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Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-court performances of handball players: A review

Gal Ziv a; Ronnie Lidor a a Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

To cite this Article Ziv, Gal and Lidor, Ronnie'Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-court performances

of handball players: A review', European Journal of Sport Science, 9: 6, 375 — 386 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/17461390903038470 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461390903038470

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European Journal of Sport Science, November 2009; 9(6): 375
386

REVIEW ARTICLE

Physical characteristics, physiological attributes, and on-court performances of handball players: A review

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GAL ZIV & RONNIE LIDOR Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

Abstract The main purpose of this article was to review a series of studies (n 23) on physical characteristics, physiological attributes, throwing velocity and accuracy, and on-court performances of male handball players
amateur players, experienced players, professional players, and players on the national team. Five main findings emerged from our review: (1) Elite players are heavier and have higher fat-free mass than amateur players. (2) The maximal oxygen uptake of male players is between 50 and 60 ml × kg 1 × min 1. (3) Throwing velocity is higher by as much as 9% in elite male players compared with amateur male players. (4) Heart rates can rise above 160 beats × min 1 in male players during a game. (5) On-court distance covered in a game averaged approximately 4 km and ranged between 2 and 5 km, depending on playing position. Our methodological concerns based on the reviewed studies are: (a) a lack of on-court physiological data; (b) a lack of experimental/manipulative studies; (c) limited data on throwing accuracy; and (d) a lack of longitudinal studies. The practical implications include: (a) strength and power exercises should be emphasized in conditioning programmes, as they are associated with both sprint performance and throwing velocity; (b) speed and agility drills should also be implemented in conditioning programmes; and (c) specificity of training based upon the position of the player is of great importance when planning strength and conditioning programmes.

Keywords: Team handball, sports performance, throwing velocity, throwing accuracy, on-court performances

Introduction Since the 1960s, handball has established itself as one of the most popular team sports (Clanton & Dwight, 1997; Marczinka, 1993). In this review, we use the term ‘‘handball’’ to refer to the game that is played between two teams, each comprising six court players and a goalkeeper. We are not referring to the game played in North America (also called handball) by two (singles), three (cutthroat) or four (doubles) players on a one-, three- or four-walled court (Tyson & Turman, 1983). Professional and amateur handball is played in countries on every continent. World championships, continental championships, and international tournaments in handball take place regularly. Handball has been played in Olympic competition since the 1972 Games in Munich. For handball players to attain and sustain a high level of proficiency, their training programmes should use knowledge from various sport-related

domains, including exercise physiology and sports medicine. Information on training-related issues, such as anthropometric measurements of handball players (e.g. Noustus et al., 2008), physiological attributes (e.g. Ramadan, Hasan, & Barac-Nieto, 1999), throwing velocity and accuracy (e.g. van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003, 2004, 2006), and on-court performance (e.g. Delamarche et al., 1987; Luig et al., 2008) can be utilized effectively in handball programmes, especially strength and conditioning programmes developed for handball players. Professionals involved in training programmes for handball players, such as handball coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, athletic trainers, and sport physicians, should have access to the physical and physiological aspects of handball players so that they can use this information when planning shortand long-term programmes for their players. In addition, this knowledge can be beneficial when

Correspondence: G. Ziv, Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Wingate Institute, Netanya 42902, Israel. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2009 European College of Sport Science DOI: 10.1080/17461390903038470

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these professionals assess the contribution of their programmes to the development of their handball players. An attempt is made in this article not only to review relevant studies on physical and physiological characteristics of handball players, but also to adopt a critical approach while analysing the designs of these studies as well as their findings. Handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches who aim in their training programmes to use (a) the physical and physiological tests selected by these researchers, (b) the test protocols adopted by them or (c) the recommendations they offer, should also be aware of the limitations and methodological concerns of the reviewed studies. This information should help these professionals select and perform the most appropriate tests and test protocols for the benefit of their players. Therefore, the current article has three aims: (a) to review a series of studies (n 23) on physical characteristics, physiological attributes, throwing velocity and accuracy, and on-court performances of male handball players
amateur players, experienced players, professional players, and national team players; (b) to outline a number of methodological concerns and testing limitations associated with the studies reviewed; and (c) to suggest practical recommendations for handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches who work with handball players at all levels (e.g. elite, amateur, adolescent). The reviewed articles were selected from an extensive search of the English language literature, including major computerized databases (PubMed and SPORT Discus) and library holding searchers. Search terms included, among others, handball, team handball, handball physiology, and handball players. Twenty-three articles matching our criteria were identified. Physical characteristics A summary of the physical characteristics of handball players across the reviewed studies is presented in Table I. The mean height of handball players ranged from 1.7490.06 m in 35 adolescent players (Barata, 1992) to 1.8990.08 m in 15 players of the best team in Spain (Gorostiaga, Granados, Ibanez, & Izquierdo, 2005). The two studies recording the lowest mean body mass focused on young players: the participants in one study were 35 adolescent players (age 16.590.8 years) (Barata, 1992), and those in the second study were seven players of the Greek national second division (age 19.791.1 years) (Delamarche et al., 1987). In contrast, the two studies that reported the highest mean body mass included national team handball players (Gorostiaga et al., 2005; Gorostiaga,

Granados, Ibanez, Gonzalez-Badillo, & Izquierdo, 2006). Percent body fat ranged from 11.592% in Kuwaiti national team players (Ramadan et al., 1999) to 14.994.2% in elite Spanish players (Gorostiaga et al., 2006). To succeed in a sport, it is important usually to have specific bodily attributes (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004; Malina, Meleski, & Shoup, 1982). In one study (Gorostiaga et al., 2005), elite and amateur handball players of the same age were compared. The elite players were heavier and had a higher fat-free mass and higher body mass index (BMI) than the amateur players. The authors concluded that a high body mass and specifically high fat-free mass is advantageous in handball. In contrast, a study of first division and second division Greek handball players showed no differences between divisions in terms of height or body mass (Bayios, Anastasopoulou, Sioudris, & Boudolos, 2001); however, descriptive statistics only were reported in this study. Gorostiaga et al. (2006), who assessed 15 elite players four times over one season
the first week of the preparation phase, the beginning and the end of the first competition phase, and the end of the second competition phase
found no differences in body mass or percent body fat. Fat-free mass increased slightly over the season but returned to baseline values by the end of the second competition phase. In a study comparing athletes from different sports, handball players were taller and heavier than soccer players in a sample of Kuwaiti national players (Ramadan et al., 1999). Compared with basketball players, elite handball players were shorter than basketball forwards (1.88
2.00 m) and centres (1.93
2.14 m) but of a similar height to guards (1.85
1.91 m) (Ziv & Lidor, 2009).

Physiological attributes Aerobic profile The maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) of handball players was 50.891.4 ml × kg 1 × min1 in one study (Ramadan et al., 1999) and 58.39 5.3 ml × kg 1 × min 1 in another (Delamarche et al., 1987). In the latter study, testing was conducted on a cycle ergometer. It is possible that a treadmill test would have resulted in higher values, as handball players do not adapt particularly to cycling and therefore local muscular fatigue may have caused general fatigue before reaching the limits of the cardiovascular system. In the study by Ramadan et al. (1999), a comparison of handball and soccer players with a control group (non-players) revealed that handball players had lower VO2max

Physiological attributes of male handball players

377

Table I. A summary of the physical characteristics of male handball players (Mean9SD)

Study

Participants

Experienced players (n 16) Adolescent players aged 16.590.8 years (n35) Bayios et al. (2001) Greek Division 1 players (n 15) and Division 2 players (n 12)

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Asci and Acikada (2007) Barata (1992)

Buchheit et al. (2009) Delamarche et al. (1987) Gorostiaga et al. (2005)

Gorostiaga et al. (2006)

National level players (n 9) National Division 2 players and finalists of the Under-18 French championship (n7) Elite (n 15) and amateur (n 15) players. Elite players were members of the current Spanish handball champions Members of one elite Spanish handball team (n 15) measured four times during a season: T1
first week of preparatory phase, T2
beginning of first competition phase, T3
end of first competition phase, T4
end of second competition phase High-level players (n 16)

Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo (2006) Marques et al. Elite players (n 14), (2007) including 4 Portuguese internationals Noutsos et al. Elite junior Greek national (2008) team players aged 15.590.4 years (n 30) Ramadan et al. Kuwait national players (1999) (n 15) van den Tillaar & Players playing in Division Ettema (2003) 2 of the Norwegian national competition (n9) van den Tillaar & Experienced players playing Ettema (2004) in Divisions 2 and 3 of the Norwegian national competition (n20)

Height (m)

Body mass (kg)

Percent fat (%)

Fat-free mass (kg)

1.8590.06

86.198.9

N.A.

N.A.

1.7490.06

65.091.7

N.A.

N.A.

Division 1: 1.8190.06 Division 2: 1.7990.09 1.81

Division 1: 83.195.2 Division 2: 85.8912.7

N.A.

N.A.

78.4

N.A.

N.A.

1.8090.07

77.397.5

N.A.

N.A.

Elite players: 1.8990.08 Amateur players: 1.8490.07 1.8890.07

Elite players: 95.29 13.0 Amateur players: 82.4910.0

Elite players: 13.892.0 Amateur players: 11.693.0 T1: 14.994.2 T2: 13.992.6 T3: 13.692.6 T4: 14.093.1

Elite players: 81.799.0 Amateur players: 72.497.0 T1: 80.798.8 T2: 81.899.4 T3: 82.198.8 T4: 80.3911.8

1.8490.13

84.8913.1

N.A.

N.A.

1.8290.07

82.5912.2

N.A.

N.A.

1.8090.07

77.8911.2

14.493.9

66.297.6

1.7990.02

85.893.2

11.592.0

75.9*

1.8390.07

82.999.3

N.A.

N.A.

1.8590.08

84.7910

16.793.2

70.6*

T1: T2: T3: T4:

95.6914.3 95.2913.4 95.6912.1 93.9916.9

*Data not available in original paper calculated by authors.

(50.891.4 ml × kg 1 × min1) than soccer players (59.691.0 ml × kg 1 × min 1), and higher VO2max than controls (45.992.0 ml × kg1 × min 1). In a third study, Buchheit et al. (2009) examined VO2max using a portable metabolic system in nine skilled players during a graded exercise test, a high-intensity intermittent endurance test, and a four-a-side handball game that was designed with simplified rules and no stopping to increase the exercise load. Maximal oxygen consumption was 57.3, 56.4, and 60.2 ml × kg 1 × min 1, respectively. The authors suggested that VO2max values

obtained in a field-graded exercise test may not be reliable and could underestimate the real VO2max. However, several other factors may have interfered with achieving maximal results in that test (e.g. motivation of participants and methodology of the test). Ziv and Lidor (2009) reported the VO2max of handball players to be similar to that of basketball players (50
60 ml × kg 1 × min 1), and to be only slightly higher than the 80th and 90th percentiles values (52.1 and 55.1 ml × kg 1 × min1) found in 20- to 29-year-old males (Whaley, Brubaker, & Otto,

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2006), suggesting that this attribute is not the one that distinguishes elite handball players from nonplayers. A study that examined endurance capacity in elite and amateur handball players while running at 10, 12, 14, and 16 km × h1 found no differences in mean blood lactate concentration or in mean heart rate (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). The mean running velocity and heart rate that elicited a blood lactate concentration of 3.0 mmol × l 1 were similar in both elite and amateur players, suggesting that endurance capacity per se does not differentiate elite from amateur handball players. In addition, no significant differences in endurance running at 10, 12, 14, and 16 km × h1 were observed in elite players over the course of a season (Gorostiaga et al., 2006). Power and strength Four studies have examined changes in power and strength with training in male handball players (Bonifazi et al., 2001; Gorostiaga et al., 2006; Gorostiaga, Izquierdo, Iturralde, Ruesta, & Ibanez, 1999; Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). In one study (Gorostiaga et al., 2006), one-repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press increased by 2% from the beginning of the preparation phase to the beginning of the first competition phase (from 104.8915.6 to 106.9911.6 kg). This increase remained relatively stable at the end of the first competition phase. However, the power outputs of the lower and upper extremities remained unaltered throughout the season. In another study (Bonifazi et al., 2001), 10 weeks of training significantly increased vertical jump performance [countermovement jump (CMJ)
hands on waist] from approximately 49 cm to 51.5 cm (exact values were not presented). Average power as measured from a 15-s set of consecutive jumps also increased (from approximately 26 W × kg 1 to 29 W × kg 1). In a study of 19 adolescent players (age 14
16 years), Gorostiaga et al. (1999) examined power and strength changes after 6 weeks of heavy resistance training. In the strength training group, maximal dynamic strength of the leg extensors and the upper extremity muscles increased significantly (12.2% and 23%, respectively). No changes in strength were observed in the group that undertook regular handball training only or in the control group (nonplayers). Interestingly, the strength training group failed to show an improvement in vertical jump, whereas the group involved in handball training improved their vertical jump from 29.5 to 31.4 cm. The authors suggested that this finding can be explained by the strength training programme, which focused on heavy loads and slow contractions.

They claimed that while this type of training can lead to increased strength, it has not been found to increase power and can even lead to a reduction in power. However, others have suggested that heavy loads and slow contractions can increase power (Aagaard, Simonsen, Trolle, Bangsbo, & Klausen, 1994). Improvements in dynamic strength and vertical jump were indicated in a study of 16 elite handball players over 12 weeks of resistance training that included dynamic strength exercises (e.g. bench press and half squat) and power exercises (e.g. countermovement jumps and sprinting) (Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). Bench press 1-RM and parallel squats 4-RM increased from the beginning of the training programme (58.5910.64 kg and 93.5913.9 kg, respectively) to after 6 weeks of the programme (67.9912.8 kg and 122.2921.6 kg, respectively) and after 12 weeks (74.7912.00 kg and 134.1919.4 kg, respectively). Players were also tested for three types of vertical jumps: countermovement jump, countermovement jump with a 20-kg load, and countermovement jump with a 40kg load. Similar to dynamic strength, the increases in performance were significant for all three types of jumps, from the beginning of training to after 6 weeks and to after 12 weeks of training. Based on the four studies examining the effects of training on power and strength, it can be concluded that handball players can increase dynamic strength after participating in resistance training programmes. However, improved power was seen in only two of the studies (Bonifazi et al., 2001; Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006), with the other two failing to show improvements (Gorostiaga et al., 1999, 2006). These differences can be explained by the different types of training applied in each of the studies. In the study by Marques and Gonzalez-Badillo (2006), the training programme included resistance training and explosive-type training (e.g. sprints and box jumps). These explosive-type exercises are expected to improve power. In contrast, in the study of Gorostiaga et al. (1999), the training programme included heavy resistance training with slow movements. As indicated earlier, these exercises may hinder explosive performance. Another explanation for the lack of power improvement during inseason training was provided by Gorostiaga et al. (2006), who suggested that low-intensity aerobictype training may have inhibited power and sprint performance. Unfortunately, Bonifazi et al. (2001) did not report the details of the training programme in their study. Differences in power and strength have been shown to be relatively marked between elite and amateur players. Bench press 1-RM was 22% higher in elite players (106.9911.6 kg) than amateur players (82.5914.8 kg) (Gorostiaga et al.,

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Physiological attributes of male handball players 2005). Power output at all loads was also significantly higher in elite players. Similarly, at all absolute loads, half-squat power output was higher in elite players. These findings suggest that power and strength in a contact sport such as handball are essential for achievement at the highest level of sport performance. Two studies compared power and strength in handball players to athletes in other sports. One study found no differences in bench press 1-RM and peak power between handball players, basketball players, volleyball players, sprinters, and bodybuilders (Asci & Acikada, 2007). In contrast, Izquierdo and colleagues (Izquierdo, Hakkinen, Gonzalez-Badillo, Ibanez, & Gorostiaga, 2002) found that handball players had higher half-squat 1-RM values than middle-distance runners and a control group (non-athletes) (29% difference). The effects of fatigue on performance are important. If fatigue hinders players’ performance, coaches can make substitutions in the later stages of a game. In addition, strength and conditioning coaches can design the fitness programme with the aim of delaying the players’ development of fatigue. In one study (Thorlund, Michalsik, Madsen, & Aagaard, 2007), fatigue was found to reduce muscle performance in male players. Ten players were assessed for maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), rate of force development, and vertical jump before and after a simulated handball game. Quadriceps and hamstrings MVC and rate of force development decreased significantly after the game by 10% and 16
21%, respectively. In addition, vertical jump height decreased after the game by 5.2%. These acute effects following exertion during a game suggest that performance during the later stages of a game may be impaired. It should be noted that not only does increased muscle mass increase power and strength, but neural aspects are also important contributors. The neural adaptations to strength training include an improved synchronization of motor unit firing and an improved ability to recruit motor units (Powers & Howley, 2001). However, these neural aspects were not examined in the studies reviewed. Agility and speed Sprint performances over 5 m and 15 m were reported to be similar between elite and amateur handball players by Gorostiaga et al. (2005), and no differences in sprint performance were observed in elite players throughout one season (Gorostiaga et al., 2006). According to the authors of the latter study, the low-intensity aerobic-type training used during the season may have inhibited sprint performance. It was suggested that more

379

high-intensity endurance running and leg strength training should be incorporated to improve sprinting performance, whereas low-intensity endurance running should receive less attention (Gorostiaga et al., 2006). In contrast to the previous two studies, Marques and Gonzalez-Badillo (2006) reported improvements in sprint performance in 16 elite handball players over 12 weeks of resistance training. The resistance training programme was undertaken 2
3 times a week, and included dynamic strength exercises (e.g. bench press and half-squat) and power exercises (e.g. countermovement jumps and sprinting). A 30-m sprint test was performed with time recorded at 15 m and 30 m. Results showed improvements in 30-m times after 6 weeks (2.24% improvement) and after 12 weeks (3.13% improvement) of training. Similar results were observed for the 15-m sprint times (1.57% improvement after 6 weeks and 2.35% improvement after 12 weeks). This improved performance may be explained in part by the correlation between 4-RM parallel squats and 30-m sprints (r 0.52, P 0.04), and by the fact that handball players worked on sprinting throughout their regular practices (Marques & GonzalezBadillo, 2006). In addition, compared with previous studies that failed to report improvements in speed, this study used a conditioning programme that targeted improvement in both power and strength. The 30-m sprint times observed in this study were similar to those reported in another study of 30 junior (age 15.590.4 years) handball players (4.4 s) (Noutsos et al., 2008). Throwing velocity and accuracy One of the most vital elements of handball is throwing ability (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). Handball players improve their chances of scoring by throwing the ball as fast as possible and by aiming accurately at the goal. A summary of studies examining throwing velocity and accuracy in male handball players is presented in Table II. Differences in throwing velocity between elite and amateur players were reported by Gorostiaga et al. (2005): elite players threw the ball faster in the standing throw and the three-step running throw than amateur players (an 8% and 9% difference, respectively). In both elite and amateur players, bar velocity at 30% of 1-RM correlated positively with throw velocity (r 0.67 and r 0.71, respectively; P B0.05
0.01). These values suggest that players with higher bar velocities at lower relative loads may be able to throw the ball faster (Gorostiaga et al., 2005). In elite players, significant correlations were found between threestep throw velocity and velocities at different

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percentages of bench press 1-RM and half-squat 1RM. The strongest correlation was found at a concentric velocity of 30% of bench press 1-RM (r 0.72). No such correlations were observed in amateur players, probably due to the poor technique or poor throwing coordination of amateur players. It should be noted that inferior bench press technique could also contribute to this lack of correlation in amateur players. Marques and colleagues (Marques, van den Tillaar, Vescovi, & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2007) also found significant correlations between three-step running throwing velocity and bench press 1-RM (r 0.63), peak power at 52% and 67% of 1-RM (r 0.58), and weight bar velocity at 38% (r 0.56) and 52% (r 0.62) of 1-RM. A study examining the relationship of throwing velocity and isokinetic strength of the internal and external shoulder rotators found that players of Division 1 of the Greek national league had higher throwing velocities than players of Division 2 and of physical education students (Bayios et al., 2001). This finding applied to three types of throws
a set throw, a three-step running throw, and a jump throw. Interestingly, no differences between groups were seen in isokinetic strength of the shoulder rotators, suggesting that peak torque of the shoulder rotators is not related to throwing velocity. It was noted by the authors that lower extremity strength as well as trunk rotation may play an important role in throwing velocity. In contrast, a study of 11 US national squad players found strong correlations between jump throwing velocity and each of the following variables: peak torque of shoulder extension, internal rotation, horizontal abduction, and elbow extension and flexion (at velocities of 180, 240, and 300 deg × s 1) (Fleck et al., 1992). Correlations between isokinetic torque and all three velocities for standing throws were found only for horizontal shoulder abduction. The results of this study (Fleck et al., 1992) suggest that upper extremity isokinetic torque is more important in jump throws than in standing throws. This finding makes sense, since during a standing throw one can use the lower extremities and trunk rotation to increase ball velocity. In a jump throw, it is much more difficult to use trunk rotation or lower extremity force (Fleck et al., 1992). Throwing velocity has also been reported to be closely related to physical characteristics. For example, van den Tillaar and Ettema (2004) found correlations between body mass and throwing velocity (r 0.54), fat-free mass and throwing velocity (r 0.62), and height and throwing velocity (r 0.60). All of the above studies were of a correlative nature and not of a causative nature. More intervention

studies are needed to elucidate the importance of upper and lower extremity isokinetic torque and throwing velocity in handball. A number of studies have assessed the contribution of training to increasing throwing velocity in handball players. One study examined changes in throwing velocity over a handball season in elite players and found significant increases in standing throws and three-step running throws at the end of the competition phase compared with the beginning of the phase (Gorostiaga et al., 2006). In addition, significant correlations were observed between total strength training time and standing throwing velocities (r  0.58, PB0.05). Another study examined the effectiveness of a 12-week resistance and power training programme on three-step running throwing velocities, and found improvements after 6 and 12 weeks of training (Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006). However, no changes were observed between Week 6 and Week 12 of the training programme. In addition, after 7 weeks of detraining, ball-throwing velocity was reduced significantly. The authors argued that the elite players may have reached their ball-throwing velocity ceiling, and therefore no changes were observed from Week 6 to Week 12 of the resistance training. It can be determined from these two studies (Gorostiaga et al., 2006; Marques & GonzalezBadillo, 2006) that resistance training should be an integral part of a handball player’s strength and conditioning programme. In another study, Barata (1992) examined whether training with overweight balls (800 g) over 9 weeks would increase throwing velocity compared with resistance training with loads of 1
12 kg and with a control group (no resistance training). The group that trained with heavy balls did show a greater improvement in throwing velocity in both a standing free throw and a free throw with three preparatory steps than the resistance training group. While the results were statistically insignificant for both types of throws, confidence intervals suggested that the differences were meaningful. The control group showed a similar or even greater increase in ball velocity than the resistance training group. The authors suggested that this may have been due to the relative lack of handball experience in the members of the control group (70% of them were in their first year as competitive athletes). In highly skilled elite players who have great throwing ability, specific resistance training with underweight balls can add a positive training effect. However, it is advisable that this type of training should begin only after the athletes are well conditioned (van den Tillaar, 2004). There are two possible strategies for scoring a goal in handball: (a) throwing the ball as fast as possible without any intent to aim accurately, surprising the

Study

Participants

Treatment

Barata (1992)

Adolescent players aged 16.590.8 years (n 35)

9 weeks of training: Group a: throw training with heavier balls(800 g) and official balls Group b: regular resistance training with loads of 1
12 kg Group c: control

Bayios et al. (2001)

Greek national league Division 1 (n15), Division 2 (n12) players, and physical education students (n15)

Descriptive study. Three types of throws tested: On the spot (spot) Crossover step (step) Jump throw (jump)

Fleck et al. (1992)

US national team training squad (n 11)

Descriptive study. Two types of throws tested: Three-step running throw Jump throw

Gorostiaga et al. (2005)

Elite players (n15) and amateur players (n15)

Descriptive study

Characteristics of Throw Standing free throw: Group a: pre: 18.4 m × s 1, post: 20.5 m × s 1, improvement: 11.4% Group b: pre: 18.9 m × s 1, post: 20.2 m × s 1, improvement: 6.9% Group c: pre: 17.9 m × s 1, post: 19.3 m × s 1, improvement: 7.8% Free throw with three preparatory steps: Group a: pre: 21.0 m × s 1, post: 22.5 m × s 1, improvement: 7.1% Group b: pre: 21.4 m × s 1, post: 22.2 m × s 1, improvement: 3.7% Group c: pre: 20.3 m × s 1, post: 21.6 m × s 1, improvement: 6.4% Division 1: Spot: 23.5192.23 m × s 1, step: 26.279 3.21 m × s 1, jump: 22.7492.16 m × s 1 Division 2: Spot: 20.0891.12 m × s 1, step: 23.229 1.86 m × s 1, jump: 20.5491.63 m × s 1 Physical education students: Spot: 16.8591.58 m × s 1, step: 18.99 1.98 m × s 1, jump: 15.5491.42 m × s 1 Maximum ball velocities: Three-step running throw: 28.190.81 m × s 1 Jump throw: 26.390.54 m × s 1 Average of three fastest throws: Three-step running throw: 26.790.7 m × s 1 Jump throw: 25.290.54 m × s 1 Elite players: Standing throw: 23.891.9 m × s 1 Running throw: 25.392.2 m × s 1 Amateur players: Standing throw: 21.891.6 m × s 1 Running throw: 22.991.4 m × s 1 8
9% difference between elite and amateur players

Physiological attributes of male handball players

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Table II. A summary of studies on throwing velocity and accuracy in male handball players (Means9SD)

381

Study

Participants

Treatment

Gorostiaga et al. (2006)

Elite players (n15) of the Spanish national First Division league

Follow-up during a season. Testing at beginning of preparation phase (T1), beginning and end of first competition phase (T2 and T3, respectively), and end of second competition phase (T4)

Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo (2006)

High-level players (n 16)

12 weeks of resistance training (two cycles of 6 weeks) followed by 7 weeks of detraining, 2
3 sessions per week.Principal exercises: bench press, parallel squat, vertical jump onto a box, vertical jump with weights, and sprint exercises

Marques et al. (2007)

Elite players (n14)

Descriptive study. Three-step running throw

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2003)

Experienced players of Norwegian Division 2 (n9)

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2004)

Players from Divisions 2 and 3 of the Norwegian national league (n20)

Five instructional conditions: (1) throw as fast as possible, (2) throw as fast as possible while trying to hit the target, (3) hit the target and throw as fast as possible, (4) hit the target and try to throw as fast as possible, and (5) hit the target Descriptive study. Standing throw from the 7-m line

van den Tillaar and Ettema (2006)

Two groups: Experienced players of Norwegian Division 2 (n 9) and individuals who had never participated in organized sports

Similar study to above

Characteristics of Throw Standing throwing velocity: T1: 24.392.3 m × s 1, T2: 23.891.9 m × s 1, T3: 26.092.2 m × s 1 Running throwing velocity: T1: 25.991.9 m × s 1, T2: 25.392.2 m × s 1, T3: 27.692.2 m × s 1 Significant difference between T3 and T2 to T1 in both standing and running throws. No differences between T4 and T3 Three-step running throwing velocity increased from approximately 22 m × s 1 at the beginning of training to 24.5 m × s 1 at the end of the 12 weeks. After 7 weeks of detraining throwing velocity was reduced to approximately 23.8 m × s 1 Ball throwing velocity increased only until Week 6 of training and did not increase further by Week 12 Running throwing velocity: 23.9891.7 m × s 1 Correlations between throwing velocity and bench press 1-RM (r0.63), peak power at 52% and 67% of 1-RM (r0.58), and weight bar velocity at 38% (r0.56) and 52% (r 0.62) of 1-RM Throw velocity was decreased when accuracy was prioritized No differences in accuracy between instructional conditions

Standing throw velocity: 23.291.6 m × s 1 Positive relationship between body size and throwing performance Throwing performance significantly better in experienced players Ball velocity decreased when accuracy was prioritized in both groups Accuracy was not affected by instructional condition. No velocity
accuracy trade-off was observed

G. Ziv & R. Lidor

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Table II (Continued)

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Physiological attributes of male handball players goalkeeper; and (b) throwing the ball as accurately as possible, trying to keep it out of the reach of the goalkeeper (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003). Of these two options, the first has been discussed thoroughly in the literature. Van Den Tillaar and Ettema (2003) studied the influence of instruction on both velocity and accuracy of handball players. Players threw the ball under five conditions: (1) throw as fast as possible; (2) throw as fast as possible while trying to hit the target; (3) hit the target and throw as fast as possible; (4) hit the target and try to throw as fast as possible; and (5) hit the target. As expected, throwing velocity decreased from Condition 1 to Condition 5. In contrast, no differences in accuracy were observed among the conditions. In all conditions, velocity was at least 85% of the maximal velocity measured in Condition 1. Although velocity was reduced to 85% of maximal throwing velocity, accuracy did not improve. The authors suggested that this may have been due to the high professionalism of the sample of handball players. However, this explanation was refuted in another study conducted by the same authors. In this study, van den Tillaar and Ettema (2006) compared the throwing velocity and accuracy of expert and novice players. The novices had no previous experience in organized sports that involved throwing. Players threw the ball under the same five conditions (1
5) as described above (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003). As expected, velocity was reduced from Condition 1 to Condition 5 in both groups. However, no velocity
accuracy trade-off was observed in either group. When accuracy was prioritized, as in Conditions 3
5, velocity indeed decreased, but accuracy did not improve. The authors suggested that the characteristics of the task at hand were not the cause of a velocity
accuracy trade-off, but rather the level of skill of the players. The fact that most studies have examined velocity but did not look at throwing accuracy is a matter of concern. Theoretically, it could be argued that a threshold for throwing velocity exists, above which increasing throwing velocity has little practical meaning. This would be the velocity that is faster than the fastest reaction time of a handball goalkeeper. Once a field player has managed to achieve this velocity, it would make more sense to practise perfecting the accuracy of the throw at that velocity rather than on continuing to increase velocity. Future studies should attempt to discover this threshold throwing velocity, based on known neural reaction times and experimental trials. On-court performances Time
motion analysis is based on continuous observation of what players do during match-play.

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By studying the actions that handball players perform during games, researchers and practitioners (handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches) can better understand the physical demands imposed on their players. Unfortunately, handball studies using time
motion analyses are rare. Delamarche et al. (1987) assessed blood lactate concentration and heart rate in seven Under-18 handball players during a practice game. Each player was given an activity score based on distance covered, frequency of ground contacts, arm movements, and shots and jumps. Blood lactate was sampled every 5 min during game play. Activity ratings varied between players, suggesting different intensities of play. Heart rate changed frequently but remained within a range of 20 beats × min 1 for each player. Maximal heart rate rose as the game progressed. The three most active players reached heart rates of over 190 beats × min 1 and blood lactate concentrations of over 7.5 mmol × l1. These players ran for 20
30 min with blood lactate over 4.0 mmol × l 1. As the authors showed, the most active players tolerated high lactate concentrations for relatively long durations. It was also reported that the increase in blood lactate stopped during the 10 min half-time break. A cautious approach should be adopted when interpreting blood lactate data. Lactate concentration is a consequence of lactate appearance and disappearance. It is possible that players with low concentrations of blood lactate actually work at similar, or even higher, intensities than players with high blood lactate concentrations. This can be due to an efficient rate of lactate disappearance in those players. The data in the study of Delamarche et al. (1987) shows two players with the same activity rating; however, while one player had a high heart rate (195 beats × min1) and high blood lactate concentration (6.4 mmol × l 1), the other player had a low heart rate (188 beats × min 1) and low blood lactate concentration (4.0 mmol × l 1). These differences suggest that while playing at similar intensities, individuals can use aerobic and anaerobic metabolism differently. These differences can be due to genetic differences, different standards of fitness, and/or other variables. Luig et al. (2008) conducted time
motion analyses during nine games of the 2007 men’s World Cup. The analyses were conducted using a computerized match analysis system. Four movement categories were defined in this study: walking, slow running, fast running, and sprinting. Playing time was significantly higher in wings (37.3792.37 min) and goalkeepers (37.1193.28 min) than backcourt players (29.1691.70 min) and pivots (29.379 2.70 min). Total distance covered was higher in

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G. Ziv & R. Lidor

wings (3710.69210.2 m) than in backcourt players (2839.99150.6 m) and pivots (2786.99238.8 m). As anticipated, goalkeepers covered the shortest total distance (2058.1990.2 m). The total distance covered by field players consisted of 34.394.9% walking, 44.795.1% slow running, 17.993.5% fast running, and 3.092.2% sprinting. Compared with other players, wings covered significantly shorter distances while slow running but significantly longer distances while fast running and sprinting. As the authors suggested, these on-court data can help coaches plan specific strength and conditioning programmes for individuals playing in different positions. Unfortunately, we could not identify studies that examined oxygen consumption during a handball game. This fact, in addition to the limited information on time
motion analyses, prevents researchers and coaches from thoroughly quantifying the physiological demands imposed on handball players. More studies in these areas are urgently required. More specifically, these studies should include blood lactate sampling, on-court oxygen consumption measurements using a portable metabolic system, and time
motion analyses focusing on specific handball actions, such as jumping, running, sprinting, throwing, and walking. Research concerns and testing limitations of the studies reviewed Based on the studies reviewed on physical characteristics, physiological attributes, throwing velocity and accuracy, and on-court performances of handball players, five research concerns and testing limitations are discussed. 1. The lack of on-court physiological data. Only two studies (Delamarche et al., 1987; Luig et al., 2008) examined on-court performances of male handball players. By understanding the physical and physiological demands of handball players during match-play, handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches can effectively plan their strength and conditioning programmes. More time
motion analyses are needed to fully understand what handball players do during games. 2. The lack of experimental/manipulative studies. Most of the studies reviewed in this article were of a correlative or descriptive nature, and did not include interventional programmes (e.g. strength and conditioning programmes for improving throwing velocity and/or throwing accuracy). The descriptive and correlative nature of most studies implies certain possible conclusions; they can by no means suggest causality. In fact, correlational studies can only

provide association among variables, and cannot entirely explain any variations in the results obtained. Therefore, more studies should encourage implementation of conditioning programmes for agility and speed and power and strength, with at least one intervention/training group and one control/no training group. It is the case that some studies reviewed here (e.g. Marques & Gonzalez-Badillo, 2006) did examine the contribution of interventional programmes to physiological attributes of male handball players; however, more studies should be conducted to assess the contribution of different training programmes to the physical attributes of handball players. 3. The limited data on throwing accuracy. Although some data are available on throwing velocity and its relationship with power and strength, very little data are available regarding throwing accuracy. This is unfortunate, as accuracy is just as important as velocity when handball players are attempting to score a goal. More studies should examine throwing accuracy, in particular the effect of different training programmes (e.g. virtual reality, simulation, and accuracy games) on throwing accuracy. 4. The lack of longitudinal studies. By using a longitudinal approach, relevant information on the development of the physical attributes of beginning and advanced handball players, as well as their physiological characteristics and on-court performances, can be collected, analysed, and interpreted. 5. The lack of studies examining handball performance under conditions of fatigue. In real handball practice and match-play, the players are required to perform under fatiguing conditions. It has been shown that high fatigue can hinder sport performance involving endurance, rapid movements, and strength (see Montgomery et al., 2008; Pack, 1974; Reilly, Drust, & Clarke, 2008). Therefore, different protocols for tests assessing physical abilities under fatiguing conditions should be used in handball studies. Conditioning for team handball: Practical suggestions for handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches Based on the studies reviewed, five practical suggestions are offered to handball coaches and strength and conditioning coaches who work with male handball players: 1. Power and strength exercises should be emphasized in conditioning programmes, as they are associated with both sprint performance and throwing velocity and can distinguish between amateur and elite handball players. However, it

Physiological attributes of male handball players

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2.

3.

4.

5.

should be noted that strength training with heavy loads and slow movements can hinder vertical jump performance (Gorostiaga et al., 1999). Coaches should keep in mind the concept of specificity in training and base their conditioning programmes on performance goals for individual players. In a review of throwing velocity, van den Tillaar (2004) suggested that specific resistance training with underweight balls can be effective in increasing throwing velocity in highly experienced players. Specific speed and agility drills should be implemented in conditioning programmes. Gorostiaga et al. (2006) showed that sprinting performance did not improve over a season when specific drills were not provided. Sprint training should be specific to the on-court sprint demands of handball players. Specificity is of great importance when planning a strength and conditioning programme. If players are expected to run faster, sprint training should be implemented. If wings are expected to jump as high as possible above the defenders’ hands in order to throw, explosive-type power training should be implemented. Handball players in different positions should practise those feats which they are required to perform. Strength and conditioning programmes should be developed according to data collected from time
motion analyses. The specific strength and conditioning programme developed for a given handball team should reflect the data collected on the performances of that team during match-play. In addition, strength and conditioning programmes should be developed according to the individual playing positions and skill of the handball players. A careful approach to the selection of (a) testing devices, (b) test protocols, and (c) testing phases should be adopted by handball and strength and conditioning coaches. The tests selected should primarily help coaches asses both the physical/physiological state of the players and their skill mastery at a specific phase of the training programme (i.e. preparation, competition or transition phase). Coaches should be aware of the various tests performed in the studies as well as of their specific objectives and emphases, so that they will be able to select the ones that provide them with the most relevant and useful information.

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