer to a question is in the negative, say: "No, ..." - followed by the appropriate phrase in full. 2.3.3 When the information requested is not immediately available, say: "Stand by" - followed by the time interval within which the information will be available. 2.3.4 When the information requested cannot be obtained, say: "No information." 2.3.5 When an INSTRUCTION (e.g. by a VTS-Station, Naval vessel or other fully authorized personnel ) or an ADVICE is given, respond if in the affirmative: "I will/can ... " - followed by the instruction or advice in full; and, if in the negative, respond: "I will not/cannot ... " - followed by the instruction or advice in full. Example: "ADVICE. Do not overtake the vessel North of you." Respond: "I will not overtake the vessel North of me." 2.3.6 Responses to orders and answers to questions of special importance both in external and onboard communication are given in wording in the phrases concerned. 2.4 Distress, urgency and safety signals 2.4.1 MAYDAY to be used to announce a distress message 2.4.2 PAN - PAN to be used to announce an urgency message

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2.4.3 SÈCURITÈ to be used to announce a safety message 2.5 Standard organizational phrases 2.5.1 "How do you read (me)?" 2.5.1.1 "I read you ... bad/one with signal strength one (i.e. barely perceptible) poor/two with signal strength two (i.e. weak) fair/three with signal strength three (i.e. fairly good) good/four with signal strength four (i.e. good) excellent/five with signal strength five (i.e. very good) 2.5.2 When it is advisable to remain on a VHF Channel / frequency say: "Stand by on VHF Channel ... / frequency ... " 2.5.2.1 When it is accepted to remain on the VHF channel / frequency indicated, say: "Standing by on VHF Channel ... / frequency ... " 2.5.3 When it is advisable to change to another VHF Channel / frequency, say: "Advise (you) change to VHF Channel ... / frequency ... ." "Advise(you) try VHF Channel .. / frequency... ." 2.5.3.1 When the changing of a VHF Channel / frequency is accepted, say: "Changing to VHF Channel ... / frequency ... ." 2.6 Corrections When a mistake is made in a message, say: "Mistake ..." - followed by the word: "Correction ... " plus the corrected part of the message. Example: "My present speed is 14 knots - mistake. Correction, my present speed is 12, one-two, knots 2.7 Readiness "I am / I am not ready to receive your message" 93

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2.8 Repetition 2.8.1 If any part of the message are considered sufficiently important to need safeguarding, say: "Repeat ... " - followed by the corresponding part of the message. Example: "My draft is 12.6 repeat one-two decimal 6 metres." "Do not overtake - repeat - do not overtake." 2.8.2 When a message is not properly heard, say: "Say again (please)." 2.9 Numbers A few digits and numbers have a modified pronunciation compared to general English: number spelling pronunciation 0 zero ZEERO 1 one WUN 2 two TOO 3 three TREE 4 four FOWER 5 five FIFE 6 six SIX 7 seven SEVEN 8 eight AIT 9 nine NINER 1000 thousand TOUSAND 2.9.1. All numbers except whole thousands should be transmitted by pronouncing each digit separately: "Wun-fife-zero" for 150 2.9.2. Whole thousands should be transmitted by pronouncing each digit in the number of thousands followed by the word TOUSAND 2.9.3 Numbers continuing a decimal point should be transmitted as above, with the decimal point indicated by the word DECIMAL. "Two decimal five" or Two point fivefor 2.5 Note: Attention! When rudder angles e.g. in wheel orders are given, say: 94

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156.8 becomes ONE FIVE SIX DECIMAL EIGHT 2.10 Positions 2.10.1 When latitude and longitude are used, these shall be expressed in degrees and minutes (and decimals of a minute if necessary), North or South of the Equator and East or West of Greenwich. Example: "WARNING. Dangerous wreck in position 15 degrees 34 minutes North 061 degrees 29 minutes West." 2.10.2 When the position is related to a mark, the mark shall be a well-defined charted object. The bearing shall be in the 360 degrees notation from true north and shall be that of the position FROM the mark. Example: "Your position bearing 137 degrees from Big Head lighthouse distance 2.4 nautical miles." 2.11 Bearings The bearing of the mark or vessel concerned, is the bearing in the 360 degree notation from north (true north unless otherwise stated), except in the case of relative bearings. Bearings may be either FROM the mark or FROM the vessel. Examples: "Pilot boat is bearing 215 degrees from you." Note: Vessels reporting their position should always quote their bearing FROM the mark. 2.11.1 Relative bearings Relative bearings can be expressed in degrees relative to the vessel's head. Morefrequently this is in relation to the port or starboard bow. Example: "Buoy 030 degrees on your port bow." (Relative D/F bearings are more commonly expressed in the 360 degree notation.) 2.12 Courses Always to be expressed in 360 degree notation from north (true north unless otherwise stated). Whether this is to TO or FROM a mark can be stated.

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2.13 Distances Preferably to be expressed in nautical miles or cables (tenths of a mile) otherwise in kilometres or metres, the unit always to be stated. 2.14 Speed To be expressed in knots:without further notation meaning speed through the water; or,"ground speed" meaning speed over the ground. 2.15 Times Times should be expressed in the 24 hour UTC notation; if local time will be used in ports or harbours it should clearly be stated. 2.16 Geographical names Place names used should be those on the chart or in Sailing Directions in use. Should these not be understood, latitude and longitude should be given. 2.17 Ambiguous words Some words in English have meanings depending on the context in which they appear. Misunderstandings frequently occur, especially in VTS communications, and have produced accidents. Such words are: 2.17.1 The Conditionals "May", "Might", "Should" and "Could". May Do not say: "May I enter the fairway?" Say: "QUESTION. Do I have permission to enter the fairway?" Do not say: "You may enter the fairway." Say: "ANSWER. You have permission to enter the fairway." Might Do not say: "I might enter the fairway." Say: "INTENTION. I will enter the fairway." Should Do not say: "You should anchor in anchorage B 3." Say: "ADVICE. Anchor in anchorage B 3." Could Do not say: "You could be running into danger." Say: "WARNING. You are running into danger." The word "Can" either describes the possibility or the capability of doing something.In the SMCP the situations where phrases using the word "Can" appear make it clear whether a possibility is referred to. in an ambiguous context, however, say, for example:

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QUESTION:"Do I have permission to use the shallow draft fairway at this time?", Do not say: "Can I use the shallow draft fairway at this time?", if you ask for a permission. (The same applies to the word "May") CONCLUSION We can conclude that maritime English is a restricted language which is characterized by a great many specific features on the phonological, morphological, lexical and syntaxical level. These particularities are the most obvious on the lexical level, for it implies maritime terms. This level is also under the greatest influence of the real world, that is the world outside language sphere. Since the maritime language is further subdivided into registers and subregisters, we can make a distinction between maritime language and maritime languages. The complexity of the nautical register makes learning, that is acquisition very difficult. One should firstly learn maritime terms in his own mother tongue and then move into the maritime English world. References: Lakić, I., (1997): “ESP at the End of the Century: Genre analysis”, symposium, Language and Literature at the end of XX Century, Collection of Papers, Podgorica. Kluijven, P.C. van, (2003): The International Maritime Language Programme. An English Course for students at Maritime Colleges and for on-board training, Alk & Heijnen Publishers, Alkmaar, The Netherlands. Thompson, S. (1994): “Frameworks and contexts: a genre-based approach to analysing lecture introductions”, English for Specific Purposes, Vol.13. Thornbury, S., (2002): How to Teach Vocabulary, Essex, Pearson Education Limited. Widdowson, H.G., (1998): "Communication and Community the Pragmatics of ESP", English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 17, No 1

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ATTITUDES AND COSTUMER BEHAVIOUR Malush Krasniqi Drita Krasniqi [email protected] Abstract An attitude may be defined as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object Financial capability encompasses the knowledge, attitudes, skills and behaviors of consumers with respect to managing their resources and understanding, selecting, and making use of financial services that fit their needs. The indicators on this page measure main aspects of financial capability, some of which refer to attitudes and motivations (e.g. attitudes towards the future, impulsiveness, etc.), others to behaviors (e.g. budgeting, saving, choosing financial products, planning for old age, etc). In the papers we will examine consumers, attitudes, reactions to their products liked, why they are liked them, as are attitudes toward their products? As the main theme, we will have to finance consumer behavior, as consumers react during fluctuations (increase) the prizes. During this presentation we will talk in detail about product loyalty (attitude towards loyalty) and disruptive loyalty. The nature of attitudes Attitudes vary in their strength Not all attitudes are the same, some consumer attitudes are stronger, some are volatile, has to do with loyalty Attitudes reflect a consumer’s values Consumer attitude towards our product, shows its values for the company, he would make a good campaign for the product, as has its influence environment etc.. Attitudes are learned because consumers are learning to buy that product without changing the brand (in some cases, not because they trust more, is that the products are grown with it and never had, any situation that to change Different situations influence attitudes. A bad experience with the product or service can change consumer attitudes. Keywords: attitudes, costumer behaviour, marketer, behaviour, belifes.

Introduction Businesses and social agency have succeeded in turning behavior between changing attitudes toward the product, service or activity. The researchers focused on research on the behavior of estimate consumer attitudes through questions that they direct the customer and the conclusions they draw from their behavior. for example, if the applicant provides on the basis of the question, the customer uses the product continuously to the skin care brand NIVEA and recommends them to his friends then this applicant can reach a conclusion that the customer has a positive attitude towards products NIVEAs. On the other hand, this example shows that attitudes are not directly continuous but can be concluded based on what they say or how consumers behave. Attitude is an organization Sustainable motivational processes, emotional, perceptual and cognitive regarding some aspects of our environment. It contains learning readiness to respond in a way inconsistent manner favorable or unfavorable about a product / service given. But of course depending on the produkit research will try to be a very special product, for example if you are interested in consumer attitudes towards brands of laptops, brands can include HP APPLE SAMSUNG LENOVO ETC. Attitudes are learned. This means that attitudes are related to purchasing behavior that is created as a direct result of the experience with the product information that is transmitted divided others, exposure to advertising media, internet and other forms of marketing directly in.

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It is important to distinguish between attitudes and behavior. They are not synonyms of each other, attitudes may result from behaviors. They reflect the assessment are favorable or not favorable to an object. As an acquired predisposition or readiness, attitudes have a motivational quality, which means they can set in motion, a consumer towards a particular behavior or repel consumers from a particular behavior.

But, on the other hand, attitudes are relatively way inconsistent with the behavior they reflect (this does not mean that they will not change, contrary). Their behavior is similar consumer with their attitudes. for example, if a customer the Albanian, says, that prefers electronic ploduktet German, than the Chinese, the possibility is that this customer to buy a German brand, when we have a need for an electronic product. in other words, consumers are free to act as they wish, and we would anticipate that their actions will be consistent with their attitudes. Referring again to the example above, the customer can find a video recording machine to a very special Chinese brands which may constitute a cost-effective choice than the German. You can say that the cost may affect consumer performance. Although this can happen very rarely, because the country of origin for products of the white, is a very strong push, and in most cases even crucial, in choosing prouktit. for most consumers, fear change maken (country of origin) for products that cost, taking into account the direct experience 99

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with the product. If the experience has been good, in 90% of cases will be bought the same products, the opposite is true. As regards products, daily consumption and hygiene, consumers can not stay loyal to some products, even if the cost in question, sometimes the desire to try something new. Referring to the definition of attitudes again noticed another important element as are situation or environment. Namely that attitudes are found within a given situation. This means that events or situations in a moment, affect certain time in relations, Amongst attitude and behavior. in a situation of special can happen that the consumer behaves in a way inconsistent with his attitude. for example, assume that a consumer who constantly changes, eyeliner brands that use. Even though her behavior may include more as a negative attitude, that frustration, that it proves to brands, currently, it can be affected by a very special situation as in some cases the desire to save, in some cases to spend more, that product X is the most expensive brand, but good. in some cases something with bio etc etc.. This means that consumers can have some attitudes in connection with a very special behavior that is happening, each in a situation of special. Another example, a customer may feel good to eat lunch at Mc Donald, but not dinner. But if he will be in a hurry and wants to spend less time for dinner, the customer can turn to Mc Donald. A customer means that this attitude has changed? I can not say exactly, probably yes. It is important to understand how consumer attitudes differ from one situation to another. Attitudes individuals being served for four basic functions: (S. costumers S. loca) The function of recognition, some consumer attitudes serve primarily as a tool for organizing beliefs about products, and activities such as, trademarks and acquisitions. These attitudes may be appropriate or not in connection with the reality of produrti. for example, a customer stays in connection with cola drinks (Coca Cola and Pepsi) can be "they have the same taste." This customer has the opportunity to buy any brand, being influenced by the situation, or environment of the moment. Function value, said other positions, which are created and serve to express individual core values, and the concept of self. So, to consumers who value nature and abientin affects value creation on products and activities are in no way inconsistent with these values. These consumatore not think only for pleasure but believe the product offers for the environment. They can take something is recyclable and what to buy those products, which today are termed "green". Funsioni utilitarian, this feature is supported on the conditioning operating. We try to shape attitudes favoriurese, to products and services that are "ministers" and stay negtiv, to those who are not such. Marketers constantly promising services, with their publicity, and manage extensive product testing, to be sure that their products are real-servers. Protection function ego. attitudes are often created to protect egos, and our images, against the risks and contingencies. Products that are promoted that very masculine, can be seen in the manner favored by those who, not sure with their maskulutetin. This happens, since they are not safe, either in their appearance are biased and marketers have been able to perceive, and to give self-confidence in their products. or individuals who have certain problems, and do not feel better in social situations may form favorable attitudes toward products and brands that promise success in such situations. These individuals are likely to create favorable attitudes, towards popular brands and styles of dress, use of personal care products such as oral hygiene solutions, anti dandruff shampoo etc.. A certain attitude can perform different functions, where a man can dominate over another. Marketers must have a broad information on the function of attitudes, in relation to the purchase and use of their brands in order to reach the target market. Not all products have an open market, almost every company has a target, a target market. Not every age use the same products. for a brand marketer who, as the market have a certain target, in connection with their products, for it is less important to deal with the other taget. for them it is important to deal with their targati. If a shampoo is meant for colored hair, marketers should have information on their market, because it is very small chance that this shampoo to be used by those who do not have colored hair. The models attitudes Being motivated by the desire to understand the relationship between attitudes and behavior. psychologists are trying to constructing models that build on the dimensions of attitudes. We will examine two models threeelements of the model, the make, model multi-attribute.

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Knowledge element, element emotional, behavioral element Knowledge element consisting of consumer confidence on a produrti or scheduled service. Susceptible individual recognitions and perceptions of knowledge gained from a combination of direct experience that, in connection with a related products and information that, powered by different sources. It is precisely this knowledge, and consumer perceptions that manifest themselves in the form of beliefs, which means that konsuamtori believes that the product possesses different attributes, and a very special behavior will lead to results determined. for example, we believe that Cola Zero, almost no calories, caffeine permabne, is competitively priced and produced by a large company. General Configuration about this brand, introduces the element of Knowledge of an attitude towards Cola Zero. Beliefs. The first component is beliefs. A consumer may hold both positive beliefs toward an object (e.g., coffee tastes good) as well as negative beliefs (e.g., coffee is easily spilled and stains papers). in addition, some beliefs may be neutral (coffee is black), and some may be differ in valance depending on the person or the situation (e.g., coffee is hot and stimulates--good on a cold morning, but not good on a hot summer evening when one wants to sleep). Note also that the beliefs that consumers hold need not be accurate (e.g., that pork contains little fat), and some beliefs may, upon closer examination, be contradictory (e.g., that a historical figure was a good person but also owned slaves). Since a consumer holds many beliefs, it may often be difficult to get down to a “bottom line” overall belief about whether an object such as McDonald’s is overall good or bad. The Multiattribute (also sometimes known as the Fishbein) Model attempts to summarize overall attitudes into one score using the equation

That is, for each belief, we take the weight or importance (Wi) of that belief and multiply it with its evaluation (Xib). for example, a consumer believes that the taste of a beverage is moderately important, or a 4 on a scale from 1 to 7. He or she believes that coffee tastes very good, or a 6 on a scale from 1 to 7. Thus, the product here is 4(6)=24. On the other hand, he or she believes that the potential of a drink to stain is extremely important (7), and coffee fares moderately badly, at a score -4, on this attribute (since this is a negative belief, we now take negative numbers from -1 to -7, with -7 being worst). Thus, we now have 7(-4)=-28. Had these two beliefs been the only beliefs the consumer held, his or her total, or aggregated, attitude would have been 24+(-28)=-4. in practice, of course, consumers tend to have many more beliefs that must each be added to obtain an accurate measurement.( Lars Perner, Ph.D.Assistant Professor of Clinical Marketing) Emotional element Our emotional feelings or actions toward a product, represent the emotional element. Konsuamtoret emotions can have good or bad about a product, positive or negative. The customer who declares that "I like Cola Zero", said to them, emotional outcome of a product. When the customer says "Cola Zero has a bad taste" includes a negative reaction to the special aspects of the product. Consumers can also react in different situations., for example, "Cola Zero, has caffeine" and caffeine will not let me sleep. These beliefs can cause a positive reaction when Consumatori need to stay awake for long has to work, and on the other a negative reaction when we want to drink that evening will be set up later to do tomorrow. Some individuals may have a positive attitude regarding faith that "Cola Zero is produced by a more multinational companies" while the other may react negatively, the company has won the trust and produces everything. etc.

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Element behavior Behavioral element, the reception to react in a certain way towards a product characterized by individual activities during the reception to undertake a certain action or behave in a particular way towards a product. Many decisions to buy or not to buy Cola Zero, or for it to rekaomanduar or friends or any other trademarks, may reflect behavioral component of an attitude. element enables trends reactive behavior, or behavioral intentions. Our actual behaviors reflect these goals, as long as they are modified by the situation in which the behavior grappling.

Fishbein’s multi-attribute model of attitudes (s. Show Internet) Assumes that attitudes often have many attributes that influence them (The tri-component model assesses a person’s attitude to only one attribute of the attitude) Differs from tri-component model in 4 main areas: Focuses mainly on the affect component Considers the strength of multiple attributes Suggests that attitude affects intentions and this leads to behaviour Measures strength of attributes Fishbein’s multi-attribute model of attitudes Attitude identification involves: Identifying the attitude Determining consumer intention, based on their attitudes Predicting behaviour based on intentions Attitudes and Marketing Strategy 102

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Market research to track changes in attitude over time and for brand comparison In new product development - focus on preferred attributes In segmentation - focus on those attributes which particular segments favour In helping tailor promotional strategies and in measuring the effectiveness of promotions

(slide show from internet) Why, From a Marketer’s point of view, is it important to know about Attitudes? If a consumer is favorably disposed towards your product or service (i.e. has a positive attitude) then you want to keep them so disposed. If they are unfavorably disposed or neutral then you want to change their attitude. Conclusione Once the well explored consumer attitudes distinguishing between behavior, their elements, their models, etc will make a Table of contents, with extensive showing almost all the factors that affect a consumatore attitude. Will answer the questions: 1. Why consumers, the stand, loyal some products, although to some not? 2. and what are the circumstances that determine product purchase? 1. The purchase of a product We are part of almost all of elements of consumer behavior, nowadays one of the most important are finances, family life style etc. perception. in the days of the products already see today what's going to become more expensive, the amount of money being lost. There are some products which customers are accustomed to, and they take almost instinctively, and not think to change because they are satisfied with the product offering. Perhaps it is the shtrenjeti, but konsuamtoret are used to have, and in such cases, difficult to change consumer attitudes. Only by making a promotions directly in, showing the advantages of your product, which he uses against him. But no one was sure that he can buy that product again, he can buy but can also be returned to his old product. Some consumers are labile, and pelqejen you make changes and to prove in some cases new products, in some cases finances, those who impose the purchase, etc.. How to create buyer? Us to know that our buyers who are. Need to create a target market, previously well explored then those things, you belong, and that are important to our customer. Should recognize culture trailer, in order to know that you have to produce. Mustrecognize our reference group, an integral form of these companies. Once that know and understand the things of pergjidhshme society must begin to recognize the style of our customer's lives, needs trailer, financial income. Once we have done this research, we simply need to show the customer that you have a need, should motivate them to buy your product. Once you have achieved this, we created a new buyer or a

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consumer.

(internet) REFERENCES “Sjellja Konsumatore” Semiha loca http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/cb_Attitudes.html https://www.google.com/search?q=attitudes+of+customers&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=obytUwKpLTTBfnLgMgO&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAg&biw=1517&bih=741&dpr=0.9 “Sjellja consumatore” Artan duka “Marketingu” Ali Jakupi “Marketing” Philip Cotler & Gary Armstrong .( Lars Perner, Ph.D.Assistant Professor of Clinical Marketing) Newspaper http://crab.rutgers.edu/~ckaufman/ConsumerbehaviorAttitudenotes.html https://www.bisg.org/docs/ConsumerAttitudes_Vol4Report2_sample.pdf https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/30427/Bangura_Abdul_Salam.pdf

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The Application of English Syllabuses by Teachers of Elementary Education in the Teaching- Learning Process, in Korça Region MSc. Edlira Xega PhD candidate Faculty of Education and Philology English Language Department University of Korca, Albania [email protected] Abstract Growing needs for appropriate English learning in Albanian context, the importance of English syllabuses, objectives reflected in the English textbooks, the conformity of syllabuses and the assessment teachers make, conform Common European Framework of References for languages in Elementary education , in urban and rural area, public and non public schools in elementary schools of Korca region, are some elements that lead toward the question: To what extent do Albanian teachers apply the syllabuses in the Albanian context, and how the syllabuses are a point of reference for them and for Albanian learners, for a better language acquisition? The purpose of this research is to conduct an empirical study on the way how Albanian Elementary school teachers aimed at developing their opinions and their practice in the teaching- learning process. A questionnaire survey was adopted as the methodological approach employed in this research. In total, 60 teachers from different public and nonpublic elementary schools, belonging to urban and rural areas in Korca region, participated in this research. It also explored how Albanian teachers of different Elementary schools in Korca region implement the syllabus in their actual classroom language teaching practices and what effect syllabus has on learning outcomes. The questionnaire was conducted in the continuation of a learners’ survey, in order to see and observe the teachers' opinions on the English syllabus, the way of organizing classes, how the syllabus is followed, how they adjust it to the textbooks they use, how satisfied they are with them, how they apply them in the educational process. The expected contribution of this research is to observe how the English syllabuses are implemented from the Albanian teachers in elementary education and if they are conform Common European Framework of References for languages (CEFR). The findings of this study provided valuable implications in developing teachers’ new ideas for the actual situation of the teaching and learning process. Keywords: Syllabus, Albanian context, Elementary school teachers, teaching- learning process, public-nonpublic schools, Elementary schools urban and rural areas.

Introduction Language is a vital part of the process of knowledge and development. It is a social act, and a control tool between people. The whole process of socialization is a process of the language development. (Patel M.E. Jain M. Praveen, 2008 ; 29) Language is symbolic, dynamic, a structured and unique system, a career of civilization and culture, as well as a form of social behavior. (Patel M.E. Jain M. Praveen, 2008 ; 31) “The best way to promote efficient language learning is to establish the target language as the language of instruction. To do this teachers need to build up learners’ ability to work with speech. One of the most important things is the way teachers communicate with learners. (Dave Willis). (Teaching English- training videos. Teaching speaking DVD training booklet; www.teachingenglish.org.uk) Foreign languages are a very important process in the Albanian context. The main concern of this research, is with the syllabuses as the formulation of pedagogical goals, which refer to factors in Albanian educational setting, in general and in Korca region in particular.

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English teaching in Elementary education in Albanian context.

English Language in Albania is a compulsory subject after the second grade of primary education. The curriculum of basic education in Albania is not organized on the basis of areas but on the basis of subjects,whereas the curriculum of upper secondary education, is organized into learning areas. (Llambiri Stavri et. al; 2011; 11, 16) Elementary education includes elementary and 9th grade classes.This is a compulsory education and aims to develop intelectual, creative and practial skills of the learners, it develops their personality and equips them with the basic elements of the general culture. Compulsory basic education begins at age 6 and lasts 9 years .It consists of 2 courses: Primary (class I-V) and lower secondary course, (classes VI-IX). In Albania, the teaching of at least a second language becomes compulsory in public education in the third grade and in private education in first grade of elementary education. English curriculum for 9th grade school, (Primary education) is designed in accordance with the National Curriculum of Modern Languages of Pre-University Public Education, and in accordance with the European Framework of Reference for Languages in order to response to an open society based on the requirements and needs that lie ahead the teaching and learning process of English language in our country. This program introduces language skills, communication skills habits and cultural values through which reinforces learners deepen the knowledge acquired in previous classes while increasing its expressive skills in English language. It serves on the overall formation of learners linguistically, socio-culturally and intellectually. Linguistic level rises in a aspiral way, repeating what was explained and developed in the previous years, and by acquiring new knowledge gradually. The program takes into account the age group of learners and their respective characteristics. It includes objectives, lines and sublines not only related to their age and interests, but also stimulate interest and arouse their curiosity for learning English. As an academic subject, foreign language in general and English in particular it is a cultural and skill subject. (Program mësimor për ciklin fillor lënda: gjuhë angleze klasa e tretë, IKT ; 2008) The weekly norm of the English teacher in the Elementary educational system is 24 classes per week. The realisation of the language objectives in these classes, relies on: The creation of a real teaching environment, the diversity of the activities, the importance of listening skill, the learning of grammar, the treatment of writing skill as well as the handling of errors. Distribution of hours by the respective courses is: (Programet mesimore; lënda Gjuhë angleze IKT 20082011;7,9) Class

Hours per week

Weeks

Total

III

2 hours

35

70

IV

2 hours

35

70

V

2 hours

35

70

VI

2 hours

35

70

VII

2 hours

35

70

VIII

3 hours

35

105

IX

3 hours

35

105

The hours in the syllabus of the IIIrd, IVth, Vth, VIth, VIIth are divided in: Communication and cultural education in respectively 32 classes/hours, linguistic education 28 classes, and free classes 10classes ; The hours in the syllabus of VIIIth and IXth gradesare divided in: Communication and cultural education 57classes, linguistic education 38 classes and free classes 10 classes. Total number of classes for elementary school is 560, compared to approximately the same with the number of classes imposed by Common European Framework of References for languages. 106

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Besides public education in Korça region there is non – public education. The expansion of private education service market beyond just private schooling provides sufficient competition as a precondition of improving the quality of such services in general. The risk that competition of private schools to public ones worsens public education service will be prevented by teaching management and performance-based learningteaching process, learners’ achievement and transparency of these achievements toward the public and professional opinion. (Strategjia kombëtare e arsimit MASH 2009 – 2013; 33) Regarding the syllabus of non- public schools in Korça city, is in accordance with the program compiled by the Ministry of Education and Sports. The division of hours in contrast to public education is respectively: Class

Hours/classes per

Weeks

Total

I

3 hours

35

105

II

3 hours

35

105

III

3 hours

35

105

IV

3 hours

35

105

V

4 hours

35

140

VI

4 hours

35

140

VII

4 hours

35

140

VIII

4 hours

35

140

IX

4 hours

35

140

week

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English syllabuses in the Albanian context

Teaching English syllabuses in the Albanian context, are oriented toward these the aims; Take into account the specifics of foreign language. They provide a tool for teachers to reflect on practice. They Allow a linguistic recycling. Encourage interaction between institutions. (Castelloti V, De Carlo M; 1995; 104) The English syllabuses are built and based on the age groups’ interests and characteristics, and it largely contributes in the independent, intellectual and socio-cultural development of the learners. All the goals, ideas and topics presented in syllabuses, interact with, are more accommodated to each teacher’s personality, experience and preconceptions, and result in a teaching style or a plan of action that the teacher seeks to implement in the classroom. (Richards and Nunan (ed.), 2002; 270) English language syllabus for grades IIIrd-IXth has as object of study English language at the level A1-B1, conform to CEFR (Common European Framework of References) and the creation of stable communicative skills and sociocultural knowledge of learners as initial users of English language from the third grade until the ninth grade of basic education. The program provides teachers with the scheme of A1-A2 level in grades IIIrd-VIth of basic education and distinguishes with grades VIIth- IXth of basic education, which is a course study belonging to B1 level ,according to the Common Framework European Reference for Languages. This English language syllabus in the IIIrd- IXth grades enables the acquisition of this language in the four skills; listening, speaking reading and writing and enables learners: to acquire information and recognize the linguistic and cultural reality of the English-speaking countries;

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to understand the nature of foreign language, relying on the knowledge of the native language; to realize links of the foreign language with other subjects. (Kurrikula kombëtare e arsimit bazë program lëndor lënda: gjuhë angleze klasa: III-IX , 2012, MASH , IZHA) Today the use of methods and techniques of teaching, enables learners prepare for life and society, teach them some skills, such as working independently, having freedom of expression in the English language, being equal among equals in class, being active in various activities organized by schools or classes in English etc. The skills that learners acquire during English language learning are: Linguistic skills Communicative skills The technological and informative skills. Creative and critikal thinking skills; The information development skills Group working skills; The ability of social ethical attitude to be equal to their peers in the world. (Kurrikula kombëtare e arsimit bazë program lëndor, gjuhë angleze III-IX, 2012 (draft) MASH) If we refer to teaching syllabuses years ago,in the Albanian context, in lesson plans was included the minimal lexic, but the lack of a detailed and concrete experimental work in class, did not answer the demands of the time. Q. Bedhia and V. Angoni stated :"For example, the syllabuses didn’t use to reflect the needs and demands of the professional schools. (Apart from the general literary language, should have been taught technical-scientific language)” (Angoni V. Bedhia Q .1972 ; 84) Today with the curriculum is often meant subject syllabus, which is among the key documents for the design of textbooks and the teachers’ classroom work. Curriculum must be in full harmony with all the basic documents that define the central curriculum and the principles on which it is built. (Kurrikula kombëtare e arsimit bazë program lëndor lënda: gjuhë angleze klasa: III- IX 2012; 16) In the past years generally, learning a foreign language in elementary school is viewed by the experimenters as a preparatory stage, with more limited goals, the main goal of which is the preparation of learners to begin a systematic course. (Bedhia Q .1974; 78). Vocabulary and communicative ability of elementary learners were centered around a theme, which had become common for the initial phase of learning a foreign language as family, the classroom with its facilities, the city’s socio-cultural facilities. (Bedhia Q .1974; 72) All the syllabuses are built and based on the age groups’ interests and characteristics, and it largely contributes in the independent, intellectual and socio-cultural development of the learners. They aim the linguistic, intellectual and cultural development of the learners, by developing critical thinking learners; independence, by eliciting different forms of individual and group work. The topics presented in the syllabus, are developed from the teachers and their ideas interact and are accomodated to each teacher’s personality, experience, and preconceptions, and result in a teaching style or a plan of action which the teacher seeks to implement in the classroom. (Richards C. Jack and Nunan David, 1997; 270) These ideas are drawn even from the questions imposed to teachers in the questionnaire. The syllabus for Grades IIIrd- IXth English language of the elementary education has as the object of study levels A1-B1 and the creation of sustainable communication skills and knowledge of students' socio cultural knowledge as initial user of the English language from the third to ninth grade elementary education, according to the Common European Framework of References. English language syllabus in grades IIIrd- IXth, enables learners of English in all four linguistic aspects (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and help students to acquire information and recognize the linguistic and cultural reality of English-speaking countries, understand the nature of a foreign language, and by relying on the knowledge of the native language to realize the relation of the foreign language with other subjects. ( Programet mësimore për ciklin e mesëm te ulet; lënda: gjuhë angleze, Klasat: III- IX, 2007- 2008) 108

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Objectives are detailed according to linguistic skills, lines and sub lines. They are observed and measured by the teacher and the learner himself. Setting objectives allows learners to be independent in the learning process. Objectives according to linguistic skills: Listening, speaking, reading and writing. Objectives according to lines and sub lines: Line1: Communication and cultural education Subline1.1: culture and communication, subline 1.2.The actes and the functions of communication; Line 2 Linguistic education, Subline 2.1: Grammatical structure (Programet mesimore; lënda Gjuhë angleze IKT 2008-2012;III- IX) The realization of the above objectives are based on: the creation of a real environment of English learning, diversity of activities, the importance of listening., the knowledge of grammar, dealing with writing, dealing with errors. In elementary education, learners’ assessment is a very important aspect of English in the Albanian context. It’s a crucial fact that assessment to be made conform to the types of assessment designed by CEFR, so that they can meet the needs of Albanian learners in the Albanian education system. (Common European Framework of References; Assessment; 2001; 178) As Widdowson assumes, syllabuses inspire teachers- as well as- Albanian teachers, for introducing methodological innovations in activities’ planning and their implementation in the classroom, which are consistent in the conception of the content. What learners do, is not directly determined by the syllabus, but is a consequence of how syllabus is methodologically mediated by the teacher in the pursuit of his own course of instruction. (Widdowson, 2008; 129). This is clearly seen in the results of the Albanian teachers’ questionnaire. The main purpose of syllabus reform is to alter the perspectives of teachers, shift their customary points of reference and so provide them with a different set of guidelines. (Widdowson, 2008 ;129). This is what generally the interviewed Albanian high school teachers approve. 3.

Data and Methodology

3.1.

Data collection

Data to be collected for this research and for showing results, include syllabus characteristics and effectiveness, so how effective they are when applied directly in the teaching- learning process and the learners’ outcomes when applying syllabuses in class. This questionnaire was developed to see the way how teachers interact with learners, transmit knowledge in the classroom, and the thoughts they share on teaching, syllabus, assessment and learning objectives. The questionnaire is held with English language teachers of Elementary education working in different public and non-public elementary schools located in urban and rural areas. School teachers who were interviewed belong to different ages and qualifications. Textbooks they use are Albanian and Foreign authors textbooks. 3.2.

The participants in the research

This research is focused on a questionnaire survey, developed with a significant number of teachers; 15 of them belong to urban areas and 15 to rural ones (30 in total). As well as 20 teachers belonging to public schools and 10 to nonpublic ones (30 in total).The target respondents were teachers who have conducted English lessons in Elementary schools, aged between 25-50 years old (some of them with a considerable experience in teaching process). The total number of the interviewed group of teachers is 60. The data derived from the checklist were analyzed by using descriptive statistical methods, displayed in the respective tables parallel to the corresponding graph. Percentages for all items are obtained. 3.3.

Materials

The data collection instrument for this research is a questionnaire (see appendix). The questions were chosen based on my multiyear teaching experience and based on the problems of the teaching- learning process, especially those having to do with syllabus, assessment, foreign lesson objectives. It consists of 22 alternative, open and closed questions. 109

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Aims of the research

This questionnaire was conducted in the continuation of a learners’ survey, in order to see and observe the teachers' opinions on the English syllabus, the way of organizing classes, how the syllabus is followed, how they adjust it to the textbooks, how satisfied they are with them, how they apply and how they contribute to the realization of the right ideas in education during the learning process of English foreign language in Korça and in its surrounding villages. This approach enables the development of an understanding of the phenomenon from the teacher’s view’ (Carless 2001; 266) The appropriate way of teaching is key to success in language education. The aim is to examine Albanian English teachers’ attitude toward the English education policy and their own English proficiency. 3.5.

The field of the study

The field survey was realized in the respective schools. The questionnaires are distributed in late October and early November 2013. It is explained to the teachers the purpose of realizing the questionnaire. A part of the questionnaire was distributed online and may be well said that a part of the teachers were not likely to be answered. An average of 10 teachers weren’t answered online. So the number is reduced to 50 teachers. From the answers of the teachers results that the average classes size for the urban area is 35-learners, and for the rural area 20- 25- learners. Public classes in elementary education contain an average number of 30 learners and non-public schools a number of 15 learners. 3.6.

Research design

The methodology applied in this research is qualitative and quantitative. As Paille has pointed out:” The qualitative methodology, constructivist methodologies are carriers of theoretical and methodological innovations that would renew the general interest of policy makers, practitioners and researchers in the humanities and social sciences. ( Mucchielli A. 2005; 7) The teachers’ answers are interpreted through statistics and are displayed in graphs. Their explanations are a way that helped us a way to realize a certain "understanding" of the phenomenon (Mucchielli A. 2005; 9), in our case that of the syllabuses implementation in teaching- learning process in elementary education. It is a quantitative study, based on the questionnaire survey. This research led to a separation of roles; the researcher as the producer of truth on the one hand and the English language teacher as a consumer of it on the other. (Widdowson; 2008; 55). And a new significance is given to the everyday problems and aspects of teaching- learning process that are faced by teachers. 3.7.

Empirical Analysis

Language awareness is essential for understanding; knowing about a language, for a teacher is more important than knowing a language. (Jenkins; 2006) The questionnaires clearly define facts or opinions which have been identified by more qualitative methods. (Woods P.; 2006) There are given the data of the interviewed Albanian teachers of English in Elementary schools. Questions are grouped according yes / no, percentages, questions assessing the language skills, objectives, monitoring and implementation of the syllabus. The questionnaire consisted of 22 questions. Results are presented in graphs, by comparing the replies of teachers belonging to different schools. As for any quantitative data, descriptive statistics were used. As for any qualitative data analysis, the open-ended questions were translated and coded into general categories. For data and quantitative analysis are used descriptive statistics, for qualitative analysis the questions are analyzed in the general and specific categories. The development of interpretive and reflective skills offers a very practical and fruitful alternative for language teacher education. (Sauvignon 2003 : 64)

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The interpretation of the questionnaires.

4.1. The interpretation of the questionnaires held with English teachers, elementary education, part of public and non public schools, urban area. From the interviewed 30 Elementary schools English teachers, belonging to public and nonpublic schools, it results that the public Elementary school teachers, are more sufficiently satisfied than the non public Elementary school teachers, compared to the fact that the last ones are more satisfied than the public Elementary school teachers. Based on the these teachers’ opinions, syllabus is conform the learners’ level, compared to a lower percentage of non public Elementary school teachers, who do not share the same opinion.(Table 1, Graph 1). Refer at the end of this article. Referring to the statistics in table 2 and graph 2, among the grouped questions one consists in the place that culture takes in the syllabus. From 30 interviewed teachers, the highest percentage of the teachers in non public elementary schools, believe that culture takes 20% in the syllabus, meanwhile a percentage of 33% of elementary public schools teachers, believe that culture takes an important place in the English syllabuses, concretely 40%. Most of the teachers of public elementary schools think that culture takes 80% of the syllabus. The question having to do with how much the syllabus consider the age and level of the learners, the elementary nonpublic school teachers, have the highest percentage of 80%, compared to 40% of Elementary public school teachers. Regarding to the question that the syllabus objectives are reflected in the textbooks, 16% of Elementary public school teachers, are of the opinion that the syllabus objectives, take a place of 20% and 60%; 33% of these teachers support the fact that the objectives take 80% and 33% of them, are for 100%. The highest percentage of 75% of nonpublic elementary school teachers, believe that the objectives of the syllabus are reflected 100% on the textbooks. This fact is related with the textbooks that these teachers use; foreign authors’ textbooks reflect in a higher percentage the syllabus objectives, compared with the Albanian authors’ textbooks. Of high interest is the question related to the syllabus conformity with CEFR (criteria of Common European Framework of References for languages). 33% of Elementary public school teachers believe that it is conform 60%, 33% of them believed that the syllabus is conform CEFR 80% and also 33% believe that it is conform 100%. , compared to a higher percentage of the non- public elementary school teachers, who are of the opinion that the syllabus is conform 100% to CEFR. Below, in the presented statistics, it is also clear that a higher percentage of non public elementary school teachers, realize 80% the syllabus and elementary public school teachers, realize 100% the syllabus. (Table 2, Graph 2). In table 3 and graph 3, based on the teachers’ opinions, the learners’ age is taken into consideration when compiling the syllabus. 100% of non- public elementary school teachers believe that the objectives of CEFR are reflected in the syllabus, compared to 33% of public elementary school teachers who share the idea that the objectives of CEFR are not reflected in the syllabus. 75% of non- public elementary school teachers believe that objectives can be reached in classes with a great number of learners. For public elementary school teachers, the percentage is 50-50%. Learners’ assessment is a very important aspect in teaching learning process in the Albanian context. It is essential that the assessment is conducted in conformity with the types of evaluation set out by CEFR, so that they fit better to the needs of learners in the Albanian educational system. (Common European Framework of References (Assessment); 2001;179) Based on the teachers’ answers in these schools, the highest percentage in schools’ teachers, public and nonpublic, assessment is made based on CEFR criteria; respectively 66% Public Elementary school teachers and 75% nonpublic elementary school teachers. But it was also a relatively not low percentage that assessment is not based on CEFR. Learners are introduced with the lesson objectives by all the teachers in both schools. The teachers pretend that they pay attention to the tasks they impose to learners, in order to reach their objectives. Usually they include tasks that involve cognitive processes such as selecting, reasoning, classifying, sequencing information, and transforming information.( Ellis R. 2003; 8) The other group of questions has to do with the set of objectives and with the fact how much the teachers take into the consideration the learners’ opinion about the syllabus. Elementary non public school teachers place the objectives

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in every class, by dividing them in minimal and maximal objectives. As well as 83% of elementary public school teachers set the objectives in every class. Only a small percentage, 16%, set them at the beginning of each module. Public Elementary schools teachers take more in consideration the learners’ opinion in the development of the lesson, compared to the nonpublic elementary school teachers. The syllabus is followed 66% from public Elementary schools teachers and 75% from nonpublic elementary school teachers. (Table 4 and graph 4) 4.2. The interpretation of the questionnaires held with English teachers, elementary education, part of urban and rural areas. The same questions are analyzed for this group of teachers too. Their answers are various. Tables and graphs show statistically their replies. Referring to the question how satisfied are the teachers with the syllabuses, and how the syllabus is conform the learners’ level, the results indicate that Elementary school teachers, rural area, are very satisfied and those of urban area are sufficiently satisfied. The syllabus is sufficiently conform the learners’ level for the opinion of Elementary school teachers, rural area, compared to 75% of Elementary school teachers, urban area, who believe that the syllabus is in complete conformity with the learners’ level.(Table 5 and Graph 5) Table 6 and graph 6 show the result sorted by being based on problems and aspects having to do with the cultural aspect and its treatment in the English language teaching – learning process, in what percentage is the learners’ age taken into consideration, the conformity of the syllabus with the criteria set by CEFR, and in what percentage the syllabus is realized by this group of teachers. Most of the Elementary school teachers, rural area, 75% share the opinion that cultural aspect covers 40% of the syllabus, compared to 66% of Elementary school teachers, urban area who say that culture covers 80% of the syllabus. The largest percentage of Elementary school teachers, urban area think that the age and level of the learners are taken 80% in consideration, while syllabus is compiled, compared to 75% of Elementary school teachers, rural area who are of the opinion that it is taken into account to the extent of 60%. Regarding to the reflection of the syllabus objectives in textbooks, the highest percentage in both groups of teachers (33% from urban 50% in rural); urban and rural area, believe that they are reflected in a mass of 60%. This also depends on the textbook that they use. As it is seen from the statistics and replies of the questionnaire, foreign authors textbooks, reflect in a higher degree the objectives. The conformity of the syllabus with CEFR according to 50% of Elementary school teachers, rural area the syllabus is conform CEFR in a mass of 60% , whereas 33% of Elementary school teachers, urban area are of the opinion that the syllabus is conform CEFR in a mass of 60%, 33% believe 80% and the rest 100%. The syllabus is realized and followed 100 % from 100% of Elementary school teachers, rural area and 100% from 66% Elementary school teachers, urban area. The specification of syllabus content was derived from formal models of linguistic description. The implication for teaching is that methodology should ensure that classroom language and objectives set, is as close an approximation to authentic language behavior as possible. (Widdowsson 2008; 130) From the data taken from table 7 and graph 7, the age of learners is taken into consideration during the syllabus compilation. Only a percentage of 16% of Elementary school teachers, urban area believe that it is not taken into consideration. According to 100% of Elementary school teachers, rural area the objectives can be reached in classes with a great number of learners, compared to 50% of Elementary school teachers, urban area who believe that the objectives are unattainable in classes with a great number of learners. Actually Elementary school teachers, rural area do not deal with this situation, because their classes are relatively with a small number of learners, so the opinion of Elementary school teachers, urban area is more convicting. 100% of Elementary school teachers, rural area assess based on CEFR criteria, compared to 66% of Elementary school teachers, urban area. Both groups of teachers introduce learners with the lesson objectives.

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Many teachers support the idea of Widdowson that syllabus offers security. (Widdowson 2008; 152). 100 % of Elementary school teachers, rural area and 83% of Elementary school teachers, urban area, set the objectives in every class; only 16% of them set the objectives at the beginning of each module. Based on the answers of 66% of Elementary school teachers, urban area, and 75% of Elementary school teachers, rural area, the syllabus is followed by them, but not strictly. (Table 8 and graph 8). 5.

Conclusions. Comparison of results

The general purpose of education is to initiate people in a secondary culture. This is what is drawn even from the replies of teachers in the questionnaire; the fact that they use, follow and are widely based on the syllabus. So if the learners are to be induced into formal learning they are likely to need some definite direction which will indicate the paths they are to follow. This is what the syllabus can provide. (Widdowson 2008; 152) The results of this study suggest that all the elementary education teachers in the Albanian context follow even though not strictly the syllabuses designed by ICT, Ministry of Education and Sport in Albania. This study has asserted how the Albanian teachers have the right to make judgments and how these judgments affect decision-making in syllabus design. From the survey questionnaire it is observed that most of teachers at least have positive attitudes toward the syllabus conformity to the learners’ level in the classes where they teach. An important aspects of the existing situation in the Albanian context, is how curriculum outcomes agreed at present frequently using language, ideas and approaches imported from English-speaking cultural settings, can best be articulated and communicated in terms that maximize their ‘cultural continuity’, (Holliday 2001) and so are meaningful to the participants of the Albanian context, who will need to understand them if they are to be achieved. The main conclusions that can be drawn from this research are: - For teachers of Elementary Public and non-public schools, the syllabus is applied and is fully realized. The syllabuses objectives are presented in textbooks, more supporters of this, are teachers of public schools, especially those who use in foreign authors’ textbooks in a mass of 80% and 100%. A high number of teachers from both schools, set objectives in every class. Furthermore, teachers of non- public schools are very satisfied with the existing syllabuses. Even the teachers of public schools, a considerable percentage of whom support the conformity of them with the learners’ age and level, as well as the involvement and the treatment of intercultural aspects in the syllabus. However based on the opinion of the teachers from both schools there is still an insufficiency in the assessment aspect; it is not fully realized, based on the standards set the CEFR.  For teachers of elementary urban and rural schools area, the conformity of syllabus with learners’ age and level is sufficiently in 100% of the teachers of rural schools areas, whereas they are a lot in conformity according to most of the teachers’ of urban areas opinion. Considering the syllabus conformity with CEFR criteria, has the higher percentage of teachers’ urban area schools opinion. Syllabus is realized 100% from the teachers of both schools. Regarding the syllabus objectives in textbooks, they appear 100% according to urban area teachers, whereas the teachers of rural areas school share the opinion that they appear 50%. This may simply leads to the fact that as well as even in the first group of teachers (public and nonpublic), this depend on the textbook they work with; the foreign authors’ textbooks treat and include the syllabus objectives in them. An interesting fact that isn’t expected, is that a high percentage of teachers in schools of rural area, assess based on the CEFR criteria. Maybe this depends on the criteria required and used by the foreign authors’ textbooks they use. Also a large percentage of teachers in rural area, set objectives in every class, compared to a lower percentage of teachers in urban area. A considerable number of teachers in both school groups take into consideration learners’ opinion for the syllabus. Therefore, teacher education syllabuses should deal with language teaching methodology appropriate to a range of learner ages and stages. This is put in use in the groups of teachers taken into question. I believe that it is essential for teachers to know how to localize the existing curriculum to make it fit in their particular contexts.

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It is needed to develop clear learning objectives and detailed guidelines for what should be taught, including why and how, and also needs to make these guidelines available to all teachers and schools. However it is only a small sample and the answers should not be generalized, these are some of the ideas of some teachers. Although document analysis was employed and data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively, it would have been interesting to have class observations and interviews or meetings with more teachers. The design of this study and the questions in the questionnaire are rather exploratory in nature. It attempts to examine elementary school teachers’ needs and wants. Further studies on teachers’ needs and opinions should be pursued to meet the various and constantly changing teaching conditions and situations, in order to lead to a professional teaching. References Angoni V., Bedhia Q. (1972) .Mbi mësimin e gjuhëve të huaja. Revista pedagogjike nr. 3 ; 84-95 Bedhia Q. (1974) Gjuha e huaj dhe nxënësit e ciklit të ulët të shkollës 8- vjecare.Revista Pedagogjike, nr.2; 78 Carless,D. ( 2001), “A case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong” In Hall, D. & Hewings, A. Innovation in English language teaching: a reader. London: Routledge. Castellotti V. De Carlo M. (1995) “La formation des enseignanats de langue” cle international didactique des langues etrangeres. Common European Framework of References; ( 2001); 177- 197 Ellis R.,(2003) “Task- based language learning and teaching”, Oxford, University press, Holliday, A. (2001). Achieving cultural continuity in curriculum innovation. In Hall, D.R., & Hewings, A. (Eds.) (2001). Innovation in English Language Teaching (pp169-177). London : Routledge,. http://www.arsimi.gov.al/al/arsimi/shkolla/nxenesit Jenkins J. (2006) Current perspectives on teaching word Englishes and English as a lingua franca TESOL quarterly 40 (1) (157- 181) Kurrikula kombëtare e arsimit bazë program lëndor lënda: gjuhë angleze klasa: III- IX (2012), Tiranë, MASH ,IZHA Llambiri S.Abdurrahmani T. Mulla A. (2011) Analiza krahasuese e kurrikulës aktuale të arsimit bazë me atë të vendeve të tjera’ MASH, Mucchielli A. (2005) Le développement des méthodes qualitatives et l’approche constructiviste. Recherche qualitative et production de savoirs, – Hors-Série – Numéro 1 Actes du colloque (7, 9- 31) Patel M.E. Jain M. Praveen (2008) “English language teaching “Methods, tools and techniques, Sunrise publishers and distributors, (I) Programet mesimore per ciklin e mesem te ulet; lënda Gjuhë angleze 2008-2011; Klasat III-IX; (2008) ,IKT Programet mësimore për ciklin e mesëm te ulet; lënda: gjuhë angleze, Klasat: III- IX, 2007- 2008 Richards, J & Nunan D. (ed.) (2002). Second Language teacher education. Cambridge University press. Sauvignon, S. (2003). “Teaching English as communication”: A global perspective World Englishes Strategjia kombetare e arsimit parauniversitar 2009- 2013, (2009) Tirane Republika e Shqiperise , Ministria e Arsimit dhe Shkences. Teaching English- training videos. Teaching speaking DVD training booklet; www.teachingenglish.org.uk Widdowson H.G. (2008) Aspects of language teaching, Oxford Univesity press Woods Peter, “Qualitative Methods” Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006 Tables and Graphs Table 1. Teachers of elementary public and non-public schools

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Elementary public school Sufficiently satisfied with the syllabus

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Elementary non-public school

66%

50%

Very satisfied with the syllabus

33%

50%

Conformity with the learners'level/sufficiently

83%

16%

Syllabus conformity with the learners' level/ a lot

75%

25%

Graph 1

Table 2. Teachers of elementary public and non-public schools Elementary public school(%)

Elementary public school(%)

Culture in syllabus 20%

0%

50%

Culture in syllabus 40%

33%

0%

Culture in syllabus 60%

0%

25%

Culture in syllabus 80%

66%

25%

Considering the learners'age/level 40%

33%

0%

Considering the learners'age/level 80%

66%

100%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 20%

16%

0%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 60%

16%

0%

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non-

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Syllabus objectives in textbook 80%

33%

25%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 100%

33%

75%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 60%

33%

0%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 80%

33%

25%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 100%

33%

75%

Syllabus realization 80%

33%

75%

Syllabus realization 100%

66%

25%

Graph 2

Table 3. Teachers of elementary public and non-public schools Elementary public school (%)

Elementary public school (%)

Considering the learners' age

100%

100%

Objectives presented in textbooks

83%

100%

Objectives not presented in textbooks

16%

0%

CEFR objectives in syllabus

33%

100%

CEFR objectives not in syllabus

33%

0%

Objectives can be reached with a great nr of learners

50%

75%

Objectives can not be reached with a great nr of learners

50%

25%

Assessment conform to CEFR/ Yes

66%

75%

Assessment conform to CEFR/ No

33%

25%

Introducing learners with objectives/Yes

100%

100%

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Graph 3

Table 4 Teachers of elementary public and non-public schools Elementary public school %

Elementary non-public school %

Objectives are set in every class

83%

100%

Objectives are set at the beginning of each chapter

16%

0%

Considering learners'opinion for the syllabus

33%

25%

Following the syllabus/not strictly

66%

75%

Graph

4

Table 5 Elementary school teachers in urban and rural area

Sufficiently satisfied with the syllabus

117

Elementary urban area

Elementary rural area

66 %

50%

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Very satisfied with the syllabus

33 %

50%

Syllabus conformity with the learners' level/sufficiently

83%

100%

Syllabus conformity with the learners' level/ a lot

75%

0%

Graph 5

Table 6 Elementary school teachers in urban and rural area Elementary urban area

Elementary rural area

Culture in syllabus 40%

33 %

75%

Culture in syllabus 80%

66%

25%

Considering the learners'age/level 40%

33%

25%

Considering the learners'age/level 60%

0%

75%

Considering the learners'age/level 80%

66%

0%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 20%

16%

0%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 60%

16%

25%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 80%

33%

50%

Syllabus objectives in textbook 100%

33%

0%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 60%

33%

50%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 80%

33%

25%

Syllabus conformity with CEFR 100%

33%

25%

Syllabus realization 80%

33%

0%

Syllabus realization 100%

66%

100%

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Graph 6

Table 7. Elementary school teachers in urban and rural area Elementary urban area

Elementary rural area

Considering the learners' age

100%

100%

Objectives presented in textbooks

83%

100%

Objectives not presented in textbooks

16%

0%

CEFR objectives in syllabus

33%

75%

CEFR objectives not in syllabus

33%

25%

Objectives can be reached with a great nr of learners

50%

100%

Objectives can not be reached with a great nr of learners

50%

0%

Assessment conform to CEFR/ Yes

66%

100%

Assessment conform to CEFR/ No

33%

0%

Introducing learners with objectives/Yes

100%

100%

Graph 7

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Table 8. Elementary school teachers in urban and rural area Elementary urban area

Elementary rural area

Objectives set in every class

83%

100%

Objectives set at the beginning of each chapter

16%

0%

Considering learners'opinion for the syllabus

33%

25%

Following the syllabus/not strictly

66%

75%

Graph 8

Appendix Questionnaire Years in teaching:

I teach in:

Textbook I use: Albanian/ Foreign authors

a) Elementary school public/ nonpublic b) Elementary school urban/ rural area

Qualification: 1.How much are you satisfied with the syllabuses? a)A little satisfied 2. a) A little 3. a)20% 4. a)Yes 5.

b) not satisfied

c) sufficiently satisfied d) very satisfied

How much is the syllabus conform to the learners’ level in the classes where you teach? b) Not conform

c) sufficiently

d) a lot

To what extent is the cultural aspect included in the syllabuses? b) 40%

c) 60%

d) 80%

d) 100%

Is the learners’ level, age taken into consideration in the syllabuses? b) No If « yes » how percent is taken into consideration? 120

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a) 20% 6.

b) 40%

c) 60%

d) 80%

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d) 100%

Are the syllabus objectives reflected in the textbooks?

a)Yes 7.

b) No If “Yes”, to what extent?

a)20% 8.

b) 40%

c) 60%

d) 80%

d) 100%

Are the objectives of CEFR, reflected in the syllabus?

a)Yes 9.

b) No If “Yes” are the syllabuses conform CEFR, and to what extent?

a)20 % 10.

b) 40%

c) 60%

d) 80%

e) 100%

Can the objectives of the English lesson be reached in classes with a great number of learners?

a)Yes 11.

b) No If “Yes” at what percentage?

a)20 % 12.

b) 40%

c) 60%

d) 80%

e) 100%

What is the number of learners in the classes where you teach?

15

20

13. percentage?

25

30

40

Is it created the possibility to work with appropriation of the 4 CEFR competencies? If “yes” at what

a)Oral comprehension…. b)Written comprehension…. c)Oral production …. d)Written production…. 14.

Do you assess based on CEFR criteria’s for assessment ?

a)Yes 15.

b) No If “Yes” which assessment you mostly use ?

a)Formative assessment/ Summative assessment b)Norm referencing assessment/ criterion referencing assessment c)Continuous assessment/ Fixed assessment points d)Direct assessment/ Indirect assessment e)Subjective assessment/ Objective assessment f)Holistic assessment / analytical assessment g)Assessment by others/ self-assessment 13. Do you make continuous assessment? If “Yes” how? a) During the year 16.

b) at the end of modules?

Do you impose objectives and where?

a)In every class b)In groups of classes c)At the beginning of the units/ modules 17. a)Yes

Do you introduce learners with the objectives? b) No

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18.

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How do you check how the objectives are reached?

………………………………………………………………………………………. 19.

Would you prefer:

a)Not to follow the syllabus b)To consider learners’ opinion for the lesson c)To follow the syllabus but not strictly d)Other……………………………………………………………………….. 20.

Which linguistic skills do you give priority? (1-4) 1) a lot 4) a little:

a)Listening b) Speaking c) Reading d) Writing e) All of them based on CEFR criterias (Explain why)……………………………………………………………… 21.

To what extent is the syllabus designed by the Ministry of Education and Sport followed by you?

a)30% 22.

b) 60%

c) 80%

d) 100%

How often does the syllabus update?

a)Every year

b) Every two years

c) Every four years

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Which Parties Count? - The Effective Number of Parties in the Albanian Party System Anjeza Xhaferaj PhD Candidate The European University of Tirana, Albania [email protected] Abstract The aim of this paper is to explore and understand the Albanian Party System. The analysis will cover the period from the collapse of the communist regime in 1991 until 2014. It will try to investigate what forces drive the battle of the parties, what cleavages ‘divide’ society and consequently the party system as well as which are the parties that count the most. in order to assess this, the paper will focus on the parliamentary parties and will relay on various theoretical concepts of the contemporary literature on political parties. First it will draw on Sartori’s concept of ‘relevance’ in order to understand whether all the parliamentary parties over the course of twenty four years of pluralism are important or not and what weight do they have. Then it will use the Laakso & Taagepera index of the Effective Number of Parties to understand how power is distributed within the parliament. Key words: party system, relevant parties, fragmentation index, polarization, ENP

1. Introduction The party system could be defined as a structure, which enables the competition and cooperation among the political parties. Even though it is a structure, nonetheless it is not always stable. Lipset and Rokkan (1967) contend that this structure is stable and it is created as the result of the social cleavages formed within the society of the Western Europe in the beginning of the 20th century. Their thesis is that these cleavages are frozen; they are created once and for all and that they have determined the interaction among the political parties (competition or cooperation as well as the focus of their political program). Bartolini and Mair (2007) are in the same line. in their seminal work on the European electorate during 1885-1985, they observed that ‘in the long term, the bonds which tie electorates into a set of political identities and alignments have demonstrated their resilience’ (pp.262). In this context, one might ask whether the Albanian party system has demonstrated any resilience or not. A stable party system is an indication of stable political parties with stable political identities and programs. On the other hand, the change of the party system is a concept which refers to the changes and development of it features, changes which occurs with the passing of time. Lane and Ersson (1994: 4-5) argues that the party system is measured by the following dimensions: The number of issues which indicate the number of cleavages in the party system as well as the polarization (the ideological distance between parties); The Effective Number of Parties and the Index of Fractionalization; The total volatility: the aggregate change of votes between consecutive elections. However, even though Lipset and Rokkan (1967) contend that the party system is a contingent of the social cleavages, it is influenced by other factors such as a change in the external environment, a change in economy, a change in the leadership of the party, a change of the electoral formula or even the collapse and change of the political system (Pennings & Lane, 2005 :4-5). 2. The Institutional Factors and the Party System In order to understand the dynamics of the party system, it is important to understand that which are the parties that structure such system, or as Bartolini and Mair question: Which Parties Count? Do we count all parties that contest the elections or only those who are part of the parliament? ‘The number of parties’ is a difficult concept to measure, because scholars very often do not come to terms how to count parties which have different sizes and different relevance (Webb, 2000: 4-5). 123

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Sartori’s seminal work on party system has always been a point of reference for scholars of political parties to start their investigation. Sartori does not just count parties, which contest in elections. He does not even count all parties, which have seats in parliament. Sartori considers as important only the parties that compete for government positions because they indicate ‘the extent to which political power is fragmented or non-fragmented, dispersed or concentrated’ (2005: 106). According to him it is important to count only the relevant parties and ‘the relevance of the party is a function not only of the relative distribution of power … but also, and especially, of its position value, that is , of its positioning along the left-right dimension’ (pp.107). Sartori links the relevance of the party with the electoral strength of the party and the electoral strength of the party with its governing potential, or the coalition potential for each party, because ‘[w]hat really weights in the balance of multipartism is the extent to which a party may be needed as a coalition partner for one or more of the possible governmental majorities. A party may be small but have a strong coalition-bargaining potential. Conversely, a party may be strong and yet lack coalition-bargaining power” (pp.107-108). in order to define the relevance of the party, Sartori suggests that in order to find out whether a party is relevant or not ‘we can discount the parties that have neither (i) coalition potential nor (ii) blackmail potential. Conversely, we must count all the parties that have either a governmental relevance in the coalition – forming arena, or a competitive relevance in the oppositional arena (pp.108). It is clear that the political parties position themselves not only along the left-right dimension, but they focus on issues such as religion, culture or ethnicity. Duverger (1954) observed that the party system is created by the fractionalization and superposition: cleavages do not create pure ideal type models of political parties. According to him there are three dimensions which organize the political parties: clerical vs. anti-clerical; east-west, central planning vs. liberal economy. With the fall of communism the east-west cleavage ceased to exist and the two others are those which shape the party system. Notwithstanding its relevance, the Duverger’s theory reflects merely the cleavages in France and indeed, it has been criticized for being ethno-centric. Other authors, such as Lipset and Rokkan (1976) observed that the western party system is the result of two revolutions: the national revolution and the industrial revolution. The national revolution produced the territorial cleavage, which gave effect to two conflicts: state-church and dominant culture – ethnic/cultural minorities. On the other hand, the industrial revolution produced the functional cleavage, which gave rise to two conflicts: employers – employees conflict or capitalist – working class conflict if we have to use a Marxist approach and the urban – rural conflict. Lijpart (1969) is another scholar who observed the emergence of the consociational democracy which is characterized by a plural society with segmental cleavages and segmental elites which cooperate between each other through consociational structures. According to him the consociational democracy has seven conceptual divisions or cleavages: socioeconomic; religious; cultural – ethic; urban-rural; regime support; foreign policy and post-materialism (1984: 122, 130). Even though Lijphart identified seven dimensions in his seminal book on patterns of democracy in the Western Europe, there was no country where one could find more than 4.5 dimensions, which was the case of France. The rest of the countries had between 1 and 3.5 issue dimensions. These kind of cleavages, which Mair (2008, 155-156) considers as vertical divisions are especially observable in the countries which are characterized by the segmentation and fractionalization of the electorate, which means that only one ore few parties could compete for the votes of certain part of the electorate. Therefore, the differences between the party systems of different countries are determined by the importance and strength of the second most important dimension (i.e. language, religion, ethnicity) which generally superposes over the left-right dimension (socioeconomic cleavage) acknowledged by all. The common element for all these scholars is that regardless of the identification of the issue dimensions, being those economic, cultural, ethnic or religious, the bottom line is that the party system is shaped by them and it cannot exist as such without their existence. in this context, in order to analyse the Albanian case it is important to find out which cleavage/s structure/s and shape/s the party system. This will help to discover the dimensions of the party system. Sartori (1974:345) argues that the political parties fail to compete with each other for two systemic reasons. One of them is when they position themselves in different axes. Due to the fact, that they are born as the result of two different cleavages, their electorate of belonging is different and thus there is no risk of electors shifting their preferences in the succeeding elections from one party to the other. The second reason relates to the ideological distance: the greater the distance the less likely they will compete with each other. in this case the political parties are positioned in the same axe but are so far apart from each other, the degree of polarization is so high, so that there is no possibility of votes’ transfer between them. This is the case of ethnic parties: they have clear borderlines of electorate and consequently there is no possibility that a votes’ transfer might happen (Horowitz, 1985:346). Therefore, when analysing the Albanian case, we will not deal with those political parties, which fail to compete for electorate votes.

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In order to understand that which parties compete and over how many issue dimensions it is important to know which are the parliamentary parties. According to Sartori: …it does matter how many are the parties. for one thing, the number of parties immediately indicates, albeit roughly, an important feature of the political system: the extent to which the political power is fragmented or non-fragmented, dispersed or concentrated. Likewise, simply by knowing how many parties there are, we are alerted to the number of the possible ‘interaction streams’ that are involved. …Since these interactions occur at multiple levels – electoral, parliamentary and governmental – the indication clearly is that the greater the number of parties (that have a say) the greater the complexity and probably the intricacy of the system…Furthermore, and in particular, the tactics of party competition and opposition appear related to the number of parties; and this has, in turn, and important bearing on how governmental coalitions are formed and are able to perform (2005, 106). Therefore it is important to number the parties, but according to Sartori only the relevant parties. The following table gives and overview of the distribution of seats in the Albanian parliament effective first democratic elections in 1991 until 2013. Table 1: Distribution of Seats in the Albanian Parliament: 1991-2013 Parties1/

P S

P D

1991

1 7 0 2

75

1992

3 8

92

1996

1 0

12 2

1997

1 0 2

26

2001

7 3

2005

Election year

PR

PS D

PBDNJ

LSI

PDI U

P A

PA D

PD C

PD R

SM R

SML

In d.

5

1

7

2

3

3

1

9

4

1

2

32

5

4

3

3

3

6

9

4 2

56

11

7

2

4

3

4

1

2009

6 6

68

1

2013

6 6

49

3

1

2

5 4

1

16

4

1

8

1

2 2

1

1

The parliament of 1991 had 250 deputies. The number was rapidly decreased to 140 in the succeeding elections, with exception of 1997, when it had 155. It is important to clarify that the table does not contain all the information. in the case 1 PS = Socialist Party; PD= Democratic Party; PR = Republican Party; PSD = Social Democratic Party; PBDNJ= Union of Human Rights Party; LSI = Socialist Movement for Integration; PDIU = Justice, Integration and Unity Party; PA = Agrarian Party; PAD = Democratic Alliance Party; PDK =Democristian Party; PDR = New Democratic Party; SPR = Small Parties on the Right; SPL = Small Parties on the Left; Ind = Independent Candidates. 2 in the 1991 elections, the winner was the Party of Labour of Albania. in the party congress held in June of the same year, the party changed its name to the Socialist Party of Albania. The party won 169 seats in the first elections, however the table indicates 170, because herein is calculated the candidate of the Committee of Veterans, because the committee was one of the ancillary organizations of the Party of Labour of Albania.

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when a political parties has won a seat in parliament only in one set of elections, it is calculated at the column SPR or SPL. Është e rëndësishme të thuhet se tabela e mëposhtme nuk e përmban të gjithë informacionin. The Socialist Party has won the elections of 1991, 1997, 2001 and 2013 and it has won 68%, 65.8%, 52.14 and 7.14% of the parliamentary seats. The Democratic Party has won the elections of 1992, 1996, 2005 and 2009. It has won 65.7%, 87.14%, 40% and 48.57% respectively. As the table clearly indicates, the two parties have been able to create the government without the help of a coalition in 1991, 1992, 1996, 1997 and 2001. While in 2005, 2009 and 2013 they had to be in coalition with other parties in order to form the government. Based on these data, it looks like the only relevant parties in the Albanian politics during the period 1991-2001 are the Socialist Party and the Democratic Party. It looks like no party had coalition potential or blackmail potential (Sartori, 2005:107-108). Both Socialist and Democratic Party had the majority (over 50%) of the parliament but they still had invited other smaller parties in the composition of the cabinets. The following table shows the distribution of ministerial portfolios during 1991-2013: Table 2: Distribution of portfolios: 1991-2013 Election year/ Distribution of portfolios per party

PD

1991

PS

PR

PSD

PBDNJ

LSI

PAA

PAD

191

19922

203

1

19964

22

-

2

-

-

-

-

1997

-

13

-

2

1

-

2

2001

-

17

-

-

1

-

1

2005

11

-

2

-

-

-

1

2009

9

-

1

-

1

3

-

2013

-

15

-

-

-

6

-

3

1 Zyhdi Pepa and Vilson Ahmeti are independent minsters, but proposed by the Party of Labour (later Socialist Party), therefore are included at the figures of Party of Labour. 2 The figures of 1992 represent the distribution of portfolios only for the first Government composition headed by Prime-minister Aleksander Meksi which exercised its activity during the period 13 April 1992 – 6 August 1993. Following the dissolution of this government there are composed two other Meksi Governments which have lasted until the end of the legislature (1996). However, these two other Meksi Government are not part of this study, because the purpose of the study is to evaluate whether there is a relation between the electoral system and coalition governments. The last two Meksi Governments are created as a result of party splits, creation of new parties, dissolution of coalitions, expulsion of elite members from Democratic Party for non-obedience and other similar phenomena which have characterized the post-communist countries especially in the first decade after the collapse of the communist regime. Therefore, they are the product of circumstances and factors that are not related to the electoral system, but rather to the transition process, which has affected all the post-communist countries and Albania among them. 3 The figure includes also the ministers Abdyl Xhaja and Kudret Cela who even though are listed independent ministers, are in fact proposed by the Democratic Party. Furthermore, Abdyl Xhaja has been part of the candidates for MP-s proposed by the Democratic Party in the elections of 1996 and 1997, while Kudret Cela has been part of the candidates for the MP’s list of Democratic Party in the general elections of 1996. This is considered a sufficient argument to understand their political affiliation. Furthermore, within these figures are calculated also post at ministerial level such as: General Secretary (Vullnet Ademi), Head of Committee of Science and Technology (Maksim Konomi), Head of Control Commission (Blerim Cela) dhe Head of the Committee of Victims of Communism (Eduart Ypi). 4 Herein are calculated the Secretaries of State, who because of being political positions are considered as part of the Ministerial Cabinet.

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The presence of the smaller parties is due to two factors. The first is the constitutional condition to approve laws with qualitative majority voting. Therefore, a simple majority of 50%+1 was not sufficient. The Albanian Constitution has stipulated that in order to approve important laws and to elect the president of the Republic, it is needed the approval of the 3/5 of the total number of deputies (84 deputies) (Article 81, 87)1. However, Table 1 shows that in the elections of 1992, 1996 and 1997 the winners (respectively DP, DP and SP) got more than 3/5 of the seats in parliament and therefore had no need to form coalitions government. Therefore, we may conclude that until 1997, the small parties were indeed small and their presence had not effect in the parliamentary activity of the winning party as well as on the cabinet composition. The presence of Republican Party ( in coalition with Democratic Party) and that of the Social-Democratic Party and Union of Human Rights Party (in coalition with Socialist Party) could be explained with the necessity that the winner parties had to create an image of all encompassing, so as to have a greater legitimacy in the eyes of the international community. The history takes another path after the elections of 1997. Effective elections of 2001, none of the ‘big’ parties have been able to receive qualifying majority or even a simple majority. in these circumstances, it was important to have coalition partners. But which are the relevant parties? The ‘big’ parties have chosen themselves these coalition parties. This was enabled by the electoral formula. During the period 1992-2005, in Albania are organized five general elections, which are organized according to the principles of the mix electoral system : 100 MPs were elected directly single member districts according to the First Past the Post formula, and 40 were elected indirectly from party lists in a proportional manner (Albania Constitution, Article 64). in the elections of 2001 and 2005 the Socialist and Democratic Party applied the strategic voting, calling to their electorate to vote for the coalition partners in the proportional in exchange for the votes of the coalition parties in the single member districts voting (OSCE Reports, 2001; 2005). In conclusion we may observe that the existence of the small parties in the second decade after the collapse of the communist regime is enabled by institutional factors such as the Constitutional Laws on voting principles in parliament and the electoral system. 3. The Effective Number of Parties The concept of relevance is somehow ambiguous and therefore it is necessary to use some more specific criteria to establish whether a party is relevant or not. Consequently it is necessary to count the relative size of the party in a party system. in order to do so we will use the Laakso and Taagepera (1979) index which shows the Effective Number of Parties and is calculated as follows: N= 1/ΣSi2 where ‘s’ is the proportion of the parliamentary seats of party ‘i’. If applied such formula in the Albanian case the ENP would be: Table 3: The Effective Number of Parties Election Year

ENP

1991

1.81

1992

1.97

1996

1.31

1997

2.14

2001

2.99

2005

3.68

2009

2.21

2013

2.80

1 This has been valid until the 2008 when the Constitution was amended and the qualitative majority was no further needed.

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But how to interpret the ENP. Siaroff (2000) has compiled the following scheme, which helps to understand what type of system does the ENP indicate: Table 4: Classification of the Party System according to the ENPP ENPP

Classification of party systems

1.92

Two party system

2.56

Two and a half party system

2.95

Moderate multiparty with dominant party

3.17

Moderate multiparty with two main parties

3.69

Moderate multiparty with balance among main parties

3.96

Extreme multiparty with one dominant party

4.41

Extreme multiparty with two main parties

5.56

Extreme multiparty with balance among parties

If we apply such scheme to the Albanian context and attempt to match it with the distribution of seats given at Table 1, then we would have: Table 5: Albania Party System Scheme Election Year

ENP

Party System (Siaroff scheme)

Party System Albania Case

1991

1.81

Two Party System

Two Party System

1992

1.97

Two Party System

Two Party System

1996

1.31

Two Party System with one dominant party

Two Party System with one dominant party

1997

2.14

Between Two Party and Two and a half Party System

Two Party System

2001

2.99

Moderate Multiparty with one dominant party

Moderate Multiparty dominant party

2005

3.68

Moderate Multiparty with balance among parties

Moderate Multiparty with balance among main parties

2009

2.21

Between Two Party System and Two and a half party system

Two and a half party system

2013

2.80

Between Two and a half and Moderate Multiparty with dominant party

Two and a half Party System

with

one

As one may observe the Siaroff scheme is not always applicable. It does give a wrong perception on structure of the party system especially in 1997, 2005, 2009 and 2013. Furthermore it fails to capture the dynamics of party interactions in 2001, when it is true that it was the Socialist Party predominates with 73 deputies, but it was followed by the Democratic party with 34 and then the rest of the parties had less than ten deputies in parliament and therefore there is no comparison between these parties. Regardless of its shortcomings the Siaroff scheme helps to understand who are the relevant parties in the Albanian political scene. in addition to the two main parties, the Socialist and the Democratic Party, the Socialist Movement for Integration has appeared to play the kingmaker role in the creation of governmental coalitions in country.

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4. Conclusion The paper sought to explore the dynamics of party interactions in the Albanian political scene. The fall of communist system was followed by the emergence of political parties of different political platforms. The paper attempted to disentangle the various data on the Albanian political parties and to capture any pattern of party competition and coalition. Duverger (1954), Sartori (2005), Lipset and Rokkan (1967) and Lijphart (1977) are the main scholars which fed into the theoretical framework of this paper the issue dimensions which structure the party system. The common cleavage for all these scholars was the socio-economic one which position the political parties along the left-right spectrum. However, in order to understand how many cleavages organize the political scene in Albania it was important to understand who are the relevant parties. Sartori’s concept of relevance was helpful here. in pursuit of which are the relevant parties we found out that in Albania we have only political parties with coalition potential but not with blackmail potential. The main political parties in the Albanian scene since the collapse of the communist regime are the Democratic Party, the Socialist Party, the Republican Party, the Union for Human Rights Party, the Agrarian Party and the Socialist Movement for Integration. These are the only parties whose members have had ministerial positions in the various governments created since 1991. With exception to the Union for Human Rights Party which represent the Greek minority in country, the other parties have positioned themselves along the left-right dimension. Furthermore, the smaller parties are located in the centre of the political spectrum, which means that only centripetal forces organize the political scene in Albania. Finally the Siaroff party system classification and the Effective Number of Parties Index clearly indicates that in Albania predominates a Two party system which in the last elections have tended to become two and a half. This also confirms the presupposition that the only cleavage which shapes and structures the party system in Albania is the socio-economic one. Bibliography Albanian Constitution (1998). Bartolini, S. dhe Mair, P. (2007) Identity, competition and electoral availability – the stabilization of european electorates 1885-1985, ECPR Press. Blondel, Jean. "Party Systems and Patterns of Government in Western Democracies." Canadian Journal of Political Science 1, no. 2 (1968): 180-203. Caplan, Constance and Alexander Knapp (1997) Technical Assistant Mission to the OSCE/ODHIR, Republic of Albania, May-July 1997, International Foundation for Electoral System: Washington.D.C. , Available at: http://www.ifes.org/~/media/Files/Publications/VRC/Reports/1997/R01506/R01506.p Central Elections Commission (2001) Rezultati Perfundimtar i Zgjedhjeve 2001 (Final Result of Parliamentary Elections 2001, Available at: http://cec.org.al/2004/eng/Zgjedhejekuvendfiles/rezultat2004.htm Central Elections Commission (2005) Rezultati i zgjedhjeve parlamentare sipas zonave, 2005 (The Result of Parliamentary Elections in constituencies), Available at: http://cec.org.al/2004/Zgjedhejekuvendfiles/Rez-zgjedhje2005/rezultatet%20100%20zona/buletini.htm Central Elections Commission (2005) Rezultati Perfundimtar i Zgjedhjeve Parlamentare, 2005 (Final Result of Parliamentary Elections, 2005). Available at: tvoteshttp://cec.org.al/2004/Zgjedhejekuvendfiles/Rezzgjedhje2005/rezultatet%20vendore/linke/parti%20rang%20vendi.pdf Central Election Commission (2005) Perberja e kuvendit sipas subjekteve qe e mbeshtesin (Composition of the parliament). Available at: http://cec.org.al/2004/Zgjedhejekuvendfiles/Rezzgjedhje2005/rezultatet%20vendore/linke/perberja%20e%20kuvendit_grafiku.pdf Duverger, Maurice, 1954 (1951). Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State. trans. by Barbara and Robert North. New York: Wiley. Laakso, M. and R. Taagepera, 1979. "Effective Number of Parties: Measure with Appplication to West Europe." Comparative Political Studies 12: 3-27. 129

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Lane, Jan-Erik and Ersson, Svante (1994) Comparative Politics – An Introduction and New Approach. SAGE Publication. Lijphart, Arend, 1977. Democracy in Plural Societies. New Haven: Yale Press. Sartori, Giovanni (1976). Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Siaroff, Alan (2000). Comparative European Party systems: An Analysis of Parliamentary Elections Since 1945. New York: Garland Publishing. Siaroff, Alan (2003). "Two-And-A-Half-Party Systems and the Comparative Role of the 'Half"." Party Politics 9, no. 3. 26790.

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CONCEPT OF FREEDOM IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF FICHTE Ermela Hoxha University of Elbasan, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Department of Civic Education, E-mail: [email protected], Albania, Tirana Abstract The concept of freedom is the central theme of all philosophy of Fichte. The study aims to determine the meaning of the concept of freedom by Johann Gottlieb Fichte. His fundamental philosophical problematic characterizes as "analysis of the notion of freedom". The methodology of this paper supported in a systematic review of the literature, description, comparison of different concepts and philosophical notions of the nineteenth century on freedom that coming as a result of different research as writings, works and articles. The main issues of the study relates to analysis of the subject as a creative activity, report subject to freedom and concept of freedom as a self-development. Problem that appears has to do with the subject which should be a self conscious that to create his freedom. The whole philosophy of Fichte relates to three main issues: the subject, the activity and freedom. His philosophy is defined as a philosophy of practice and freedom. The basic motive of subjective idealism is search of freedom according to which freedom is a field of opportunities that are offered to us in the world. The meaning of freedom is the form of expression that will, of individual action as something natural. Freedom is not absolute and an empirical given, but it should be a creativity. Real freedom is it that rational subject creates itself. Key words: Aim, Freedom, Methodology, Practical Philosophy, Subjective idealism

Introduction Freedom is the ability of man to act without restrictions lust, interests, his goals, ability to self-determination in his election to operate without infringing on others. The concept of freedom is a widely used in various fields. Freedom as a concept has acquired a broad meaning in philosophical literature, social and everyday language. This term is treated by different philosophers but, to Fichte the way of freedom that it represents is special. The study refers to the concept of freedom as one of the basic points in the philosophy of Fichte. The way how it sees the subject, its activity and report subject to freedom is a key element in the philosophy of Fichte. His work "Foundations of natural right: according to the principles of the Wissenschaftslehre" crosses a spirit to show original nature of what Fichte calls "self- conscious". In the central basis of his philosophy is an "absolute self", an agent, a product and autonomous action. For the realization of this topic have been exploited different literature, works, articles from other philosophers where some of them had influential philosophical formation of Fichte. This study aims to show which is the meaning the use of freedom by Fichte and where it consists. The main task of the system of his philosophy is to reconcile freedom with necessity. Freedom is possible and actual only within the context of restriction and the necessity because, it is not absolute. His passion for education of society as a whole seen as a necessary consequence of his philosophical system, which continues the Kantian tradition to establishing of philosophy in service of lighting reason. Philosophy of Fichte has the same attitude as it Kantian. He divided by Kant in the conception of the present as the point where the converging lines of historical development. Each period has its own features which penetrate into every detail of life and Fichte set himself the task to examine the specific characteristics of its period1. The main task in the philosophy of Fichte “Wissenschaftslehre” or “theory of knowledge” is to reconcile freedom with necessity, to explain how freely and morally ready agents may be considered at the same time as part of a world of material objects conditional in time and space. Fichte had a great desire to be a teacher of humanity and superintendent of its progress. He saw himself researcher with a broader role in academia. He had suggested that self which often referred to ego it is not a static but, an auto-process and such a process it must be free. The human being as a "self-conscious" should be able to achieve freedom and understand the nature around. Freedom is the highest principle and all human activity. True freedom

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is what creates its rational and conscious entity. All core of human activity is the world, world of freedom where man realizes himself. Review of literature To be free means affirming the independence of your will. The concept of freedom characterizes the human condition when one starts to realize themselves. Realizing freedom in time achieved the distinction between subject and object. Freedom is an opportunity action and lies in self-determination. Therefore, to Fichte is emphasizing the idea of an active and creative subject. Freedom is the power of our reason, in the power of our will. Only free life can have a moral value. It is important that we should to be able to know the conditions that surround us and to know how to create, to achieve our freedom within certain limits. Transcendental philosophy that describes 1 Sinan, G. Philosophy of history. SHBLU: Tirana, 1999, p. 77. Fichte is an attempt to analyze what is the synthetic act by which ego decide freely for themselves and their world. Freedom is important because it holds the potential of liberating by a single way to understanding of the world. For as long as we live in a community, in a given society and interact and other human believe that we are not free in every activity of ours. When we talk for freedom understand that every human activity not realized without being previously free. Freedom as the highest principle of human vital activity. To talk about freedom means a specific task as the most indispensable and necessary for every human being. But, how conceives the freedom Fichte? Freedom is the highest principle, the essence of all things. Freedom is the highest truth, a great reality. How to understand this? This reality is the source of all other realities because, it is freedom and cannot be given an empirical, a given instant, a fact. If freedom is given or made (as are produced evidence of physical order) it will not be freedom. True freedom is the freedom that creates itself being so, a self-realization and a self-realization means self- development. The concept of freedom understood in time, time to realize the opportunities that the subject of his activities. Time is a priori theoretical reason, a form of understanding a necessary tool of freedom. Fichte makes freedom principle higher the natural law but, of course it comes to freedom in the form of the individual isolated. Fichte uses the idea of the “sphere of freedom” to create "original right" which is a fictitious concept. To trample this right, according to him, means that you have violated freedom. In philosophy of Fichte note use of the term "agent" or conscious action where each agent conscious should keep this "sphere of freedom" where they are free from external forces. Like Descartes and Kant, he was motivated by the problem of subjectivity and awareness. Fichte had proposed to replace term philosophy as "love for knowledge" with the term "Wissenschaftslehre" as a theory of knowledge. Fichte is for a real coexistence of free individuals, the existence of a society built deliberately free. The existence of a subject lies in an experience interpersonal, for mutual recognition of their freedom. This experience can occur just as a reality a call for an "ego" that exercising and limits at the same time his freedom. So, according to the general principle of philosophy of Fichte, such freedom can be developed in a freedom more perfect producing the opposite of its2. Methodology The method used is it systematic review of the literature. This study is based in the principal work of Johann Gottlieb Fichte “Foundations of natural right: according to the principles of the Wissenschaftslehre”. Through this work is issued central notion that runs philosophical system of Fichte, freedom of subject. The study aims to show the way as Fichte introduces the concept of freedom to showing its necessity and realization. So, to highlight the application for a freedom not just a theoretical but, and the practice of the subject in order to be able to create his freedom within society.

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The methodology of this study supported in describing the diverse ways to concept of freedom, literature, works by the other author where a part of them had an impact on the philosophical formation of Fichte. The key question that the study focuses connects with the main characteristics of the subject, stages, conditions that must to complete a subject and its relation to freedom. Results As a primary task to Fichte is to explain what is human mission and tools to be used to achieve this mission better. His philosophy has to do with subject matter, the activity and his freedom. Therefore, philosophy of Fichte aims to become a philosophy of free action, free movement of people. As the only right philosophy he considered idealistic philosophy because ego is giving us directly. Ego sets itself independent and unconditional. Ego to exist and to act must have its opposite, non- ego, which is the product of the ego. Although, ego and non- ego are different, they are in unity because can not be ego without non- ego. So, ego itself contains non- self. The first and fundamental motive of subjective idealism of Fichte is the search of freedom for a freedom to biuld from a creative and conscious subject. His philosophy is a call for the formation of mind and for integration into human society. Freedom can not be realized in the hood but, in social phenomena, in the nature of human society. The study shows that one of the basic tasks of philosophy is to provide rational guidelines therefore, ends to be appropriate for a free society and in harmony with each other. Freedom lies before us as a field of action and continuous interaction. Truly, it appears in our lives as needed, as necessity. Where lies essence of the action? To answer this question should start its own notion of consciousness respectively, from productive activity, by human work. The problem of real freedom and human efficient not lies only in the fact that a man may choose but, as chooses and for what desides. Freedom can not be required in the arbitrariness of choise and the lack whatever the motivation but, in leadership of volition recognizing the natural and social laws. Freedom should not be understood as a gift but, as an attempt to create it. Discussions Fichte, as Descartes, begins with "I think so, I am" after brings this statement to mind that ego as an activity is knowledge. Ego according to what he presents is source categories and ideas but, all concepts reduced in a synthesis through thought. Each concept has a logical structure which includes three main phases; Thesis→ ego Antithesis→ non-ego Synthesis→ unity of ego and non-ego Freedom is a reality, source of all other realities and is not a given empirical. On the contrary, it is a self-realization, a selfdevelopment that rational subject creates itselfs. The state as an important element represents at its core a condition of justice and law. Fichte recognized as one founding figures of the movement known as “German philosophical idealism”. It was a move that took place by theoretical and ethical writings of Kant. Freedom, according to Kant, subjected to moral law. There is no moral law, even justification without freedom3. Reputation of Fichte at the present time is in some respects curious. There is an uncompromising insistence certainly practical of human freedom and a full commitment in the task to provide an account exceptional experience that may explain the objectivity and the need for theoretical reason in a manner consistent to the affirmation of practical freedom to human. From a particular philosophical point, he is regarded as an innovator which has played a crucial role in transformation of transcendental idealism of Kant in absolute idealism of his immediate successors. Unceasing effort of his life was to "awaken" the people in order to regulate their thoughts on a spiritual life the true and real.

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Conclusions and suggestions Freedom, according to the concept of Fichte, not realized in self-hood because, it will not help being to act. Freedom realizes only in human society, within nature that surrounds her. In order that ego to become a reality, it separates itself in a majority of historical subjects to understand the moral relations created between them. These relations are the source of natural rights. It is not enough freedom as theory but, even as practical. Let’s see some of the "messages" of ethical philosophy of Fichte for freedom; Always realize your determining. Never fall in contrary with the definitions of your will. Act in a way that your maxima do you consider as a law for themselves. Limit your freedom, accept the goals of others. Fichte seeks to promote human being in order to be able and conscientious to act morally. Society is where the ego sets its goals and operates to achieve freedom. Of course, we are being restricted in our actions, are free beings and freedom that every man possesses must to comply with normative standards of society. Ego exists because exists non- ego4. This is a state of equality in which all power is mutual, no one has more than the other. This natural state of human equality, Hooker5, deems reasonable so clear and beyond doubt how does it base of that obligation to mutual love between people, on which builds our obligations to each other. Wissenschaftslehre or theory of knowledge determines the possibility and validity of all human knowledge. This simple principle is security for self, what is in me, what I know. According to Rousseau to surrender of liberty means that you have relinquished your quality as a human and your rights. Such a renunciation is incompatible with human nature because to remove each human freedom will mean to remove any morality of his actions6. Hegel argued that freedom7 is the dynamics of society. In this context, Fichte saw freedom as the possibility of human actions. Freedom, by its nature is a necessity of human activity, a wide field of action, complex, relative but, not absolute. 4 Fichte's thesis that people can realize their individuality through relationships with others is a provocative claim that greatly influenced subsequent philosophers and continues to be of interest today. Fichte, J. G. (2000). Foundations of natural right according to the principles of the Wissenschaftslehre. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, p. 13. 5 Richard Hooker (1554-1600), English theologian, author of the treaty The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (Laws of the congregation). He conveyed this idea of the social contract work and limiting royal power law. 6 Rousseau, J.J. Social Contract. London, p. 14. his study suggests; To intervene in order to organize by the respective institutions and specialists in this field to provide a series of publications address to students, parents and professors in order to increase the level of information dimensions of freedom. To develop more training and qualification programs to enhance professional competence in the "identification" of freedom. To prepare guides and ancillary materials to orient and guide the vital activity. References Fichte, J. G. (2000). Foundations of natural right: according to the principles of the Wissenschaftslehre. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Fichte, J. G. (1992). Foundations of transcedental philosophy (Wissenschaftslehre) nova methodo. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Fichte, J. G. (2005). The system of ethics: according to the principle of the Wissenschaftslehre. NY: Cambridge University Press.

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Fichte, J. G. (1992). The science of knowledge. NY: Cambridge University Press. Hegel, G. W. F. (1980). Lectures on philosophy of history. New York: Cambridge University Press (1975). Hersch, J. Philosophical wonder: a history of philosophy, translated in albanian by Artan Fuga, Tirana: Dituria. Kant, I. (1956). Critique of practical reason. New York: The liberal Arts Press. Leka, A. & Haxhiymeri, A. (2012). History of Western modern philosophy. Tirana: TOENA. Sherover, C. M. (1989). Time, freedom and the common good: an essay in public philosophy. Albany: by State University of NY. Sinan, G. (1999). Philosophy of history. Tirana: SHBLU. Stumf, S. E. Philosophy: history and problems, transleted in albanian by Kastriot Myftiu, Paqsor Shehu, Tirana: TOENA.

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Global Effects and Conditions of governance in an independent Kosovo Adem Shala PhD Candidate at the European University in Tirane. Department of Juridical Sciences: Doctoral research in governing processes. [email protected] Abstract Global processes between 1990 and 2013 have initiated essential changes in the institutions, legal structure, economy, information, values, attitudes, decisions, and action. Additionally, global effects, depending on regions and countries, have taken specific characteristics. Specific effects were noticed in the transition countries. The crisis and reforms in these countries and societies were a result of local efforts to change the conditions in all levels. In order to achieve these goals, transition countries, needed support from developed countries and global organizations. Even though, global processes were advanced, global organization and international law were unreformed and inefficient. The activity and the determination of the Kosovo society to overcome the situation compelled the International Community towards establishing attitudes, making decisions and acting, among others, in the case of Kosovo. Kosovo, as a country that belongs to all communities and citizens, is a specific case. The governing processes and institutions are directly influenced by the International Community and global effects. This Kosovo specific governing process is a compound of two processes, specific Kosovo circumstances and global effects in the region. A special approach should be applied when global effects are evaluated and analyzed in the case of Kosovo, of special interest the practical and theoretical activity, for understanding problems, circumstances, and causes as well as the way towards surpassing obstacles and the advancement of positive processes in governing, institutions and development. Effective governance in Kosovo should aim to create the enabling environment prerequisites for the development and integration process. This is the key role, function and essential obligation of this process. Gonverning institutions in Kosovo should be an interacting and guarantee factor in regards to the development and integration processes. This role and function, in line with a democratic orientation, of the Kosova leadrship is beeing demanded by the society and the Internatnional community.

2. Introduction Institutional and juridical consolidation Legal and institutional consolidation in governance in the independent Kosovo, is based in The Ahtisaari Plan (Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement, March 2007) and international supervision of its implementation. Article 1.3 of Ahtisaari 's Plan states: “Kosovo shall adopt a Constitution. The Constitution of Kosovo shall prescribe and guarantee the legal and institutional mechanisms necessary to ensure that: Kosovo is governed by the highest democratic standards, and to promote the peaceful and prosperous existence of all its inhabitants. The Constitution shall include, but not be limited to the principles and provisions contained in Annex I of this Settlement”. This plan provides for the regulation of political and legal system in general, and some areas are defined in detail. In Article 1.1 (General Principles) it stipulates that: “Kosovo shall be a multi-ethnic society, which shall govern itself democratically, and with full respect for the rule of law, through its legislative, executive, and judicial institutions”. The Ahtisaari Plan defines Kosovo as a multiethnic democratic society, non-religious, with Albanian and Serbian as official languages, with a market economy and open and free competition. It provides key elements for minority rights and a strong form of decentralized local governance at the municipal and central level, in particular for the northern Serb minority community. Positive ratings come from all relevant international institutions regarding the implementation of the Ahtisaari Plan. An analysis conducted by Gerard.M.Galluci in 2011 in the context of affiliation on Serb northern municipalities states that the Ahtisaari Plan provides a framework for a functioning multiethnic democracy, although all minorities in Kosovo constitute about 8 % of the population. The aim was for the Serbian minority to be provided with a special status in order to integrate and eliminate destructive policies of Serbia towards Kosovo. In the case of Kosovo there were no interethnic conflicts, but it was the exploitation of the Serb minority by dominant Serbian policies and international toleration. Serbia's destructive policies aim was the prevention of the creation of institutions and establishment of the governance of Kosovo as an independent state, not for the interests and rights of the Serb minority. In order to limit the obstacles of Serbia solutions

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included in Ahtisaari plan became eligible for the kosovars, given that Kosovo is not a pronounced multiethnic society. But the real solution of this problem is done by preventing the intrusive policies of Serbia and its allies against the independence of Kosovo because the effects of these policies are reflected in the governance. With the establishment of international guidance the Assembly proclaimed the Declaration of Independence on 17th of February 2008. International recognition followed, with a significant number of countries with a global impact accepting it. Kosovo's constitution (2008) determined the character, functions and organization of the institutions. All the definitions and governing authority of institutional powers were consolidated in compliance with the requirements of the Ahtisaari Plan, by guaranteeing all ethnic groups, civil rights, especially in regards to the Serb minority in Kosovo. The Constitution defined the political and legal system: parliamentary republic with a system of governance similar to that of Western democracies and transition countries . A unique state with a decentralized local municipal government. The constitutional politics fits the level and goals of the democratic society of Kosovo. The constitution of Kosovo represents the basic solutions to government and institutional processes according to democratic standards. The Constitution , as the supreme legal act of the Republic of Kosovo in Chapter I on Basic Provisions, Article 16.2, Supremacy of the Constitution states: “The Power to Govern stems from the Constitution”. Chapter I , Article 2.1 on Sovereignty defines “The sovereignty of the Republic of Kosovo stems from the people, belongs to the people and is exercised in compliance with the Constitution through elected representatives, referendum and other forms in compliance with the provisions of this Constitution”. By expressing the supremacy of this act and its constitutionality in the governing process, Chapter I, Article 16.2 defines: “The Constitution is the highest legal act of the Republic of Kosovo. Laws and other legal acts shall be in accordance with this Constitution”. In Article 4.1 [Form of Government and Separation of Power]: “Kosovo is a democratic Republic based on the principle of separation of powers and the checks and balances among them as provided in this Constitution”. In accordance with the Constitution, laws, procedures and other relevant regulations, all institutions were constituted according to powers and responsibilities. International Court of Justice in The Hague UN on the 22nd of July 2010, published a positive advisory opinion concerning the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence in 2008, noting that there is no contradiction on United Nations Resolution 1244, adopted by the Security Council. Among the major successes is the end of international supervision of independence (September 2012), which marked the completion of the implementation of the criteria required by the Martti Ahtisaari package. So, with this the constitutional preconditions, legal and organizational functioning, the establishment of institutions and governance of the Republic of Kosovo were completed. However, this governance did not reach the north. 3.. Model, methods and research questions This study used multiple viewpoints on appropriate methods for understanding the causes, consequences, and variable correlations and effects. This study focused on researching specific facts related to Kosovo and in understanding the interpretation of local and international legal acts that relate to and interact with the processes on the Kosovar governance while employing models and strategies of research on comparisons, evaluations, observation ethnography, grounded theory, and evaluating the facts and processes related to the topic on the above mentioned area. This study used the experimental model represented through active and passive observations which is a time limited study of concrete phenomena. Furthermore, the study conducted analysis of monitoring reports of international institutions on governance and Kosovo institutions, analysis of reports of the institutions themselves and ports of civil society organizations, and independent monitoring agencies of the government of Kosovo. Comparisons were drawn with modern views of theories on the conditions and objectives of democratic governance. The purpose and contribution of this paper lies in finding the answers to the questions: What are global effects, causes, consequences, challenges, activities and effects of governance in the years 2008-2013? Which are the challenges which kosovar insitutions and government face after independence and in the future? How to achieve qualitative effects of governance? What are the negative trends in governance and institutions, and how to overcome them? 4. Conditions and the effects of governance Kosovar institutional and governing quality represents an essential factor in the development and integration process. After the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the preconditions were created for governance and institutional organization based on constitutional and legal definitions in accordance with democratic standards and international law. Successful developments have occurred on governance and the legal and institutional environments of the regional security however,

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there is still a need for more efficient, higher quality and more effective legal and political order. Processes, decisions, actions and neglect of the international community had and continue to have a special role in the institutional developments and political processes of governance in and around Kosovo. However, this is dependent on the social, cultural and political forces of Kosovo. The governance process has faced adverse conditions: a) the absence of a plural democratic tradition; b) low level of economic development hence business environment unfit; c) delay in transition reforms; d) external obstacles such as the political business culture of the past; d) the concentration of power on the existential resource sectors; e) negative phenomenon in institutions; lack of genuine opposition etc. All these circumstances are affecting directly Global effects the characteristics of governance and institutional efficiency. a) Tradition and socio-cultural circumstances The socialist system, national oppression of Albanians in Yugoslavia, suspension of autonomy in 1989, violations of the population and the democratic processes in Kosovo had direct consequences on the lack of democratic governing tradition. Even during the international administration as a result of the lack of status, Kosovo's political parties had very little competences in the process joint governance. Democratic governance requires as a prerequisite a preexisting democratic political and cultural tradition in governance. In Kosovo this tradition lacked as a result of past governance. Cultural theories speak of the cultural tradition of religious affiliations of the population in the form and effects of the government. In Kosovo, we have a culture with a large secular scale, and this is impacting positively on democratic governance, in comparison to other countries loaded with fundamental religions. In Kosovo, we have separation of state from religion and public life, we have no impact of religious fundamentalism in the politics and state. The cultural values are not at the right level, which are an essential prerequisite for the quality of democratic governance, such as voter - elite consensus, altruistic values towards the community, positive traditions towards institutions, traditions of respect for human rights and the law, education and understanding about the costs and benefits of democratic government, knowing the long-term costs of unfit governance, optimism, attitude toward equality, against corruption, against that past attitudes, interpersonal relationships, establishing democracy etc. The following are still not at the right level: respect for individual freedom, the idea of equality, trust in the power of speech, the importance of persuasion, rhetoric, and constructive debate and compromise. We lack the tradition of respecting individual rights, we have primarily put the family and clan before the individual, prone to violence, poor separation of powers, the tendency for government undemocratic concentration of power over the economy and income as a result underdevelopment and the lack of competition in the private sector etc. Therefore, to achieve appropriate governance effects, we have to advance urgently these essential values through multiple ways. In this regard goes the doctrine of human development. Institutionalized cultural and human values which are legally protected are required. According to democratic theories (Inglehart & Wellzel, 2005) it is required that at least 45% of citizens are determined towards democratic governance. Therefore, the problem lies in the Kosovo governance, because, as a result of the concentration of power, unemployment, poverty, political values and culture, media etc. Voters run after parties and leaders benefits in the public sector, not for genuine democratic governance. Of importance are also the following: work habit, approach towards business and property, sense of responsibility, displaying self values, but also the socio-economic level and economic processes which create new motif and cultural values of governing. b) Economic Development Level Favorable environment for democratic governance and its goal is sustainable economic development. Martin Lipset emphasized that: “The richer a country is, the greater are the opportunities to save democracy” (1959). This applies also to the Republic of Kosovo in order to see results and effects on democratic governance it is a necessity for sustainable economic development and transformation of this increase in the development of other areas in Kosovo. The lack of private economic development is costing the government in Kosovo, because there is no distraction of power over existential resources. Without the private economic development sphere there is no democratic governance, no diversion of power, and no advanced civil society. However, without effective governance, rule of law and order, security, appropriate economic policies, administration, quality, quality public services, integration etc. which should be provided by good governance, there will be neither economic development nor a civil society. There is a mutual conditional correlation and interaction in order to overcome the situation. This challenge can and should be managed by adding political legitimacy to its effectiveness; by complementing government system functions in the rule of law; by protecting public interests and the interests of the majority of the population; structural conflict resolution; by politically integrating the middle and lower classes; by paying attention to distribution etc. The aim is to create preconditions for liberalization and a market economy; 138

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clear policies towards the successful development of medium and long term projects. All fields must be in favor of the development and future perspective because economic development reflects the opportunity for democratic governance and its sustainability. Nevertheless all this depends on strengthening the rule of law and the establishment of security, infrastructural preconditions and public services. Clear development policies and the withdrawal of political and group power towards the economy is required; liberalization and intense economic cooperation, competition in the regional and global levels; political security and social security, and social security during the transformation. Specifically, preparation for integrating into the EU economy and the separation of the economy from the direct management of the state and government. Fukuyama , F. (2010; 142) seeks long-term economic liberalization on one hand, but requires strengthening institutions and other areas of safety and security on the other. In the absence of understanding, approach and implementation in some developing and transition countries he states that: “economic liberalization reforms failed to achieve its objectives in many countries. Indeed in some countries the lack of proper institutional framework left them worse after liberalization than they would be without implementing it at all. The problem lies in the basic conceptual failure to separate the different dimensions of the state and to understand how they relate to economic development”. This is happening in politics, government and the Kosovo institutions , ranging from institutional framework , lack of economic liberalization , lack of strengthening key institutions and lack of rule of law as a primary necessity . In the absence of sincere intentions of the political elite and long-term development and in the failure to understanding the need to separation the roles of institutions in relation to the economy. Therefore, the lack of understanding towards how to influence economic development through strengthening of key political institutions and economic liberalization simultaneously. Consequently, there is a demand for the construction of the economy according to an open economy towards regional, European and world market, with an appropriate enforcement of regulatory policy, security and rule of law in other areas, and understanding that these non-economic functions of governance although seem indirect, are essential for economic development. Stimulating economic and political cooperation promotes joint investments with foreign partners. The development of human capital in accordance with technological trends and market and competition laws in the regional and global level, for the Kosovo government should be the main priority noted the United Nations Development Programme (2009; 2010; 2011). The effective management of human resources and attractions of the capital in strategic investments and economic liberalization for Kosovo, which will bring rapid and sustainable development. WB, IMF, UNDP, CBK, (2008-2013). The statistics agency and local institutions, provide disturbing figures on poverty and unemployment in Kosovo. Kosovo's economy has a positive growth rate, but this is insufficient for a sustainable development and reduction of the trade deficit, poverty and unemployment. Privatization and many other services in Kosovo are associated with groups and corrupt power, as a result of lack of rule of law and order. The role and function of Kosovar governance is to create an environment for economic growth and development in all areas which benefits the wellbeing and the human development of every citizen in Kosovo. However according to the findings of CBK (December, 2012) the Republic of Kosovo has managed to maintain macroeconomic stability. Economic growth continues to be positive, keeping the level of public debt reasonable. Pronounced dominance of the trade deficit, higher import rates in comparison to local manufacturing abilities of those products, very low export with export covering import only about 16%, are indicative of ineffective policies. Commercial banks provide inadequate loans, there is inflation, low investment and weak suction of local and foreign investments (CBK, 2010). Opportunities and some potential development factors exist: human capital, natural resources unused, and market which in a consistent macro-economic policy and rule of law, will activate these Kosovar economic potentials. c) Deconcentration of power Democratic governance in Kosovo seeks deconcentration of power resources in the society and economy: ownership, capital, knowledge, information, attraction of the partisan power from public services, efficient administration, freedom of movement and conditions for business activity. Without economic development of the private sphere in Kosovo, there can be no deconcentration of power, and no genuine civil society. All current employment and suvival opportunities are dependent on the public sphere, which are lead by party elites and groups of interest and pressure, created by the negative phenomena in institutions and governance which have become abusers of institutions. Kosovo government and institutions should protect the citizen from the pressure of pressure groups, corrupt groups in power and other groups associated with them. These groups and extreme concentration of power over existential resources are obstacles for democratic governance and are increasing uncertainties for investment and the genuine development of the private sphere of integration and competition. Voters in this situation of poverty, unemployment etc. are more easily manipulated by political 139

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demagogies and are running after power concentrators and occupants of the governancve and institutions believing in empty promises. On the prerequisites of democratic governance Vanhanen (2003) stated that “the concentration of power resources leads to autocracy, and deconcentration of power sources in most cases in a democracy”. In the deconcentration of power, many forms of decentralization play a role along with the development of the private sphere. Seymour Martin Lipset in the work Political Man (1960) required resource allocation of power resources in society and the economy in order for the power not to own these resources. In his view Lipset also introduces other indicators of resource allocation: sources of knowledge, economy, the state of the property, agricultural property, information etc. in relation to the government. In Kosovo the analyses and indicators of local and international monitors show multiple instances of institutional group power over economic public resources, knowledge, information etc. This reduction, and deconcentration of power over the economy, does not mean the destruction of the state and institutions, on the contrary, it requires strengthening the effectiveness and of institutions in the areas of rule of law according to the constitution. Without this there are no appropriate institutions, or economic development in Kosovo. This requires the international community and the global economic integration processes. This is the message Fukuyama (2010; 175) passes on, A vital problem faced by poor countries that blocks their opportunities for economic development, is the inadequate level of institutional development. They do not need extended states, but need strong states and effective within the limited scope of essential state functions. Most of these problems were faced during the institutional development and governance in Kosovo. d) Regional and international circumstances Democratic governance is easier for countries that lie among the developed democratic countries. Unfortunately, Kosova did not have this position with regards to neighboring countries. Another important positive factor for the democratic governance in Kosovo are the integration processes of the region in the EU and its position in the market and golobal processes in the region. Changes after the 90s, the European integration processes, global processes in many areas, geographical position, exposing position of the global market, regional investments, etc. are a positive and influential force for concrete processes in Kosovo, of course, besides the engagement of the Kosovar factor. Negative impacts from Serbia and rivalities of contries with an impact countries reflected directly in the governing effects and the institutionalization in Kosovo. And all these factors created obstacles and delays in government reforms, integration and hence in the democratic consolidation in Kosovo. But global integration processes and activities of international organizations are affecting Kosovo, in order to incorporate conventions and practices of democratic governance which is useful in the constitutional order in respecting human rights, minority rights, rule of law and order. Therefore, the need for political, institutional, economic, legal and cultural reforms is evident. e) Constitutional politics An essential factor is considered to be the appropriate adjustment, clear and deliberate constitutional policies for effective governance, with predictions: the parliamentary system and balancing powers; proportional electoral system; guarantee of human rights under international conventions and standards (see: Chapter II Fundamental Rights and Freedoms); the rights of minority communities (see Chapter III Rights of Communities and theire Members); decentralization through local governance at the municipal level (Chapter X Local Government and Territorial Organization); After the independence in 2008, concrete successes have been achieved in the legal and institutional consolidation of governance, but an effective and quality implementation of political and legal order; rule of law, is requried by fighting negative phenomena in institutions in order to prevent the alienation of the policy goals in regards to constitutional governance. Legal obligations, constitutional law, separation of powers etc. limit the power in relation to political rights and freedoms and social rights of individuals. Rule of Law according to Wolfganag Merkel sets the following: political -institutional determinants and “partial regimes, encompassing and free elections, the political rights to participate, civil liberties, ensuring institutional control and security powers de jure and de facto power of the elected representatives” stresses Merkel (2010). However, without a political culture, without economic opportunities, deconcentration of power, favorable international position and integration it is difficult to achieve effective democratic governance. The model of limiting government control of society, the opposition, the right, the balance of powers , decentralization , international law, distribution of resources, values, democratic attitudes and behaviors, international atmosphere and global processes however, are providing an environment relatively suitable for institutional processes and democratic governance in Kosovo . 140

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5. Negative phenomena in institutions In Kosovo government, occupation occurred by party leaderships and the penetration of corrupt groups in institutions and not fighting negative phenomena in institutions for a long time. These circumstance causes, affected the quality of institutional functions at the level of implementation of roles and powers of the parliament itself as the basic institution of parliamentary democracy, and consequently other institutions. Non-compliance to law, the lack of autonomy of powers and mutual lack of control, especially of parliament over the executive. Ineffective judiciary towards high-level corrupt individuals, lack of proper functioning of the electoral process, caracteristics of political parties and of their leadership have brought consequences on the growth of corruption and organized crime, as well as failing to fight it. Negative phenomena in institutions are damaging the state budget, economy and society: by preventing and distorting public investments and by creating uncertainty for potential internal and external investors. These phenomena are directly impacting on economic underdevelopment, insecurity, the quality of public and administrative services, and the delayed integration. Therefore, specific measures and governanment reforms to overcome the situation are mandatory. The World Bank Director for Southeast Europe, Jane Armitage, in an interview, (November, 2012) by demanding reforms in these spheres in Kosovo states that “much work has to be done, fight corruption, improving the judiciary; all these are part of the business environment. When making business and business indicators, investors look at all these indicators”. This situation continues because the Judiciary is still inefficient, not independent enough and connected to negative phenomena in government, while it is also under the pressure groups interest and pressure groups in higher institutions. Functioning of the judiciary is essential to the rule of law, but is not yet independent and effective. In legal and constitutional terms it seems independent, but the actual aspect is rather differet. Kosovo in the opinions of citizens and monitoring organizations, whether international or local, qualifies as a state with a high level of corruption in: public enterprises, in the procurement process and in government spending. Employment in administration and other public spheres are due to nepotism and partisanship without regard towards professional and ethical qualities. There is a politicized public administration on party grounds and still unreformed enough. Real competition of parties lacks as a result of negative phenomena induced in the party leadership itself, and through them in institutions. Races between them are not made for governing and program alternatives, but for embezzlement, misuse and group privileges. Therefore, debates between them are harsh, abusive, destructive and labeling. In all monitoring reports of local and international organizations and investigative, among others, indicate that the highest political elites are corrupt through manipulating the privatization process, and tenderes’ misuse and in the procurement process, the costs of unchecked government budget from misuse donor funds, corrupt public-private partenerships, nepotism etc. These groups apart from pressures and corruption, informality, organized crime and smuggling are hindering democratization and constitutional and legal legal functioning of institutions. They manipulate and distort the electoral process and the manipulation of public opinion through the dependent media, blackmail, demagoguery, etc. These groups bring their loyal individuals in major institutions and independent agencies. These phenomena and their holders are hampering democratic governance and consequently, are hampering economic growth, development and integration of other areas. Corruption in Kosovo is part of the system. The holders of power and institutions are involved in such phenomena. According to Global Corruption Barometer (July 2013) political parties have been identified as the area most affected by corruption in Kosovo, and government efforts to combat it are extremely inefficient. Kosovo in 2012 ranked 105th on the list of most corrupt countries (July, 2013). Combating the aboved mentioned negative phenomena can be achieved by coordinating the activity of: citizens, opposition political parties and new leadership, with the clear support of the positive international factor. Unity and coordination of these factors can produce results by consolidating the integrity of institutions and governance process. Starting from transparency, changing the structure of consciousness and voter values, consolidating and respecting democratic principles of the electoral process and the legitimacy of institutions. Returning thus the efficiency and integrity of institutions. Empowerment of civil society, independent media , critic and analysis. Effective international support through pressures, but also by speeding up the integration is more than necessary. Sustainable economic development represents a necessity for democracy, but it can not be achieved without accountable and effective governance and institutions, it cannot be achieved without preliminary effects of security, order and law and without supporting the integration. Consolidation of the justice system with bold and independent staf in reagards to corrupt politics is a step forward, but it requires support of all institutions and citizens. The head of the European Commission Liaison Office in Kosovo (Khaldun, 2012) at the end of the term, in an interview emphasized that: “the fight against corruption, reform of the electoral system, 141

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reform of public administration, economic development of the country, are some of conditions that institutions must meet if they want to lead the country towards EU integration”. He further notes in his interview “except institutions which have an obligation to fight corruption, one must remember that corruption is a problem of society and mentality”. Therefore, there is a demand for changing multilateral commitments in the creation of values, knowledge and attitudes of voters; consolidation of opposition with leaders and staff with integrity; pressure and support from civil society; outside support through policy support and through the acceleration of integration. International support is effective and necessary because by identifying the causes and actors, informing, pressures and through the acceleration of the integration process, mobilizes citizens and the genuine opposition to act against negative phenomena. It enables the emergence of new opposition forces and their support. 6. Integration processes There is no development in areas, integration with countries and regional and international organizations without the presence of capacity and quality of proper democratic governing institutions in Kosovo. In the case of Kosovo, it is imperative in all processes undergone and current ones. Therefore, the role and impact of governance quality is essential for developmental processes related to the national, regional and global integration processes. Kosovar society and politics should always be aware and prepared to create preconditions for positive and inevitable global processes to overcome the obstacles of negative hegemonic policies in the Balkans. These obstacles are multidimensional, and vocal against Kosovar integration. Therefore, Kosova by empowering institutions and governance quality, best exceeds these obstacles and together with positive international partners consolidates the integrity and international position of the state of Kosovo. Even the International Community in the basic requirements for integration is seeking quality and efficiency in governance, institutionalization and a democratic culture. Governance and democratic order in Kosovo reflects international peace and security in the region and beyond. Fukuyama points out that the lack of effective and lawful governance creates internal instability and has direct consequences in international stability (2010). Although there were deficiencies, delays, contradictions, Kosovo has benefited greatly from the support given by the EU, U.S. and other countries and numerous international organizations. It has received considerable assistance, direct, institutional, legal, and financial governance. Conclusion of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement will contribute to the opening of Kosovar society. But no one should have illusions that Kosovo's path towards EU membership is easy. Requirements for membership are set by the European Council. Candidate countries, including Kosovo, should follow common values set out in the Treaty of Union and they are required to have achieved stability of institutions and democratic governance, as well as the existence of a competitive market economy, adopt and fully implement laws and standards of the EU , the so-called “acquis communautaire”. This is a long process and a difficult one. While the EU will continue providing any kind of assistance. Results depend on Kosovo itself, from its leadership and citizens. For Kosovo it would be vital to be in the process of integration and integrated into the EU. This is the challenge of the Kosovar governing and institutional processes, together with the international community. 7. Northern issue and relations with Serbia Legal solutions to the Ahtisaari Plan included in full in the Constitution and the political and functional legal system of Kosovo, as well as the successful integration of the Serb minority (except north), are undeniable arguments, and successful practices for solving problems of the north i.e. its integration. Even the international attitudes are clear that there is no change of borders on ethnic grounds. Therefore, Serbia's destructive role in the institutionalization of government in this part of Kosovo is being restricted. The Ahtisaari plan, Kosovo Constitution and the integration of the Serb minority in other parts of the Republic of Kosovo, are facts that indicate the guarantee and most advanced solutions in the region for the rights of the Serbian community in local and central government, the most significant democratic standards. The diplomat Rohan (2012 ), as Ahtisaari's deputy in Vienna talks for setting the status of Kosovo, on the opening of negotiations for the normalization of relations between Kosovo and Serbia, in the context of north states that Ahtisaari Plan contains a substantial autonomy for the northern Kosovo Serbs. Therefore, he argues, any departure from this plan creates complications in the political and legal system of the Republic of Kosovo. This has been understood by all parties. Republic of Serbia also forced by domestic and integration needs, has begun to change the approach towards Kosovo and the north. Strengthening democratic institutions and the Kosovo government at all levels will affect the quality integration of this community and territory. The essence of the results of the negotiations for the north, in the spirit of the normalization of

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relations between Kosovo and Serbia under the mediation of the European Commission, Brussels (2013) is seen in the 15 point agreement , signed by prime ministers Thaci and Dacic. The key points of the Agreement are: 1. There will be an Association/Community of Serb-majority municipalities in Kosovo. Membership will be open to any other municipality provided the members are in agreement. 2. The Community/Association will be created by statute. Its dissolution shall only take place by a decision of the participating municipalities. Legal guarantees will be provided by applicable law and constitutional law (including the 2/3 majority rule). 3. The structures of the Association/Community will be established on the same basis as the existing statute of the Association of Kosovo municipalities e.g. President, vice President, Assembly, Council. 4. In accordance with the competences given by the European Charter of Local Self Government and Kosovo law the participating municipalities shall be entitled to cooperate in exercising their powers through the Community/Association collectively. The Association/Community will have full overview of the areas of economic development, education, health, urban and rural planning. 5. The Association/Community will exercise other additional competences as may be delegated by the central authorities. 6. The Community/Association shall have a representative role to the central authorities and will have a seat in the communities’ consultative council for this purpose. In the pursuit of this role a monitoring function is envisaged. 7. There shall be one police force in Kosovo called the Kosovo Police. All police in northern Kosovo shall be integrated in the Kosovo Police framework. Salaries will be only from the KP. 8. Members of other Serbian security structures will be offered a place in equivalent Kosovo structures. This agreement clearly defines the form of the Association of Municipalities with Serb-majority in northern Kosovo, determining that “In accordance with the competences given by the European Charter of Local Self Government and Kosovo law the participating municipalities shall be entitled to cooperate in exercising their powers through the Community/Association collectively” (Point 4). “The Association/Community will exercise other additional competences as may be delegated by the central authorities” (Point 5). Local government as a form of decentralization represents one of the most essential and necessary principles of governance and democratic institutions. In Kosovo this is so in the municipal level and is the most advanced in the region. Municipalities are enjoying a high degree of local self-government in the decision-making process of local authorities and are providing the necessary participation of all citizens. Kosovo's constitution in Chapter X on Local Government and Territorial Organization Article 123.4 [General Principles] defines “Local self-government is based upon the principles of good governance, transparency, efficiency and effectiveness in providing public services having due regard for the specific needs and interests of the Communities not in the majority and their members”. Municipalities have the right to inter-municipal and inter-border cooperation in areas of their own and enhanced competences. This is defined in Chapter X, Article 124 [Local Self-Government Organization and Operation] p. 3-7: 3. Municipalities have their own, extended and delegated competencies in accordance with the law. The state authority which delegates competencies shall cover the expenditures incurred for the exercise of delegation. 4. Municipalities have the right of inter-municipal cooperation and cross-border cooperation in accordance with the law. 5. Municipalities have the right to decide, collect and spend municipal revenues and receive appropriate funding from the central government in accordance with the law. 6. Municipalities are bound to respect the Constitution and laws and to apply court decisions. 7. The administrative review of acts of municipalities by the central authorities in the area of their own competencies shall be limited to ensuring compatibility with the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo and the law. Municipal governance represents advancement of democratic governance according to European standards and practices of local government. Chapter X on Local Government and Territorial Organization Article 123.3. states “The activity of local self-government bodies is based on this Constitution and the laws of the Republic of Kosovo and respects the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The Republic of Kosovo shall observe and implement the European Charter on Local Self Government to the same extent as that required of a signatory state”. This is a requirement of all citizens and ethnic communities of the Republic of Kosovo, for development and prosperity for all.

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To realize all these rights and purposes of local interest municipal competencies have also been regulated and functionalized: a. Local economic development; b.Urban and rural planing; c. Usage and land development; d. Implementation of building regulations and building control standards; e. Local environmental protection; f. Affiliation and maintenance of public services and utilities, including appropriate water supply, sewerage and drainage, waste management, local roads, local transport and local heating schemes. Central authorities in Kosovo delegate responsibility to the municipalities as municipal powers in the following matters: a.Territorial registry; b. civil registers; c. Voter registration; d. Registration and licensing of businesses; e. Distribution of social assistance payments (excluding pensions) and f. Protection of forests. Municipal activities in areas of their own competencies are defined in ensuring compliance with the Constitution and the law in force. This is done by administrative review of municipal acts as foreseen in the Article 6-7 of Constitution's Chapter X: 6. Municipalities are bound to respect the Constitution and laws and to apply court decisions. 7. The administrative review of acts of municipalities by the central authorities in the area of their own competencies shall be limited to ensuring compatibility with the Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo and the law. Municipal Local government is carrying out its functions successfully in all municipalities even in the Serb-majority ones in other parts of Kosovo, exept the north. Even the Association of Municipalities with Serb-majority in northern Kosovo, has no reason not to work as in other municipalities. Northern Municipal Association will be established in order to implement the constitutional and legal local government and in accordance with the competencies of central authority. Now the question is how to integrate this part as fast and as successfully for it to be institutionalized and governed in accordance with the Constitution; according to the quite advanced central government and local municipal government, according to the European Charter of Local Self-Government. The constitution and the legal and political order of Kosovo is unique with its advanced and functional local municipal governments and with substantive representation and participate in decisionmaking of minority communities in the central level. Therefore, there is no reason for any form of destructive presence that would ultimately undermine the multi-ethnicity and the democratic determination of kosovar governance. 8. Conclusion After the declaration of independence (2008) until 2014, the legal form (Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo in 2008) and effective concrete results expressed in the reports of international monitoring institutions (WB, UNDP. UN, IMF, OECD, EC, Freedom House, etc.), the opinions of citizens from many self assessments of political institutions, media, civil society, as well as monitoring, analysis of my estimates, we can conclude that Global Effects and Conditions of governance in an independent Kosovo the Kosovo government and institutions during this period took these effective governing features: The governance through independent institutions, legitimate and functional according to legal provisions has begun. There are visible and concrete results, but it was not the right quality of leadership and officials in representative institutions such as the executive, judicial, administrative, public service or other independent institutions. There is special warning regarding the prosecution and the judiciary institutions, which were not effective against negative phenomena in institutions, and had no serious support from the main political institutions. There are no clear economic development policies. There has been a delay in creating suitable conditions for the businesses. There is a lack of reforms and clear economic and macroeconomic policies. Economic policies so far are not concrete and specific; they are not mid-term and long-term project and strategies for sustainable economic development. The authority and legitimacy of institutional governance is perceived negatively by citizens as a result of negative phenomena of certain groups in the party leadership and institutions. Competition between parties is unprincipled: followed by accusations, slander and insults and not enough coordination in positive decision-making. There is a lack of genuine opposition forces. As a result, there is low participation in elections and lack of qualitative and quantitative participation of citizens in the political process. Impunity by the courts of holders of negative phenomena in institutions and the interference of politics in law.

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Failure to punish subjects and their leaders by citizens through their vote as a result of emotional voters with a charged political awareness of the past and not enough cognitive, as well as the high concentration of power over public resources and the not sufficiently independent media. Serious violations of democratic principles in the electoral process which are affecting in the decrease of legitimacy, authority and effectiveness of government and instutions. The proportional electoral system influenced somewhat the coordination, cooperation and inter-party tolerance and reduced tension between them in the governing process and institutional functions. As a result of electoral proportionality, we are not faced with two tyraning majorities, but with some medium level parties forced into alliances and cooperation in order to create a position and opposition. There were and continue to be significant mediating interference from external factors in instiucionale crisis resolution and decision-making processes. Ethnical tolerance is increasing. Efforts to eliminate opposing political figures through undemocratic methods, unconstitutional and illegal, are fading. Tyrany as a method of political activity is decreasing. Rational civic courage and political activity has begun to increase. The civil society through NGOs is continuously consolidating. The media have also raised the level of independence, analysis and criticism. But the latter still show bias toward partisanship. Stratification and pluralistic structure of Kosovar society is missing, as a result of economic underdevelopment in manufacturing and service providing private spheres. Protection from external attacks is being carried out by international military forces and the accompanying policies of the International Community. The defence and surveillance of the border as well as the internal security are done by Kosovo police. Kosovo still lacks the military with its roles and functions. Law enforcement is not at the right level, but everyone is becoming aware about the situation and consequences. There are concrete efforts and demands, pressures and support from abroad to improve this essential area for democratic governance, without which there are no democratic government functions and effects in any sphere. Self-protection is done by the internal security institutions, supervised and controlled by institutional civil forces and the justice system. Cultural support and consolidation of democratic values in governance, economy, in respecting human and minority rights, gender equality etc. are growing. Interpretation and protection of the constitutionality and legality of the governance is being done by the constitutional court, which also includes international representatives. There is no development in areas, integration with countries and regional and international organizations without the presence of capacity and quality of proper democratic governing institutions in Kosovo. In the case of Kosovo, it is imperative in all processes undergone and current ones. Therefore, the role and impact of governance quality is essential for developmental processes related to the national, regional and global integration processes. Kosovar society and politics should always be aware and prepared to create preconditions for positive and inevitable global processes to overcome the obstacles of negative hegemonic policies in the Balkans. These obstacles are multidimensional, and vocal against Kosovar integration. Therefore, Kosova by empowering institutions and governance quality, best exceeds these obstacles and together with positive international partners consolidates the integrity and international position of the state of Kosovo. Even the International Community in the basic requirements for integration is seeking quality and efficiency in governance, institutionalization and a democratic culture References Armitage, J. (2012). Gjyqësori dhe korrupsioni pengojnë ekonominë, Kosova sot, p.6. Barometri Global i Korrupsionit (2013). Gjyqësia, sektori më i korruptuar, Kosova sot. Constitution of the Repubilc of Kosovo 2008 ( with amendments I-XXIII ) retreieved from http://www.gjkks.org/repository/docs/Kushtetuta_RK_ang.pdf 145

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European Commission, (2011), “Kosovo 2011 Progress Report”, Brussels. European Commission, (2012), “Kosovo 2012 Progress Report”, Brussels. European Commission, (2013), “Kosovo 2013 Progress Report”, Brussels. Declaration of Independence (17 February 2008). Retreived from http://www.assembly-kosova.org/?cid=2,128,1635 Instituti Demokratik i Kosovës (KDI) (2013). Raport monitorues: Mbi 10 vjet parlamentarizem në Kosovë, Koha ditore 04.08.13, p. 2. Inglehart, Wellzel, Christian (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence, Cambridge, p.300. Rambouillet Conference in (1999). Retreived from http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/1999/02/kos-f26.html European Commission, Brussels (10 October 2012). Feasibility Study for a Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Union and Kosovo retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2012/package/ks_feasibility_2012_en.pdf Fule, S. (2012). MSA për Kosovën, Gazeta Koha Ditore, p. 2. Khaldun, S. ( 2012). Korrupsioni-problem i institucioneve dhe i shoqërisë, Koha ditore, p. 2. Grupi i Kontaktit (2005). Nju Jork: Gjashtë parimet mbi zgjidhjen e problemit të Kosovës: retrieved from http://www.bing.com/search?q=Grupi+i+kontaktit+gjasht%C3%AB+parimet+e+zgjidhjes+se+problemit+t%C3%kosoves Grupi Nndërkombëtar Drejtues (2012). Përfundimi i mbikëqyrjes ndërkombëtare të pavarësisë Kosova sot, p.1 International Court of Justice advisory opinion on Kosovo's declaration of independence retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice_advisory_opinion_on_Kosovo%27s_declaration_of_independe nce Merkel, W. (2010). Systemt ransformation. Eine Einfuhrung in die Theorie und Empirie der, Wiesbqden, p.30. Sterio, M. (2009). The Kosovar Declaration of Independence: "Botching the Balkans" or Respecting International Law. Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law 267. Fondi Monetar Ndërkombëtar (2013). Rritja ekonomike 2012, Bruksel, Telegrafi, p.1. Organizata Europiane e Gjyqësisë (2013). Korrupsioni largon investitoret nga Kosova, Gazeta Kosova sot, p. 1. Lipset, S. M. (1959). Economic development and political Legitimacy, in: APSR 53, 69-105 Lipset, S. M. (1960). Politikal man, London, p. 48. Sekretari i përgjithshem i OKB-së (2012). Raporti tre mujor për Kosovën, Kosova Sot, p. 1. Fule, S. (2012). MSA për Kosovën. Gazeta Koha Ditore, p. 2. Vanhanen, T. (2003). Demokratization. A Comparative Analysis of 170 Countries, London. United Nations, Resolution 1244, adopted by the Security Council, 4011th meeting. Retreived from https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/000367.pdf Galluci, G., M. (2011). The Ahtisaari Plan and North Kosovo. Retrieved from http://www.transconflict.com/10/wpcontent/uploads/2011/11/PolicyPaper_AhtisaariPlanNorthKosovo.pdf Freedom House, 2010, 2011, 2012, Parts of Kosovo. Retrieved from http://www.freedomhoese.org/ on December 28th, 2012. GJND (2010). Opinioni për Deklaratën e Pavarësisë 2009. Gazeta Koha Ditore. Kosovo Declares Independence from Serbia. MSNBC. Retrieved from http://www.msnbc. msn.com/id/23203607. February 18th, 2008. Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council retrieved from http://www.unosek.org/docref/Comprehensive_proposal-english.pdf UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), (2009). Human Development Report 2009.

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UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), (2012). Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development UNDP (2010). Kosovo Human Development Report 2011: Social Inclusion. Banka Qendrore të Kosovës (2012). Gjendja financiare, Gazeta Kosova Sot, p. 20. BQK (2011). Raporti vjetor 201. BQK. Raporti i Stabilitetit Financiar nr 3. Retrieved from http://www.bqk-kos.org/?cid=1,131 BQK. Raporti i Bilancit të Pagesave. Retrieved from http://www.bqk-kos.org/?cid=1,133 Fukuyama, F. (2010). State Building–Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century in Albanian, AIIS, Tiranë, p. 174-177. Rohan, A. (2012). Plani i Ahtisarit permbanë autonominë e serbëve. Interview.

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Exploring the Use of Information and Communication Technology in Advancing the Goals of Education for All among Adults in Nigeria ORIM, BRIAN AGEM [email protected] Department Of Primary Education Unit, Local Government Universal Basic Education, Obudu Local Government Area, Cross River State, Nigeria Abstract Education is a right. Like the right to have proper food or a roof over your head. It is not only a right but a passport to human development. The ideas of Education for all is to expand early childhood care and education, provide free and compulsory primary education for all, promote learning and life skills for young people and adults, increase adult literacy, achieve gender parity and improve the quality of education. The paper sets to explore the use of information and communication technology in advancing the goals of education for all (stated above) among adults in Nigeria. Areas such as information and communication technology and distance learning, education for all; the place of adult education and information and communication technology and the attainment of education for all initiative will be examined. Keywords: Education for All, Distance Learning, ICT, Adult Literacy, Adult Education, and Digital gap.

Introduction Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information Technologies (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This include the internet, wireless networks, cell phones and other communication mediums. In the past few decades, information and communication technology have provided society with a vast array of new communication capabilities. For example, people communicate in real-time with others in different countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice over IP (VO IP), and video-conferencing. Social networking website like Facebook allows users from all over the world to remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis. Modern information and communication technologies have created a “global village” in which people can communicate with others across the world as if they were living next door. For this reason, ICT is often studied in the context of how modern communication technologies affect society. Also, information and communication technology is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as ICTs in education, health care, or libraries. According to the European Commission, the importance of ICT lies in the technology itself than in its ability to create greater access to information and communication in underserved populations. Many countries around the world have established organizations for the promotion of ICTs, because it is feared that unless less technologically advanced areas have a chance to catch up, the increasing technological advances in developed nations will only serve to exacerbate the already-existing economic gap between technological “have” and “have not” areas. Internationally, the united nations actively promotes ICTs for Development (ICTAD) as a means of bringing the digital gap. In developing country like Nigeria where the ‘digital gap’ is more the rule than the exception, delivering instruction through the distance mode presents a significant challenge to education. In a nation where the concern of most people is

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meeting their basic needs for food, clothing and shelter, access to information and communication technologies (ICT), especially the most modern ones, is very low on their list of priorities and oftentimes, not considered a priority at all. Nonetheless, ICT has had a major impact on open and distance learning (ODL) in Nigeria. More than the availability of these technologies, issues such as geographical location, lack of knowledge and skills to use ICT, and financial constraints, are major considerations in deciding what ICT to use and in what combination. Indeed, the use of a particular ICT must not only seek to address certain pedagogical concerns, it must aim at bridging the digital divide and democratize access to quality education. Experience has shown that when a decision has been made to use a technology in ODL, this decision influences not only the teaching and learning environment, but leads to the development of new culture, concepts and understanding. Put simply, the introduction of ICT can alter or raise experience among users and institutions alike. Education is a right, not only a right but a passport to human development. It open doors and expands opportunities and freedoms. It contributes to fostering peace, democracy and economic growth as well as improving health and reducing poverty. The ultimate aim of Education for All (EFA) is sustainable development. Information and Communication Technology and Distance Learning: Distance education, distance learning or D-learning is a mode of delivering education and instruction, often on an individual basis, to students who are not physically present in a traditional setting such as a classroom. Distance learning provides “access to learning when the source of information and the learners are separated by time and distance, or both”. Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason (including taking examinations) have been referred to as hybrid or blended courses of study. Massive open online courses (MOOCs), aimed at large-scale interactive participation and open access via the web or other network technologies, are recent development in distance education. ICTs use to support distance learning can be classified into two categories, the first being hardware and second being software. The hardware currently in use are roughly the same among all Nigerian institutions; radio, television, telephone (land, mobile, fax, voice over, internet Protocol or VO IP), and computers. ICTs have now converged thanks to recent advances and enhancement made to the infrastructure such as laying of fiber optic cables and satellite and microwave transmission facilities. What differ, however, are the levels of use and applications of specific hardware technologies and purpose driving their use. Given the proliferation of cellular mobile telephone use across all sectors of the Nigerian society, it is becoming increasingly evident that this highly mobile form of technology and its infrastructure can be leveraged to deliver flexible educational opportunities to more and more Nigerian. In other words, simple low-cost cellular mobile telephones are now helping Nigerians bridge the once formidable digital gap. There are wide variations in ICT used in open and distance learning (ODL) institutions around the world. Further, specific applications and combinations of these applications are very much shaped by the context of their target user populations. In Nigeria, the various ways and means in which ICTs are used include delivery instructional content. Depending on learner needs and appropriate pedagogy, instructional contents are packaged in various formats using different media. As mentioned, the development of open distance learning mentioned, the development of open distance learning (ODL) in Nigeria witness instructional packages delivered in prints, audiotapes, videotapes, and CD-ROM. In recent years, going online has made Web-enhanced teaching and learning possible, using rich online resources to supplement and update instructional materials vis-à-vis attaining the goals of education for all. Other academic institutions, however have explored the potentials of mobile devices such as cell phones, Ipad etc, for educational purposes. These initiatives tend to be geared towards the augmenting that traditional face-to-face instructional offerings. Such is the case the text 2 teach project of the Department of Education in Philippines which integrates digital satellite broadcast and mobile phone communications to deliver science materials via video broadcast directly from the classroom (Domigo, 2006). The Advance Science and Technology Institutes of the Department of Science and Technology, Philippines, has also been experimenting with Bluetooth, technology to connect various personal devices in close proximity to each other. Such research and development initiatives are now leading to new and potential avenues of further research, which educators must explore in their guest to provide learners with more innovative and practical method of delivering education at a distance.

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Distance Learning and Education for All Initiative: Education for All is a global movement lead by Unite Nation Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) aiming to meet the needs of all children, youths and adults by 2015. UNESCO has been mandated to lead the movement and coordinates the international efforts to reach Education for All. Governments, development agencies, civil society, non-governmental organizations and the media are some of the partners working towards reaching these goals. Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessons the effects of the many times-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments. Devolving some activities off-site alleviate institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional building and infrastructure. Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more experts in the field and to other students from divers’ geographical, social, cultural, economic and experiential background. As the population at large becomes more involved in lifelong learning beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be particularly lucrative. Distance education programmes can act as a catalyst for institutional innovation and at least as effective as face-to-face learning programmes, especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and skilled. Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within the realm of education. With the many tools and programmes that technological advancements have to offer, communication appears to increase in distance education amongst students and their professors, as well as students and their classmates. The distance educational increase in communication, particularly communication amongst students and their classmates is an improvement that has been made to provide distance education students with as many opportunities as possible as they would receive in inperson education. The improvement being made in distance education is growing in tandem with the constant technological advancements. Present day online communications allows students to associate with accredited schools and programmes throughout the world that are out of reach for in-person learning. By having the opportunity to be involved in global institutions via distance education, a diverse array of thought is presented to students through communication with their classmates. This is beneficial because students have the opportunity to “combine new opinions with their own, and develop a solid foundation for learning”. The high cost of education affects students in the higher education to which distance education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief. Distance education has been a more cost effective form of learning, and can sometimes save students a significant amount of money as opposed to traditional education. Distance education may be able to help to save students a considerable amount financially by removing the cost of transportation. In addition, distance education may be able to save student from the economic burden of high priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbook for a reduced price in comparison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing improvement in technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that offers course material for free, which can help students significantly with educational costs. Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning. For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their need. Students can then manipulate the course work to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp. When course design and the learning environment are at their optimal conditions, distance learning education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences. Studied have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning. Students who are enrolled in distances education with high satisfaction in their online coursework are then motivated intrinsically to learn, which often means that their performances in class will improve. For those in healthcare or mental health distance learning programs, online-based interactions have the potential to foster deeper reflections and discussion of client issues as well as quicker response to client issues, since supervision happens on a regular basis is not limited to a weekly supervision meeting. This also may contribute to the students feeling a greater sense of support, since they have ongoing and regular access to their instructors and other students. Distance Learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to disability or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education. Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age or cost per student. Applying universal design strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting 150

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accommodation for specific students on an as-need basis) can increase the accessibility of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles and native languages. Distance Learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescence that are no longer permitted in the General Education population due to behavior disorders. Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their school certificates, diplomas etc. offering them another chance to be an integral part of the society. Education for All, the place of Adult Education. Through adult education, education reaches the grassroots and the less privilege benefits. People who have an opportunity to continually learn and develop their skill and capacities will in turn; make our economy grow and develop, ensure that their children develop love of learning and take full advantage of education vis-à-vis the attainment of the goals of education for all. Adult educations make it possible for the participant to actively participate in their own communities and civil society. It makes it possible for beneficiaries of the education programmes to support and respect people with different cultural beliefs and abilities, respect and protect the environment for future generations, nurture creativity and imagination and live healthy and fulfilled lives. Therefore, to achieve the goals of education for all in 2015 adult education is highly indispensable. So, using adult education as a tool, make sense for individuals, families, communities, and our country as a whole. In the past, it was taken for granted that the older you are, the more wisdom you have collected through life experiences and education over the years. These days, however many adults suffer from illiteracy and a lack of knowledge due to the minimal amount of emphasis that was place on education in the past. This has made it necessary for many individual not only in the African continent, but across the world to require some form of adult education so that they can improve their level of education. The most important factor that affect the need for adult education is that the adult in the society are the people who are responsible for educating the next generation. It may be all good and well to say that this falls to the education and schooling system in a country, but this is not always the case. Education is now considered a basic human right, there are many cases where this is just not possible. A parent who has received adult education is the best educator for his or her children and can plant the necessary seeds within their children to make them hunger for knowledge and development. Education is for all. Therefore, giving the benefit of education to just one person in a rural community has been shown to have enormous effect on the population group of that community. ICT and the attainment of Education for All Initiatives: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) should be harnessed to support EFA goals at an affordable cost. These technologies have great potential for knowledge dissemination, effective learning and development of more efficient education services. These potentials will not be realized unless the new technologies serve rather than drive the implementation of education strategies. To be effective especially in developing countries, ICTs should be combined with more traditional technologies such as books and radios, and be more extensively applied to the training of teachers. There is need to tap the potentials of ICT to enhance data collection and analysis from central ministries through subnational levels to the school; to improve access to education by remote and disadvantaged communities; to support initial and continuing professional development of teachers and provide opportunities to communicate across classrooms and cultures. News media should also be engaged to create and strengthen partnership with education systems, through the promotion of local newspapers, informed coverage of education issues and continuing education programmes via public service broadcasting. The best general outline to date of how ICTs can be utilized to help realize education for all and other education related MDGs can be found in UNESCO’s applying New Technologies and cost-Effective Delivery System in Basic Education. i.e. There is no alternative to primary education/schools technology based alternatives have not thrived. Although computers have been used in primary schools, but in a modest way, sometimes mainly for games. Their more significant use is at levels above that of basic education.

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Radio, not limited to interactive radio instruction, can enrich basic education and do so at costs much more modest than those of television or computers. The scale of the demand for junior secondary education and the increased capacity and maturity of students who have completed primary schooling suggested that there may be an important role for the application of technologies to raise quality and widen access at this level. The record of using mass media for public, adult and non-formal education in areas such as health, citizenship, family planning and agriculture is patchy, but the technologies available are widely understood and the social and educational needs so great that there is a case for continuing investment and activity hereby government and non-governmental organizations alike. The use of communication technologies intermediaries, teachers and extension agents can have a multiplier effect and is likely to have cost advantages over conventional ways of supporting and updating them. They have the potentials to reduce the isolation of remote, rural teachers and so raise the quality of their work. If the development of new technologies is not to widen gap between north and south or between the information-rich and the information-poor, national policies are necessary that will explore ways of making cost-effective use for them in vocational education and training and possibly at the higher levels of formal education. There are models for out-of-school equivalence at this level, and the potential for developing and making available teaching materials that can be used both in school and out of school. Recommendations Resources and materials that enhance effective and efficient use of information and communication technology (ICT) should be provided for academics teachers, students and practioners alike. Information on all aspect of internet safety and responsible use should be provided to avoid negative usage. Government and other relevant agencies should establish and interactive environment in which technology (ICT) is used to advance the goals of education for all. Conclusion The paper seeks to explore the use of information and communication technology in attaining the goals of education for all. Information and communication technology and distance learning, distance learning and education for all initiative, education for all: the place of adult education and the potential of ICT in the attainment of the goals of education for all initiative were the areas considered during the course of research of the paper vis-à-vis the advancement of the goals of education for all (EFA). References “Benefits of Online Education” Wordwidelearn.com . Retrieved 13th June, 2014 Bryne, T.C. (1989). Athabasca University. The Evolution of Distance Education. Calgary, Alberta; University of Calgary Press. Daniel, Sir. John. S. (1998). Mega Universities and Knowledge Media Technology Strategies for Higher Education. Routledge. Retrieved 12th June 2014. Educational Benefits of Online Learning. Calpoly.edu.1998. Retrieved 12th June, 2014. Honey Man, M. Miller, G. (1993). “Agriculture Distance Education: A valid Alternative for Higher Education”. Proceeding of the 20th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting. 152

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Joseph K. Keh, (1996) pursuit of knowledge under Difficulties. From self-improvement to Adult Education in America; eduwiki.org. Retrieved 12th June 2014. “Key Facts” University of London External Programme Website. londonexternal.ac.uk. 15th July 2009. Retrieved 13th June 2014. Lederman, Doug, (2013). “Growth for Online Learning”. insideHigherEd. Retrieved 12th June, 2014. Moore, Michael G., Greg Kearsly (2005). Distance Education a System View (2nd Ed). “University of London External Programme website” londonexternal.ac.uk 15th July, 2009. Retrived 22nd June, 2014. Joseph K. Keh, (1998). Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-improvement to Adult Education in America; eduwiki.org. 12th June, 2014.

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IMPACT OF MUNICIPALITIES ON BRANDING PROCESS OF CITIES: EXAMPLE OF KIRŞEHİR MUNICIPALITY Asst. Prof. Dr. Mustafa KOCAOĞLU Ahi Evran University-Department of Public Administration [email protected] Abstract In current times dominated by globalization, competition focused on enterprises and based on products became less sufficient and cities have become a part of the said competition perception. The focal point in competition of cities springs to life in brand and/or branding concepts. It is certain that there are many positive aspects of city branding, which can be assessed as gaining value based on the unique properties of each city, and a city should participate the process with all its stakeholders. At this point the prominent element of the process and the leading institution that will ensure success is the municipality. Municipalities gain importance as an administrative unit with principal responsibility in development and obligation of multi dimensional duty and service. A good branding process should be supported by internal and external sources. The history of the city and geographical, cultural and economic properties of the city are external factors supporting the branding process. in marketing external factors, i.e.: revealing physical properties and thus promoting their use and making the city a centre of attraction, municipality administrators and employees have vital duties and responsibilities. The extent of support the municipality administrators lend to branding process, which yields results in the long term are vital to the process. This study will examine the importance Kırşehir Municipality attaches to branding process, the sources it uses to support the process, the properties of the city it uses to turn the city into a centre of attraction, the bodies and institutions it cooperates at home and abroad, projects supporting the process, awareness raising projects among its employees and the approach of the administrators and the employees to the branding process. Within this scope it is planned to inspect the strategic plan, activity report, performance program and web page of Kırşehir Municipality and issue reports based on the results accompanied with recommendations. Finally, it is our hope that this study focusing on Kırşehir will contribute highly to literature. Key Words: Branding, Branding Process, Municipiality, Local Governments

Introduction Each city’s own features and the differences thereof from other cities gives an idea how distinctive they are as a brand and what kind of characteristic features they have in today's world when the cities have also began to become a part of the competition. Cities differ from each other with their own intrinsic and extrinsic properties and this situation constitutes the most significant basis of their brand value. At this point, it has to be measured how and to what extent the city's internal and external stakeholders contribute to this process of branding. City-branding which can be defined as the process of gaining value of each city basing on the intrinsic properties thereof definitely has many positive results and to this end the city has to be involved in the process with all the stakeholders thereof. At this point, one of the most essential institutions of the process and which will ensure the success of the process are the municipalities. Municipalities have importance due to their being an administrative unit which has primary responsibility in the development of the city and inasmuch as they have numerous functions and services obligations. In this study, the effect of municipalities as an internal stakeholder on the branding process of a city basing on the definition of the brand concept will be measured through the sample of the Municipality of the Kırşehir province. The basic criteria while doing this will be the general view and approach of the municipality in question to the branding process and by which parties it is in collaboration with and which resources it employs in this process. Finally, such documents as the strategic plan, activity report and performance program as well as the web page of the Municipality of the Kırşehir province will be examined and assessments will be based on the results of the examinations. in this way, the current situation of the said city as to the process of branding will be reflected while contribution will be made regarding the creation of a prediction for the future. Hence, the study bears importance in terms of providing guidance to academics showing interest to the subject of brand city as well as practitioner parties and all other parties who are authorized in the branding processes of the cities.

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Process of City Branding and Impact of Municipalities on the Process Much as brand is a concept that can be considered and defined in different ways, its widely accepted definition is: “a name, symbol, design, and combination thereof which defines the products and services of a company and which is employed to distinguish and differentiate such company from the opponents thereof" (Kotler, 1997:443). However, it can be observed that brand only does not have a limited meaning to products or services; the key principles in the concept of branding are trust, quality, equity, ownership and communication. in this context, countries, cities, and people can also be brands and each and every brand owns a personality. The culture and the people who have created it play a complementary role in this kind of understanding of branding and create the essence of branding. in this context, some brands may reflect passion while some other brands may evoke a sense of nobility. The most important thing at this point is trust. The bottom line is the fact that brands must primarily establish trust with the target audiences thereof (Alaş, 2014; Aitken and Campelo, 2011:1). A number of techniques are utilized for brand development and positioning. in a study made by Aaker (cited by Eroglu, 2007:66-67 from Aaker, 1996:340-34), these techniques have been discussed in several stages. First and foremost, a strategic brand analysis which is a process in which competitors and targets are analyzed; then a brand identity which can be remembered and which has defining, believable, interesting, applicable and maintainable features has to be created at the second stage. Creation of brand identity actually helps to give an idea to the target audience where a person, a company, a city and even, a country, would like to see where such target audience would like to see them. To develop value proposition which is the third stage aims to reveal not only the physically distinctive features but also the emotionally distinctive features of the brand the creation of which is intended. The next stage is positioning the brand in the minds of the target audience by using distinctive features. Positioning process is carried out through utilization of not only the distinctive features of the person, company, city and the country for which creation of brand is intended only but also by utilization of the persons, companies, cities and the countries which are in the position of competitors. Basing on this fact, to become a brand city may also mean to use concepts, strategies, methods and techniques related with the brand for the city. The efforts of cities to come to the fore as a brand is based on economic reasons. However, cities in the developing and globalizing world also need to be brand due to causes such as "the growing power of the international media", "decrease in international travel costs", " increase in spending power of consumers' ", " increase in similarity of cities in terms of the services offered" and " increase in people’s interest to different cultures" (Ozdemir and Karaca, 2009:115; Zeran, 2011:36). The properties of cities are the basic elements which allow them to have a brand as a value in terms of the branding axis. A city's historical, geographical, cultural and economic characteristics are the main criteria to be taken into consideration to evaluate a city in terms of making it a brand. The cities with a long history, the cities with geographical location which is suitable for presentation and the cities which are open to economic and financial development are one step ahead. However, as expressed in the definition of brand, the city must also have distinctive and characteristic features (such as logo, symbol, image, etc.) and this also must be supported by social values as well as individual lifestyles and behavior patterns (Anholt, 2010:6-7; Cevher, 2012: 107-108). The factor which plays a key role in the branding of a city is changing the perception of the city to positive. When the positive aspects of the city are revealed " a strategy which brings forward the city's strengths, which makes the city meaningful and worthwhile culturally and which adds economic and social value to the city" is brought forward and this strategy is called the city's branding. in this way, the city falls into the category of a kind of "value added product". in this way, it is ensured that the city has a distinctive vision and its message is prepared and conveyed to the outside world in line with this vision and economic investments are promoted through mobilization of the city’s potential and the city's national and international popularity is increased. Of course providing an identification, definition, sustainability and social integration to the city as well as are among the fundamental objectives (Içyer, 2010: 69-71). Sufficient urban infrastructure, transportation, education, employment and accommodation facilities are particularly of great importance in the process of branding of a city. The city's touristic development, large-scale tourism activities in the city; national and international sporting events and hosting cultural works and activities such as movies, music, books and etc. are some of the factors that affect the urban image on the other hand, (Dinnie, 2004: 108-110; Kaypak, 2013: 345-346). As such, a sustainable development approach in which not only economic but also environmental, social and cultural sensitivities are not ignored is needed for national and international awareness and a positive city image,

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A variety of parties in the city have to come together and join forces for detection of a sustainable development and creation of a city environment which is more livable and which has more attractive features (Kavaratzis, 2009: 28-29). The most important one among the concerned parties is local government units and more particularly the municipalities. in this regard, it is observed that municipalities in collaboration with the city residents and other parties such as particularly the nongovernmental organizations and universities in the city leave active and positive effects in the formation process of the brand. As mentioned earlier, it is certain that municipalities which have prior authority in subjects like urban infrastructure, transportation, employment and etc. in making a city brand will play a dominant role. Kırşehir's Process of Becoming a Brand City and Impact of the Kırşehir Municipality to the Process Kırşehir province which dates back to centuries, has hosted many civilizations during the historical process thereof. Kırşehir province from where many outstanding scholars and Sufis have come especially under the reign of the Seljuks in the 12th century, has become the center of establishment of Akhism which is a religious and economic order in this period following the settlement of Ahi Evran to Kırşehir. Akhism which has an important philosophical base in the development of Anatolia in general, is one of the hallmarks of Kırşehir which has reached to our present day. On the other hand, Cacabey Astronomy Madrasah constructed in this era again in the name of Cacabey, one of the key rulers of the era is an important center revealing the fact that Kırşehir is one of the places where foundations of space research has been laid. Aşık Pasha who has provided a major contribution to the development of the Turkish language is again another important figure who has lived during this period. Kırşehir has a strong local government tradition which takes its strength from the past. Kırşehir province is the heir of a nearly 150-year history as an administrative unit (Kırşehir Municipality, 2014:9-10). Kırşehir, with its geographical location in the Central Anatolia Region is situated close to numerous political, cultural, tourism, trade and financial centers such as especially Ankara the capital and Konya, Kayseri and Nevsehir provinces. in addition, it is located on an important transition line inasmuch as it acts as a bridge between the east and west of Turkey. This situation also makes Kırşehir to be on the commercial and passenger transport links. On the other hand Kırşehir has important rivers and lakes which are important tourist attractions such as Kızılırmak (Red River), Lake Seyfe and Hirfanlı Dam Lake. in addition, Kalehöyük, with international reputation, which still has the status of a place with ongoing archaeological excavations, is located in the Kaman district of Kırşehir. Kırşehir is also very rich in terms of thermal sources. Accordingly, there are many spas in Kırşehir. The healing waters in these spas also have made Kırşehir a nationally and internationally important tourism center. Kırşehir’s climate conditions do not allow the performance of farming and agriculture industries. in particular, the grape molasses made from the grapes grown in Kırşehir and Kaman Walnut grown in the Kaman district of Kırşehir are outstanding products with national and international recognition with their own characteristics. in addition, Kırşehir has ore beds of marble named "onyx" which can be easily processed and which are valuable. A variety of products are produced from onyx by processing it and an important commercial contribution is provided to the economy of the city and the country. Another remarkable mine obtained in Kırşehir is salt. Salt deposits which have important economical contributions again are regarded as one of the hallmarks of the Kırşehir province (Kırşehir Governor's Office, 2014). Kırşehir is also noteworthy in terms of its population structure. It is observed that Kırşehir has a high proportion of young and dynamic population however the population density of Kırşehir is below the average of the country and the region. This can be considered as a negative situation however a different picture emerges when we observe the educational structure of the population. The literacy rate has risen to 90 percent in Kırşehir in the 2000s. The cited rate is above the national average. Additionally, another remarkable development is the increase in the number of persons who have received higher education in Kırşehir (Kırşehir Governor's Office, 2014b). The importance given to education and training on one hand and the Ahi Evran University with the hundreds of teaching staff, thousands of students and the dynamic structure thereof on the other hand has a significant contribution to this fact. It can be seen that some of the factors, specified hereinabove and which can be considered as characteristic or distinctive features of Kırşehir, will have a big impact on the branding process of the city is. However, municipality will be the institution which will be the driving force in such a process as stated earlier. Kırşehir Municipality can be expected to have a key role in branding of the city in a city like Kırşehir which has a strong administrative tradition and history. Sure enough, it can be observed that when viewed Kırşehir Municipality has assumed an important mission in terms of the services made and in terms of other activities for making Kırşehir a brand city. Important works have been achieved within the borders of the city and for the renewal of the roads of the city which will link the city with other cities. Additionally, a new intercity bus terminal is being constructed in Kırşehir in lieu of the bus terminal which has begun to affect the city's image adversely. in addition, 156

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a number of projects on issues such as waste water treatment and waste treatment have been implemented. A project which will change the face of the city has been implemented by the Kırşehir Municipality of and a rivulet which is going through the city center has been subjected to treatment and a large park named City Park in which there are places for eating out, tea gardens, playgrounds has been made and submitted to the usage of the people living in the city. in addition, Hılla rivulet has been treated in the same way and Hılla Nilüferli Park has been opened procedure and an authentic style restaurant was has been established here. The treatment of the stream has been realized while Kırşehir has gained a stylish and new restaurant and at the same time new employment opportunities have been created. What’s more, important works contributing to both economic life and cultural life of the city have been achieved with the same methods thanks to the restoration of the old mansions. Ağalar Mansion, Bekir Efendi Mansion and Bahçelievler Mansion applications are some of the cited activities. Works performed for women, children and the elderly have also created positive effects. There is no doubt that the foregoing activities will bring will raise the living standards of individuals living in Kırşehir and create a more attractive city (Kırşehir Municipality, 2014b). Kırşehir Municipality, at the same time is a member of several national associations. Some of these associations are Association of Municipalities with Geothermal Sources, League of Historical Cities, Healthy Cities Association and the Ahi Development Agency. Ahi Evran Complex and Cacabey Madrasa located in the center of Kırşehir has entered to the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage with the joint efforts of Kırşehir Municipality and Ahi Evran University. It is certain that national and international recognition of Kırşehir will increase and city brand image will be positively affected by virtue of this membership. Kırşehir does not have a city logo. This case is a negative situation in terms of city branding process. Another negative situation is the low amount of art activities and not benefiting in a sufficient level from the Abdal (professional music groups) tradition of Kırşehir despite Kırşehir has the most important representatives of this tradition. On the other hand, it is seen that Kırşehir, having such important historical, geographical and cultural features does not have a professional presentation network and platform in the national and international level. Furthermore, problems in the areas of city infrastructure, planning, recreation areas, water and transportation continue as stated in the Strategic Plan (Kırşehir Municipality, 2014:79). It is expected that branding process of the city will move to more advanced stages if all these deficiencies are removed with the attempt of the Kırşehir Municipality in the event of a professional support as to branding is given. Conclusion An understanding of business-oriented and product-based competition in today's world has begun to become inadequate in which the phenomenon of globalization is a dominant value and the cities also have become a part of the competition perception. The most important basis in the competition of the cities is the brand and/or the branding concept. City-branding, which can be seen as the process of adding value to cities based on intrinsic properties of each city, certainly has many positive results and all stakeholders of a city should be involved in the process to this end. Municipalities are the institutions as the essential element of this process at this point which will ensure them to have success. Municipalities have importance because they have the primary responsibility in the development of a city and they are administrative units various functions and service obligations. Kırşehir has the features of being a brand city to meet the criteria for being a brand city a city with the historical accumulation, significant geographical features, cultural, social and demographic structure and tourism potential thereof. It is observed that Kırşehir Municipality has a positive contribution to the branding process of Kırşehir. Although there are still deficiencies on issues such as promotion, city infrastructure, planning, water and transportation the initiatives of the Municipality of Kırşehir will provide advantages to Kırşehir for branding. However, works must be done on branding in a professional sense of city in addition to all these. Kırşehir will have the status of a city bearing brand value after a process in which strategic brand analysis, brand identity, value proposition development and brand positioning steps are meticulously achieved. Finally, individuals living in Kırşehir also have big responsibilities for achieving the branding process successfully in addition to the municipality and other establishments and organizations as. Kırşehir will be a brand city only if the people living in the city assume responsibility in this process and to the extent they make other related establishments related to branding assume responsibility in this process. References AAKER, (1996), Building strong brands, The Free Press, A Division Of Simon & Schuster Inc., New York. 157

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AITKEN, R. & Campelo, A. (2011), "The four R's of place branding", Journal of Marketing Management, 27 (9-10), 1-21. ALAŞ, B. (2014), To become a brand city, http://www.izto.org.tr/portals/0/pusuladergisi/2009/05-06/5.pdf (02/06/2014). ANHOLT, S. (2010), "Definitions of place branding - working toward a resolution," Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6 (1), 1-10. CEVHER, E. (2012), "City branding process: Example of Antalya ", Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4 (1), 105115. DINNIE, K. (2004), "Place branding: overview of an emerging literature", Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 1 (1), 106110. EROĞLU, H. (2007), "Branding of the cities ", Local Politics Magazine, November, 23, 65-68. İÇYER, A. (2010), Strategic city management in terms of creating brand cities Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Public Administration, Unpublished Master's Thesis, Karaman. KAVARATSIZ, M. (2009), "Cities and their brands: Lessons from corporate branding", Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 5 (1), 26-37. KAYPAK, S.. (2013), “Branding of cities in the globalization process and brand cities" C.U. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 14 (1), 335-355. Kırşehir Municipality (2014), TC Kırşehir Municipality Strategic Plan (2010-2014 http://kirsehir.bel.tr/User_Files/planN.pdf, http://www.kirsehir.gov.tr/yeni/Default.asp?p=s&ID=48. (12.06.2014).

period),

Kırşehir Municipality (2014b), Projects, http://www.kirsehir.bel.tr/# (12.06.2014). Kırşehir Governorate (2014), Geography, http://www.kirsehir.gov.tr/yeni/Default.asp?p=s&ID=48 (16.06.2014). Kırşehir Governorate (2014b), Population, http://www.kirsehir.gov.tr/yeni/Default.asp?p=s&ID=51 (26.06.2014). KOTLER, P. (1997), Marketing Management, 9 th edition, Prentice - Hall, Inc.. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. ÖZDEMIR, Ş. & KARACA Y. (2009), City brand and brand image measurement: A survey on the image of the Afyonkarahisar province, Afyon Kocatepe University- Journal of Business Administration, 11 (2), 113-134. ZEREN, H.E. (2011), Strategic city management within the context of brand city creation: A Model Proposal for Karaman province, İnönü University, Institute of Social Sciences, Public Administration Department, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Karaman.

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European Integration: one electoral promise not taken Ilda Rusi, PhD CanD. European University of Tirana [email protected] Abstract "The process of European Union membership is a national objective, in view of the democratization and transformation of the Albanian society, in accordance with the values and principles of the United Europe". This sentence is taken from the Official Site of the Prime Minister of Albania. This message but expressed in other words seems to be there standing since 1992, when in Albania for the first time was articulated the desire for national integration of the country. After more than twenty years, the question that concerns me mostly is that why my country is not part of the big European family? What happened in these twenty-two years to prevent this process or to accelerate it? The first thing that comes to my mind after the last rejection candidate status on December, last year, is that this is a promise that none of the Albanian government has not yet managed to achieve. On my opinion, this process is strictly associated with the willing of all determinant political actors to collaborate and to manifest democratic political culture through dialogue. European integration is a slogan used in every political campaign, as a key element of the political agenda all political parties but in. It helps a lot during the electoral campaign but unfortunately we are still waiting for. Thus, I think that the integration process is not related only to the Albanian desire for participating in the EU, but mostly to the political class attitude. It is true that every time that the government does not achieve the candidate status, the political parties to blame each other for retarding the integration process. Even though, different scholars emphasize the role of EU in the process of integration, I believe that the country’s democratization is a process strongly related to the political elite performance and the way they manifest politics. Albanian political class must admit that the real problem in this process is the way that it makes politics and how it makes political decision. In this article, I argue that the European integration is a process which can be successful only if all political parties in Albania understand that this is an obligation that they have with Albanian citizens and that cannot be realized if all of them are not committed to. This ambitious goal can be achieved only when the EU priority reforms are going to be established and in Albania there are going to operate functional and free institutions based on meritocracy and democratic system of operation far away from politics. Key words: integration, democratization, political dialogue

Introduction In order for a state to be part of the European Community, it is needed much more than the desire to be part of it or the geographical location. The European Union is an organization that brings several benefits but it requires a certain standard of sustainable economic, political and legal development. Albania, as well as other Balkan states of South-East Europe, is trying to meet these standards and has begun the EU adaptation process. This process is a combination of internal and external whose aim is to achieve this major objective. On the one hand we have the EU which external pressure to implement reforms that will bring even more Albanian government with European standards. On the other hand, we have local commitment to achieve these objectives that will enable the fulfillment of these standards. These two elements are part of the same process which cannot function if one side of it is not operating properly. Unlike some scholars who emphasize the imperative of European and the skepticism that EU has in regard to Albania (Hoffmann, Elbasan), I think that the most important element to analyze in this process is what is happening with commitment of Albanian political spectrum in relation to this process. In this paper, I argue that the process of integration is a complex process dominated mainly by the efforts and commitment of endogenous factors. Although Brussels may have more favorable policies for the membership in the EU country (as was the wave of enlargement in 2004) and a clearer idea of how to shape local policy making, applying other tools and instruments for the democratization consolidation, the Albanian state must necessarily in the first place prove that it is ready for such commitment. Ultimately, the process of integration is strictly associated with the process of democratization of the country and the successful completion of the transition phase which would generate the consolidation of the democratic, legal and constitutional state. Democracy cannot be imported, but there must be all 159

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elements for it to be strengthened and institutionalized within the country. Only in this way Albania can become an EU member state and enjoy the rights and privileges that this process involves. This goal can be achieved when Tirana (and here I refer not only to the state apparatus and government institutions, but to all political forces and political elites in general) to take this commitment seriously and produce broad-based consensus that would allow the implementation of consensual reforms and what is most important strengthening of independent institutions. This national strategy must be a long-term strategy and must involving all necessary conditions for the generation of political and institutional structures that can preserve democratic institutions based on the rule of law. This paper aims to analyze the political factors that have returned to drawback of this process of democratization and integration. Referring to the EU conditionality, I emphasize the inability of the Albanian political class for cooperation and implementation of consensual reforms. Therefore, first of all, I think it is very important to understand what are the requirements that the EU has in confront to Albania. In the second part of the paper, I discuss how Tirana is committed in achieving these objectives and goals. This comparative approach will enable us to highlight which part of this mutual cooperation is not operating properly. EU: the most dominant external factor in the integration process International comparative democratization literature emphasizes the external factor in the transition phase. Huntington will determine the third wave of democratization dominated by the role that external factors have on the process of democratization through reform initiatives (Huntington, 1991). In the same line, Schmitter, defines the role of external actors as the dominant phase of democratization. He points out that these factors have the ability to launch and being implemented reforms in transition countries (Schmitter, 1996). Through economic assistance and political support, the external factor influences directly in domestic politics and in opening the way to the consolidation of democracy and the rule of law. In the Central and Eastern Europe countries, the role that EU played in the democratization process through its conditionality policies is unquestionable. Heather Grabbe (2002) analyzes how the EU uses its terms to countries aspiring to integrate, to influence the choices they make. The EU has many sources of influence that affect the policies and institutions of the aspirant countries through aid and assistance instruments that are so highly desired by these countries (Kubicek, 2003). Conditionality is one of the most dominant elements to explain the effectiveness of the EU in support of reforms towards democracy and market economy. The EU initiatives used to influence the process of reforming the institutions and policy transformation in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe can be categorized as: (1) access to the negotiations; (2) assistance in legal and institutional drafts; (3) aid and technical assistance, (4) counseling about domestic policies; (5) monitoring of the implementation process (Grabbe, 2002, 257). Definitely, we can say that the five elements mentioned above are applied also in the case of Albania, including financial assistance as well as a very important element. We must take in consideration the fact that EU is the main source of financing in this country. Specifically, the EU is present in Albanian policymaking starting in the early 1990s when the country began the long process and apparently infinite transition. The first official relations began in 1992, when Albania signed the cooperation agreement between the EU and Albania. This agreement meant that Albania could benefit from the Phare program, which was a financial instrument to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in their preparatory phase towards integration because these countries have applied for membership status. These funds will go towards political and economic institutional reorganization in order to have a smooth and gradual transition (expansion of the European Commission). As for the rest of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in 1997, the EU introduced economic and political conditions which necessarily had to be completed to launch the country's EU integration. In this context, the European Commission and the World Bank elaborated a plan for economic recovery and growth that will ensure a successful transition (Enlargement of the European Commission). In 1999, the EU will be launching SAP (Stabilization and Association Process) for five countries of South-East Balkans, including Albania. In the same year, Albania approved the Preferential Trade Autonomous Agreement with the EU and other Balkan countries, which was valid until 2011. This proposal offered to Balkan countries duty-free access to all European markets for their products. It provided economic integration with the EU countries and created premises for democratization of Albanian economic institutions.

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In 2000, the two summits, Feira and Zagreb Summit underlined the importance of PSA in the integration process. In particular Feira Summit will declare that all SAP countries could become EU candidate countries. Both summits gave a special importance and defined SAP as the only way toward integration process. In this context, in 2001 the EU presented the CARDS program, which was designed specifically to SPA countries. Therefore, the European Commission, as for the other countries that had signed the SPA, recommended the initiation for the negotiation of the Stabilization and Association Agreement with Tirana. Shortly after this initiative, in Tirana, the first meeting was held under the SAA. After that, the European Council urged the Commission to prepare a strategic document for Albania. Negotiations and guidelines were prepared based on the reflection on the Stabilization and Association Report. Evaluating Tirana’s commitment, in 2003 the EU formally started the negotiations for a SAA with Albania. In June 2006, the SAA was signed in Luxembourg. In the following year came the IPA, Pre Entry assisting tool, which included new instruments for pre-EU accession. On 1 April 2009, Albania was officially introduced at SAA. This act was soon followed by Albania's application for candidate status. This request was rejected by Brussels (Expansion of the European Commission). The main objective of the SAA is to assist Albania in the process of democratization and the consolidation of democratic mechanisms. It includes a specific agenda with detailed reforms, which are assessed as a priority by the EU. SAA assistance as part of Brussels strategy, is a political tool used by the European Commission to achieve several objectives simultaneously. According to the European Commission, these objectives are: 1. The PSA is designed in the context of preparation SEE country moves closer to European standards. It will assist in the transition process to gradually achieve full integration in the EU. 2. EU is committed to assist the Government and its efforts to consolidate democracy, which means the existence of the rule of law. 3. SAP is responsible for assisting the country to achieve reforms in institutional and administrative dimensions. It is also responsible for assisting in the consolidation of a strong system of public administration and judicial system (European Commission 2001). European conditionality will help the government to address the most problematic areas such as organized crime and corruption. It will assist in the implementation of the rule of law, maintaining political dialogue, consolidation of the electoral code, and the development of civil society (European Commission 2003). On 15 December 2010, the European Parliament and the Council of Europe gave the chance to Albania to benefit from visa liberalization of Schengen regime. It placed a monitoring mechanism to ensure continuity of implementation (European Commission, 2001, 5). As evidenced above, the EU has been very present in the progress and political development of the country. At this point, I agree with Elbasani who argues that if it was not for the EU conditionality, political development in Albania would have had another trajectory. And in fact the moments when the political elite in the country has been able to provide not only democratic development, but also has led to chaos (do not forget pyramid schemes and riots of 1997), the EU has intervened to restore peace and has assisted in the state recovery. EU conditions for membership But is it enough just EU engagement in the process of consolidating democracy and the generation of the rule of law? In the case of Albania, the EU has used the policy of "carrot" & "stick" (Grabbe, 2002) which means on the one hand through technical and financial assistance toward Tirana Brussels tempts the path of development but on the other hand, whenever the government did not properly made the "homework", Brussels condemns it by denying deeper integration (recent denial of the candidate status). In this context, what bothers me mostly is not how the EU tempts Tirana towards European commitments, but how Tirana is not taking seriously its obligations in this negotiation. In this part of the paper I will focus on the EU conditions that Albania has to achieve in order to start negotiations for EU membership. Therefore, I see as very important to analyze what are these criteria and to analyze how closer or far Albania is at least in this process. This comparison will enable us not only the clarity of what is expected from the Albanian side but also identifying gaps and achieving real reform of European targets.

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The European Union is an organization based on the values of democracy and rule of law. To be a member state of the European Union, the candidate country must have necessarily reflect those values and prove that it has the necessary institutions to protect these values (Featherstone, 1998). The EU has recorded since 1993 which should be the basic criteria for a country that can initiate the integration path. Copenhagen criteria explicitly define three prior conditions necessary for membership. They consist of the political criteria, economic and legislative. In more detailed form, in meeting the political criteria consists of several basic elements that a state is called a consolidated democracy, namely a functional democratic government in which citizens have full access to all levels of policymaking, including free and fair elections fair; rule of law, respect for human rights comfort all international conventions on human rights; and respect for and protection of minorities. The second criterion consists on the country's macroeconomic indicators. Specifically, an aspiring country must have a functioning market economy and whose products have the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and European market forces. Legislative aspect has to do with the ability to adjust and incorporate the national legislation with the acquis communautaire and all treaties and agreements that constitute it (Presidency Conclusions, 1993). In a more specific way, in the context of the SAA at the third meeting of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EU and Albania, in Brussels on 19 July 2011, was clarified and reaffirmed the twelve key priorities which were reflected in Opinion the European Commission on Albania. Specifically, these priorities focus on the stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, strengthening the rule of law, judicial reform, the fight against organized crime and corruption, electoral reform, public administration reform, and protection of human rights including property rights. All these elements relate to the first Copenhagen criterion, therefore, in the following analysis I will only focus in this criterion. Not because two other criteria are less important, but keeping in mind the modernist approach, I believe that democratic institutions will facilitate the consolidated socio-economic development which is guaranteed in itself by these independent institutions. The Council urged political parties to overcome political disagreements and establish a constructive and sustained dialogue in order to ensure correct functioning of parliament. It estimated that the negotiation will only start when it was verified that the country was seriously committed in meeting the criteria and in particular to these key priorities (Third Meeting of the Stabilization and Association Council between Albania and the EU, 2011). Meanwhile, in parallel with the political assistance of Brussels, Albania continues to receive financial assistance under IPA in two important respects: (i) transition assistance and institution building (II) cross-border cooperation with a total value of 82 million Euros per year 2013 (European Commission report on Albania, 2013). Albania's commitment Although whenever it comes to integration, all political forces without exception define it as a necessity for the country’s future, it seems that the steps with which Albania is moving toward it are relatively slow. Since 2011, the country is trying to achieve twelve priority conditions set by Brussels as essential to any discussion regarding the status of candidate country. Therefore, any premature application is not only unhelpful but on the other hand means more wasted consumed energies. Specifically, if we analyze the political situation of the last two years, following the 2011 local elections, the political situation in the country is associated with a pronounced lack of dialogue, coupled with a strong clash between the two main mainly DP and SP not only verbal but also physical (January 21 incident). Masquerading of insults, sterile debates and political arrogance that has dominated parliament is failing to take proper form to achieve the necessary reforms. In this context, it is very interesting to analyze how the European Commission has assessed Albania in the last year. Following the Copenhagen Criteria rankings, I will first see what is done to get closer to the European approach. The European Commission's annual report for 2013 Albania determines that the country has moved slowly toward the realization of institutional reform. Specifically, although the recent elections are assessed as relatively democratic, the report emphasizes mainly in the polarized political climate that has accompanied the pre and post election period. It admits that there was a smooth transition of power between the two main forces, this convincing result as a consequence of the Alliance for European Albania. General elections were preceded by a tense political climate that has threatened our administration of elections. Although the elections were competitive, I must admit that last year's turnout was lower, 53.6 percent. Even these elections as well

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as others recorded some progress. However, OSCE / ODIHR reaffirmed recommendations for the upcoming elections (Report, 6-7). Regarding the functioning of parliament, the report identifies some reservations. Although it must be admitted that there were some sporadic moments of cooperation during fall 2012 and May 2013, the parliament was dominated by an aggressive climate policy. As for the government, the report concludes that it is moving slowly in terms of the strategic implementation of the key priorities proposed by Brussels. Also, there is not a clear coordination among the Ministry of Integration and other ministries. With regard to local government, decentralization of administrative and territorial reforms have not progressed, but even though the law for urban plan was approved in April 2012, there are obvious problems in its implementation. Obviously the more politicized debate over compensating's Municipal some regional authorities have impacted negatively on the effectiveness of local authorities limited their role. Therefore, the report sees as very important constructive debate between the two levels of government as well as attendance in the decentralization reforms path and dialogue with civil society. The most important part of this analysis, is much debated in public administration reform, which was one of the main recommendations of the EU and one of the key elements needed to get the candidate status. Public administration reform was adopted in May of last year the civil service law. This was an important step towards de-politicization of public administration which was radically removed whenever the central government changed. The law which came into force in October 2013, is essential in building a public administration professional, effective and based on meritocracy. The purpose of this law is to create a legal context which consists on the inclusion of independent institutions and local government units. It provides a clear classification of civilian officials; it creates an optimal management system and administration body and it creates all the prerequisites for a transparent system of hiring and promotion. This law repeals the legislation and provides preliminary provisions necessary to implement the entry into force of the law. In fact, what happened with the government political rotation was a new approach to the law. Rama government would approve an amendment in September to avoid a legal vacuum. Timely adoption of secondary legislation in accordance with the principles of law and its proper implementation is essential. As a result of this action, the general law on administrative procedures is pending. Implementation of the Law on Administrative Courts were postponed pending the entry into force of the Law on the Supreme Court, which is one of three laws necessary for obtaining candidate status (European Commission Annual Report, 20-25). Implementation of the Law on the Organization and Functioning of Public Administration should take effect. Implementation of the Law on Inspections has made progress being adopted in February and includes provisions aimed at reducing the length and cost of inspections (p.28). A very important element that is an indicator of the level of democracy in the country is the participation of the civil society in the political decision-making process. The report finds that the country's civil society is weak and fragmented. Also cooperation between state institutions and civil society remains low, especially at the local level. There is lack of transparency by the Albanian authorities in relation to the consultation with civil society, the frequency of these meetings and the time available. Admittedly, there is room for improvement, especially in rural areas (pg.30). This reflection on the importance and influence of the civil society in the Albanian policy highlights the style and culture of the Albanian political decision making. Reflecting on this detailed analysis of the report, there is a reluctance of political forces for inclusion and the transfer of duties and decision-making from central to independent institutions. This not only hinders the process of decentralization and impartiality but at the same time weakens the fragile democratic institutions. What do Europeanization and democratization mean? In order to properly understand the very long journey of the country towards the membership, it is very important to understand what Europeanization means. This would help me to compare the Albanian transition with the Europeanization process. First, the process of Europeanization of a country has to do with the absorption of EU imperatives, how their logic operates logic and which are the norms in EU domestic policies (Anderson & Eliassen, 1993). This means that in order for Albania to be considered a candidate member, Albanian policy making should embrace that philosophy and norms of policy-making European model offers. In other words, the EU offers inclusive model and cooperation between the parties in order that reforms can be achieved not simply by the will of actual current policy context of a particular government, but 163

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has continuity despite the political rotation. The reform process should not intend an achievement of the coalition government, but as a national strategy for the improvement and adaptation of democratic institutions in the country. Respect for democratic values will allow further development of the country being supported and encouraged by the European community. Secondly, Europeanization effects on excellence and improve the mechanisms of modernization to change specific policies, especially those dealing with macro-economic policy and also to reform political institutions. This means that the country should reflect that has all the elements to be considered a consolidated democracy. Although EU initiatives and international factors are not lacking, need necessarily to reflect a commitment not only breathe in the initiation of these mechanisms but above all in the implementation and in their succession. What does consolidating democracy means? According to Linz & Stepan, a country is democratic when "democracy is the only game in town right" (Linz & Stepan, 1996). This means that they is has independent institutions in democratic and constitutional rules that define the game and not the will of a particular group, or even worse to a certain person. Democracies are considered when political actors are aware, committed and reflect the political will to compromise, which means the democratic regime rules (Ruston, 1970). This element is very important to better understand the situation properly and realistically in Albania which is divided and polarized by the political forces which do not reflect the culture of dialogue or even less political will to compromise. In fact, consolidation or completion of the transition will only be achieved through compliance with rules and democratic procedures, or otherwise known as eight institutional guarantees of Dahl Poliarchy. But specifically in Albania we can say that the period of adjustment toward democracy continues. To be concrete, the country is mired in a deep political crisis dominated by conflicting political dialogue which seems to keep mortgage the continuation of reforms. Why is not functioning EU conditionality in Albania? At this point, I agree with the arguments that Kubicek offers. He asserts that the use of conditionality does not guarantee that changes claimed by the EU actually occur. Hence, he rightly raises the question of how and under what conditions can the EU conditionality can actually worked (Kubicek, 2003, 17). According to him, the initiatives of external actors have a greater political cost than can realistically be afforded by the political elite. Specifically, he argues that these initiatives will reduce the power of political elites at the time that the latter will be included in the process of democratization. Specifically, this dualism between political power and the continuation of the decentralization and de-politicization of state institutions manifests itself most clearly in the debate on public administration reform. De-politicization of public administration means that the political forces in power loses the ability to use administration as a means to satisfy its supporters (as has happened so far). Albania's public administration are radically changing periodically whenever changing political force that leads the government by increasing fictitious financial cost not only recruitment but also training every four or eight years as the government changes. Kubicek argues that the government parties understand that they will lose their political power at the time that the country will be fully engaged in the execution of the process of democratization, thus they tend to push the application of democratic instruments even though they have to cope with external pressure, in case of negative feedback from Brussels (Kubicek, 2003). Secondly, if we reflect political developments related to these last twenty years, we will see that the political elite are political actor with the current political ambitions. This means that in general the two main political forces have a shortterm agenda and as a result they try to exploit all opportunities to maximize the power in their hands and increase benefits or partisan purpose of their re-election in future elections. In this way they do not see immediate benefits from the implementation of European conditions. SAP implementation requires a multi-year commitment and it is not affiliated with the extra funds to offset potential losses of market opening with member countries of the EU (Hoffmann, 2005, 69). In this context, power is seen as a benefit and a way to achieve political ambitions of a certain spectrum. Thirdly, the political culture in Albania is marked by the absence of dialogue and inability to generate a stable political climate. Ways of interaction between political parties leaves much to be desired and the parliament has become an arena of mutual accusations which remain only at the level of media and nobody is judicially accused for corruption or organized crime ties (last scandal that involves the Ministry of Defense) to the prosecutor. This model does not inspire trust and creates the premises for cooperation among parties, but in fact it has another negative effect: albanians confidence toward the rule of law is diminished and they do not see the judicial system as operative and functional. Fourth, the process of EU membership is not viewed as a joint comprehensive strategy, but as a means of gaining credibility for a particular party and to secure the support of the electorate. As I mentioned above, all political forces in the 164

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country use the card EU campaigning to win the political battle in the name of democratic values, but it remains just a promise rotating unworn (Elbasan, 2004). Conclusion The path towards EU integration is associated with the consolidation of the democratic state and its functioning. The main condition for democratic consolidation is the development and strengthening of independent institutions that will enable and accelerate the fulfillment of the Copenhagen criteria through transparency and meritocracy impartiality. Although Albania has made some progress in some aspects, such as the adaptation of domestic law with the EU, the partly implementation of the suggestions and recommendations of Brussels, the integration process is a long one and has different challenges. As the European Commission report highlights, the government has huge challenges ahead as the fight against organized crime and corruption, de-politicization of the public sector, the implementation of reforms in the judicial system, the implementation of public administration reform, strengthening of institutions independent economic and financial implementation of the right of ownership, etc.. Therefore, the first thing that should the Government and the opposition be aware of is that it cannot hold the mortgage on the democratization of the country with sterile debates and narrow interests of the moment. Democratization of the country and building a complete functional system with independent institutions must necessarily go further toward the development of the country. The spirit of dialogue and cooperation, in particular on priority reforms are necessarily in order to open the way towards the country integration. Second, the strengthening of the administrative and judicial system is an essential condition for the functioning of the rule of law. These two elements are fundamental not only to strengthen the level of democracy in the country, but are essential to the development of a state that claims European integration. Third, embrace democratic values and acceptance of the rules of the game of democracy. Being part of the European community means being a country with high standards not only economic, but social and cultural policy. References Andersen S. & Eliassen K. (1993). Making Policy in Europe: Europefication of National Policy-making. Sage Commission staff working document Albania 2013 Progress Report, retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2013/package/al_rapport_2013.pdf Elbasani A (2004). Albania in Transition: Manipulation or Appropriation of International Norms? Southeast European Politics, Vol V, No. 1 , pp 24-44. Featherstone, K. (1998). Europeanization and the centre periphery, South European Society and Politics, 3 (1). pp 23 – 39 Grabbe, H. ( 2002). The EU’s Transformative Power, Europeanization through conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe. Palgrave Macmillan Hoffmann, J. ( 2005). Integrating Albania: the Role of the Europian Union in the Democratization Process, Albanian Political Science Association. pp 55-73 Huntington, S. ( 1991.) Third Wave of Democratization. International Studies Institute Keshilli i Bashkimit Europian, Takimi i Tretë i Këshillit të Stabilizimit dhe Asocimit mes Shqipërisë dhe BE, Bruksel 19 korrik 2011, Konkluzionet e Presidencës, Këshilli Europian i Kopenhagenit 1993, retrived http://www.europarl.europa.eu/enlargement/ec/pdf/cop_en.pdf Kubicek, P. (2003). The European Union & Democratization. Rutledge Linz J. & Stepan A. (1996). Problems of Democratization, Transition and consolidation”. John Hopkins University Press Rustow D. ( 1970). Transition to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model, Comparative Politics 2. Pp 337-363 Schmitter , F. (1996). What Democracy is ... and is not, Journal of Democracy. N 3. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Digital Revolution: Europe at the Lead of New Technologies Rada Cristina Irimie Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania [email protected] Abstract The pace and scope of changing technologies are constantly challenging social structures and the need for dexterous policy framework is becoming more and more indispensable. While technological evolution and market forces have driven the information and communication revolution, the European Union has played a significant role in creating an effective framework for the maintenance and development of this progress. In order to regulate the market and keep pace with the ICT (Information and Communications Technology) environment, the EU has introduced rules that ensure fair access to all EU citizens and stimulate competition for companies. The Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC) serves entirely this function, becoming a pan-European regulatory agency. Aside the regulatory role, EU’s economic growth strategy involves a great number of policies and measures to capitalize on digital revolution. The Digital Agenda for Europe (DAE) targets not only on citizens, but businesses of Europe as well, to benefit from the technological revolution. The former and the new goals of the renewed agenda raise the bar of smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Finally, to ensure the maximization of use of information technologies, EU has supported the expansion of e-business and online public services. E-government services have facilitated interaction between government, citizens and businesses, while it simplified all facets of operations of governmental organisations. This article is looking at EU’s role in digital environments, examining the three initiatives as platforms of technological evolution in Europe. The three case studies used, the BEREC, DAE and e-Government initiatives, will provide an analysis of the services with a prospective evaluation of the technological strategies involved, while the qualitative and quantitative data in each case will help us analyse the quota and draw conclusions on the functionality and effectiveness of the services. We expect to evaluate the levels of digital growth and online adaptation of the Union and/or the need for further expansion. The study is discussing EU’s technological competiveness and the analysis targets the policy initiatives taken towards this direction, while it provides multipolar, but useful information for EU citizens and businesses. Keywords: Technological Revolution, Information, Communication, Digital Agenda, e-Government

Introduction Constantly changing technologies are challenging for the existing social structures and this includes social policies and unquestionably involves civic society. European policies have turned their focus on growth with a relative delay, if one considers the contemporary challenges it has to face. Within these challenges, Europe needs to ensure economic growth that will lead EU countries and citizens out of crisis. According to Neelie Kroes, the European Commissioner for Digital Agenda, internet is the best platform to provide occupation nowadays (Rial, 2012). Digital technologies and, of course, the internet have become the economic foundation of modern societies, contributing to the world’s developed economies in the late decades. As a matter of fact, consulting groups estimate that the internet economy will be responsible for G-20’s impressive GDP increase by 2016 (Mettler, 2012a). These figures emphasize the increasing importance of digital developments and its economic value. Mostly being a niche policy matter in the past, the ‘digital agenda’ has recently received the attention of heads of EU government and EU finance ministers. In recognition of the transforming qualities that general-purpose technology features for the economy, EU is called upon the target to bring the digital single market in life. This is not without reason since in Europe’s most advanced economies, the internet accounts for a substantial lump of GDP (Mettler, 2012a). Consequently, it has become crucial for EU to approach internet governance and within this goal there are two aspects to be considered. On the one hand, public authorities, which ought to enforce the law and protect citizen rights. On the other hand, an attention should be given to the internet’s restrictive framework, so that the latter does hamper the prospect for innovation (Europa, 2012). This is to say that an effective management of the digital vision can help overcoming the euro-crisis and direct to the next digital revolution, where Europe can ‘be in the lead’ (Europa, 2012). As Europe rediscovers the need for development, it is now vital to take account of new economic realities that clearly demonstrate that productivity, jobs and innovation come from greater adoption of digital technologies (Mettler, 2012b). In order to secure the aspects of this political direction, the EU has introduced a number of political tools, which facilitate the regulating, political and investing role of the 166

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Union in this context. The Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC), the Digital Agenda and its goals and the e-Government platform are three initiatives representative of the direction EU has launched, in turn, to achieve technological growth. These three initiatives will serve as case studies in our article and help analyse the digital services from a critical perspective. The article is divided as follows: the first chapter is occupied with the regulating function of the EU and the practical role of BEREC as a regulative body. The second chapter will look into the EU’s economic strategy with a focus on the Digital Agenda goals and initiatives. In sequence, the third chapter will explore EU’s activity to maximize information technology’s use among the EU states, taking e-Government as an example of technological capitalisation. Ultimately, the article is discussing EU’s technological vision as much as the potential for technological innovation, which is extremely of useful not only for EU business but EU citizens as well. Regulating the European Telecommunications Market Europe’s proclaimed need for innovation and competitiveness did not coincide with the financial crisis but was further accelerated to achieve growth and create new jobs in the member-states. The opening-up of the telecommunications market to competition has acted as a catalyst on a sector that was previously occupied by oligopolies (such as Deutsche Telecom and Vodafone). As the internet has developed over the past decades to an open platform with limited barriers for users, content and application and internet service providers, there was a need for a regulatory framework that would promote consistent practices among national regulatory authorities. To keep pace with the new conditions, EU institutions have initiated legislation according to the technological progress and market requirements. These developments have given rise to the adoption of the new regulatory framework on electronic communications, which aims at strengthening competition by facilitating market entry and motivating investments in the sector, according to the Directive 2002/21/EC. The political objective was met through Directive 2002/21/EC adopted in 2002, which built on the framework for the regulation of electronic communications networks and services. This has also included certain aspects of terminal equipment to ease access for users with disabilities. The Directive 2002/21/EC contained provisions serving in the scope of principles, basic definitions, structural conditions for the national regulatory authorities (NRAs), the definition of the new marker power, rules for communication resources. In response to the need for inclusive regulation for all infrastructures, the new framework was extended to all electronic communication networks and services. Finally, a requisite of the Directive was the subsequent adoption of national measures in terms of access to electronic communications from the memberstates, with the intention of respecting the fundamental rights and freedoms of natural persons. The 2002 telecoms regulatory framework in the EU has been surrounded by debates concerning its timely relegation and performance within the EU member-states. Moreover, it has questioned existing EU administrative policies and imposed modifications on policies, due to the rapid evolution of technologies combined with the socio-cultural diversity of Europe today (Tsatsou, 2011). As a result, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC) was established in 2009, by a regulation of the European Parliament and the Council. BEREC replaced the European Regulators Group for electronic communications networks and services, which functioned as an advisory group to the Commission since 2002. In this first chapter of the article, a brief description of the services provided by the official body, in relation to the regulatory framework is presented. The Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications BEREC was launched as a part of the ‘Telecom Package’, a review of the EU telecommunications framework in 20072009. The review aimed to achieve the much needed update of the EU telecoms framework established in 2002 and put a common set of regulations for the industries involved across the EU member-states. The objective of the body is mainly to contribute to the functioning of the internal market for electronic communications network and services, as well as to enhance cooperation among National Regulatory Authorities (NRAs) and to strengthen the internal market in electronic communications networks, according to the Regulation No 1211/2009. For the fulfillment of this goal, the Regulation No 1211/2009 provides that the body will develop and disseminate among NRAs regulatory best practices, such as successful methodologies or guidelines on the implementation of the EU regulatory framework, deliver opinions on draft decisions and recommendations, issue reporting and provide advice on the electronic communications sector, and assist the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission, as well as NRAs in the dissemination of best practices. The greater difference between BEREC and the ERG (European Regulators Group) lays in the way they were established. BEREC was established by a Regulation of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union

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and not by a Commission decision. This highlights the ‘institutionalised’ identity of the body and reflects the desire to accord an ‘elevated status’ to the new body (Batura, 2012). While the ERG’s aim was to contribute to the development of the internal market, BEREC shall pursue the same objectives as the NRAs, which include promotion of competition and promotion of interests of the EU citizens, as provided in Regulation No 1211/2009. This also reflects the ambition to intensify the new institution’s status beyond a merely consultative role. At the same time, it unleashes the possibility to enhance its tasks and powers in the future. The structure of the body is based on the rule of representativeness; the board of regulators is composed by the heads of representatives of the NRAs established in each member-state, with primary responsibility to oversee the day-to-day operations of the national markets for electronic communications networks and services. The board of regulator will be assisted by the office, which includes a management committee and an administrative manager. The members of this committee are selected among the board of directors, additionally to a member representing the commission, according to Regulation No 1211/2009. The tasks of the board are not few, including publishing opinions on NRAs concerning market definitions, the description of undertakings with significant market power and the imposition of remedies as well as collaboration with NRAs in this context; the consultation on draft recommendations on relevant product and service markets; publishing opinions on draft decisions on the identification of transnational markets and the development of common rules and requirements for providers of cross-border business services; consultation on draft measures relating to effective access to the emergency call number 112, and the effective implementation of the 116 numbering range; monitoring and reporting on the electronic communications sector, and publishing an annual report on developments in that sector. Regulation No 1211/2009 also provides that the office assists with administrative support services or collects information from NRAs, as well as disseminates the regulatory best practices among NRAs. The creation of BEREC was accompanied by a lot of controversies and debates regarding its necessity, defined institutional nature, competences and functions and influence on the market. And while the above are clarified in the regulation establishing BEREC, and BEREC is dynamically carrying out its tasks since January 2010, one can try to examine the institutional influence in the market or research the place BEREC actually holds in the European regulatory network (Batura, 2012). The regulatory environment of electronic communications hosts various authorities, which apart from the European Commission (EC) and national regulatory authorities includes comitology committees (e.g. Communications Committee), standard-setting organisations (e.g. European Telecommunications Standards Institute), European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA), competition authorities etc. At the opening ceremony for the BEREC office in Riga, Neelie Kroes spoke of BEREC’s ‘crucial role’ in the development of a ‘digital Single Market’ (Europa, 2011). Accordingly, Dr. Georg Serentschy, former BEREC’s Vice-Chair, argued at the conference of Florence School of Regulation in June 2011 that BEREC is a key player in development of the single market for electronic communications (Serentschy, 2011). However, some researchers have allegedly argued that BEREC is fundamentally the same with its precedent organisation with only limited modifications compared to the European Regulators Group (Cave et al, 2009). Considering ERG’s reputation as a fairly inefficient and non-transparent body, those critics do not allow the recent institution creation to flourish and decrease the optimistic prospective of its central role in the regulatory network (Batura, 2012). Although BEREC has initiated its operation since January 2010, it has been considerably active in comparison to ERG, considering the number of documents adopted since 2010. The number of various documents adopted by BEREC in the first 2 years amount almost the number of all documents adopted by ERG during 7 years, i.e. 110 publications (Batura, 2012). Also, BEREC displays an activism independent from the article 7 procedures, producing various studies and collecting information. Thus, it can be safely said that BEREC has been using all its powers, in order to demonstrate an active expert position and become a central actor within the network of telecommunications regulation. Going back to the statements about BEREC’s regulatory significance in electronic communications, it is arguable that they more or less correct, if taken in a more conditional way. BEREC’s involvement in regulation varies significantly at national levels. Thus, BEREC is mainly involved in the process of policy-making at the EU level, while at national level it is involved in their implementation of the policies and the regulatory activity. BEREC’s widespread operational success implies that the balance between the EU and national authorities has been properly set. Without a doubt, it has become clear that “the pursuit of the single market is best served by increasing the quality of regulation across individual national markets” (Bustani, 2014).

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The Situation in Numbers The main goal of the European Commission’s regulation of the telecommunication networks is to empower all EU citizens in the digital single market by providing an open internet. On this basis, European consumers and businesses will be able to experience the advantages of the digital market, which might result in an increase in demand in digital services. “Providing end-users with access to affordable and good quality digital services throughout the EU is the foundation. This can be achieved through enhancing competition and maximising end-user benefit” (Europa, 2012). A look into BEREC’s work helps us understand the environment within which telecommunications companies function; the types of markets and restrictions within they operate, as well as the respondent operators. Graph nr. 1: Market types according to restrictions, Graph nr. 2: Fixed Market Types - Restrictions, Graph nr. 3: Mobile Market types - Restrictions and Graph nr. 4: Mobile Markets - Restrictions, all available at the end of the article, explain how the market factors operate: a) national markets are sorted on the basis of the share of user clients of operators, who restrict the considered application for all, some or one of their users; b) three groups of markets are formed, on the basis of categories described before (all>50%, none>50%, others); c) the size of each group (number of countries) guides to the distribution (in percentages) of types of markets, in terms of number of countries, d) weighting each national market by its number of subscribers, leads to the distribution (in percentages) of types of markets, in terms of number of subscribers. The results of the BEREC investigation on internet traffic management practices reveal numerous problems. More than 36% of all mobile users and more than 21% of all fixed network users in the EU are affected by restrictions on peer-to-peer traffic, at peak times. The effect of that can reach up to 95% of users in a country. Additionally, more than 21% of all mobile users are affected by restrictions on VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) traffic and 12% by restrictions on other specific traffic. At the same time, most internet Service Providers (ISPs) in nearly all member-states, offer fixed and mobile internet access services that are not subject to restrictions. According to the BEREC findings, 85% of all fixed ISPs and 76% of all mobile ISPs propose, at least, one unrestricted offer, while there is a lack of transparency which incommodes users, in their effort to choose the offer that covers their needs. Indeed, end-users might not know how their operator affects their internet traffic (European Commission, 2012b). In consequence, switching providers, which intensifies competitions and enhances the desired openness, faces operational difficulties. Therefore, it has become clear that new measures need to be adopted to maximise EU citizens’ activity in and benefits from the single market for converged telecoms, networks and services, particularly by maintaining the internet open to access, according to their choices. Europe’s Economic Strategy The European Commission set out in 2010 the new strategy for stimulating the European economy, shedding a vision of ‘smart, sustainable, inclusive' growth, which is based on wider coordination of national and European policy (European Commission, 2010b). Following one of the most serious declines of the European economy, ‘Europe 2020’ aims to embrace the challenges ahead. The economic crisis has revealed the weaknesses of a globalised economy, which has exposed limited resources and ageing population. The commission is looking to get behind an innovative, greener and social market that will facilitate an economic recovery and a more sustainable future. The strategy promotes low-carbon industries, investing in the development of new products, with a focus on digital economy and modernised education (European Commission, 2010b). The growth strategy set forth by the European Council has to overcome not only the severe obstacles of the financial and political debt crises in Europe, but the austerity policies as well, which have been imposed across many EU member-states (Stassinopoulos, 2013). The macro-economic policy making that has been forced on many European governments by the ‘Stability and Growth Pact’ has questioned the ability of this policy-mix to fulfill the goals set in the Agenda 2020, but also for the capacity of European governance to address the major discrepancies within the EU (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011). In the technological front, although Europe is one of the most educated societies, it features a considerable deficit in the research field. According to the Treaty of the European Union, EU countries spend 1.9% of GDP for Research & Development (R&D), while the U.S., Japan and South Korea are reaching the 3% performed in the industrial sector. Specifically, the United States research is about 2.6% and Japan 3.4% (European Commission, 2013). While the Lisbon Treaty has originally set the direction towards research and development (R&D), no particular direction was given. The Lisbon Strategy‘s revision aimed, among others, at the establishment of investment in knowledge and innovation (Euractiv, 2009). During the past years, the European Union has made progress in order to meet the R&D intensity target. The EU 3% target and additional national targets have mobilised growing resources for R&D. “The national 2020 R&D targets, set up by Member-States in 2010, are ambitious but achievable and would bring the EU R&D intensity to 2.7-2.8% of GDP in 169

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2020, close to 3% in 2020” (Stassinopoulos, 2013). One of the seven flagship initiatives is the ‘Digital agenda for Europe’, which aims to speed up the roll-out of high-speed internet and bring in the benefits of a digital single market for households and business. This chapter follows the priorities and targets set in the Europe 2020 agenda, which fall under research and development and regard specifically the ‘digital agenda’ and the scope for the digital single market. Our aim is to record the progress initiated in the area of Information Technology. This approach not only emphasises in the implication of the Digital Agenda in economic growth, but also examines the social expansion of the digital sphere through a path that is not only sustainable, but also widely acceptable by the European people. The Digital Agenda for Europe The need for immediate action across the digital policy areas has been underlined by many institutions. Europe was in need of a new economic momentum to help its economies to exit from the financial crisis and reconstruct their competitiveness (European Policy Centre, 2010). Especially, the economies of Central and Eastern Europe could provide a large market in fields and sectors where they could potentially develop their competitive advantage. Neelie Kroes has recently underlined the need to place ICT in the centre of EU policy-making; “not because it is a goal itself, but because it is the means to other goals”, health, education, inclusive growth, gender quality and many more (European Commission, 2014). The Vice-President of the European Commission emphasised connectivity in Europe is directly linked to ‘inclusive infrastructure’ and has to be 100% accessible to Europeans, as without it the ‘digital idea’ becomes an unattainable goal. To strengthen Europe’s knowledge economy and drive into future growth, investment has to be focused where the economic impact is biggest, in the digital market. More specifically, the dispersion of digital technology is the key to Europe’s competitiveness (Business Europe, 2011). The Digital Agenda contains 101 actions, in 7 pillars, which will help to revive the EU economy and reinforce the position of digital technologies among Europe's citizens and businesses (European Commission, 2010). The first pillar aims to synchronise the EU Single Market with the digital era, creating a Digital Single Market with limited barriers in the free of online services. The second is occupied with interoperability and standards, ensuring that new IT devices, applications and services interact without obstacles anywhere in Europe, while the third pillar wants to create a safe environment for online transactions (trust & security). The fourth pillar works towards a faster internet access available in Europe (30 Mbps for all of its citizens and at least 50% of European households subscribing to internet connections above 100 Mbps by 2020), to match world leaders like South Korea and Japan. The fifth pillar is working through the creation of a leading research and development market (R&D), world class infrastructure and sufficient funding, while the sixth pillar aims to enhance digital literacy and digital inclusion. Finally, the seventh pillar focused on the promotion of the ICT benefits for the European society (European Commission, 2010). Focusing on the Digital Single Market in this chapter, we will be able to evaluate the digital vision of the European Union through the assessment of digital expansion policies. A Digital Single Market could be extremely helpful in addressing a wide range of Europe’s current socioeconomic problems, due to the innovative character of the market. It could also potentially help to make Europe’s labour markets more efficient and at the same time more social, while it would direct Europe into a low carbon economy. So what is the Digital Single Market? The first Pillar of the Digital Agenda, under Digital Single Market, stands for a new vision of online expansion. The numerous barriers blocking online services and entertainment across national borders underlined the necessity of updated EU rules to enter the digital era. These further targets at the reinforcement of the music download industry, the online payment systems and the extensive protection of EU consumers in cyberspace (European Commission, 2010). The target is that Europe gains 4% of GDP by fully developing the digital single market by 2020. This would interpret to a € 500 billion gain, meaning that the digital single market could have an impact similar to the 1992 Internal Market programme (Business Europe, 2011). The vision of the European Commission upon completion of the Digital Single Market involves the enhancement of the EU legislation, in order to ameliorate the framework conditions for growth and jobs. Through the European Commission’s Directorate General for Communications, Networks, Content & Technology (DG Connect), the EC aims to coordinate the policy initiatives that will lead directly to the completion of the Digital Single Market (European Commission, 2014). With 28 separate actions, the EC target at a digital economy that will potentially provide a major boost to EU productivity and growth. It is estimated that at least 4 percent additional GDP (EU27) could be gained in the longer run, by stimulating further adoption of ICT and digital services through the creation of a DSM (MICUS, 2008). This impact of the DSM is based on two aspects: the impact of improved physical infrastructure and improved e-readiness on the engagement of online services. 170

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The combination of improved infrastructure and increased e-skills can cause an increase in the use of online services of 3% per year. This generates two effects: structural change in the EU economy and improved productivity in all sectors (ECORYS, 2011). The mid-term review presented in 2012 noted that regular internet usage has increasingly augmented in the first two years of the pillar, especially among disadvantages groups. At the same time, online commerce follows a continued increase, despite the fact that cross-border increase remains slower. High-speed broadband is beginning to take off, including ultra-fast connections above 100 Mbps (European Commission, 2012). As always, significant differences remain among different Member-States, differences which require the EU’s action in order to minimise and eliminate (European Council, 2012). The following chapter provides important comparative data on the implementation of the DSM pillar across the EU member-states. Digital Single Market in numbers It appears that the online trends are continuously changing during the past five years. The most recent online services index have grown continuously in the past few years, from 5.1% in 2009 to 6.2% in 2013, showing that as people become more experienced and confident online, they increase the frequency of use, as well as the diversity of activities. This process takes time, and while leading countries such as Denmark and Sweden are about 4 years ahead of the EU average, internet users in countries such as Romania, Bulgaria, Italy and Poland are 4 years behind the average in terms of diversification of their online behaviour. The Graph Nr. 5: Activities performed online by internet users, a comparative graph, indicates the use of internet services in EU28, while the index was calculated on individual use based on the below parameters: sending/receiving e-mails, browsing for information about goods and services, reading online newspapers/news, looking for information on travel/accommodation services, posting messages to social media, interacting with public authorities, internet banking, telephoning or video calls, selling goods or services, purchasing content (films, music, software), purchasing goods, purchasing services. The trend towards online shopping has also presented a significant increase. The proportion of online shoppers continued to grow, more than 10 percent between 2009-2013 for the 47% of the citizens. Therefore, the digital agenda target of 50% by 2015 is likely to be achieved. While there appears to be no overall relationship between the rate of online shoppers in a country and the rate of increase in this rate over the period observed, the countries with the lowest rates of online shoppers (Romania, Bulgaria, Italy and Estonia) have experiences the smallest progress in increasing rates. Crossborder online shopping has also increased over this period, up to 12% in 2013, but this pace is too slow to achieve the target of 20% by 2015. Usually, smaller member-states have higher rates of cross-border shopping. In Poland only, 9% of online shoppers purchased cross-border, the lowest share of all member-states by far (European Commission, 2014a). The Graph Nr. 6: online shopping trends by citizens, demonstrates the comparative increase of online shoppers between 2009 and 2013. The revenues from advertising are in much slower recovery after the EU financial crisis. Online and mobile advertising are an exception since they demonstrate a much faster recovery than the advertising sector as a whole. Online advertising is, at the moment, overtaking traditionally dominant sectors in terms of revenue share. The financial crisis caused a brutal decline in advertising, but recently advertising revenues have slowly started to recover. Total advertising revenues reached 75.593 billion in 2013, which advertising still represents 87% of the 2007 pre-crisis peak value. Revenue for the whole advertising industry returned to positive growth in 2013, mainly due to the online and mobile segments. In 2013, revenue from traditional segments decreased 5%, while the Online + Mobile segments grew 18%. Online + Mobile advertising revenue shares have grown gradually since 2005. At 23 billion in 2013, they accounted for over 30% of total advertising revenue. By contrast, the revenue shares of the Print and TV segments have declined, and are about to be overtaken by the online segment. The Graph Nr. 7 and Nr. 8: Advertising Revenues, according to the type of media, showcases the segment occupied by the media types over the past decade and the share of advertising revenues, based on the type of media. The Digital Agenda for Europe set three major targets on broadband: basic broadband networks should be available to all EU citizens by 2013 and by 2020 half of European households should subscribe to at least 100 Mbps, while 30 Mbps should be available to all Europeans (European Commission, 2014a). The data about basic broadband coverage show that basic broadband is available to everyone in the EU, while fixed technologies cover 97% leaving 6 million homes unconnected. Next Generation Access (NGA) covers 62%, increased when compared to 54% a year ago. Rural coverage still remains significantly lower, according to Graph Nr. 9: Technological coverage at EU level. Basic broadband is available 171

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to all member-states in the EU, when considering all major technologies (xDSL, Cable, Fibre to the Premises, WiMax, HSPA, LTE and Satellite). Taking only fixed, fixed wireless (WiMAX) and mobile wireless (HSPA and LTE) into account, the coverage goes down to 99.4%. Fixed and fixed-wireless technologies cover 97.2% of EU homes. Next Generation Access technologies (VDSL, Cable Docsis 3.0 and FTTP) capable of delivering at least 30Mbps download are available to 62%. Coverage in rural areas is substantially lower for fixed technologies (89.8%), and especially for NGA (18.1%). As a whole, it appears that indeed the digital market is gradually taking over traditional market segments, while the use of internet has significantly increased during the past five years. As the 2013 target on broadband is mostly achieved, the Digital Agenda has an obvious focus on migration to faster speeds now. In the next chapter, we will see how the EU is utilizing the telecoms sector to provide quality e-government services to EU-citizens. Maximizing the use of information technologies in Public Administration The introduction of ICT in public administration has created numerous opportunities for more efficient and dynamic work, providing the chance for innovation and better delivery of public services. The Lisbon Strategy for Growth and Jobs in 2000 created a new focus on achieving growth and sustainability for both the European Union and its member-states. The objectives of the Lisbon strategy aimed at the strengthening of European economies and employing the benefits of globalisation to cope with contemporary challenges: ageing populations, learning issues, environmental and sustainability challenges, competitiveness and efficiency, as well as technological challenges (Archmann & Iglesias, 2010). Therefore, EU institutions have recognised the importance of investing in the development of eGovernment and ICT, given the central role of these technologies in supporting the current trend in both public and private sectors. As a result, public administration has been required to take a leading role in innovation, promoting more dynamic and efficient working methods and higherquality service eGovernment - a significant step towards innovation and efficiency in Public Administration in all EU member-states. The increasing use of ICT has led public administrations across Europe to engage in severe transformation procedures, which aim at achieving a more efficient, friendly, citizen-and business-centric delivery of public services. The approach is known as “Transformational Government” and it has become a driving force for innovation and reduction of administrative burdens in European public administration. The Web 2.0 applications provide millions of possibilities that public services could benefit from (Archmann & Iglesias, 2010). While, though, the opportunities offered are enormous, there are also challenges to address in the implementation of such processes, such as ensuring digital access for all citizens (through expanded internet provision) and taking into account all dimensions of the sharing of governmental information across Europe. Public administration also has to adopt a new, market-oriented approach to the delivery of public services that minimises bureaucracy and reduces the administrative burden for citizens and businesses, thus enhancing their satisfaction and increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration back-office functions. The case of e-Government The trends towards eGovernment have considerable changed during the past five years. Following an enumeration of statistical date from 2009 to 2014, we are able to follow through the swift in eGovernment services use. The 2009 Eurostat data revealed a gap between the different member-states which had to be taken into account, as well as the gaps in the use of ICT between different age groups, people with different levels of education and computer literacy, between people from rural/urban areas and between genders. According to Eurostat (2009), the use of ICT was close to 56% of the European Union’s citizens. These figures also highlighted the diversification of these rates, which reached nearly 90% in countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark and Finland, while being between 30% and 35% in others, including Greece, Romania and Italy (Eurostat, 2009). The statistics also showed that barely 28% of the citizens of the EU-27 used the internet to interact with public authorities, in the last three months of 2009, and that there was a marked difference between memberstates. Despite keeping a correlation with the use of the internet in private life, the rates of use for interaction with public authorities are lower, reaching a peak of 55% in countries such as the Netherlands and Finland, and only 5% and 10% in countries such as Greece, Romania and Bulgaria (Eurostat, 2009). The Graph 10, Regular users of the internet in the last 3 months of 2009, demonstrates these rates. The latest 2009 statistics on eGovernment highlighted the importance of eInclusion (digital inclusion) and enhanced the commitment to achieve substantial improvements by 2015. EU governments need to ‘to empower businesses and citizens through eGovernment services designed around users’ needs, better access to information and their active

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involvement in the policy-making process’ (European Commission, 2009). As a result, the European Commission has launched an ambitious programme to promote inclusion under the name ‘No Citizen Left Behind’, which aimed to foster eInclusion in all segments of population, paying special attention to the risk groups: people who reside in remote areas, people with physical impairments and the elderly (Blixt, 2010). Additionally, the programme promoted the development of infrastructures and internet connection availability in any location within the EU, through broadband connection and mobile access (Blixt, 2010). The Europe 2020 strategy introduced an ambitious agenda to exit from the economic crisis and to create a smart, sustainable and inclusive Europe that will be able to compete globally, across sectors. Improvement on numerous domains can be accelerated by better use of Information Technologies (ICT). ICT has proven to be a powerful tool to include people in society, e.g. the ‘Arab Spring’ could not have happened in the way it did without social media (Allagui, 2011). Mobile communications technology and applications enable citizens to access information and services anywhere. Thus, technology empowers citizens, not only among, but between people and governments. Governments can more easily exchange data and therefore inform citizens and businesses, and better engage them in policy development, democratic decision-making and co-creation of services and content. Alongside benefits for citizens, ICTs offer significant advantages for governments themselves. Smart use of data can provide governments’ with valuable information to anticipate trends, combat crime, or increase the effectiveness of public services. Importantly also, technology can be used by governments to significantly reduce costs, cause transform and innovate. To enable European citizens, businesses and governments to fully benefit from this digital revolution and to address current societal and economic challenges, governments must actively anticipate and exploit technological developments. To be part of the global economy of the future, they not only have to work towards a European Single Market, but towards a European Digital Single Market, the elements of which we examined in earlier chapter (European Commission, 2012c). The seven flagship initiatives of the Europe 2020 Strategy include the Digital Agenda for Europe (DAE), which specifically addresses the need for effective use of ICT based on fully operational applications that will deliver social and economic benefits. The targets set by DAE for eGovernment are translated into specific actions for the EU governments in the European eGovernment Action Plan 2011-2015. The resulting eGovernment Action Plan focuses on four areas: 1) Empowerment of citizens and Businesses; 2) Mobility in the Single Market; 3) Efficiency and Effectiveness of governments and administrations; 4) Legal and technical preconditions. Actions are set out for each focus area and help governments deploy ICT in order to utilise public resources more efficiently, reduce public expenditure and provide digital government services across Europe. Though promising vast benefits for governments and the society in general, the first survey conducted (online) on eGovernment services in Europe in 2012, revealed only one of two EU citizens is using eGovernment services, while user satisfaction for public online services lags behind the private sector (European Commission, 2012c). The European Commission released in 2012 the 10th Benchmark Measurement of European eGovernment Services, according to which availability of eGovernment services in the first two years was generally high, usage and satisfaction still needed improvement - particularly when compared with private eServices. Simplicity, time saving and flexibility are the key reasons citizens prefer to use eGovernment services. Ninety-three percent of the citizens, who used online services were fully or partially satisfied with what they received. Respondents from the 32 participating countries indicated that the barriers to adopting eGovernment services were difficulties in usage (24%), and lack of awareness (21%). Many citizens are still unwilling to use eGovernment services (80%), and indicated a strong preference for personal contact (62%), and/or expect that offline contact is required anyway (34%), and/or believed other channels to be more effective (19%). Interestingly, concerns about protection and security of personal data were only modest, at 11%. The Graph Nr. 11, Key insights user survey in all EU-27 (2010-2012), featured the relevant data. Public services are increasingly becoming aware of the significance of information technologies. Although progressively used, the services leave room for improvement in many areas, which lead users to undervalue the effectiveness of online public services. According to the 11th eGovernment Benchmark report, noteworthy progress has been highlighted in the following four areas: a/ user centricity (online availability and usability), b/ transparency, c/ cross border mobility and d/ key enablers. On the one hand, online availability, which relates the existence of electronic channels for public services, is at 72 percent on average in the EU. Online usability, on the other hand, is 78 percent on government websites, even though ease and speed of use are at 58 percent, which leaves room for improvement. Online usability attempts to rate the overall experience by assessing usability features, including functionalities, support, feedback etc (European Commission, 2014b).

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As far as transparency is concerned, the extent to which governmental platforms are indicated as fulfilling their responsibilities and performance reached only 48 percent. It is estimated that the low EU score was due to insufficient information provided to users about eGovernment services. However, the transparency levels are slightly higher when it comes to provision of institutional information about the administrations, or information concerning the personal data involved in service delivery (European Commission, 2014b). It is, though, undeniable that there is a long way to go in order to achieve a fully open and transparent public e-service of organisations. When it comes to cross border mobility, the report showed that EU governments have not yet achieved to give businesses and citizens ample access to online public services, when they are away from their home country. Availability of cross-border public services remains at 42 percent, 30 percent points lower than availability of public services for country nationals. “Transactional services - these services where an electronic transaction between the user and the public administration occurs - are possible only in very few cases, causing unnecessary burdens for citizens and businesses that want to move, work or start up in another EU country” (European Commission, 2014b). Graph Nr. 12: eGovernment performance according to policy priorities, shows that the key enablers indicator measures the availability of technical elements, essential for public services, such as electronic identification (eID), electronic documents (eDocuments), authentic sources, electronic safe (eSafe) and single-sign-on (SSO). Technical elements, along with technical approaches, are critically important in order to set up seamless online services. According to the report, key enablers are implemented in less than half (49%) of the cases where they could be used. The report summarizes the key findings from the recent survey as: a) considering that every European citizen had internet access combined with the skills to use it, there is still a noteworthy group of non-believers (38%) that refuse to use the online channel for public services, and b) this is mainly due to users' expectations driven by their experience with private service providers (online banking, for example) and online public services do not admittedly live up to those expectations. In response to the gaps featured at the implementation of eGovernment services, the European Commission is looking to engage the members-states in the promotion of an Open Government approach. This perspective includes opening their data and their procedures in order to provide better and cost-effective services, create jobs and growth in their countries. The open government approach also allows citizens to participate in the design, creation and delivery of digital services and contribute with their opinion in the improvement of the services. Horizon 2020 and Connecting Europe Facility will support the Open Government approach in the future (European Commission, 2014b).

A review of the EU telecommunications framework The most important milestones have already been achieved by the work of the EU institutions, driven by the ‘Digital Agenda for Europe’. Moreover, the fact that the Greek Presidency of the Council of the EU (January - June 2014) has placed ICT among its priorities constitutes already a promising first step. Moving to data, according to the Digital Agenda Scoreboard, published in May 2014, EU citizens and businesses are going online more, shopping online more often and have better skills in ICT. This is part of the new data of the Digital Agenda Scoreboard from 72 completed Digital Agenda actions out of 101 (European Commission, 2014a). In general, the results are considered by far positive. The internet usage has increased and continues to increase rapidly; now stands at 72%, from 60% that it was initially (2009). Progress has been even faster among disadvantaged groups, as well. Additionally, online shopping is progressing, arriving at 47% and 10 points up from the start of the DAE. Lastly, high-speed broadband is now available to 62% of the population, more than twice the 29% it was demonstrated in 2010. Still, progress so far has been heavily concentrated in urban areas. Given the limited advancement in rural areas, it is perhaps too early to judge whether the 2020 broadband targets will be reached. The Graph Nr. 13, Progress report 2009-2013, offers a total impression of the targets already met within the last four years. However, few areas demonstrated a much slower progress. The area of eGovernment, to start with, which was examined in earlier chapter, added only four points over four years. This indicated a very slow growth compared to other online applications and is has indeed caused stagnation to a number of countries (Spain, Portugal, Hungary) (European Commission, 2014a). There has been considerable progress in many countries, but very slow change or even decrease in several large member-states (Italy, Poland, United Kingdom, Germany), which means that the EU average has been moved but in a limited scale. Obviously, neither the potential savings in administration costs nor the potential benefits to citizens are fully exploited. Secondly, the eCommerce sector offered a surprise in numbers. A plain 14% of SMEs used the internet as a sales channel, only two points up in four years. With such low rates, eCommerce can only be very limited tool for SMEs to grow and create jobs. The share of SMEs purchasing online is generally much higher, and the EU average of 26% is much closer to the target. This relative success is partly due to a much higher starting point. Thirdly, public support for

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Research & Development (R&D) in ICT is well below the annual growth needed to achieve a targeted doubling by 2020; budget deficit reductions have taken their toll. The target of doubling public R&D by 2020 requires an annual growth rate of 5.5%. Already last year actual performance was below the necessary trend line; now the gap is about 20%. And finally, cross-border shopping has been growing only slowly. Cross-border online shopping has also increased somewhat over this period, up to 12% in 2013, but this pace is too slow to achieve the target of 20% by 2015. As could be expected, smaller member states have higher rates of cross-border shopping. However, they also exhibit higher growth. In Poland only 9% of online shoppers purchased cross-border, the lowest share of all member states by far. In this challenging context, policies and regulation play a key role to keep pace with market and technology developments. The main target of EU policy-makers should be to shape a policy environment that attracts private investments. The first half of the year 2014 offered a great opportunity for EU to speed up its effort towards building a Smarter Europe and the Greek presidency work on the mid-term review of the ‘Digital Agenda for Europe’ has set ambitious vision for the future, according to Luigi Gambardella (Euractiv, 2014). The IP traffic was flourishing at a high pace (19.6 exabytes/month) and we should expect to see it growing in the coming years. In 2016, it is expected to reach 30.3 exabytes per month, according to Cisco's figures (Cisco VN1, 2012). These numbers and their impressive scale are foretelling that the future will be more connected and that this trend should be embraced. In order to exploit the enormous opportunities associated with this evolution, in fields such as cloud, e-health, e-government and many others, Europe needs to count on a prosperous telecommunications sector. With both fixed and wireless networks, telecom operators comprise the digital backbone of Europe, carrying every day the communications of hundreds of millions of people, businesses and governments (Euractiv, 2014). The review of the current framework should not only set priorities as a revision of the rules existing in the communications sector; it should rapidly develop the ICT landscape and new services, in order to better respond to the changing environment. Conclusions This article looked into the rapidly changing Information Technology landscape of Europe, with a focus on the ‘digital agenda’ of the EU that contributes to the expansion and development of the digital technologies. As Europe has discovered the need for technological development relatively recently compared to the USA, it became the centre of our study, through the recent adoption of digital technology-focused policies. Further studies can discuss the vision and social impact of European technology-focused policies in the future, especially in the areas that - as we saw in the article - lag behind in Europe. A number of policies and bodies were examined in the present article, with three cases catching our attention. The Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC), the Digital Agenda with a focus on the Digital Single Market and the e-Government platform are three key initiatives towards the innovation and growth needed for EU to recover from the recent crisis. Analysing these three initiatives as case studies, with an amount of collective data in our disposal, it becomes easily understood that the direction towards technological growth is positive. From a regulatory point of view, EU has been through an institutional change that helped to ameliorate the regulatory framework under which telecommunications have been functioning in Europe. It has become clear that the BEREC has set out a more active and resourceful schema to maximise networks and services’ access. An important step towards internet open to all was made, even though the full range of activities converged telecoms have to offer are partly unexploited. The economic strategy involving the EU Digital Agenda and its various targets has been designed with great prospects. All together, we observed, by the statistical data that the digital market has indeed developed over traditional market segments (such as traditional advertising or commerce), while the use of internet among people and business was increased. E-Government services have, finally, been studied as a form of maximization of technological use in public administration. In this area, the progress still lags behind considering other sectors, not only due to software features, but too often due to a lack of willingness and trust from the citizens. Ultimately, the results demonstrate a considerable progress during the last five years, even though it seems impossible for some areas (e.g. e-Commerce, high-speed broadband, etc.) to meet their 2020 targets. What has, though, become clear is that for all digital fields to be properly exploited and developed, the EU needs to take the prospects of the telecommunications sector seriously. Additionally, the assessment of such services that will determine the future target should take into changing economic and socio-cultural environment within which EU policies operate, and not designed outside of it. The European Union should ensure that all reviews set an ambitious agenda to unleash further Europe’s potential to invest and innovate at continental and global levels, and inspire creative leadership accordingly. 175

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References Allagui, I. (2011) The Arab Spring and the Role of ICTs. International Journal of Communication, 5, 1435-1442. Archmann, S. & Iglesias, J. C. (2010). eGovernment - a driving force for innovation and efficiency in Public Administration. Retrieved from http://www.eipa.eu/files/repository/eipascope/20100519110452_Eipascope_2010_1eGovernment.pdf Batura, O. (2012, July). Regulatory networks: the role of BEREC in regulation of the common market for electronic communications. Paper presented at the 23rd European Regional Conference of the International Telecommunication Society, Vienna, Austria. BEREC

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Tsatsou, P. (2011). EU Regulations of Telecommunications: The Role of subsidiarity and mediation. First Monday, 16 (1). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3150/2745

Figures Graph nr. 1: Market types according to restrictions

Source: BEREC, 2012, p. 25

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Graph nr. 2: Fixed Market Types - Restrictions

Source: BEREC, 2012, p. 26 Graph nr. 3: Mobile Market types - Restrictions

Source: BEREC, 2012, p. 27

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Graph nr. 4: Mobile Markets - Restrictions

Source: BEREC, 2012, p. 28 Graph Nr. 5: Activities performed online by internet users

Source: European Commission, 2014a. Graph Nr. 6: Online shopping trends by citizens

Source: European Commission, 2014a. 180

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Graph Nr. 7, 8: Advertising Revenues, according to the type of media

Source: European Commission, 2014a Graph Nr. 9: Technological coverage at EU level

Source: European Commission, 2014a Graph 10: Regular users of the internet in the last 3 months of 2009

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Graph nr. 11: Key insights user survey in all EU-27 (2010-2012)

Source: European Commission, 2012 Graph Nr. 12: eGovernment performance according to policy priorities

Source: European Commission, 2014c.

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Graph Nr. 13: Progress report 2009-2013

European Commission, 2014a

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Importance of Human Resources Training in an Information Age Azize Serap Tunçer Ahi Evran University, Kırşehir, Turkey [email protected] Abstract The aim of this study is to display conceptually the relationship and interaction between matter of human resources training and the information age. Fast development from industrial community to an information community has occurred and organizations have been seeking ways to overcome this change. Human resources policy and human capital with enhanced competence will have direct impact on work performance; therefore, this paper deals with the increased importance of human resource management due to the fact that it nurtures human capital. Researching and scanning are used as a method in this study. Both local and foreign literature and expert views are employed - as much as one could be- in the making of the theoretical framework of this study. Keywords: Human Resources, Information Age, Education, Organization, Occupation Introduction From the time of first scientific studies carried out by organizations until today, the social-economic environment that organizations are in has proportionally changed, in the frame of this development, organization style changed from Classical to Neo-Classical and finally to Modern Organization. The rapid change in the concepts, values and understandings throughout the modern world have made the organizations to make policies and targets towards adaptation to these changes. In today's circumstances, organizations are maturing and becoming more and more complex. Another factor which is increasing as well is the level of competition. In order to face the competition and to survive, organization must use its own sources efficiently and optimize its performance by increasing the harmony between its components. At this competition, physical assets of the enterprises have lost their importance; however, non-physical information based values and the management of production of information processes have become a matter of primary importance. It must be well noted that attempts to improve of harmony between the components do not ensure an increase on total organizational performance. This study evaluates the significance of educational process in organisation, which provides the success and its sustainbility for the enterprises in global competition arena. At the same time this concepts create a innovative structure which isn’t in a short period but in a gradual period, the accumulation and evolution of social, cultural and economic background; at firms are achieved through suitable management structure; and conscious and disciplined efforts of managers and employees. Importance of education Certainly, education is most important tools for mankind and there is nothing more important than education for him. Rousseau, uses the fictional story of Emile and his tutor to outline his ideas. He explains his opinions as such in there: “Plants are fashioned by cultivation, man by education… We are born weak, we need strength; helpless, we need aid; foolish, we need reason. All that we lack at birth, all that we need when we come to man’s estate, is the gift of education. This education comes to us from nature, from men, or from things. The inner growth of our organs and faculties is the education of nature, the use we learn to make of this growth is the education of men, what we gain by our experience of our surroundings is the education of things.” (Rousseau, 2009: 11) This book was banned and publicly burned on its publication, but became a European bestseller and provided a basis for new education systems.

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At the same time, education is the most powerful link which turns mass people into nation. Education obtains this power from the culture that is the component, carrier and the protector of it. But what is the real importance of education in a modern age? Today education gives us the keys to career success, sometimes being a leader is more possible with better education. But education is a highly complex concept. Billington warns us about the difference between “educere” and “educare” process. “We may offer both the word educare and the word educere/these words may look and sound alike, but there is between them a gulf of meaning so broad that it is difficult to imagine that they can both cohabit in the context of a school’s…… .” (Billington, 1988: 279-291) Thereby the author stresses to important role of autonomy. İn his opinion: “Autonomy in a word, with educere as the dominant idea in education, its overriding aim will be that of producing not specialists in particular fields, but personal autonomy.” (Billington, 1988: 282) Autonomy is an important job component for job satisfaction. Moreover it is a basic leadership ability. Poper while criticizing Plato’s leaders education thought, evaluate the leader abilities from the perspective of autonomy and intellectual independence. “Why is it that Plato does not wish his leaders to have originality or initiative? The answer, I think, is clear. He hates change and doesn’t want to see that re-adjustments may become necessary. But this explanation of Plato’s attitude does not go deep enough. In fact, we are faced here with a fundamental difficulty of the leader principle. The very idea of selecting or educating future leaders is self-contradictory. You may solve the problem, perhaps, to some degree in the field of bodily excellence. Physical initiative and bodily courage are perhaps not so hard to ascertain. But the secret of intellectual excellence is the spirit of criticism; it is intellectual independence. And this leads to difficulties which must prove insurmountable for any kind of authoritarianism. The authoritarian will in general select those who obey, who believe, who respond to his influence. (Popper, 1971: 134) In such a society that most of the people -including the rulers- are under the influence of patrimonial structure, this concept gain more importance. Based on this reality for example the educational materials are being tried to teach chronology and historical phenomena strictly, boring and inaccurate books, lessons which are expert/teacher-centered and based on expert/teacher's instruction, not leading to research and thinking, and a dominant understanding based on memorization. Especially in our complex world, the ability of criticism is a very important talent. Adorno regards education (Bildung) as a persisting area of conflict between an individual’s autonomy and their adaptation to the demands of society. Education therefore entails an ongoing dialectic process between individual emancipation and the demands for submission to culture and society. Adorno’s concept of (full) education is clearly connected to the idea of Bildung is seen as necessary to gain full and free individuality. Here, education does not aim to reach “useful” purposes or material aims. Rather it is designated to the long term interest of the subject and its personal development. (Adorno, 1951) Sagan agrees with this view; and he shares a proclamation’s of The Government of China and Chinese Communist Party in 1994 that read in part: “Public education in science has been withering in recent years. At the same time, activities of superstition and ignorance have been growing, and antiscience and pseudoscience cases have became frequent. Therefore, effective measures must be applied as soon as possible to strengthen public education in science.” (Sagan, 1996b) Human resources training Organizations, due to numerous tasks dealt within, can be considered as quite complicated constructs in many concerns. In our global world; we observe that new values are adopted and new establishments and administrative structures are formed on this basis. Depending on this basis; the current Public Administration needs to renew itself within this course. The presence of the administrative institutions which are closer to the people has a fundamental role for detecting the social needs easily and offering efficient service. Companies’ continuity and conservation of their activities depends on their faster and more learning than their rivals. Importance of intellectual capital is constantly increasing for businesses. In the age of information, it can be observed that intangible assets, which include intellectual capital of businesses, overhaul tangible assets. Organizational knowledge, which consists of organizational rules, roles, customs, strategies, structures, technologies, cultural practices, capabilities etc., is the most valuable asset of today’s organisations. Forming a learning organization requires changes in a lot of fields. These are a strong leadership, vision, team based structure, staff empowerment, information technologies, a participating strategy and organization culture.

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Every employee has to learn the culture which belongs to its organization in order to live an individual of the organization and gain the cultural identification which the culture resources to. When looking at the relationship and interaction between the matter of motivation and the administrator, it is seen that there is strong relation between whether that organization is public or private. Especially public administrators do not sufficiently motivate their employees. Essentially, the public administrators have positive attitudes towards maintaining motivation in fact, but they do not turn these attitudes into behavior and therefore reflect those positive attitudes. The reason is the adoption mostly of the traditional leadership style by the administrators and their display of their behaviors in light of the leadership values that prevails in the local bureaucratic culture. Importance of training is reveals much in this situation. All workers must learn basic goal and mission their company’s ideal and priorities. Philip Kotler, who the Financial Times on November 18, 2005 surveyed 1,000 executives in 25 countries on the Most Influential Business Writers/Management Gurus and him ranked fourth after Peter Drucker, Bill Gates, and Jack Welch. Kotler describes strategic marketing as serving as motivating all persons for a goal. He explain this concepts in interviews to Drucker, like this: “Marketing in a non-profit organization becomes effective when the organization is very clear about what it wants to accomplish, has motivated everyone in the organization to agree to that goal and to see the worthwhileness of that goal, and when the organization has taken the steps to implement this vision in a way which is costeffective, in a way which brings about that result.” (Drucker, 63) This policy known as a transperancy. Adoption of transparency in all organisation level is a necessity for the achievement of both own employee and public confidence. Organisations could enhance their corporate transparency levels through following globally accepted principles and guidelines. As a result, the employment of the in-service programs through the usage of the transformational leadership style among the modern leadership styles is recommended for the maintenance of motivation in order to turn the said administrators' positive attitudes into behavior. Additionally we live in an era when the humanitarian values and the understandings towards it increases in individual wealth and happiness gain importance. For this reason Dudley Hafner stresses this opinion: “The strategy is how we use our resources to get the attention of that individual to do what it is we hope he or she will do… İt is always focused on an individual. (Drucker, 72) The rise in individuality and the effort to align this with the values of the organization has caused the organizational workforce approaches to change and adapt. Castells, while affirming this analysis, touches on the importance of the fact that this change in approach has opened new avenues to social interaction. “Torn by the internationalization of finance and production, unable to adapt to the networking of firms and the individualization of work, and challenged by the degendering of employment, the labor movement is weakened as a major source of social cohesion and worker’s representation. It doesn’t disappear, but it becomes, primarily, a political agent integrated into the realm of public institutitons.” (Castells, 2009: 419) Information age and its technologies Today, all over the world, information services are becoming a featured matter and is considered as one of the impulsive forces of economic and social development. Manuel Castells is a big name in information society thinking and writing about Finland’s Information Society. “In 2000 the IMD ranked Finland as the third most competitive economy ın the world –the World Economic Forum (WEF) ranked it the most competitive. But the most distinctive feature of Finland is its combination of an information society and the welfare state. The Finnish welfare state includes totally free, high-quality, public education from kindergarten to the university (with one of the highest combined educational enrolment rates in the world), universal public health coverage (granted as a right based on citizenship), and a generous social system with universal retirement and unemployment insurance, which has made Finland a country with one of the smallest number of poor in the world.” (Castells and Himenen, 2002: 12) Informational transformation is a cultural and social, as well as a technical change and therefore, it should not be studied inside engineering discipline. But it needs a scientific interest. For example Maalouf complains about our education systems: “I am conscious of belonging to a generation that is highly privileged compared to every previous one, if only by dint of advances in medicine and information technology. But I cannot calmly enjoy the benefits of modernity if I am uncertain that generation to come will be able to enjoy them just as much.” (Maalouf, 2011: xxıı) Sagan thinks similarly in this topic too. He says: “If we can’t think for ourselves, if we’re unwilling to question authority, then we’re just putty in the hands of those in power. But if the citizens are educated and form their own opinions, then those

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in power work for us. In every country, we should be teaching our children the scientific method and the reasons for a Bill of Rights. With it comes a certain decency, humility and community spirit.” (Sagan, 1996a) Organizations can be regarded as systems which transforms inputs onto outputs by their human resources, technology and know-how. Especially, for the factories of our country which reached a significant technological level, the importance of information technologies have not to be underestimated. Informational institution transformation should be regarded as a project process, updated by periodical evaluations, in which basic needs and demands of the users and the strategies and formation policies are determined. For this reason, education to employees is a long term process. Billington thinks to “Whatever view be held on the structure of the educational system, the basic question remains as to whether there is ever a time when a person’s education should be seemed to be at an end.” (Billington, 1988: 291) Sociologist Manuel Castells has noted, “The future informational society is characterized by an increasing polarization of occupational structure. In the case of the United States, the Bureau of Labor Statistics included in its projections an analysis of the educational level required fort he 30 occupations that were expected to decline fastest between 1990 and 2005… The conclusion of the authors of the study is that “in general, a majority of the (groving) occupations require education or training beyond high school. In fact more than 2 out of 3 of the 30 fastest growing occupations, and nearly half of the 30 with the largest number of jobs added had a majority of workers with education or training beyond high school in 1990.” (Castells, 2007) While questioning the educational needs, some basic demands of the users should be taken into consideration when transforming into an informational-institution, the employees should be regarded as a customer or even a partner of the organization; they must believe in the benefits of education programs; they should be informed about the services of the informational-institution and they should also have the necessary equipment and training on how to use these services; otherwise they will never be able to reach the targets set on science and technology policies no matter how well. Conclusion Today human capital, which is accepted as one element of intellectual capital, is seen as the most important of these intangible assets. It is not possible to explain economic wellbeing by physical capital itself. The necessary measures must be taken in order to develop not only physical capital but also human capital and use it efficiently. Human resource management of firms play an essential role in utilizing human capital effectively.

References Adorno, T. W. (1951). Minima moralia: reflections from damaged life. Trans. E. F. N. Jephcott. London: NLB Billington, R. (1988). Living philosophy: an introduction to moral thought. London: Routledge. Castells, M. (2007). The rise of the network society: the information age: economy, society and culture V.1., 2nd Edition, Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Castells, M. (2009). The rise of the network society: the information age: economy, society and culture V.2. 2nd Edition, Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Drucker, P. F. (2011). Managing the non-profit organization: practices and principles, NY: Routledge. Maalouf, A. (2011). Disordered world: setting a new course for the twenty-first century. Trans. George Miller, NY: Bloomsbury. Popper, K. R. (1971). The open society and its enemies (the spell of plato., NJ: Princeton University Press. Rousseau, J. J. (2009). Emile: or on education. Auckland, NZ: Floating Press. Sagan, C. (1996a). Demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. NY: Ballantine Books. Sagan C. (1996b). Does truth matter? science, pseudoscience, and civilization. Sceptical Inquirer, Volume 20.2, March / April from http://www.csicop.org/si/show/does_truth_matter_science_ pseudoscience _and_civilization.

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Dobrujan Interculturality – German versus Turkish Culture PhD University Assistant Edith-Hilde Kaiter “Mircea cel Bătrân” Naval Academy Constanța, Romania, [email protected] PhD Lecturer Olga Kaiter Ovidius University Constanța, Romania, [email protected] Abstract The first cultural influences come out in Dobruja together with the appearance of the first German colonists, beginning from 1840 till 1891. The colonization process develops itself in three stages and colonies in places like Tulcea, Malcoci, Almagea, Ciucurova, Cogealac, Tariverde, M. Kogălniceanu and others set up as a result. The German population has created an original culture, an ethnic and spiritual communication being deeply set up, but at the same time a communication struck by the specific conditions imposed by the history of this south-eastern European area. On the other side, the Turkish invasion of Dobruja started earlier, in 1388, when it was actually defeated by Mircea cel Bătrân. In 1393 the Turks succeeded in taking Dobruja and Silistra, but in 1404 Micea cel Bătrân re-conquered the greatest part of these regions. Many Turkish and Tartars moved into Dobruja during the long period of Ottoman rule. The 19th century ethnographic maps show a mainly Turkish population in the area of modern day Dobruja, Tartars and Turks in the southern part of Dobruja and Romanians dominating the north of Dobruja. The paper aims at presenting aspects regarding these two different identities and cultures which are to be found in Dobruja, as well as their integration process within the Romanian Dobrujan modern society. Keywords: colonization, influence, interculturality, Germans, Turks

Introduction Dobruja, or sometimes Dobrudja (Dobrogea in Romanian, Dobruca in Turkish, Dobrudscha in German), is the territory between the Danube river and the Black Sea, including the Danube Delta, Romanian coast and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast. Along the history, since Middle and Upper Paleolithic, the territory of Dobruja has been inhabited and ruled by different nation: in 681 AD Dobruja became part of the First Bulgarian Empire; in 1241 the first Tatar groups, under Kadan, invaded Dobruja starting a century long history of turmoil in the region (most of these Turks returned to Anatolia in 1307, while those who remained became Christianized and adopted the name Gagauz); in 1419 Mehmed I conquered all of Dobruja; the Russian Empire occupied Dobruja several times during the Russo-Turkish Wars. Later on, between 1926 and 1938, about 30,000 Aromanians from Bulgaria, Macedonia and Greece were settled in Southern Dobruja, as well as Lipovans, Italians and Germans. [1] Around the year 1700, many Germans were fleeing their homeland to find an easier life in other European countries, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia due to extremely violent conditions. Unlike most immigrants, German immigrants mostly did not immigrate for political reasons. In fact, the country was repeatedly being attacked by armies of various nationalities. Inhabitants of the south-western part, especially, were constantly robbed and tortured. Entire villages were often burnt down and their inhabitants killed. During the flood of emigrants from Germany, its rulers tried to stop the flow, but to little effect. [2] Another reason of immigration was the overpopulated area from the region of Rhine River and the economical crisis which appeared because of the economical and social situation in Germany (taxes to the state, the desire to become free from slavery). [3] Therefore, the process of colonization of the Saxons living in Transylvania took place in several stages. The first contacts with the Germanic peoples were in the 2nd century AD when they were trying to settle down for a while on the territory of our country. The Germanic peoples coming to Dobruja were the Swabians and they appeared here in three distinct stages starting with 1840 till 1891. In the first stage (1840–1856) the Swabians founded the colonies from Tulcea, 188

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Malcoci, Atmagea, Cataloi and Ciucurova in the North part of Dobruja. In the second stage, the Swabians settled down in the South part of Cogealac, Tariverde, Făclia, M. Kogălniceanu, Constanţa and Lumina. In the third stage, between 1890 and 1891, the Swabians founded the compact colonies from Cobadin and Sarighiol and formed communities in Mangalia, Osmancea, Bărăganul and Viile Noi (near Constanţa). Once settled, the Dobruja Germans (in German: Dobrudscha-deutsche) dealt with breeding, butter production and trade, handicraft, building in this way rural communities. This process took place in a rather short period of time because of their discipline and deftness. The villages where the Germans used to live had a nice structure. One could find there school, church, dispensary, stores and very nice houses with high, sculpted gates. These colonists built their houses, even from their early times on the Dobrujan territory, using occidental architecture elements, later introducing gothic architecture elements. The houses were painted in colours such as green, blue, orange and they were made of pressed ground. One could admire the red Pelargonium at the windows. The yards around the houses were surrounded by thick walls, similar to the ones used for fortresses and they were paved with brick and not with cement, in order to permit the ground to take air. Their houses were set in ordered positions, built in a very simple manner, but though elegant, covered with straws, iron plate, tile, reed, the streets were wide. Nothing special was observed inside their houses. The role of the housewife was not important because everything the family needed was bought from the fair. The animals were very good taken care of, the Swabians being considered the best horse breeder in Dobruja. The regions where the Germans came from were rainy, this being the reason why the window roofs were very large. The houses which had also a porch, in order to protect the rooms from the hotness of summer, is one of the architectural elements taken over from the Romanians. The oriental elements when building their houses were the ceramics slates and the special windows from Anina (a town in south-western Romania in Caraş-Severin County). From their culture they preserved the rectangular streets lined with houses, the structure of the rooms and writing down the name of the house owner and the year of its building on the house wall closer to the street. [4] The high gates and the houses situated near the street had the role to protect the family against the curious people: “the yard is an intimate space for the Germans. On the other hand, Gipsies like everybody to see them, their life being similar to a show. Gipsies like being seen, Germans don’t.” [5] In their villages one could find very beautiful and imposing churches, where the entire community was gathered. The churches were built according to the German architectural style. The priest was considered as a spiritual and intellectual leader of the community, their cultural, social and even political life being very much influenced by him. The sermon was heard in German language and when it was over, the people were leaving the church; the women first and then the men. It is well known that the Germans have always been united through tradition. This is how the preservation of customs can be explained. Weekly the Germans used to throw parties and balls where all sorts of specialties were served and good music was played. Each village had its own fanfare as all inhabitants could play a musical instrument. The Germans were hospitable people. When they used to have people over, they would immediately offer them beer. There was also a saying: “give the Germans beer and they will no longer ask for wine.” They were an example of civilization through the keeping of the religious holidays: “on Crops Day, they would decorate the mirrors with red tinsel and would throw with wheat and corn grains on the floor. The German women accompanied them to the ale house. The Romanian stood aside laughing at them.”[6] The first cultural influences made their presence felt once with the arrival of the first German colonists. At the basis of their spiritual life were the religious beliefs and the Bible represented for them their spiritual food and an important inspirational source for the literary creation. [7] Besides der Hiller, which was of great importance to the evangelical colonists, Grosse Himmelsschlüssel was also a book of prayers for the catholic colonists. [8] Among these religious books an important role was played by the calendars spread mainly in Ciucurova, Cogealac, Tariverde, Cobadin, and in other places (St. Maria- und St. Josef-Kalender, Die Jahreszeiten, Prochaskas Famillien-Kalender). A central role within culture is played by education, school representing one of the priorities of the German community from Romania. H.O. Roth said in 1925 that “the most important things that our institutions can offer us are included in the confessional school, which grew from the history of our people. The confessional school is seen as a source of culture and moral, qualities which are to be found in the centre of our developing as a people”. [9] Representative for the German school is the fact that it tried to adapt itself to the new development level of the Romanian society, to preserve the tradition, and at the same time to assimilate several elements from the new pedagogical 189

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trends. Between the years 1918–1944 the German school confronted itself with the tribulations from the political and national sphere, but it remained the main element in the development of the German culture. [10] The development of the German literature in Romania, between the 17th and 18th centuries, was influenced by the development of the Romanian literature, numerous Romanian authors being as well influenced by the German language literature. The press, newspapers and magazines, gave a remarkable support in this sense, promoting in this way the culture and implicitly introducing the literary creations of the German language authors to the public. [11] A particular interest in the folk creation was shown by the Germans from Dobruja who considered it “to spring from the German people’s soul and to last as long as this soul carries on”. [12] As proof to the presence and interest in the German folk creation in Dobruja stands Arthur Byhan’s (1915) collection, containing 39 old folk songs, of which 19 were taken from a song booklet found in Cogealac (1899–1901) written by Robert Radke. 12 songs belonged to a songs’ collection which were sung in Malcoci during 1898–1901, while the rest came from Caramurat. These songs have known great spreading, even if many of them were written in dialect (A Rondreis durch d Dobrudja – Alida Schielke-Brenner, Wie ich zum erschte Mol nach Siebenbirga gfahre ben – Anna Pfeifer – Tariverde). The folk songs from this period of time do not stand out from an artistic point of view. In what the content is concerned, themes like love and its avatars, happiness, separation, death, infidelity, temptation, disgrace are approached. These folk songs represent the ancient folk song with its origins in different parts of Germany. The folk creation also includes several songs whose subjects are the love stories of some knights, riders and hunters. Other examples are the songs which appeared at the end of the 16th century – Es waren drei gefangen, Es ging ein Jäger aus frischem Mut – the song about a count and a nun (Ich stand auf hohem Berge), attested by A. Byhan in Cogealac for the first time. This song was also mentioned by Goethe in Alsace in 1771, which appeared later in the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. From a literary point of view, the work of the Romanian writers creates an image specific to the Romanian, be that of a peasant, worker, writer or intellectual, an image which differs from that of the character created by the German language writers in attitude, behaviour, social relationships. If we were to discriminate between these two literary patterns we could mention differentiating characteristics of the two nationalities. While the Germans have a rigid and well-balanced structure, the Romanians are more flexible. Hard-working, skilful, forgiving, though history had a great impact on them, the Germans always had the belief that they can cope with anything. Honesty, balance, decency, ethics, self-discipline are only few of the specific traits that characterize the Germans from Romania. Living mostly side by side with the Romanians and the Turks, the German language writers, some of them unknown, described in their works the way in which they saw their cohabitants, their lifestyle and customs. [13] A very good example is the short story Die Tatarin (Tatar Woman). The story is placed in the country side, in the middle of nature. As opposed to the bleak atmosphere and to the resigned nature of the people in this place, the young Tatar woman becomes the heroine of a dumb rebellion against her status as an abandoned and vulnerable woman: “Driven by anger, the woman would have humiliated herself in order to be independent and to no longer ask anything from Seifedin.” [14] To a certain extent, the success of the story is based on the way the main character is drawn. Muhibe, an ordinary woman and a courageous, hard-working mother, has as sole purpose offering her daughter a good life, all on her own. From the description of the Tatar woman, one can create the portrait of the Tatar people: hard-working, courageous, able to fight for social independence, carrying, but also vulnerable or angry when being humiliated. The Turkish people tried to make their presence felt among other nations in Dobruja even from the early times on the Dobrujan territory. The Turks of Romania / Dobruja are often referred to as the Osmanlis, the Rumelian Turk, and the Balkan Turk, (Rumelia means “land of the Romans” and refers to the Balkan Mountains). They are the descendants of the Ottoman Turks who migrated from their central Asian homeland, conquered Anatolia (modern day Turkey), and eventually established the Ottoman Empire. At its peak, the Ottoman Empire encompassed the Balkan Mountains, Arabia, and North Africa. At one time, the empire also threatened to take over Vienna. Romania was part of the Ottoman Empire for more than 300 years, until the country gained its independence in the 1860's. During the long Ottoman Empire reign, the Turkish people often settled in Balkan towns and served as military personnel or administrators, or worked as craftsmen. During the late eighteenth century, many Crimean Tatars and Circassians from the Caucasus migrated to the Dobruja region, where they were given land by the Ottoman government. The immigrants formed farming villages, adopted the Turkish language and religion, and intermingled with the Rumelian Turk. These Rumelian Turks are still a distinctive cultural entity. However, religious, linguistic, and social differences

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prevented Rumelian Turks from intermarrying with the local populations in large numbers. When they did intermarry, Turkish men usually married Muslim, non-Turkish women. Under Communist rule, the Muslim minority was governed by a Mufti (Muslim leader), whose seat was at Constanta, the capital of the Dobruja region. [15] The Rumelian Turks are descended from Turks who settled in the Balkans when, from the 15th to the 19th centuries, that region of southern Europe was part of the Ottoman Empire. They were stranded when imperial territories began acquiring national independence in the 19th century. Most of the Rumelian Turks resettled in Turkey between 1878 and 1924. In rural areas, Rumelian Turks tended to become farmers or artisans in the coastal villages evacuated by Greeks during the 1920s population exchanges. Their most common preoccupation was trade. They used to have small shops, which were used as workshops where coppersmiths, silversmiths and bronzesmiths worked metals into beautiful artefacts. There were also carpenters’ and shoemakers’ shops. Similar to the German people, the Turkish people were very religious. Religious freedom was guaranteed to all citizens under the Communist Romanian Constitution, but in practice, religion was not encouraged and clergy were restricted and often hindered in their duties. Religious education was discouraged and, in some cases, totally banned. But the Muslim religion was very much respected by its people. More, it forbade drinking alcoholic beverages. Even if most of the nations cohabiting in Dobruja weren’t Muslims, very few of the Rumelian Turks are known to have become Christians. In the areas where they used to build their houses, the streets were narrow and were lined with houses and garden walls on both sides. Their houses were built in an interesting way. The ground floor was faced with flat stones. Stables, sheds, store-rooms, and pantries were usually on the ground floor. This made their homes look special. One of the best examples of interculturality is having three different cultures cohabitating – the Romanian, the German and the Turkish one –: “What we are calling culture is the set of features which typify a people, group, society, (...) which can be recognized by habits, feelings, and a material world of objects both utilitarian and aesthetic. And, even more specifically, a certain way of unifying these different elements.” [16] As a result, interculturality might be defined as a set of processes through which relations between different cultures are constructed. The aim is to enable groups and individuals who belong to such cultures within a single society or geopolitical entity to forge links based on equity and mutual respect. Interculturality must not be seen as something general but rather as a phenomenon of many facets that together form a unit, although the facets may be considered separately from certain angles and in certain lights. The various facets of interculturality should thus not be considered as fragmenting the concept into disparate elements but as each embodying some of its characteristics and reflecting a predominant focus, without excluding others. In considering the situation of migrants or of the new “minorities” in south-eastern Europe the dominant facet of interculturality is the concern to address differences, in order to identify the misunderstandings and conflicts they may engender from each culture and to find solutions. In exploring linguistic diversity or seeking to understand the importance of the media, the relevant facet of interculturality is centred on communication issues. References [1] Rădulescu, Adrian, Bitoleanu, Ion, Istoria românilor dintre Dunăre şi Mare: Dobrogea, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1979. [2] Petri, Hans, Geschichte der Deutschen Siedlungen in der Dobrudscha. *Hundert Jahre deutschen Lebens am Schwarzen Meere, München, 1956. [3] Traeger, Paul, Die Deutschen in der Dobrudscha, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der deutschen Wanderungen in Osteuropa, Bader Druck, Göppingen, 1982. [4] Radoslav, Radu, “Casele nemţilor sunt construite cu cap” in Adrian Cioroianu, „Nemţii noştri” in Jurnalul naţional, 26 aprilie 2004, Ediţia 1, Anul XII, Nr. 3329, p.11. [5] Ibidem. [6] Ibidem. [7] Traeger, Paul, Die Deutschen in der Dobrudscha, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der deutschen Wanderungen in Osteuropa, Bader Druck, Göppingen, 1982, p.170. [8] Ibidem, p. 172.

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[9] Roth, Herman, in DAD, no. 28, 26th of January, “The Session of 11th of December 1925”, p. 623. [10] Ciobanu, Vasile, Contribuţii la cunoaşterea istoriei saşilor transilvăneni, 1918-1944, Editura Hora, Sibiu, 2001, p. 302. [11] Klein, Karl Kurt, Deutsches Schriftum in Siebenbürgen. Seine Entwicklung von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart, Sonderdruck aus dem Band „Siebenbürgen“ der von Karl Bell herausgegebenen Schriftenreihe „Das Deutschtum im Ausland“, Berger, Dresden, 1930, p.21. [12] Traeger, Paul, Die Deutschen in der Dobrudscha, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der deutschen Wanderungen in Osteuropa, Bader Druck, Göppingen, 1982.p.182. [13] Eisenburger, Eduard, Markel, Michael, Sächsisch-schwäbische Chronik, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Heimat, Kriterion, Bukarest, 1976, p. 49. [14] Cisek, Oscar Walter, Tǎtǎroaica, Editura Albatros, 1971, p. 127. [15] Barnea, Ion, Ştefănescu, Ştefan, Din Istoria Dobrogei, Vol III. Bizantini, romani şi bulgari la Dunărea de Jos, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România, Bucureşti, 1971. [16] Guillaumin, C., 1994, “Quelques considérations sur le terme "culture"”, in Vermes G. et Fourier M, Ethnicisation des rapports sociaux, racismes, nationalismes, ethnicismes et culturalismes, volume III, coll. Espaces interculturels, L'Harmattan, Paris, pp. 160-161.

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Globalization and Health in Kosovo Albina Balidemaj Clemson University, USA Barre Hall, Clemson, South Carolina, 29634-0132 [email protected] Festina Balidemaj Oxford University, UK Square, Oxford OX1 2JD, United Kingdom [email protected] Abstract Kosovo and the region have had a traditionally long history of problems with the health care system. The situation worsened since the ex-Yugoslav conflict in the nineties when Kosovo inherited a large, hierarchical, and centralized healthcare system from socialist Yugoslavia (UNDP, 2013). This paper focuses on the effects of globalization on health in Kosovo; more specifically the effect of Global Food Trade in Kosovo’s health and the development of information technology and telemedicine in Kosovo. Further, this paper focuses on the opportunities for Kosovars to obtain healthcare outside of Kosovo as well as prospects for the medical personnel to practice their profession abroad. Keywords: Globalization, healthcare, Kosovo

Globalization and Health: The Case of Kosovo Economics studies have addressed the consequences of globalization on health, yet the lone terminology of health seems to be mostly absent in the literature of globalization and economics. Subsequently, literature shows many definitions for the term ‘globalization’. Globalization is best defined by Lee (2003) in terms of three types of changes which have been occurring at unparalleled rates over the past few decades: Spatial changes (movement of people), Temporal changes (perception of time and experience), and Cognitive changes (perception of self and world). Most of the existing literature, however, describes the effect of globalization on health as either “good” or “bad” (Lee, 2003; Frenk & Gomez-Dante, 2002) and generally, the literature in the health sciences takes a more negative view of globalization (Frenk & Gomez-Dante, 2002). According to the American Institute of Medicine (2007), the perceived threat of health from globalization is mainly focused on the potential movement of people from low- and middle- income countries. Rich countries, on the other hand, fear the potential financial burden of unhealthy populations migrating from the developing world (American Institute of Medicine, 2007). Most of the rich countries tend to overlook the migration of health professionals from poorer countries, who benefit the health system in their countries (Collin, 2003). Additionally, the privatization of health services is seen in literature as a threat to the health of the poor, who are typically served by public provision (Drèze and Sen, 2002). Moreover, concerns about mutual trade agreements between the US and other countries, especially when the interests of the US pharmaceutical companies are at stake, are strongly noted throughout literature (Frenk & Gomez-Dante, 2002). Moreover, food companies are also seen as a threat on global heath, noting that Africa is now the only continent in which the majority of deaths are from infectious diseases, rather from heart disease and cancer (World Health Organization, 2010). World Health also notes that the majority of the developed and developing countries now suffer from the ‘epidemic’ of obesity. On the contrary, Bordo et al. (2003) write that higher income promotes better health. In support, Preston (1980) notes that the link between income and health is typically strong in poor countries suggesting that the reduction of poverty globally would improve population health. Generally, the effects of globalization on health are both positive and negative. The equilibrium between these two effects is country and population specific (Lee, 2003). Moreover, the effects are also dependent on one’s geographical location, sex, age, ethnic origin and educational level (Deaton, 2004). The challenge with the effects of globalization emerges when trying to unravel individual impacts on health and their specific distributions across populations. Population health is also affected by the global changes in economy, environment and population movement (Deaton, 2004). One of

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the key challenges of the modern world is the management of globalization, as globalization does not have a fixed course but follows the path that favors certain interests and avoids others (Syed et al., 2012). Globalization has affected Kosovo in many areas positively and negatively. In Kosovo, the health sector has suffered from not only the physical destruction of violent conflict but from long-term under-investment in staff development and lack of maintenance of physical infrastructure and equipment (United Nations, 2005). Kosovo’s health budget is highly supported by donor funding (UN, 2005; WHO, 2010). This paper focuses on the effects of globalization on health in Kosovo; more specifically the effect of Global Food Trade in Kosovo’s health and the development of information technology and telemedicine in Kosovo. Further, this paper focuses on the opportunities for Kosovars to obtain healthcare outside of Kosovo as well as prospects for the medical personnel to practice their profession abroad. Background: Kosovo Health System Kosovo and the region have had a traditionally long history of problems with the health care system. The situation worsened since the ex-Yugoslav conflict in the nineties when Kosovo inherited a large, hierarchical, and centralized healthcare system from socialist Yugoslavia (UNDP, 2013). The health system in Kosovo, as elsewhere in Eastern Europe, was largely based on the Semashko model of healthcare delivery. The Semashko system of health care was utilized throughout the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and it centralized decision-making by emphasized specialization of services through a doctor-, hospital- and treatmentoriented system (UNDP, 2013). The first points of contact for patients were the polyclinics, which were located in major towns and municipalities. The central government functioned as the purchaser and provider of the health care services (Ministry of Health, 2013). Under the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, Kosovo had been granted autonomous status within the Republic of Serbia. This status was revoked by Belgrade in March 1989, initiating a decade of tension and conflict. The health sector became a natural battleground for the conflict between Kosovo's majority Albanian population and the federal government in Belgrade. Over 90% of clinics and health institutions were damaged during the war, and many private clinics of Albanian health professionals were destroyed. A general collapse of the public-service infrastructure, particularly water and electricity, deeply affected the health sector (Buwa & Vuori, 2006). The Serbian Ministry of Health assumed control of the Kosovo health system, and directors and boards of health institutions were forced to report directly to Belgrade. Discrimination of Kosovar patients and doctors by Serb-dominated medical staff was one of the main problems followed by the lack of practical and professional experience of the medical staff. Needless to say, after decades of no investment, maintenance or renovations, the infrastructure became outdated and deeply consumed (Holst, 2007). The frequency rate of infectious diseases rose; immunization rates declined, and vaccination coverage for children against polio, diphtheria, tetanus, etc., fell below 60 percent, with some areas falling below 30 percent coverage (Ministry of Health, 2013). Institutions of healthcare in rural areas suffered from lack of personnel and equipment. Access to emergency and after-hours care varied and was unreliable. These services were mostly available only in larger cities and the availability of services through private practices increased dramatically (Percival & Sondorp, 2010). At the end of the conflict in 1999, more than 400 donors and aid agencies came to Kosovo, and one of the main tasks was to reconstruct the war-damaged healthcare system (Buwa & Vuori, 2006). At first, a post-war health reform program was acclaimed as a success; however, the implementation of the reform itself proved to be more problematic than its creation, and as a result, the reform did not accomplish its expected outcomes (Percival & Sondorp, 2010). The effect of Globalization in Kosovo Healthcare After the end of the conflict, the Ministry of Health was established within the Temporary Government to lead the health sector (UN, 2010). The Ministry defined their priorities of reconstruction by renovating medical facilities, training medical staff, adding cost to medical services and development of health insurance plans (UN, 2010). Thirteen years later, we see both the positive and negative effects of globalization in Kosovo’s healthcare.

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Global Food and Tobacco Trade and Health in Kosovo One of the factors, which has affected the healthcare worldwide, has been the domination of global food companies and their aggressive marketing strategies to increase the food trade (Chopra et al, 2002). Fat and calorie rich, brand name foods have been contributing to the global epidemic of obesity. After the war ended in 1999 and especially after Kosovo gained its independence in 2008, many international food brands joined the market. Just in the last decade, Kosovo has started to experience a boom in the fast food industry with zero awareness on the negative effects (Domac, 2011). As a result, the numbers of people who are obese has increased. Consequently, the number of heart disease and cancer is on the raise (Center for Global Research, 2009). Moreover, the import of tobacco and alcohol in Kosovo has had a negative effect on the overall health. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the death toll from tobacco abuse alone will reach 10 million a year over the next two decades. Up to 70% of these deaths, caused by lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), lung diseases, diabetes and many other tobacco-related ailments, will occur in developing countries (Murray & Lopez, 1997). In turn, however, Kosovo has adapted a strong and comprehensive tobacco control law in line with the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO, 2012). Information Technology and Telemedicine The greatest changes that have taken place during the past 13 years in terms of health have come through the globalization of ideas and information, facilitated through the revolution in information technology worldwide. The globalization of trade is particularly relevant for health services that have become a commodity to be traded in distinct ways (Crocco et al, 2002). Now, health services can be provided across borders. Examples include a range of telemedicine tools, such as tele-diagnostics and tele-radiology as well as medical consultation through traditional and electronic channels. In Kosovo, the International Virtual e-Hospital (IVeH), supported by the United States Department of State, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, implemented the Balkan Telemedicine Program in 2000. This program has created a powerful international medical education network in the Balkans for further collaboration and development as well as a solid foundation for new changes of healthcare in the Balkans. Obtaining health care abroad Other benefits of globalization on health include cross-border use of health services that benefit patients and provide much needed resources to national health systems (Jain, 2003). Increasing numbers of individuals worldwide are leaving their local communities and crossing national borders in search of affordable, timely medical care (Turner, 2010). Currently, Kosovars spend over €80 million euros per year on health care abroad (Balkan Policy Institute, 2012) as the healthcare system in Kosovo is still undergoing a reform. In the past, only the wealthy could afford to get treatment abroad, however, the global market place for health care has changed. The Kosovo Government has allocated two million euros for a program, which helps patients to get special treatments abroad that are not available in the country (Ministry of Health, 2013). According to the Ministry of Health, in the first quarter of this year, 287 patients have applied to travel abroad for treatment. The Ministry of Health has made an agreement with the Ministry of the Republic of Turkey, where 42 patients will be treated for free annually (Ministry of Health, 2013). Health Personnel Brain drain The migration of health personnel raises a complex ethical dilemma. Brain-drain of health professionals from the developing to developed countries is well documented (Vijay 2009). As borders disappear, there is an urgent need to develop strategies, at the national and international level, that will minimize the harm and maximize the benefits of the movement of health personnel. There is surprisingly little data on the scale of the movement of health professionals between poor and rich countries, and few studies have examined the impact of brain drain on national health systems. In the past two years, a large number of young medical doctors from Kosovo have been offered jobs in Germany and Switzerland as these countries

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were recruiting young professionals in several fields from the Balkans. Over 12,000 young professionals have left the country in the past year (Balkan Insight, 2013). The Ministry of Education and the Government of Kosovo have launched a national "brain-gain" campaign aiming to encourage members of the diaspora and professionals from other countries to take part in the country's development. The main reason for lunching the “brain-gain” program is to create the necessary incentives and mechanisms for stopping and reversing Kosovo's "brain-drain" (Ministry of Education, 2013). The Government is determined to encourage highly educated professionals from Kosovo and abroad to get involved in the process of state building in Kosovo. Conclusion The links between globalization and health are complex and globalization is a complex phenomenon that can affect health in multitude ways. Its consequences can be either direct, at the level of whole populations, individuals and healthcare delivery systems, or indirect, through the economy and other factors, such as education, sanitation and water supply (Woodward et al, 2001). Without doubt, globalization poses risks to global health, but it also provides benefits. The extraordinary improvements in information technology have dramatically increased the speed and ease of data flow, thereby facilitating the sharing of information. Medical discoveries made in one country can be made nearly instantaneously available to patients in other countries (Wassenaar, 2003). In Kosovo, the health sector has suffered from not only the physical destruction of violent conflict but from longterm under-investment in staff development and lack of maintenance of physical infrastructure and equipment (United Nations, 2005). Thirteen years after the establishment of the Interim Ministry of Health, we see both the positive and negative effects of globalization in Kosovo’s healthcare. The domination of food and tobacco trade industries in the county has affected the population negatively by creating various diseases including obesity and cancer (Center for Global Research, 2010). However, information technology has affected the health sector in Kosovo very positively by launching a program in telemedicine among others. This program has created a powerful international medical education network in the Balkans for further collaboration and development as well as a solid foundation for new changes in healthcare in the Balkans. Moreover, globalization had enabled Kosovar citizens’ easier access to health care abroad. According to the Ministry of Health, in the first quarter of this year, 287 patients have applied to travel abroad for treatment of Government funds. In return, the Kosovo Government has allocated two million euros for a program, which helps patients to get special treatments abroad that are not available in the country (Ministry of Health, 2013). Furthermore, over 12,000 young medical professionals have left the country in the past year by being employed abroad (Balkan Insight, 2013). This shows that globalization has affected Kosovo’s health system negatively through professional brain drain. The Ministry of Education and the Government of Kosovo have launched a national "brain-gain" campaign aiming to encourage members of the Diaspora and professionals from other countries to take part in the country's development. In order for Kosovo to keep a stable and improving healthcare system during the global transition, Kosovo needs to have an ongoing healthcare system reform. In addition, the Ministry of Education and the Government of Kosovo need to ensure that the organization of doctoral studies meets the European standards and experience. Moreover, the mobility of research staff needs to be enhanced. It is really important for healthcare professionals to apply their skills attained abroad in Kosovo. Furthermore, Kosovo needs to make its healthcare data available globally through information and communication technology. A lot of data is currently missing. Factors like data exchange could lead to international medical collaboration. An immediate suggestion on improvement and extension of healthcare developments would be for Kosovo to enhance the collaboration and strengthen capacities with neighboring countries in order to optimize use of limited resources. In Kosovo, the health sector has suffered not only from the physical destruction of violent conflict but also from long-term under-investment in staff development and lack of maintenance of physical infrastructure and equipment (United Nations, 2005). Nevertheless, the process of globalization has brought very positive factors into Kosovo’s healthcare system. 196

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References: Balkan Insight. (2013). Youth Emigration Causing Balkan ‘Brain Drain’. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/young-people-leave- serbia-bosnia-the-most Balkan Policy Insitute. (2012). Investigation into public health care in Kosovo. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://policyinstitute.eu/images/uploads/InvestigationintoPublicHealthCareinKosovo.pdf Bordo et al. (2003). Globalization in Historical Perspective. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Buwa, D., & Vuori, H. (2006). Rebuilding a health care system: War, reconstruction and health care reforms in Kosovo. European Journal of Public Health. 17(2), 226-230. Center for Global Research. (2009). Fallout of Serbia Bombing ‘Continues to Kill’. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://www.globalresearch.ca/fallout-of-serbia-bombing-continues-to-kill Collin, J. and Lee, K. (2003). Globalization and Transborder Health Risk in the EU. Case Studies in Tobacco Control and Population Mobility. London. The Nuffield Trust. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/96340/2003_Collin_Lee_Globalisation_and_Transborder.pdf Chopra M., Galbraith S., and Darnton-Hill, I. (2002) A global response to a global problem: the epidemic of over nutrition. Bull WHO. 80: 952–958. Crocco A., Villasis-Keever M., and Jadad, A. (2002). Two wrongs don't make a right: harm aggravated by inaccurate information on the internet. Pediatrics. 109: 522–523. Deaton, A. (2004). Health in an age of globalization. Research Program in Development Studies Center for Health and Wellbeing. New Jersey. Princeton University Press. Domac, J. (2011). California Gives Hope to Kosovo in Fighting the Obesity Epidemic: New Food in a New Nation. Accessed November 30, 2013 from http://nojunkfood.org/?p=204 Frenk, J. & Gomez-Dantes ,O. (2002) Globalization and the challenges to health systems. Health Aff 21: 160–165. Holst, J. (2007). The Politics and Economics of Globalization and Social Change in Radical Adult Education: A Critical Review of Recent Literature. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies. Vol.5 No.1. Institute of Medicine. (2001). The Impact of Globalization on Infectious Disease Emergence and Control: Exploring the Consequences and Opportunities: Workshop Summary. Accessed November 27, 2013 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56583/ Jain, S.C. (2003) Globalization of medical services: antidote for rising costs. Healthc Pap. 2003;4(2):39-44; discussion 76-81. Jean, D. and Amartya K. (2002). Development and participation. New Delhi. Oxford University Press. Lee, J. (2003). Address to the Fifty-third session of the WHO Regional Committee for Africa, accessed November 29, 2013 from http://www.who.int/dg/lee/speeches/2003/johannesburg/en/ Ministry of Health. (2013). Innovation, Information Society, Social and Health Policies. Prishtina: Kosovo Government Printing Office. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://www.mei-ks.net/repository/docs/Discussion_Material_Health_Policy.pdf Murray C.J., Lopez A.D. (1997). Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet; 349: 1269-1276 Percival, V., & Sondorp, E. (2010). A case study of health sector reform in Kosovo. Conflict and Health. 4(7), 1-14. Preston, S.H. (1980). Causes and consequences of mortality declines in less developed countries during the twentieth century. Chicago and London. University of Chicago Press, 289–360. Syed, S. (2012). Developed-developing country partnerships: Benefits to developed countries? Globalization and Health. 2012, 8:17.

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Turner, L. (2010). Quality in health care and globalization of health services: accreditation and regulatory oversight of medical tourism companies. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. Accessed November 25, 2013 fromhttp://www.ahc .umn.edu/bioethics/prod/groups/ahc/@pub/@ahc/@bioethics/d ocuments/content/ahc_content_311818.pdf United Nations Development Programme. (2005). Human Development Report International Cooperation at a Crossroads: Aid, Trade, and Security in an Unequal World. Human Development Report. New York. UNDP. (2013). Satisfaction with Healthcare Services and Perceptions on Presence of Corruption. Accessed November 29, 2013 from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/kosovo/docs/publicpulse/DokumentiPerVeprim_Anglisht.pdf Vijay, N.M. (2009). Medical tourism: Subsidizing health care for developed countries. Accessed November 25, 2013 from http://www.scribd.com/doc/11724381/Medical-Tourism-KABANI1 Wassenaar W (2003) Providing services globally: the experience of an internet pharmacy. Healthc Pap, 4: 69–74 WHO (World Health Organization) (2002): Health and the International Economy, Washington, D.C. Woodward, D., et al. (2001). Globalization and health: a framework for analysis and action. Bull WHO 79: 875–881. World Health Organization (2010). Confronting the epidemic: a global agenda for tobacco control research. Tobacco Free Initiative. Geneva: WHO, 1999. Accessed November 29, 2013 from whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_TFI_99.12.pdf

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IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLES ON JOB TEACHERS STRESS Ferit Hysa Department of Education European University of Tirana, Albania [email protected]

Abstract During the school management, it is very important to have an effective school but more important is to use the right styles according to health safety and high outcomes. The leadership is a wide concept in general way and a specific one according to the education and school too. The tradition of school leadership is new in Albania. The education leadership in the new Albanian context request establishing of school leadership. The knowledge and application of contemporary education leadership it is obligatory for improvement and raising effectively to Albanian school. This study is focus in the influence of educational leadership styles in the job teachers stress and satisfaction. The research question is: what is the best and right education leadership style need to be applied in Albanian school. The research method is a quantities and qualitative way through the questionnaires, semi and structures interviews. The conclusion is that no all the educational leadership styles that are effective ones, are the right educational leadership styles. This conclusion brings the need to be selected the educational organizational theories for an effective school through the right educational leadership styles. Key words: leadership style, education, stress, satisfaction, effective school.

1.1 Introduction The development of education in Albania has gone growing and expanding from year to year. After 90 years, the development of education has faced new challenges in terms of improving programs, teaching methods as well as the continued growth of not only the students who attend secondary school, but also universities. Such an education, mass appeal seeks a more effective based on theories and best practices of the western world. Therefore the aim of this study is to identify the impact of school leadership styles and styles promote more effective in managing the impact of which school is low in teacher stress and also increase job satisfaction of teachers. The objectives of this study are to: Identify the best styles of school leadership that have the lowest impact on job stress in teachers and those who increase their job satisfaction. - Identify leadership styles of school leaders through the teacher's view. - Identify the level of stress among teachers - To identify whether there is a significant connection between the leadership styles of leaders and teacher stress. - Identify the level of satisfaction of teachers - To identify whether there is a significant connection between the leadership styles of leaders and teacher satisfaction. In this study we pay attention to a state psychological stress and physical health damage for which recently received the deserved attention and has attracted attention. Identify stressors in the work of teachers. Stressor is what makes possible the occurrence of stress. Precisely in this study we have obtained a numerous studies that need to be made concerning it, it’s just related to the impact of leadership styles school. The state of stress affects the health of teachers but also affects the job performance of teachers. 199

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Likewise, job satisfaction of teachers has its importance as the health of teachers and the performance of his work. There is a clear correlation between stress and job satisfaction of teachers and both of these effects on the efficiency of the work of teachers. Recognition of the impact of school leadership styles in stress and job satisfaction of teachers would make it possible to avoid the negative impact styles and promoting them as a positive impact on the health of teachers and the effectiveness of the work of teachers in the school.

2. Literature review 2.1 Introduction In this session we will first consider an overview of the basic styles of leadership, the concept of leadership in organizational theory and the differences between management and leadership and then consider the aspects of leadership that appear to be particularly relevant to an international educational environment. These include:      

the importance of vision; the benefits of transformational leadership; placing the education of pupils and students at the forefront of planning and managing; the moral or ethical dimension of leadership in education; the increasing autonomy of schools and colleges in some countries, placing new and different responsibilities on educational leaders; gender and leadership, particularly as qualities of leadership are generally identified with the male (Schein, 1994).

Transformational and transactional leadership The principal who practices transformational leadership is not relying only on his or her personal charisma or a series of leadership functions, but is attempting to empower staff and share leadership functions. Transformational leadership may be contrasted with transactional leadership which is: based on an exchange of services (from a teacher, for example) for various kinds of rewards (salary recognition, and intrinsic rewards) that the leader controls, at least in part. (Leithwood, 1992, p. 69) However, Bass and Avolio (1994) offer a two factor theory of leadership where transformational leadership may exist alongside transactional leadership, which is seen to be central in maintaining the organization and ensuring that the normal course of events run smoothly. Transformational leadership is specifically linked with the notion of improvement. Bass and Avolio (1994) state that transformational leadership is seen when leaders: 

‘stimulate interest among colleagues and followers to view their work from new perspectives,



generate awareness of the mission or vision of the team and organization,



develop colleagues and followers to higher levels of ability and potential, and



motivate colleagues and followers to look beyond their own interests toward those that will benefit the group.’ (Bass and Avolio, 1994, p. 2)

Alternatively, they refer to transformational leadership as the four i’s:

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1. Idealised influence, leaders are seen as role models for others; 2. Inspirational motivation; 3. Intellectual stimulation; 4. Individualised consideration, including leaders acting as coach or mentor to individuals in the institution. As indicated above, leadership is situational, i.e. leaders may exhibit different styles and aspects of leadership depending on the specific context within which they are operating. However, those leaders who display, what is termed, ‘an optimal leadership profile’ exhibit transformational leadership and back up their transactional leadership with positive reinforcement and reward rather than correction. Bass and Avolio (1994) found that research undertaken in all walks of life indicated that transformational leaders: ‘were more effective and satisfying as leaders than transactional leaders, although the best of leaders frequently do some of the latter but more of the former.’ (ibid., pp. 5-6) Studies in educational institutions have indicated that transformational leaders appear to be: ‘in continuous pursuit of three fundamental goals: 1) helping staff members develop and maintain a collaborative, professional school culture; 2) fostering teacher development; and 3) helping them solve problems together more effectively.’ (Leithwood, 1992, pp. 69 – 70) Burns (1978) is credited with first identifying transformational leadership. He does not endorse the two-factor theory of leadership, but rather considers transformational leadership to be at the opposite end of the spectrum from transactional leadership. This represents a very different view of transformational leadership to the two-factor theory of leadership, where transformational and transactional leadership may be identified in a single person (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Conclusions about transformational leadership are drawn from a wide range of studies, both quantitative and qualitative, but Leithwood et al (1996) note that there are positive effects associated with several identified forms of leadership in education.

2.3. Stress Psychological or biological stress (wikipedia 2014) is a response of the body to stress shktarëve as an environmental condition or incentive. Stress is the body's reaction methods to challenge stressors. In accordance with stressful events, how the body respond to stress by activating the sympathetic nervous system which results in response to the war effort. In humans, stress usually reveals a negative or a positive condition that may have an impact on a person's mental or physical welfare of his. Three general ways to answer (response) to stress are: - Explosive - Withdrawn, lonely - Chilled, frozen, unresponsive with no response.

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3. Methodology In this study we used quantitative and qualitative methods of research. Through structured interviews and semi-structured data are derived empirically that were analyzed. This study population consists of middle school teacher of 9 years. 30 teachers were interviewed. Through interviews is intended to identify the leadership style of management, the impact of their actions on teacher stress and stress doing overall situation of teachers. During the interview was aimed to identify other factors influencing the stress of teachers to determine whether the stress comes from the leadership style or other factors to be as accurate on the impact of leadership. Questionnaires were made simultaneously at about 100 teachers who have voiced their opinion regarding the impact of leadership in their stress developed in 10 schools. In each school were 10 questionnaires and interviews Random 3. Also become a document study of training and experience of current directors to see the correlation between experience, training and leadership style that uses school leader. 4. Data Analysis Stress has been described by the HSE as “the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed upon them”. Although stress itself is not a disease, it is recognised that excessive or prolonged stress can be a cause of mental and physical illness. HSE research has found that one in five people – an estimated 5 million workers – is ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ stressed at work, and that stress, anxiety and depression nationally lead to more than 13 and a half million lost working days each year. The International Labour Organisation has estimated that the cost of stress to the British economy amounts to over ten per cent of its Gross National Product (GNP). Studies into the extent of work-related stress in Britain have consistently found that teachers are amongst the most stressed workers in Britain. HSE research in 2000 found teaching to be the most stressful profession in the UK, with 41.5% of teachers reporting themselves as ‘highly stressed’. In 2003 a study undertaken by the Schools Advisory Service, the largest independent provider of teacher absence insurance in the UK, showed that one in three teachers took sick leave in the previous year as a result of work-related stress. A survey on occupational stress, published in the Journal of Managerial Psychology in 2005, ranked teaching as the second most stressful job out of 26 occupations analysed, with only ambulance drivers exceeding the stress levels found in the teaching profession. According to the Office for National Statistics, there was an 80 per cent increase in the number of teachers committing suicide between 2008 (35 teachers) and 2009 (63 teachers). These figures demonstrated that instances of suicide for teachers were 30-40 per cent higher than the national average for all occupations. Although it may not always be possible to demonstrate a direct causal link between the stresses of teaching and such tragedies, evidence suggests that stressors such as Ofsted inspections have been connected to teacher suicides in recent years. In April 2009, Teachers TV surveyed 1000 teachers and found that more than half had considered leaving the profession because of stress. Meanwhile, a survey of teachers conducted by the NUT and others in 2010 found that 81.2 per cent experienced stress, anxiety or depression at work. THE CAUSES OF TEACHER STRESS Research evidence has shown that the main sources of the current high levels of teacher stress include: 

excessive workload and working hours – often exacerbated by a surfeit of government ‘initiatives’;



poor pupil behaviour, which itself is often compounded by issues such as large class sizes;



pressures of assessment targets and inspections;

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management bullying; and



lack of professional opportunities.

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A study, commissioned by the NUT in 2004, and undertaken by professors Galton and MacBeath of Cambridge University, suggested that pupil indiscipline is the prime obstacle to securing improvements to teachers’ lives. This lends support to the view that initiatives to reform the school workforce will only succeed in reducing teacher stress if they are fully integrated into a comprehensive range of measures which address all the root causes of stress in the teaching profession. According to research for the TSN has indicated that the most common causes of teacher stress are, in order: 

excessive workload (causing stress symptoms in some 40 per cent of teachers);



aggression from pupils or parents (30 per cent of teachers);



Ofsted/Estyn (over 20 per cent of teachers); and



conflict with managers or colleagues (almost 15 per cent of teachers).

Similarly, a 2008 TSN survey of teachers who had resigned or were considering resignation found that, of those whose decisions were motivated by school-based issues: 

69 per cent blamed work-life balance/workload as a contributing factor;



47 per cent cited pupil indiscipline;



47 per cent referred to bullying by management; and



40 per cent identified lack of career progression.

Associated with this study (in Albania) by surveying and interviewing 100 teachers of 30 other teachers are in the schools, showed that: 75% of teachers reported that they have stress in their work, which indicates that this job is very stressful profession in general. 57% of teachers said they would leave the profession if they could find another job. Statistics 60% of teachers have received report mjekso for 1-3 days to not go to work to relax. 40% of teachers do not want to over work to meet with the school principal. 58% of respondents state that during discussions with the principal issues remain worried after this discussion. 70% of teachers state that they are not clear about the work they do whether you like it or not their leaders. 90% of teachers declare that all instructions, orders and information received from the director himself, and 10% claim to receive from other persons specified in the management structure of the school. 93% of teachers do not understand the level of their peer evaluation by department evaluation reports but indirect way of opinion and colleague to colleague. During their 85 teachers have experienced stress, anxiety or depression. The data show that 70% of leadership styles that are used 30% authoritarian and democratic laiser-all. The influence of these styles is directly in teacher stress at work. From the study it is clear that anyone who did not exercise authoritative leadership recognition and qualifications for school administration, lack of experience or a bad experience embedded in the way and the school leadership styles. No contemporary management theories recognize that not only create job satisfaction of teachers, reduce stress levels but also increase teachers' job performance and enhance the quality of school and student results we.

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5. Conclusions Data show that school leadership styles have an impact on stress and job satisfaction of teachers. Authoritarian leadership gives a positive impact on teachers' work stress and gives negatativ impact on job satisfaction of teachers. Transformative Leadership gives negative impact on job stress and gives teachers a positive impact. Employees health teacher is very important due to the application not knowing Nail contemporary styles of leadership should not be charged aggravated health and cost burdens of society. In conclusion it appears that not all styles are effective school leadership styles appropriate to be applied by teachers in schools. This conclusion necessitates the selection of organizational theories for an effective school education through the application of appropriate leadership styles of school. Biography Ferit HYSA (PhDc). Organizational Education Course lecturer NQ UET (external) and doctoral student at UET topic is in the area of leadership and management in education. Lecturer (part time) Case Management Medodologji education and research in the University "A.Xhuvani" Elbasan from 1999 to 2011. Skilled at Leicester University (UK) for Leadership and Management in Education (2005) References Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1994) Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership, Thousand Oaks, Sage. Bell, L. and Stevenson, H. (2006), Education Policy: Process, themes and impact. London: Routledge Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964) The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co. Houston, Texas. Burns, J.M. (1978) Leadership, New York, Harper and Row. Fullan, M. (1991) The New Meaning of Educational Change, London, Cassell. Halpin, A. W. (1966) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, New York, McGraw Hill. Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K.H. (1977) Management of Organisational Resources: Utilising Human Resources N.J. Englewood Cliffs Prentice-Hall. Hopkins, D. (1994) ‘Yellow Brick Road’ in Managing Schools Today, March. Hysa,F Vol 4, No 3 (2014) – Articles The Expansion of University Education and Students High Results Hysa,F. Vol 4, No 3 (2014)– Articles School Management and Leadership in Education Leithwood, K.A. (1992) ‘The Move Toward Transformational Leadership’ in Educational Leadership, February. Sergiovanni, T.J. (1984a) ‘Leadership as Cultural Expression’, in Sergiovanni, T. and Corbally, J. (eds.) Leadership and Organizational Culture, Urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press. Torrington, D. and Weightman, J. (1989) The Reality of School Management, Oxford, Blackwell Education. www.teachers.org.uk/files/TACKLING-STRESS-0713.doc (para 2 prill 2014) http://www.hse.gov.uk/stress/standards/index.htm (para 9 prill 2014)

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Electronic service quality in higher education: Evidence from Albania Dr. Shpëtim Çerri Faculty of Economics, University “Aleksandër Xhuvani” Elbasan. Albania [email protected] ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to investigate the electronic service quality (e-SQ) offered by a higher education institution in Albania. Many universities are implementing web-based solutions to facilitate the delivery of their services, previously offered by appointed staff and physical facilities. These electronic services aim to increase the effectiveness of university’s activities as well as to increase the convenience and the quality that both students and faculty receive. This study employs a modified E-S-Qual scale to measure the perceived service quality offered by a public university in Albania. Exploratory factor analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to confirm the proposed factor structure, while ANOVA served to measure the differences in e-SQ perceptions between students and faculty. The data analysis reveals interesting findings about the e-SQ offered by the university, as well as highlights the differences in perceptions between students and faculty. The study also affirms the E-S-Qual scale as a suitable instrument for measuring the e-SQ in higher education institutions. The results of the study are helpful for university management as they provide an overview of actual conditions of the quality the university offers and serve as a benchmark for further improvements. A limitation of this paper is that it focuses in measuring the e-SQ in a single setting. Nevertheless, this does not compromise the generalizability of the results and encourages the replication of this kind of study with further research. KEYWORDS – Electronic service quality, web-site, higher education, Albania.

Introduction The widespread use of the Internet has expanded also in public services, moving the traditional face-to-face encounter to online self-service models. This trend has also embraced universities, which have their own web pages, offering a wide range of information, services, and other online facilities. Today, a good proportion of overall services that universities offer come to students and faculty through electronic channels. But, in an online environment, achieving superior service quality is very challenging task. Researchers and practitioners have sought to understand how individuals perceive and evaluate the websites and the service quality offered in online settings. Services offered via websites aim to meet the consumer’s desire for convenience and cost savings. Elliot and Fowell’s (2000) have found that online service experience can be damaged by many website attributes, such as lack of customer service’s responsiveness, difficulties in website navigation, web site complexity, and security concerns. Thus, measuring service quality in online setting is of imperative importance for companies or institutions that deliver services through technology-based channels. Through the years researchers have developed scales like SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988) or SERVPERF (Cronin and Taylor, 1994) for measuring service quality, but they have been conceptualized for traditional, face-to-face contexts. With the emergence of online services, other scales were developed for measuring online service quality, like E-S-Qual (Parasuraman et al., 2005), E-A-S-Qual (Kim et al., 2006), WebQual (Loiacono et al., 2000), PIRQUAL (Francis and White, 2002). e-SELFQUAL (Ding et al., 2011), etc. This study aims to contribute in the measurement of online service quality offered by a public education institution using a modified E-S-Qual scale. Although originally developed for measuring e-SQ provided by a retailing website, it allows to modify its measurement items according to specific contexts. The data were gathered in a public university in Albania, both from students and faculty. Exploratory factor analysis was used to uncover the underlying structure of online service quality dimensions, while multiple regression analysis determined the relative impact of each dimension. Finally, ANOVA analysis was employed to reveal the differences in online service quality perceptions between students and faculty.

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Literature review Service quality Service quality has been a predominant topic in services marketing for more than three decades. In 1980 Lehtinen and Lehtinen coined their model of service quality, where they conceptualized it as comprised of three dimensions: physical quality (the quality of physical elements of service), interactive quality (the quality of interaction between customer and other elements of service experience), and corporate quality (the quality dimension which is developed through the years of existence of a service company). Gronroos (1984) proposed that service quality has two distinct dimensions: technical quality and functional quality. Technical quality relates to the outcome, or what the customer receives from a service encounter, while functional quality relates to the process of how customer receives the service. Parasuraman et al. (1988) identified five dimensions of service quality, which are (1).Tangibles: physical facilities, equipment and appearance of personnel; (2) Reliability: ability to perform the promised service dependability and accurately; (3) Responsiveness: willingness to help customers and provide prompt service; (4) Assurance: knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence; and (5) Empathy: caring, individualized attention that a firm provides to its customers. Regardless the number of dimensions, in general all the researchers agree that service quality stems from a comparison between what customers expect to receive from a company and the company’s actual service performance. Electronic service quality As technology has shaped our lives and naturally the way the firm’s are conducting business, electronic marketing activities have gained a lot of attention. Delivering services through electronic channels is quite different from traditional face-to-face delivery. Zeithaml et al. (2000) proposed that electronic services are web services delivered through the Internet. In the online environment, companies must shift their focus from traditional dimensions of service quality to e-SQ dimensions, in order to keep their customers satisfied and loyal (Parasuraman et al., 2005). E-SQ relates to all the steps that a consumer goes through during his/her interaction with a website: the degree to which a website facilitates efficient and effective online experience. Santos (2003) proposed that e-SQ had these dimensions: appearance, ease of use, efficiency, linkage, content, structure, incentive, security, communication, reliability, and customer support. Zeithaml et al. (2000) explored a variety of website attributes, like search engines, tab structuring, one click ordering perceived ease of finding what user is looking for, perceived transaction speed, ease of navigation in general, responsiveness to customer needs, etc. They concluded that consumer’ assessments of a website’s quality stems not only from their experiences during their interactions with the website but also from post-interaction aspects of the service. The theoretical framework proposed by Parasuraman et al., (2005), depicted in Figure 1, represents the cognitive structures of consumers, and how they retain product information in their memory at multiple levels of abstraction.

Concrete Cues

Technical/desig n aspects that influence e-SQ evaluation

Perceptual

Dimensions

Attributes

Levels at which e-SQ evaluation occurs

Higher-Order Abstractions

Consequences of e-SQ evaluation – overall e-SQ perceived value, etc., which, in turn, drive behavioral intentions and behavior

Figure 1: The framework for understanding the domain and consequences of e-service quality (adapted from Parasuraman et al, 2005)

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The measurement of e-service quality Loiacono et al. (2000) proposed Web-Quality, a scale for rating websites on 12 dimensions: interaction, informational fit to task, flow-emotional appeal, trust, response time, design, business processes, intuitiveness, visual appeal, innovativeness, integrated communication, and substitutability. They found that only some dimensions, like visual appeal, interaction, and integrated communications, significantly influence perceived e-SQ. Barnes and Vidgen (2002) developed a multi-item scale based on the weighted importance of five factors: information, design, usability, trust, and empathy, while Francis and White (2002) proposed PIRQUAL scale, which measured e-service quality based on web site, transaction system, delivery, customer service, and security. Parasuraman et al. (2005) developed E-S-QUAL scale to measure the e-SQ provided by a retailing website. It followed the previous work of Zeithaml et al. (2002), who identified five service quality dimensions relevant to commercial websites: ease of navigation, efficiency, security, flexibility, and site aesthetics. E-S-QUAL measures e-SQ using 22 items, based on four dimensions identified by Parasuraman et al. (2005) as efficiency, system availability, fulfillment, and privacy. Efficiency refers to the ease and speed of accessing and using the site; system availability is the extent to which the site’s promises about order delivery and item availability are fulfilled; system availability is associated to the correct technical functioning of the site; and privacy includes the degree to which the site is safe and protects customer information (Parasuraman et al., 2005). Cristobal et al. (2007) constructed a new scale named PeSQ which measured e-service quality based on customer service, web design, assurance, and order management, while Ding et al. (2011) proposed e-SELFQUAL, conceptualized on four e-service quality dimensions: perceived control, service convenience, customer service, and service fulfillment. Due to the fact that E-S-Qual has reflected good reliability and validity across many studies, this paper uses a modified ES-Qual scale to investigate e-service quality in higher education institutions. Some items were modified or excluded from the original scale in order to comply with the specifics of electronic services offered by universities. Since the services offered by university’s websites aim both students and faculty, this paper also tries to uncover the differences in e-service quality perceptions between these two groups of users. Thus, the research question are as follows: RQ1: Which is the relative impact that each of the dimension of Parasuraman et al. (2005) model has on higher education e-SQ? RQ2. Which are the differences, according to each dimension, between student users and faculty users? Research methodology The items for measuring e-SQ in this study were adapted from the E-S-Qual scale developed by Parasuraman et al. (2005). Since the original scale was constructed for use in retailing websites, its items had to be modified in order to be usable in the context of this research. Table 1 presents the four dimensions of e-SQ and the construct of e-SQ, as well as the items used for measuring each of the construct. The questionnaire developed contained 19 pairs of statements for measuring respondents’ expectations and perceptions on efficiency, system availability, fulfillment, privacy, and overall e-SQ (Table 1). The respondents were asked to indicate their level of disagreement/agreement with the questionnaire statements in a 7 point Likert scale. The data were gathered asking students and faculty members in a public university in Albania, located at the central region of the country. 300 questionnaires were distributed and 281 were returned completed, achieving a response rate of 93.6%. From 281 useful questionnaires, 195, or 69%, were completed by students and 86 questionnaires, or 31%, by faculty members. The data were gathered from a team of interviewers through face interviews with members of the target population. Table 1: e-SQ dimensions and respective measurement items Electronics Service quality dimensions Efficiency

Respective statements (Measurement items) EFF1: I can easily find what I need in my university’s site EFF2: It makes it easy to get anywhere on the site EFF3: University’s site enables me to quickly perform what I intend to do EFF4: The information in my university’s site is well organized EFF5: The pages load fast EFF6: The site is simple and user-friendly EFF7: The site is well organized 207

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System availability

SUS1: The site is always available SUS2: The site launches and runs right away SUS3: The university’s site does not crash FIL1: The site updates the information regularly FIL2: The information provided in university’s site is suitable for my needs

Fulfillment

FIL3: The university’s site has made my life easier PRI1: The site protects the my sensitive information PRI2: It does not share my personal information with other sites

Privacy

Overall quality

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e-service

PRI3: I think that my university’s site is very secure ESQ1: Overall, using the university’s site is very convenient ESQ2: Overall, by using the university’s site I feel I am in control EDQ3: Overall, the quality of this site is very good

The first step in data analysis was scale purification. The data set was checked for the existence of missing values, normality, and outliers. The missing values were replaced using multiple imputation method in IBM SPSS 22.0, while very few outliers were present. The data resulted linear, and the values of skewness and kurtosis were within the acceptable range. Then, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted, in order to assess the dimensionality of the scale used in the study. Exploratory factor analysis is an inter-dependency technique that researchers use to determine the underlying structure between variables in a statistical analysis (Hair et al., 2009). After conducting EFA, the overall factor solutions resulted in good loading patterns and explain 71.673% of the variation; also the factor structure fitted with the proposed instrument. The next step in data analysis process was conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA is used by researchers to further evaluate the dimensionality, reliability and validity of the generated structure of factors. CFA aims to determine if the number of factors and respective loadings of measured variables are in concordance with what is expected from the literature (Brown, 2006). Reliability was evaluated through the standardized Cronbach’s alpha (Cronbach, 1951), referring to Nunnally (1978) who suggests that a scale with alpha greater than 0.7 is considered as reliable. After examining every dimension, the Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for every distinct construct generated from factorial analysis. The final Cronbach’s alpha of all items varied from 0.733 to 0.849, suggesting good internal consistency between items of every construct and construct reliability. Also, the combined scale reliability for the 19 items is 0.911, reflecting acceptable reliability and convergent validity (Hair et al., 2009). Factor structure was also considered as stable. Overall, the proposed model had very good reliability and validity (both convergent and discriminant) indicators. Data analysis and results RQ1: Which is the relative impact that each of the dimension of Parasuraman et al. (2005) model has on higher education e-SQ? After confirming the factor structure, dimensionality, reliability, and validity of the five constructs, multiple regression analysis was performed in order to uncover the relative impact of each dimension on e-SQ in higher education. Overall eSQ served as dependent variable, while efficiency, system availability, fulfillment, and privacy served as independent variables. The analysis was performed using IBM SPSS 22.0 software, and a summary of results is presented in Table 2. Table 2: Regression analysis results Construct

Beta coefficient

Standard error

t-value

Significance

VIF

Constant

0.059

0.043

1.578

0.000

2.214

Efficiency

0.208

0.011

2.658

0.000

1.695

System availability

0.137

0.067

0.338

0.000

1.337

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Fulfillment

0.223

0.034

2.985

0.004

2.647

Privacy

0.112

0.029

0.915

0.007

2.109

0.644

F-statistics

16.587

0.621

Significance (Fstatistics)

0.000

R2 Adjusted

R2

As it can be seen from Table 2, there is a significant relationship between the four dimensions of e-SQ and overall higher education e-SQ (F=16.587, significance of F.05); the variation of those who do not attend preschool education is (t(377)=1.64, p>.05). Among the mean scores of students' self- concept scale according to attendance to preschool education, there is no significant difference in terms of having a brother or sister or not having. The variable for those attending preschool education is (t(304)= 0.479 , p>.05) and for those who do not attend preschool education is (t (377)= 1.920 , p>.05). Among the mean scores of students' self- concept scale according to attendance of preschool education, there is no significant difference with regard to the time of attendance to preschool education (t (2;304)=0,897, p>.05). Again there is no significant difference in terms of birth order among the mean scores of students' self- concept scale according to attendance to preschool education. The variable for those attending preschool education is (t (2;303)= 0.755 , p>05) and for those who do not attend preschool education is (t (2;377 )= 0.269 ,p>05). Among the mean scores of students' self-concept scale according to attendance to preschool education, there is no significant difference in terms of mother's age. The variable for those attending preschool education is (f (2;302)=0,463, p>.05) and for those who do not attend preschool education is (f (2;375) = 0,843, p>.05). There is a significant difference in terms of father's age among the mean scores of students' self- concept scale according to attendance to preschool education. The variation of students attending preschool education is (f (2;303)= 0.554, p