ARTICLE IN PRESS
Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
Evaluating a servicescape: the effect of cognition and emotion Ingrid Y. Lin* School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 201 Mateer Building, State College, PA 16802-1307, USA
Abstract The debate among researchers regarding whether cognition precedes emotion or emotion precedes cognition in individuals’ evaluation process still remains unresolved and ambiguous. This paper attempts to review literature relating to the impact of the servicescape on customer behavior, with emphasis on the concept of Gestalt psychology. The Gestalt approach serves as a guide to understand and explain how an individual forms an impression or a perceptual image of a servicescape, how the image formation then leads to an emotional response, and finally, the actual appraisal or evaluation of a specific service environment. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Appraisal; Cognition; Emotion; Evaluation; Perceptual image; Servicescape
1. Introduction Many studies have shown that physical environments, also termed servicescapes, play an important role, both positive and negative, in customers’ impression formation (Bitner, 1992). This paper summarizes and reviews literature regarding the effects of servicescapes on customer behavior (1) to ascertain implications of these effects for service providers, (2) to get an overall picture and a general understanding of an individual’s evaluation process of a servicescape, and (3) to provide an understanding of the roles servicescapes play in influencing consumer behavior. This paper also attempts to extend this literature with the following additions to existing work. Specifically, the often-ignored concept of Gestalt psychology will be introduced and emphasized, because individuals tend to view servicescapes holistically as opposed to based on one or two specific environmental cues. *Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-814-235-9484. E-mail address:
[email protected] (I.Y. Lin). 0278-4319/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2003.01.001
ARTICLE IN PRESS 164
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
A discussion of whether cognition or emotion comes first in consumers’ evaluations of servicescapes is followed by a discussion of the importance of cognition to research in servicescape evaluation. Do consumers first think or feel when they enter a servicescape? Over the years, an immense literature has developed on emotion and cognition. Researchers have argued from both perspectives; some researchers argue that cognitive states precede emotional states (Lazarus, 1999; Oliver, 1980, 1981), while others argue that emotional states precede cognitive states during the process of evaluation or appraisal (Pham et al., 2001; Swinyard, 1993). The debate remains unresolved. There is a great deal of literature focusing on and verifying the benefits of providing good service to customers and of offering better training to increase employee motivation, performance, and productivity in the service industry. Research typically accords priority to the service encounter to increase sales and profits and customer satisfaction. Yet little research focus has been placed on the impact of servicescapes on customers’ perception and evaluation of these settings. Servicescapes are an important tangible component of the service product that provide cues to customers and create an immediate perceptual image in customers’ minds (Kotler, 1973). Levitt (1981) notes that when customers evaluate intangible products (e.g., services), they always depend to some extent on both appearance and external impression; servicescapes, in this context, encompass the appearance and impression of the service organization’s overall products and services. Based on Levitt’s explanation, since the hospitality industry provides a high degree of intangible product levels like services, consumers are likely to use tangible aspects like appearances to make judgments and evaluations. Servicescapes, in this case, are not only an important component of a customer’s impression formation, but also an important source of evidence in the overall evaluation of the servicescape itself and the service organization in general. Particularly in the hotel division of the hospitality industry, guests interact with the physical environment more than with the service agent. That is, consumers interact with the servicescape prior to experiencing the service in an exchange with a service agent. Hence, it is various environmental cues and physical components that help individuals form a holistic picture of the overall servicescape. Following the concept of Gestalt psychology, I argue that when customers evaluate a servicescape (e.g., measuring satisfaction or appraisal), individual perception serves as a cognitive schema. An individual’s cognitive perceptions stimulate his or her emotional responses (e.g., pleasure, arousal, and dominance (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974)). Hence, as Lazarus (1999) noted, cognition precedes emotion when individuals are appraising the servicescape.
2. The Gestalt approach and principles of perception Perception is a function of multiple sources of input from the environment and from one’s own predisposition, expectations, motives, and knowledge gleaned from past learning experiences (Schiffman, 2001). All of these elements together produce
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
165
an individual’s picture of the world (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1978). Individuals generally receive a variety of stimuli from a servicescape, organize them cognitively into groups, and form images from the stimuli as a whole. The term ‘‘Gestalt’’ is derived from German, and signifies form, shape, or a whole configuration (Schiffman, 2001). Gestalt psychology was advanced by a group of German psychologists—Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler—in the early twentieth century. Gestalt psychologists studied patterns of stimuli and observed that some stimuli appeared to be spontaneously grouped together, with clear visual field qualities which individuals usually can perceive immediately (Schiffman, 2001). They believed that a perception cannot be meaningfully deconstructed into its elementary components (e.g., sensations), and proposed that the basic units of perception are the perceptions themselves, also known as ‘‘Gestalts’’. Gestalt psychologists argued that the attempt to break down and reduce a perception to its presumed elementary sensory units would be to lose sight of the perception itself. The Gestalt approach emphasizes the role of the overall structure and the relationship between components in producing perceptual organization (Schiffman, 2001). This approach also explains that the perception of the whole dominates the perception of its parts. The basic Gestalt theme is that the whole is different from the sum of its parts (Schiffman, 2001) and the Gestalt psychology ‘‘ystresses the use of unlearned organizing tendencies to perceive relations between visual stimuli’’ (Schiffman, 2001, p. 192). Individuals’ perceptions of a hotel lobby tend to include not only the front desk, but also many other elements such as the employees and customers, the lighting, floors, furniture, artwork, and color of the walls. The lobby is evaluated by including sensory inputs such as music and scents. All these elements contribute to the formation of customers’ image of the lobby. Furthermore, in evaluating the entire property, individuals also include the exterior architecture, as opposed to only the interior decor. Both the exterior and interior of the hotel reflect the style and image of its physical environment and influence customers’ evaluations. How do individuals organize and make sense of these perceptions? Gestalt psychology suggests that individuals organize perceptions of physical environments into figures and grounds. Figures are usually perceived immediately, because they are clear and at the front of the visual field. Grounds, however, are usually perceived as vague and hazy, and are not as notable as figures (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1978). Individuals also interpret contextual effects to make sense of their environments. Contextual effect refers to the phenomenon whereby individuals group information together to form a unified picture. For example, in a hotel setting, all elements of the servicescape are grouped together by customers in order to form a comprehensive image of the servicescape. According to Gestalt psychology, there are six principles that individuals make use of in averaging or grouping forms (Schiffman, 2001). Each principle may be applied to the design of the physical environment in hotels. The six principles are as follows: (1) Proximity/nearness—individual elements are grouped together according to a similar perceived distance, which can be far or close.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 166
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
(2) Similarity—elements that are similar physically tend to be grouped together. (3) Continuity—elements that appear to point in the same direction are readily perceived as forming a group (continuations of an aspect of a curve), such as along a straight line or simple curve. (4) Common fate—elements that move in the same direction are perceptually grouped together. This has commonality with the principle of similarity, but is applied to moving elements. (5) Symmetry—priority in grouping is given to naturally balanced, symmetrical figures over asymmetrical ones. Symmetry is generally considered a critical factor in aesthetics. (6) Closure—grouping occurs in a way that favors perception of a more enclosed or complete figure. These principles presented above explain how individuals organize perceptual images. Researchers have demonstrated that individuals’ behaviors are a result of their interaction with their environment (Schiffman, 2001, pp. 174–176). The principles of Gestalt psychology provide a useful framework with which to analyze such individual–environment interactions and their effects on an individual’s appraisals and behavior. There are various moderators or mediators that affect a person’s formation of a mental image. For example, a perception can be categorized based on two main perspectives: micro and macro (see Fig. 1). A micro-perspective implies consideration of issues that affect perception at the individual level. This includes applying principles of Gestalt to explain image formation, and also includes the individual level variables such as personality traits, preconsumption expectations, goal behaviors, and cognitive style in research projects. The macro-perspective, on the other hand, directs research attention to issues that are outside of the individual. This includes socio-cultural influences (e.g., Feng-Shui principles, individualism vs. collectivism) and aesthetic effects (e.g., interior de! cor and design). Servicescape literature can be enriched with the inclusion of both micro- and macro-perspective variables. These possible intervening variables from micro- and macro-perspectives (e.g., personality traits, goal behavior, preconsumption expectations, and cultural influences) can also be considered as antecedents to or intervening variables in an individual’s cognitive processing as well as emotional response. Many researchers fail to take these intervening variables into consideration when examining the impact of design elements within a servicescape on consumers’ behavioral responses. Although there are other processes that affect the relationship between cognitive processing and affective responses, a discussion of these elements is outside the scope of this paper. All in all, in order to analyze the psychological impact of design elements in servicescapes, one must understand the many ways in which people perceive their surroundings (Baraban and Durocher, 2001). In The Hidden Dimension, Hall (1969) discusses how the human sensory system can be categorized into the following two components: (1) distance receptors, and (2) immediate receptors. Distance receptors refer to the retrieval of visual sensory input
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
167
Micro-perspective: Personality traits Expectations Goal behaviors Cognitive-style Involvement
Servicescape (elements/ attributes)
Cognitive Processing (Organize perceptual image)
Affective Processing (Emotions)
Cognitive Processing (evaluation)
Behavior (e.g., approach/ avoidance)
Macro-Perspective: Socio-cultural Individualism vs. collectivism Demographics (generation gap) Aesthetics
Fig. 1. Consumers’ evaluation process of a servicescape.
from the eyes, auditory sensory data from the ears, and olfactory sensory input from the nose. These receptors allow us to gather information without making contact with an object or a person, and allow us to examine and experience objects that are at some distance. The immediate receptors refer to specific sensory responses through the skin, membranes, and muscles. They enable experience via touch, such as temperature, texture, hardness, and shape (Hall, 1969; Baraban and Durocher, 2001). The following section will discuss some examples regarding distance and immediate receptors that have been a component of servicescape evaluation in previous literature.
3. Visual cues The various visual cues within a servicescape include the following: color, lighting, space and function, personal artifacts and plants, and layout and design (Bitner, 1992). This study will discuss previous examinations of these components, specifically color, lighting, and space and function.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 168
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
3.1. Color Color is one of the obvious visual cues in a servicescape. According to Eiseman (1998), color is a strong visual component of a physical setting, particularly in an interior setting. Research has shown that different colors stimulate varying personal moods and emotions. In evaluating a servicescape, this visual sensory input includes forming a mental picture through cognitive processing prior to affecting individuals’ personal moods and emotions. Many researchers assume, contrary to this model, that environmental cues within a servicescape directly stimulate people’s emotional response without being cognitively processed first. For example, Bellizzi and Hite (1992) found that consumers react more favorably to a blue environment in retail settings, and that warm-colored backgrounds seem to be more capable of eliciting attention and attracting people to approach a store. Their findings showed that blue stores had higher simulated purchase rates. They also determined that colors influence people’s emotional pleasure more strongly than arousal or dominance. Boyatzis and Varghese (1994) found that children often related positive emotions with light colors and negative emotions with dark colors. Hamid and Newport (1989) studied the effect of color on physical strength and mood in preschool children. They found that children exhibited greater strength and positive mood when in a pink room than when in a blue room. However, the abovecited studies did not examine individuals’ cognitive processing. Cognitive activity causally precedes an emotion in the flow of psychological events, and subsequent cognitive activity is later affected by that emotion (Lazarus, 1999). In other words, the cognitive activity precedes and continues into the emotional response itself as an integral feature (see Fig. 1). 3.2. Space and function The furnishings in a servicescape link the space with its occupants and convey the personality of the servicescape through form, line, color, texture, and scale. The furniture placement may convey a sense of enclosure, define spatial movement, function as walls, and communicate visible or invisible boundaries. Recognizable changes in ceiling heights affect spatial perception more than a similar change in room width or length. High ceilings convey feelings of spaciousness, whereas low ceilings are associated with coziness and intimacy (Ching, 1996). All of these elements help individuals form a mental picture prior to affective response and judgments toward a specific servicescape. 3.3. Lighting The type of lighting in an environment directly influences an individual’s perception of the definition and quality of the space, influencing his or her awareness of physical, emotional, psychological, and spiritual aspects of the space (Kurtich and Eakin, 1993). Light influences the perceptions of form, color, texture, and enclosure (Ching, 1996). Environmental psychology has assessed the relationship
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
169
between light intensity and task productivity, revealing that people’s perceptions of light influence their perceptions of the environment. Researchers have found that participants perceived tasks more positively and reported decreased boredom in a room with windows, in contrast to a room without windows (Kim, 1998; Stone and Irvine, 1994). Wohlfarth (1984) investigated the effect of color and lighting on disciplinary incidents in elementary schools and reported similar findings. Results suggested that in some classrooms the use of natural light significantly reduced reported incidents of aggressive, disruptive, and destructive behavior. Furthermore, Gifford (1988) researched the influence of lighting level and room de! cor on interpersonal communication, comfort, and arousal. Results indicated that general communication was more likely to occur in bright environments, whereas more intimate conversation occurred in softer light. Areni and Kim (1993) investigated the interaction between customer activity and type of lighting on shelf level, sampling behavior, amount of time spent, and total sales in a store environment. The results of their study revealed that brighter stores prompt more handling and examination of products, but do not influence sales or time spent in the store. Steffy (1990) suggested that environments in which the lighting is designed to harmonize with furniture and accessories are perceived as more pleasant than environments in which lighting does not harmonize with other elements of the room.
4. Auditory cues 4.1. Music In a servicescape, guests take note of music and noise as auditory components of their evaluations. Studies on music and consumer behavior have demonstrated that music can be used as an effective tool to minimize the negative consequences of waiting in any service operation (Hui et al., 1997). Music can also be a positive auditory cue stimulating specific consumer behaviors and emotions, as many research studies have discovered. Yalch and Spangenberg (1988) found that younger shoppers reported spending more time shopping when background music was played and that music had a significant effect on arousal. Younger shoppers reported increased time shopping in stores with background music, while older shoppers reported increased time shopping in the store with foreground music (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1990). Another study conducted by Areni and Kim (1993) demonstrated the differing effects of classical and top-forty music on wine shoppers. Playing classical music resulted in significantly higher sales because it led consumers to buy more expensive items. Dube et al. (1995) similarly found that music appears to influence buyer–seller interaction. Milliman (1986) discovered that music tempo influences customer time at tables and bars, but does not influence service time, instances of leaving before being seated, or purchases of food.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 170
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
Musical sounds evaluated by hospital patients as calming, have been shown to have therapeutic effects. Many studies indicate that musical treatments facilitated healing, whether healing was assessed by physiological response, patient self-report, or behavioral observation. For example, Ragneskog and Kihlgren (1997) have shown that slow, quiet music can successfully calm agitated patients with dementia, and Stanley (1986) revealed that it can decrease physiological indicators of stress, whereas fast, loud music may increase patients’ stress indicators. Perhaps music itself has a direct impact on an individual’s physiological, arousal response. However, when evaluating a servicescape, researchers should perhaps combine music with other environmental cues, because as discussed above, when we evaluate a servicescape, we tend to view an environment holistically prior to making specific judgments. A piece of music that does not fit the surroundings will not contribute positively to customers’ evaluations. 4.2. Non-musical sound Noise and loudness of sound have usually been perceived as irritating and annoying. Two components of sound are volume (loudness), which relates to amplitude or height of sound waves, and pitch, which is the frequency of sound waves (Kryter, 1985). Loudness is perceived as negative stimulation, especially when the sound is unexpected or is subjectively perceived as undesirable (Kryter, 1985). Too much sound may result in decreased concentration, increased activity, irritability, and tension (Kryter, 1985). On the other hand, constant sound, quiet, and silence may be equally problematic. A balance of loud and constant sound is the key to creating a pleasant sound environment (Kryter, 1985).
5. Olfactory cues Since studies have confirmed that scents can be a powerful tool in increasing sales, they have gained much more attention in the retail business. Scents can influence a consumer’s desire to make a purchase; for instance, they can increase a bakery’s sales by as much as 300% (Hirsch, 1991). Hirsch (1995) tested the effects of two ambient odors on the amount of money spent on slot machines in a Las Vegas casino. One odorant significantly increased the amount of money gambled, while the other did not. The effective odorant apparently enhanced the casino patrons’ desire to gamble. Hvastja and Zanuttinit (1991, p. 245) found that an olfactory cue can ‘‘heighten the awareness; it alerts the organism to existence of agents in the air, to check their quality for guidance of behavior on the basis of previous encounters, to avoid or approach certain substances’’. Ambient odors may also simply influence a consumer’s mood (Bone and Ellen, 1999). Mood and affect shifts are the most frequently suggested mediators of olfactory effects on individual’s perception and behaviors (Bone and Ellen, 1999). Similar to music, scent should be evaluated with other environmental cues when examining the impact of a servicescape on customer behavior. Individuals do not
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
171
evaluate a specific servicescape based on only one environmental stimulus. All discrete pieces combine to form a holistic picture. In this case, it is through various environmental cues that individuals receive input through their sensory systems to form a mental picture, which then stimulates an emotional response. Finally, based on the emotional response, individuals then again process cognitively by evaluating the servicescape. This paper attempts to extend the existing literature by demonstrating that complex variables such as color, music, and scent should be better defined and categorized prior to adopting them into experimentation in order to gain more precise results in how these environmental cues have an impact on customer behavior and judgment. Mattila and Wirtz (2001), in a study that also incorporated the Gestalt concept, examined the effect of two ambient scents (lavender and grapefruit) on customers’ approach and avoidance behaviors. However, they did not empirically test the effect of a Gestalt approach. A number of criticisms of the analyses of sensory data that this study cites have been raised: (1) specific stimuli such as color, music, and scents application of sensory cues have not been clearly defined, and (2) these studies also fail to consider the cognitive processing (e.g., perceptual formation) that occurs prior to measuring emotional response. In response, we can make the following refutations: The microperception aspect of perceptual organization is derived from the Gestalt holistic phenomena. While we retrieve sensory cues from the environment, we are essentially processing cognitively by forming a perception of the servicescape prior to even beginning to feel anything about it. This part of cognitive processing has been ignored in many previous environmental studies. It is reasonable to argue that without examining the first part of the cognitive process, we have missed an important aspect of how environmental cues influence individuals’ behavioral responses. This approach essentially assumes the end result, as opposed to empirically testing individuals’ behavior.
6. Emotional response Mehrabian and Russell (1974, p. 55) note, ‘‘A person’s feeling at any time can be characterized by the three dimensions in our framework (e.g., pleasure, arousal, dominance)’’. Pleasure is a feeling state that is similar to liking, but also correlates with arousal. Arousal is also conceptualized as a feeling state varying along a single dimension ranging from sleep to frantic excitement (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Dominance is a feeling state that is based on the extent to which he has control over his act or not in variety of ways in a servicescape (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). A servicescape that is considered flexible is associated with feeling of dominance for the individual (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). On the other hand, a servicescape that is rated as more intense, more ordered, and more powerful is associated with submissive feeling for the individual (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). There are other processes that affect the relationship between cognitive processing and affective responses, a discussion of these elements is outside the scope of this paper. This paper describes consumers’ evaluation processes of a servicescape; however, the
ARTICLE IN PRESS 172
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
primary emphasis is on the first half of the research framework (see Fig. 1) from servicescape elements/stimuli to individual’s cognitive processes (e.g., how individuals form a perceptual image).
7. Cognition precedes emotion or vice versa? How do consumers evaluate a servicescape? Do customers think first or feel first when they first enter a servicescape? Over the years, an immense literature has developed on emotion and cognition. Researchers have argued from both stances— either cognition precedes emotion (Lazarus, 1999) or emotion precedes cognition (Pham et al., 2001). However, this debate still remains unresolved. Based on the Gestalt concept, perhaps this question can be answered more precisely. Lazarus (1999, p. 127) argues that ‘‘cognitive activity causally precedes an emotion in the flow of psychological events, and subsequent cognitive activity is also later affected by that emotion’’. The causal cognitive activity continues into the emotional response itself as an integral feature’’. Lazarus’s argument resembles the arguments presented in Gestalt theory. As mentioned earlier, individuals form a holistic mental image based on elements in the servicescapes, which influences emotional/affective responses. According to Lazarus, this leads to cognitive appraisal and interpretation of the affective response. Finally, individuals respond behaviorally (e.g., approach or avoidance behavior) (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Many prior studies of the effects of servicescapes have ignored the cognitive processes, and have examined the effects of environmental stimuli directly on individuals’ emotional responses and behaviors. When consumers walk into a servicescape, there are numerous environmental cues that they sense and visualize. Hence, unconsciously, consumers are in fact gathering and retrieving all the cues together to create a mental picture in their minds. This stage of the cognitive processing is important because consumers are also believed to form specific expectations of a product/servicescape prior to actual purchase (Oliver, 1980, 1981). Human sensory perception is understood as immediate, basic, and direct experiences of stimulus attributes such as warm, loud, blue, and the like caused by the appropriate stimulation of a sensory organ (Schiffman, 2001). It is these inputs of visual, audio, and olfactory sensations, also known as the sense modality variable (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974), that individuals recruit to form a cognitive schema, or image of a servicescape. Hence, these sense modality variables should be considered mandatory moderators of our subsequent moods, emotions, and behaviors. The following paragraphs will review the research relating to the effect of environmental stimulus/stimuli on customers’ behaviors.
8. Behavioral responses A wealth of literature exists on the effects of environmental cues on behaviors. However, much of the research in the area of environmental psychology is focused
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
173
on retail stores, e.g., supermarkets (e.g., Hirsch, 1991; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Bellizzi and Hite, 1992; Bellizzi et al., 1983; Spangenberg et al., 1996; Areni and Kim, 1993; Yalch and Spangenberg, 1990, 2000). This research also only considers consumers’ immediate emotional responses to environmental cues, without taking into account the moderating or mediating effect of variables (e.g., individuals’ cognitive style, personalities). Many studies also fail to consider people’s subconscious processes of perceptual organization prior to measuring their emotional response and behavior. Individuals are more likely to retrieve sensory reactions prior to emotional responses (Lazarus, 1999). With regard to this particular study, this means that individuals retrieve sensory cues from a servicescape and form a subconscious mental image of the servicescape prior to experiencing any emotion and making judgments toward the specific servicescape. An individual’s evaluation of a servicescape arises from the person, the environment, and the ongoing interaction between the two. These evaluations may vary with biology, personality, socio-cultural experience, goals, expectations, and internal and external factors (Walsh et al., 2000). Evaluation may incorporate any of the environment’s many attributes, and may involve varying amounts of feeling or mental activity. It may also arise from the content or meaning of the form, and this requires more mental activity in order to recognize the content, place it into a mental framework, and then evaluate it.
9. Future research and implications To improve research in this area, it is reasonable to suggest that researchers (1) take cognition into account in terms of how it precedes individuals’ emotional response, (2) assess how this cognitive process then affects individuals’ emotional responses prior to examining their behavior and evaluations of servicescape, and (3) investigate the role of moderators or mediators from micro- and macro-perspectives (e.g., individuals’ expectations, attitude, perception, personality, purchasing intentions/goals, and socio-cultural influences) when examining the effect of servicescapes on customer behavior. After all, it is the human perception and evaluation of a form that gives a servicescape meaning (Walsh et al., 2000, p. 18). Research will benefit from taking customers’ cognitive processing into consideration when examining the effect of a servicescape on their appraisal or evaluation. The main idea of this paper is to suggest that in order to create a pleasant servicescape in the mind of customers, it is important to understand customers’ overall evaluation process both theoretically and practically. Servicescapes should receive more in-depth study in services marketing literature because they can be treated as both an independent variable and a moderating variable. Servicescapes can be treated as independent variables because they are a part of the environmental stimuli that individuals retrieve through their sensory input, to help define specific meanings or characteristics about a specific service. This part of the processing can be referred to as perception or image formation. As mentioned, this perception then leads to an individual’s specific emotional responses, and
ARTICLE IN PRESS 174
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
to the formation of a specific cognitive schema (e.g., comparing his/her expectations with reality). Finally, the individual’s evaluative judgments (e.g., satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction) are made. At the final stage of the evaluation, which is considered as subsequent cognitive processing of their emotional responses, customers not only evaluate the servicescape itself, but also the overall quality of services provided by the organization. As mentioned earlier, there are several antecedents and intervening variables (e.g., personality traits, preconceived expectation) prior to cognitive processing. Individuals’ cognitive processing as well as emotional responses vary and could be considered situational. Servicescapes can also play a moderating role in that servicescapes moderate the relationship between customers’ preconceived expectations prior to entering the servicescape and final evaluation of the services. For example, if individuals chose to dine at a fine dining restaurant, the preconceived expectations would be that the restaurant must be nicely decorated (e.g., white table cloth, dim lighting, good service). If the preconceived expectation is congruent with the servicescape, then in the end, consumers would evaluate the servicescape and the overall service organization more positively than if consumers’ preconceived expectation is incongruent with the expected servicescape and services provided. Researchers should focus not only on the influence of interior attributes of a servicescape on customer behavior, but also on the analysis of consumers’ psychological processing and evaluation, and thus they need to view the entire servicescape holistically. The exterior elements (e.g., architecture) and the overall flow and design of a servicescape from exterior components to interior components should all be incorporated into servicescapes research. While it is methodologically difficult to incorporate the influence of multiple environmental cues into a tight research framework, researchers should not assume that by incorporating one or two environmental stimuli into the research framework they will have covered the entire theoretical holistic perspective. Moreover, studies that have incorporated color (e.g., Bellizzi and Hite, 1992), music (e.g., Dube et al., 1995), and/or scents (e.g., Mattila and Wirtz, 2001; Hirsch, 1995) should demonstrate the categorization of each component (e.g., color, music, scent). For example, researchers should go a step further in explaining why they choose the color red and blue (e.g., why not other colors—pastel pink and blue?) to represent the color variable. Color is a complex variable which includes its own independent dimensions such as hue, saturation, and brightness. However, no empirical research has yet developed an appropriate classification of color and music to better differentiate the different typologies in color, music, and scent. In order to enrich the servicescapes literature in marketing and consumer behavior, researchers should focus on improving and developing better methodologies and research design when conducting research relating to servicescapes. Other research methods, designs, and analyses that are more appropriate to answer questions relating to evaluating the impact of a ‘‘whole’’ servicescape on consumer behavior, such as triangulation (the combination of qualitative and quantitative research), should be adopted.
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
175
10. Managerial implications A servicescape is composed of many elements. These elements translate into specific environmental cues. When an individual perceives these specific cues through his or her sensory system, that person is essentially creating a cognitive schema and forming a specific mental image. The principles of Gestalt psychology can be critically employed in creating a pleasant servicescape. For example, when service providers make decisions about the overall layout and design of a service environment, the purposive visual targets should be taken into account and put together so as to form a perceptual figure that stands out from the background. Thus, a vivid image is imprinted on the consumer’s mind. The servicescape should be compatible with the guests’ expectations. Hence, service providers have to define their target customers prior to determining the overall layout and design of the servicescape. Applying Gestalt principles can help service providers to make many practical decisions about the design of their facilities. The principle of similarity indicates that having different perceptual fields is not advisable in multiple-design styles because outstanding figures (pictorial images that appear obvious) will not be perceived as stable under competing stimulus patterns (Schiffman, 2001). In terms of continuity, in a service environment such as a hotel lobby, the furniture should be arranged with fluent movement of line and walkways should not be convoluted and intricate. According to the principle of common fate, elements that move in the same direction are perceptually grouped together (Schiffman, 2001). Symmetry is also generally considered a critical factor in aesthetics (Schiffman, 2001). For example, the forms of most famous architectural styles, clothing styles, decorations, and food packages all emphasize the importance of symmetry. Symmetry seems to be a necessary component of beauty. Finally, today, in the so-called ‘‘information-explosion era,’’ where there are huge number of stimuli surrounding us in our daily lives, the principle of closure should be followed in servicescape design, in order to promote feelings of privacy and independence. These micro-levels of determination can be used as guidelines by service providers and designers when making decisions about the layout and design of a servicescape. At the macro-level, on the other hand, service providers need to define their market positioning, segmentation, and target market by creating a servicescape that will meet the target customers’ needs, wants, and expectations. In the context of services marketing, consistency between brand perception and the design of the physical environment is critical. Designers need to create a servicescape that fits the purpose of customers’ consumption experience and the functionality of both private and public areas of a specific service environment. Different service environments provide guests with different functions. For example, a hotel guestroom and a hotel lobby each has its own purpose. A hotel guestroom is considered a private environment, while a hotel lobby is considered a public space. Because these two locations play different roles in the mind of hotel guests, understanding consumers’ evaluating processes and the different purpose of private and public space will enable service providers to make better decisions in creating a pleasant servicescape for specific service settings.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 176
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
11. Private space According to Rutes et al. (2001), a private setting such as a hotel guestroom has a greater influence on guests’ overall hotel experience than a public setting. Hotels aim to adopt a ‘‘home-like style’’ (Siguaw and Enz, 1999) in order to provide a harmonious and comfortable environment where guests can feel like they are at home. Siguaw and Enz also noted that the best hotel design organizations emphasize the importance of creating a residential feel. Ultimately, a guestroom environment is a place where a guest will want to relax and rest. Therefore, service providers should understand the function or purpose of the environment from a consumer’s perspective in order to adopt the right color combinations, music, and de! cor to create a pleasant servicescape. 12. Public space A public space such as a hotel lobby or a restaurant usually creates the first and most lasting impression in customers. It is also a primary source of information for the subsequent evaluation of the entire service organization. Rutes et al. (2001) suggest that the overall layout and design of a hotel lobby must provide guest circulation from the entrance to the front desk to elevators in a logical and convenient fashion. Seen from a theoretical perspective, this is demonstration of one of the Gestalt principles, namely, continuity. Rutes et al. also emphasized the success of good design by balancing the visual impact and functionality of the space. 13. Conclusion Servicescapes play an important role in many service organizations (e.g., hotels, restaurants, and hospitals) in that they provide a first impression, before customers have a chance to interact with service employees. Therefore, these servicescapes are an important element that customers will use to guide their beliefs, attitude, and expectations of a service provider. Customers interact with the physical facility continuously, an experience that outweighs their interactions with service employees. Hence, researchers, service providers, and designers should not neglect the importance of servicescapes. Researchers should examine customers’ cognitive and emotional processing more meticulously in order to contribute more precise and accurate information to the servicescape literature. The evaluation of a servicescape can be idiosyncratic; however, understanding the individual cognitive and emotional effects of servicescape design can help service providers and designers to create pleasant, effective servicescapes.
References Areni, C.S., Kim, D., 1993. The influence of in-store lighting on consumers’ examination of merchandise in a wine store. International Journal of Research in Marketing 11, 117–125.
ARTICLE IN PRESS I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
177
Baraban, R.S., Durocher, J.F., 2001. Successful Restaurant Design, 2nd Edition. Wiley, New York. Bellizzi, J.A., Hite, R.E., 1992. Environment color, consumer feelings, and purchase likelihood. Psychology and Marketing 9, 347–363. Bellizzi, J.A., Crowley, A.E., Hasty, R.W., 1983. The effects of colour in store design. Journal of Retailing 59, 21–45. Bitner, M.J., 1992. Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing 56, 57–71. Bone, P.F., Ellen, P.S., 1999. Scents in the marketplace: explaining a fraction of olfaction. Journal of Retail 75 (2), 243–262. Boyatzis, C.J., Varghese, R., 1994. Children’s emotional associations with colors. Journal of Genetic Psychology 155, 77–85. Ching, F., 1996. Architecture: Form, Space, and Order. Van Nostrand, New York. Donovan, R.J., Rossiter, J.R., 1982. Store Atmosphere: An environmental psychology approach. Journal of Retailing 58, 34–57. Dube, L., Chebat, J.C., Morin, S., 1995. The effects of background music on consumers’ desire to affiliate in buyer–seller interactions. Psychology and Marketing 12, 305–319. Eiseman, L., 1998. Colors For Your Every Mood. Capital Books, Virginia. Gifford, R., 1988. Light, d!ecor, arousal, comfort, and communication. Journal of Environmental Psychology 8, 177–189. Hall, E.T., 1969. The Hidden Dimension. Doubleday, Garden City, NY. Hamid, P.N., Newport, A.G., 1989. Effect of color on physical strength and mood in children. Perceptual Motor Skills 69, 179–185. Hirsch, A.R., 1991. Nostalgia: a neuropsychiatric understanding. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Consumer Research Conference, Chicago, IL. Hirsch, A.R., 1995. Effects of ambient odors on slot-machine usage in a Las Vegas casino. Psychology and Marketing 12, 585–594. Hui, M.K., Dube, L., Chebat, J., 1997. The impact of music on consumers’ reactions to waiting for services. Journal of Retailing 73 (1), 87–104. Hvastja, L., Zanuttinit, L., 1991. Recognition of nonexplicitly presented odors. Perceptual and Motor Skills 72 (1), 883–892. Kim, I., 1998. Subjective responses to daylight, sunlight, and view in college classrooms with windows. Dissertation Abstracts International 58, 553–556. Kotler, P., 1973. Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing 49, 48–64. Kryter, K.D., 1985. The Effect of Noise on Man, 2nd Edition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL. Kurtich, J., Eakin, G., 1993. Interior Architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Lazarus, R.S., 1999. Emotions and Adaptation. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford. Levitt, T., 1981. Marketing intangible products and product intangibles. Harvard Business Review 59 (3), 94–102. Mattila, A.S., Wirtz, J., 2001. Congruency of scent and music as a driver of in-store evaluations and behavior. Journal of Retailing 77, 273–289. Mehrabian, A., Russell, J.A., 1974. An Approach to Environmental Psychology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. Milliman, R.E., 1986. The influence of background music on the behavior of restaurant patrons. Journal of Consumer Research 13 (November), 286–289. Oliver, R.L., 1980. A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research 17, 460–469. Oliver, R.L., 1981. Measurement and evaluation of satisfaction processes in retail settings. Journal of Retailing 57, 34–57. Pham, M.T., Cohen, J.B., Pracejus, J.W., Hughes, G.D., 2001. Affect monitoring and the primacy of feelings in judgment. Journal of Consumer Research 28, 167–188. Ragneskog, H., Kihlgren, M., 1997. Music and other strategies to improve the care of agitated patients with dementia: interviews with experienced staff. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Services 11, 176–182.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 178
I.Y. Lin / Hospitality Management 23 (2004) 163–178
Rutes, W.A., Penner, R.H., Adams, L., 2001. Hotel Design Planning and Development. Norton, New York. Schiffman, H.R., 2001. Sensation and Perception, 5th Edition. Wiley, New York. Schiffman, L.G., Kanuk, L.L., 1978. Consumer Behavior. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Siguaw, J.A., Enz, C.A., 1999. Best practices in hotel architecture. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly (October), 44–49. Spangenberg, E.R., Crowley, A.E., Henderson, P.W., 1996. Improving the store environment: Do olfactory cues affect evaluations and behaviors? Journal of Marketing 60, 67–80. Stanley, J., 1986. Music research in medical/dental treatment: meta-analysis and clinical applications. Journal of Music Therapy 23, 56–122. Steffy, G., 1990. Architectural Lighting Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Stone, N.J., Irvine, J.M., 1994. Direct or indirect window access, task type, and performance. Journal of Environmental Psychology 14, 57–63. Swinyard, W.R., 1993. The effects of mood, involvement, and quality of store experience on shopping intentions. Journal of Consumer Research 20, 271–280. Walsh, W.B., Craik, K.H., Price, R.H., 2000. Person–Environment Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Wohlfarth, H., 1984. The effect of color-psychodynamic environmental modification on disciplinary incidents in elementary schools over one school year: a controlled study. International Journal of Biosocial Research 6, 44–53. Yalch, R.F., Spangenberg, E., 1988. An environmental psychological study of foreground and background music as retail atmospheric factors. In: Gary, Frazier., et al. (Ed.), Efficiency and Effectiveness in Marketing. American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 106–110. Yalch, R.F., Spangenberg, E., 1990. Effects of store music on shopping behavior. Journal of Consumer Marketing 7, 55–63. Yalch, R.F., Spangenberg, E., 2000. In a retail setting on real and perceived shopping times. Journal of Business Research 49, 139–147.
