Evaluation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids for system

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DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/000-000

RESEARCH ARTICLE :

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Agriculture Update Volume 12 | TECHSEAR-9 | 2017 | 000-000

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Evaluation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids for system of rice intensification (SRI) with limited water input D. SRINIVAS, R. MAHENDER KUMAR, A.V. KARTHIK, S. SAHA, B. VENKATANNA, M.N. ARUN, B. DHANUNJAYA REDDY AND A. SANDHYARANI

ARTICLE CHRONICLE : Received : 00.00.2017; Accepted : 00.00.2017

KEY WORDS : SRI, NTP, Saturation, AWD

SUMMARY : A number of hybrids had been released to enhance the productivity of rice. There is a need to increase the rice productivity to sustain global food security with low inputs. In this context, experiment was conducted to evaluate the hybrid rice cultivars for best suitability for system of rice intensification (SRI) method of cultivation in comparison with normal transplanting method with limited water inputs. Yield parameters like panicle number, panicle length, panicle weight were found significant over methods, irrigation and cultivars. Grain yield, straw yield and days for 50% flowering were significant over methods. The per cent of water saved in AWD over saturation was 33%. System of rice intensification method recorded 17.2% higher grain yield over normal transplanting method. Grain yield was on par in both irrigation regimes. As a result, it was observed that system of rice intensification method with alternate wetting and drying irrigation can be adopted for hybrid rice cultivation for those areas with less irrigation facilities. How to cite this article : Srinivas, D., Kumar, R. Mahender, Karthik, A.V., Saha, S., Venkatanna, B., Arun, M.N., Reddy, B. Dhanunjaya and Sandhyarani, A. (2017). Evaluation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids for system of rice intensification (SRI) with limited water input. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND Author for correspondence : D. SRINIVAS

ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

Email : seenu290@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Traditional planting is the most conventional and common method of rice establishment under irrigated low land ecosystems in India. Irrigated low land rice not only consumes more water but also causes wastage of water. In recent years to address this problem, many methods of rice cultivation were developed and System of Rice

Intensification (SRI) is one among them and it reduces the water application without compromising the rice yield (Shanthappa et al., 2016). There is ample scope to increase productivity of rice by manipulating the plant environmental conditions that could modify microclimate and soil conditions. SRI method of cultivation works by integrating processes such as reduced plant population, careful transplanting single young seedling, wider and

HIND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING INSTITUTE

D. SRINIVAS, R. MAHENDER KUMAR, A.V. KARTHIK, S. SAHA, B. VENKATANNA, M.N. ARUN, B. DHANUNJAYA REDDY AND A. SANDHYARANI

square planting, mechanical weeding with need based fertilizer application and optimum use of water for better growth especially soil aeration (Kumar and Shivay, 2004). Non availability of laboures for transplanting at appropriate time leads to late planting resulting in poor yield (Awan et al., 2008). In India, the area under rice crop has been decreasing over the years due to various factors such as urbanization, migration of labour from agriculture to non agriculture sector, increased input and labour costs are seriously threatening the cultivation of rice (Yadav et al., 2013). A number of hybrids had been released to enhance the productivity of rice. There is a need to increase the rice productivity to sustain global food security with low inputs. In this context, experiment was conducted to evaluate the hybrid rice cultivars for best suitability for system of rice intensification (SRI) method of cultivation in comparison with normal

transplanting method with limited water inputs.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Field experiment was conducted with four promising hybrid cultivars viz., KRH2, US 312, PA 6444 and DRRH3 at Indian Institute of Rice Research farm in ICRISAT in Kharif 2015 season in sandy clay loam soil for assessing the performance of hybrids for system of rice intensification (SRI) method over normal transplanting method with reduced seed rate and limited water input (Saturation and Alternate wetting and dryingAWD). The total water applied was 800mm for SRI and 1200mm for NTP.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Crop establishment techniques in two irrigation and

Table 1 : Yield attri butes as influenced by crop establishmenthods, irrigation and hybri d cultivars and computed F values from analysis of variance (ANOVA) of major paramete rs in this study Plant No. of Panicle Days for Straw Harvest Establishment Hybrid No. of Panicle Test Wt Grain Irrigation height panicles/ length 50% method cult ivars tillers/M2 Wt (g) (g) yield t/ha yield index (cm) M2 (cm) flowering t/ha SRI Sat urat ion 84.3 366 338 24.4 50.6 2.1 91.3 6.38 6.91 48.0 KRH2 89.6 430 363 27.0 53.3 2.0 91.0 6.32 6.84 48.0 US-312 92.9 341 318 24.7 51.1 2.2 105.3 6.32 6.82 48.1 P A 6444 95.5 430 417 24.0 65.7 1.6 99.3 6.10 6.50 48.4 DRR H3 AWD 92.0 468 414 25.3 47.8 2.2 91.3 6.41 6.97 47.9 KRH2 91.3 405 359 27.1 57.1 2.0 90.7 6.16 6.51 48.6 US-312 89.8 351 319 24.4 54.1 2.2 104.0 6.06 6.56 48.0 P A 6444 91.6 471 427 23.8 57.3 1.7 100.3 5.91 6.41 48.0 DRR H3 NTP Sat urat ion 98.7 222 206 23.6 40.2 2.3 97.7 5.72 6.17 48.1 KRH2 93.0 320 281 26.7 42.5 2.0 100.0 5.36 5.97 47.3 US-312 88.6 201 184 23.3 46.2 2.4 110.7 5.12 5.58 47.8 P A 6444 102.6 218 202 22.1 49.2 1.7 106.3 5.13 5.51 48.2 DRR H3 AWD 94.4 234 218 25.3 46.0 2.2 99.0 5.29 5.81 47.7 KRH2 83.4 256 244 27.2 48.5 2.0 98.7 5.40 5.81 48.2 US-312 78.8 236 223 24.6 49.7 2.3 111.7 5.15 5.57 48.0 P A 6444 95.3 289 268 23.4 51.6 1.7 106.7 5.25 5.74 47.7 DRR H3 M1 90.9 407.9 369.3 25.1 54.6 2.0 96.7 6.21 6.69 48.1 M2 91.9 247.0 228.2 24.5 46.7 2.1 103.8 5.30 5.77 47.9 Saturation 93.2 316 289 24.5 49.8 2.0 100.2 5.81 6.29 48.0 AWD 89.6 339 309 25.1 51.5 2.0 100.3 5.70 6.17 48.0 Treatment s KRH2 92.4 323 294 24.6 46.1 2.2 94.8 5.95 6.46 47.9 US-312 89.3 353 312 27.0 50.3 2.0 95.1 5.81 6.28 48.0 PA 6444 87.5 282 261 24.2 50.2 2.3 107.9 5.66 6.13 48.0 DRR H3 96.3 352 328 23.3 55.9 1.7 103.2 5.59 6.04 48.1 Met hod (M) 6.72* 2217.61** 1902.54** 6.13* 148.11** 16.11** 1324.66** 68.41** 68.8** 5.29* Irrigat ion (I) 94.85** 44.29** 39.24** 7.89** 6.52* 0.4ns 0.18ns 0.88ns 1.06ns 0.04ns I xM 130.16** 7.08* 0.01ns 5.63* 18.1** 4.33* 1.61ns 0.16ns 0.15ns 0.07ns Treatment (T) 107.75** 95.25** 79.71** 44.76** 38.32ns 255.42ns 1060.18** 2.1ns 2.78ns 0.32ns T xM 97.48** 29.73** 40.87** 0.82ns 5.42** 1.79ns 5.37** 0.22ns 0.43ns 1.25ns T xI 25.05** 48.81** 20.04** 0.96ns 6.73** 0.1ns 3.4* 0.11ns 0.35ns 6.04ns T xIxM 7.38** 17.49** 19.76** 0.42ns 3.54* 0.37ns 4.12* 0.7ns 0.59ns 0.45ns * and ** indicate significance of values at P=0.05 and 0.01, respect ively NS=Non-significant Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 39 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

EVALUATION OF RICE (Oryza sativa L.) HYBRIDS FOR SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) WITH LIMITED WATER INPUT

cultivars differed significantly. System of rice intensification resulted in significantly higher grain (6.21 t/ha) and straw (6.69/ha) yield over NTP (5.30 and 5.77 t/ha), respectively (Fig. 1 and Table 1). SRI method with wider spacing and less competition, careful transplanting which enabled the plants to grow vigorously. It helped to capture the essential nutrient elements important for plant growth and development leads to higher tillering and dry matter production (Mohanty et al., 2014). Increase in grain yield can also be attributed to favourable effect in accelerating the growth and yield parameters (Alam et al., 2013). Irrigation maintained at saturation level throughout the crop growth period produced higher grain (6.81 t/ha) and straw yields (6.29 t/ha), which was on par with AWD. The increase in rice productivity under saturation might be due to favorable vegetative growth and development achieved underadequate and sufficient soil moisture throughout the growth period. Over the hybrid cultivars KRH2 recorded higher grain and straw yield (5.95 and 6.46 t/ha) and was on par with US-312 (5.81 and 6.28 t/ha). Yield parameters like panicle number, panicle length, panicle weight were found significant over methods, irrigation and cultivars. Grain yield, straw yield and days for 50% flowering were significant over methods. As a result, it was observed that system of rice intensification method with alternate wetting and drying irrigation can be adopted for hybrid rice cultivation for those areas with less irrigation facilities and hybrid rice cultivars viz., KRH2 and US-312 may be best suitable for SRI method of cultivation. (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Grain yield t/ha

Fig. 1 :

Grain yield trend over cultivation methods, irrigation regimes and cultivars

23 40 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :

Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

Authors’ affiliations : R. MAHENDER KUMAR, A.V. KARTHIK, S. SAHA, B. VENKATANNA, M.N. ARUN, B. DHANUNJAYA REDDY AND A. SANDHYARANI, ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Alam, M.M., Rezaul, K. and Ladha, J.K. (2013). Integrating best management practices for rice with farmers’ crop management techniques: A potential option for minimizing rice yield gap. Field Crops Res., 144 : 62-68. Awan, T.H., Ali, I., Safdar, M.E., Ahmad, M. and Akhtar, M.S. (2008). Comparison of parachute, line and traditional rice transplanting methods at farmer’s field in rice growing area. Pakistan J. Agril. Sci., 45(4) : 432-438. Kumar, D. and Shivay, Y.S. (2004). System of rice intensification. Indian Farming, :18-21. Mohanty, A.K., Islam, M., Kumar, G.A.K. and Kumar, A. (2014). Enhancing rice (Oryza sativa) productivity through demonstrations of SRI method of cultivation in mid altitude region of Indo Himalayan belt of Sikkim. Indian Res. J. Extn. Edu., 14(3): 88-92. Shantappa, D., Kumar, M.R., Desai, B.K., Pujari, B.T., Tirupataiah, K., Koppalkar, B.G., Umesh, M.R., Naik, M.K. and Reddy, Y.K. (2016). Influence of establishment methods, irrigation water levels and weed management practices on growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron., 61(2): 174-178. Yadav, S.N., Chandra, R., Khura, T.K. and Chauhan, N.S. (2013). Energy input output analysis and mechanization status for cultivation of rice and maize crops in Sikkim. Agril. Engg. Internat. CIGR J., 15(3): 108–116.

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Performance of sorghum-maize interspecific derivatives for forage attributes K.B.R.S. VISARADA, P. SANJANA REDDY AND R. VENKATESWARLU


KEY WORDS : Intergeneric hybrids, Maize, Sorghum, Forage, HCN

SUMMARY : Over decades of crop improvement sorghum has led to yield plateau with persisting problems of biotic (shoot fly, stemborer, grain mold) and abiotic (drought, heat) causing yield losses in marginal conditions where the crop is grown. An attempt was made to cross the superior genotypes from sorghum and maize genera and study the derivatives after stabilizing through advancing and selection for several years. The derivatives resembled sorghum though anthocyanin pigmentation was observed in early generations. The derivatives with good forage traits were tested across two locations, Pantnagar and Hisar in India. Two genotypes were found promising for high biomass and quality traits (T2-2251-3-12) and high biomass, high tillering and low HCN (T3-2252-7-1). These can be utilized as new sources of variability in forage sorghum improvement programs. How to cite this article : Visarada, K.B.R.S., Reddy, P. Sanjana and Venkateswarlu, R. (2017). Performance of sorghum-maize interspecific derivatives for forage attributes. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : K.B.R.S. VISARADA

Indian Institute of Millets Research, Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELENGANA) INDIA

See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Sorghum occupies a prominent place among the food grains securing the food and nutritional security of the poor people residing in the semi-arid tropics and contributing a vital share of energy, proteins, vitamins and minerals (Sanjana Reddy 2017). While, it a staple food crop in the semi-arid areas of Asia and Africa, it is used as a poultry and animal feed in Americas, Australia and China. In India, the rainy season grown crop is utilized for poultry and animal use while the post rainy season grown crop is used for human consumption. The cultivars grown in both the seasons vary widely (Rana et al. 1997). The

crop residue (stover) left after harvest is a valuable fodder resource in the areas of its cultivation. With the advent of hybrid technology and introduction of temperate germplasm, significant advances were made in rainy season grown sorghum. Significant advances in crop improvement of sorghum have been achieved in realizing the grain yield through utilizing variability within the gene pool of cultivated sorghum, S. bicolor. However, much progress could not be made in achieving tolerance to shoot fly, stemborer and grain mold among biotic constraints while abiotic constraints pose challenge. A plateau has been reached in realizing yield gains and further improvement required introduction of variation


K.B.R.S. VISARADA, P. SANJANA REDDY AND R. VENKATESWARLU

through other different means like wide hybridization. Wide hybridization through crossing between individuals belonging to two different genera has been attempted to create, establish variation and develop pre- breeding material for ready use in plant breeding programs. Intergeneric hybridization can widen the available genetic pools so that novel genetic variation can be utilized by plant breeders. For traits that are quantitatively inherited, introgression provides the most logical and effective approach to gene transfer, assuming that interspecific or intergeneric hybridization can be achieved (Hodnett et al., 2010).Intergeneric hybrids were attempted between maize - sorghum, sugarcane - sorghum and rice - sorghum (Jun and Qingguo 1994). Differential expression profiling of sucrose-related genes in intergeneric hybrids involving sugarcane and sorghum was reported by Ramalashmi et al. (2014). With an objective of realizing new variability, the promising sorghum lines were crossed with maize lines at IIMRand the resultant segregates showing forage attributes were advanced with selection. The segregants were studied with an objective to determine their performance for forage traits vis a vis standard checks as well as to determine the association of the traits with forage yield.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The plant material used in the study included four inbred lines of maize (CM118, CM130, CM208, and CM211) and nine cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines of sorghum. Maize lines were obtained from Maize Research Station, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU), Hyderabad, India. Nine male sterile lines of sorghum, that included four lines in A1 CMS background (27A, 126A, 296A, 356A), three lines in A2 CMS background (C43A2 , MR750A2 , 7A2 ), one line each in A3 and A4 CMS background (8A 3 and 9A 4 ), were obtained from Germplam Unit, Indian Institute of Millets Research (former Directorate of Sorghum Research), Hyderabad, India. During the 2008 post rainy season, all the sorghum CMS lines were sown at 15d intervals in pots for synchronization of flowering with maize inbred lines. After emerging from the boot leaf and 1-2 days before opening of the florets, the sorghum panicles were covered with paper bags to avoid any cross pollination. Each experiment was carried out on flower heads which were protected from foreign pollen by bagging. Initially, pollen 23 42 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


germination of maize lines was standardized using four different pollen germination media (PGM1–PGM4). Percentage of pollen grains germinated and length of the pollen tube were examined under microscope to optimize the best pollen germination medium. Pollen of maize was collected in a petriplate through dusting of florets or through gentle squash of mature anthers. It was immediately carried to recipient sorghum plant and 1-2 drops of PGM-2 was added to the pollen grains in the petriplate and was gently mixed with a soft brush. Paper bag on the recipient sorghum plant was removed and immediately the pre-germinated pollen was placed on the stigma of sorghum florets with a soft paint brush. Sorghum panicle was covered immediately with the same paper bag. The above process was initiated one or two days before the sorghum florets were open and the stigma emerged and repeated for 5-6 days on every plant with the pollen from the same maize line. Each male sterile sorghum line was repeatedly pollinated with pregerminated pollen from each of the four inbred lines of maize, CM118, CM130, CM208, and CM211. Seeds were allowed mature on the sorghum plant and F1 seeds were harvested. In some cases the seeds were shriveled and embedded deep in the glumes. These were carefully taken out with hand. The F1 seeds were germinated in paper cups filled with soil and vermiculate mixed in the ratio of 3:1. They were grown in the laboratory until three leaf stage and were transferred to pots. For initial 5-6 days, these plants were grown under shade and later transferred to direct sunlight in pots. The F1 seeds from 36 crosses, designated as SM1-SM36 were raised. Panicles in F1 plants were covered with paper bags to allow self-pollination and F2 seeds were harvested at maturity. The F2 plants were grown in field and promising progenies for diverse morphological traits were selected and advanced. Similarly, 227 lines were selected in F3 generation. The 227 F4 progenies were evaluated during two crop seasons, the rainy and the post-rainy seasons, in augmented design along with elite genotypes as checks. The sweet sorghum variety, SSV84 was used as check for comparison of sweet sorghum traits; the multicut forage sorghum variety SSG 59-3 was used as check for evaluation of forage traits, the early flowering genotype, 2219B was used to evaluate and select for earliness and the popular post rainy sorghum variety, M351 was used as check to compare the morphological grain quality traits. The parental lines (27A1, 126A1, C43A2 and MR750A2), the parents of 227 selected lines were

PERFORMANCE OF SORGHUM-MAIZE INTERSPECIFIC DERIVATIVES FOR FORAGE ATTRIBUTES

also planted for comparison. Observations were recorded on the traits such as days to flower, plant height, tiller number, panicle length, panicle width, brix content in stalk juice. Among the 227 lines tested, 25 lines showed forage traits such as multiple tillers, narrow leaves and loose panicles. Number of tillers ranged from 3-16 per plant. Sixteen of them were found to be promising. They included 14 lines from SM12 (126 × CM208), one line each from SM27 (MR750 × CM208) and SM6 (27A × CM211). The 16 forage varieties along with two checks (SSG 59-3 and CSV 21F) were evaluated in a three replicated RBD design across two locations, Pantnagar and Hisar in India. Data were recorded for the traits green fodder yield for 2 cuts (GFY 2 cuts), dry fodder yield for 2 cuts (DFY 2 cuts), percentage total soluble sugars (TSS%), ppm HCN, percentage of protein, percentage invitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD%), early vigor (on a scale of 1 to 4, where 4= good and 1=poor), plant height in cm, number of leaves per plant, number of tillers per plant, leaf length in cm, leaf breadth in cm, leaf to stem ratio and stem girth in cm. Analysis of variance for randomized

complete blocks design was carried out using Indostat and trait associations were generated using Microsoft Excel.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Mean performance : The analysis of variance showed significant genetic variability for green fodder yield, dry fodder yield, HCN content and early vigor. The green fodder yield per plant ranged from 218.7q/ha (T13-2276-14-1) to 692.2q/ha (T2-2251-3-12). Except two genotypes, all of them were on par with the best check T17-CSV22F (576q/ha) while seven genotypes were numerically superior. The dry fodder yield per plant ranged from 43.6 q/ha (T13-227614-1) to 166.5q/ha (T18-2222-8-8). Except two genotypes, all of them were on par with the best check T17-CSV22F (139.7q/ha) while four genotypes were numerically superior. The HCN content ranged from 86.7ppm (T13-2276-14-1) to 54.1ppm ((T9-2254-8). Compared to the best check for low HCN content (CSV 22F: 60.6ppm), eleven genotypes were on par while seven genotypes had numerically low HCN content. The second

Table 1 : Forage yield, quali ty and phenologi cal trai ts of sorghum-maize intergeneric derivatives Sr. GFY 2 DFY 2 T SS HCN Entry Rank Rank Rank Rank No. cuts q/ha) cuts (q/ha) (%) (ppm)

Protein (%)

Rank

IVDMD (%)

Rank

1.

T1-2251-3-8

275.5

17

54.2

17

3.75

7

68.2

7

8.03

18

55.6

8

2.

T2-2251-3-12

692.2

1

160

2

5.75

1

64.3

8

8.8

2

56.9

3

3.

T3-2252-7-1

617.3

4

127.2

8

5.25

2

54.6

17

8.37

10

53

15

4.

T4-2252-7-2

570.8

10

120.9

12

4.75

4

79.5

2

8.3

13

57.2

1

5.

T5-2252-7-8

671.5

2

141.3

4

5

3

56.6

15

8.8

1

55.8

7

6.

T6-2253-12-2

603.4

5

125.7

9

5

3

55.7

16

8.4

9

56.3

6

7.

T7-2253-12-6

494.7

15

112.4

14

4.75

4

58.4

12

8.57

5

56.4

5

8.

T8-2253-12-16

585.9

7

131.6

6

4.5

5

63.6

9

8.25

15

52.8

16

9.

T9-2254-8

527

14

111.7

15

4.5

5

54.1

18

8.26

14

57

2

10.

T10-2254-10-3

555.2

11

124

10

4

6

57.2

14

8.49

7

54.8

9

11.

T11-2254-10-8

453.6

16

104.5

16

4.5

5

73.2

5

8.24

16

53

13

12.

T12-2254-10-12

554.6

12

119.3

13

5.75

1

74.3

4

8.77

3

54.6

10

13.

T13-2276-14-1

218.7

18

43.6

18

4.75

4

86.7

1

8.05

17

56.7

4

14.

T14-2316-3-3

602

6

149.4

3

5

3

75.2

3

8.51

6

53.7

12

15.

T15-2316-3-7

530.1

13

121.4

11

4.75

4

57.7

13

8.34

11

54

11

16.

T16-SSG59-3

571.3

9

128.3

7

5

3

71.3

6

8.67

4

53

14

17.

T17-CSV22F

576

8

139.7

5

4.5

5

60.6

11

8.33

12

52.3

17

18.

T18-2222-8-8

661.9

3

166.5

1

4

6

63.3

10

8.45

8

52.2

18

LOC. Mean

542.3

121.2

4.75

65.3

8.42

54.7

C.D. (P=0.05)

185.6

53.4

2.21

8.2

0.71

5.4

C.D. (P=0.01)

255

73.3

3.04

11.3

0.97

7.4

Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 43 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


check SSG 59-3 had significantly higher HCN (%) (71.3ppm) compared to CSV 22F. The vigor score ranged from 1 to 4. Seven genotypes had significantly superior vigor score as compared to the best check SSG 59-3

(score:2). Overall non-significant differences were observed for other traits implying that the intergeneric derivatives were on par with the checks for the remaining traits. The total soluble sugars ranged from 3.75 to

Table : Early vigour

Rank

Plant height (cm)

Rank

No. of leaves/ plant

Rank

No. of tillers/ plant

Rank

Leaf lengt h (cm)

Rank

Leaf breadth

Rank

Leaf: stem rat io

1.

3.25

4

163

17

16.7

16

2.45

14

74.9

2.

4

1

220

1

18.2

14

3

12

77.2

17

6

1

16

5.7

3

3.

4

1

202

10

24.9

1

5.08

1

80.4

10

3.85

4.

3.75

2

193

15

15.8

18

4.33

3

89.4

2

4.25

5.

4

1

204

9

23

2

6.

4

1

215

3

19.4

10

4.33

3

79.8

13

3.18

10

89.4

1

7.

3.5

3

215

4

19

12

3.6

7

79.7

8.

4

1

201

11

20.7

5

3.5

8

79.5

9.

4

1

201

10.

3.75

2

192

12

21.9

4

3.65

6

16

19.9

6

3.75

5

11.

3.25

4

195

13

16.6

17

2.5

12.

3.75

2

211

7

19.7

7

13.

2.25

5

130

18

19.2

14.

3.75

2

212

5

15.

3.75

2

212

6

16.

3.75

2

194

17.

3.25

4

18.

4

1

Sr. No.

Rank

St em girth (cm)

Rank

0.43

2

4.95

13

0.34

14

6.83

1

18

0.4

8

6.25

4

15

0.41

4

5.55

9

4.95

9

0.38

10

5.13

12

4.3

14

0.42

3

6.25

4

14

4.4

13

0.44

1

5.13

12

15

4.55

12

0.36

11

5.75

7

81.5

9

5.15

6

0.38

9

5.33

11

80.3

11

4.2

16

0.38

10

5.5

10

13

84.5

5

4.88

10

0.33

15

6.23

5

3.18

10

88

3

5.45

4

0.32

16

6.3

3

11

3.15

11

64.5

18

5.08

7

0.38

9

5.63

8

22.1

3

4.43

2

82.1

8

5

8

0.41

5

6.23

5

19.4

9

3.33

9

83.9

6

4.7

11

0.36

12

4.95

14

14

17.5

15

3.83

4

80

12

4.15

17

0.4

7

4.53

15

210

8

18.2

13

2.25

15

85.9

4

5.85

2

0.35

13

6.65

2

218

2

19.5

8

3.6

7

83.8

7

5.2

5

0.41

6

6.08

6

LOC. Mean

3.67

199

19.5

3.51

81.4

4.87

0.38

5.73

C.D.(P=0.05)

0.73

C.D.(P=0.01)

1.01

48

7

1.57

11.8

1.32

0.11

1.85

65

9.7

2.16

16.3

1.81

0.16

2.54

C.V. (%) F (Probability)

9.48

11.3

17.1

21.25

6.9

12.83

14.29

15.31

0.01

0.1

0.51

0.09

0.06

0.08

0.63

0.43

Table 2 : Trai t associations among the sorghum-maize inte rgeneric derivatives for forage yield and quality attributes GFY 2 DFY 2 T SS Plant HCN IVDMD Early No. of No. of Prot ein cuts cuts height (%) (ppm) (%) vigour leaves/plant t illers/plant (q/ha) (q/ha) (cm) DFY 2 cuts (q/ha)

0.98** -0.26

-0.21

1.00

HCN (ppm)

0.69**

0.62**

-0.21

1.00

Protein (%)

0.80**

0.74**

-0.01

0.91**

1.00

IVDMD (%)

0.81**

0.73**

-0.22

0.94**

0.97**

1.00

Early vigour

0.17

0.19

0.88**

0.14

0.41

0.20

Leaf: stem rat io

1.00

0.94**

0.89**

-0.26

0.84**

0.92**

0.94**

0.18

1.00

No. of leaves/plant 0.72**

0.69**

0.23

0.70**

0.87**

0.80**

0.58**

0.78**

No. of t illers/plant

-0.28

-0.23

0.98**

-0.26

-0.05

-0.27

0.87**

-0.31

0.22

1.00

Leaf length (cm)

0.87**

0.81**

-0.23

0.91**

0.96**

0.98**

0.21

0.98**

0.79**

-0.27

Leaf breadth

Leaf breadth

1.00

T SS (%)

Plant height (cm)

Leaf lengt h (cm)

1.00 1.00

0.00

0.04

0.89**

0.16

0.35

0.16

0.93**

0.08

0.50*

0.84**

0.13

1.00

Leaf : stem ratio

-0.48*

-0.42

0.96**

-0.43

-0.25

-0.45

0.76**

-0.49*

-0.02

0.96**

-0.46

0.78**

1.00

St em girt h (cm)

0.03

0.08

0.92**

0.11

0.32

0.11

0.95**

0.07

0.50*

0.88**

0.11

0.96**

0.80**



PERFORMANCE OF SORGHUM-MAIZE INTERSPECIFIC DERIVATIVES FOR FORAGE ATTRIBUTES

5.75%. As compared to the best check, SSG 59-3 (5%), two genotypes were numerically superior with 5.75% (T2-2251-3-12, T12-2254-10-12).The protein content ranged from 8.03 to 8.8%. As compared to SSG 59-3 (8.67%), the genotypes T2-2251-3-12 (8.8%), T5-22527-8 (8.8%) and T12-2254-10-12 (8.77%) were numerically superior. The invitro dry matter digestibility ranged from 52.2 to 57.2%. Compared to SSG 59-3 (53%), 11 genotypes were numerically superior. The plant height ranged from 130 to 220cm. Compared to the best check CSV22F (210 cm), seven genotypes were numerically superior. The number of leaves per plant ranged from 16 to 25. Compared to the checks with 18 leaves per plant, 12 genotypes were numerically superior. The number of tillers ranged from 2 to 5. Compared to the best high tillering check, SSG 59-3, 4 lines had numerically greater number of tillers. Leaf length ranged from 64-5 cm to 89.4 cm. Compared to the best check, three lines had greater leaf length. Leaf breadth ranged from 3.85 to 6 cm. The line T1-2251-3-8 had more leaf width compared to best check. Leaf to stem ratio ranged from 0.32 to 0.44. Six genotypes were numerically superior (0.41 to 0.44) compared to best check. The stem girth ranged from 4.53 to 6.83 cm. The genotype T22251-3-12 (6.83cm) was numerically superior to the best check CSV 22F (6.65 cm). Among all the evaluated genotypes, T2-2251-3-12 was the best performing with high biomass, total soluble sugars, protein content, IVDMD, early vigour and plant height as compared to the best checks. The genotype T3-2252-7-1 was the best performing for biomass, low HCN content, number of leaves per plant and number of tillers per plant. These two genotypes can be further exploited in plant breeding programs. The superior performance of the intergeneric crosseshas been recorded in earlier studies. The rice and sorghum cross possessed better canopy spatial architecture, higher photosynthetic rate and better tolerance to adverse conditions and higher field yields even under str ess conditions (Tang et al. 2002). Interspecific hybridization was observed between S. halepense × S. bicolor and S. sudanense × S. bicolor. In these crosses, there were significant phenotypic variations on vegetative traits with F 1 progenies having pr ofuse tillering and branching than the parental populations (Magomere, 2014).

Trait associations : Dry fodder yield increased with increase with green fodder yield and both were significantly and positively associated with protein content, IVDMD, HCN, plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf length. Green fodder yield was significantly and negatively associated with leaf to stem ratio. Hence, with an increase in plant height, number of leaves and leaf length, biomass can be increased. This in turn will lead to an increase in protein content and IVDMD. However, HCN content also increased significantly (Table 2). Hence, while intro gressing these genotypes for incorporation of new genetic variability, disruptive selection should be made for low HCN content. Conclusions : Sorghum-maize intergeneric derivatives were tested for the first timein sorghum history for evaluating and identifying new var iability for forage sor ghum improvement. Two genotypes were found promising for high biomass and quality traits (T2-2251-3-12) and high biomass, high tillering and low HCN (T3-2252-7-1). High biomass was positively related to forage quality traits and can be targeted for simultaneous selection while the linkage with high HCN needs to be broken with disruptive selection. Authors’ affiliations : P. SANJANA REDDY AND R. VENKATESWARLU, Indian Institute of Millets Research, Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELENGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Hodnett, G.L., Hale, A.L., Packer, D.J., Stelly, D.M., da Silva, J. and Rooney, W.L. (2010). Elimination of a reproductive barrier facilitates intergeneric hybridization of Sorghum bicolor and Saccharum. Crop Sci., 50 : 1188-1195. doi: 10.2135/ cropsci2009.09.0486. Jun, Fu and Qingguo, Xu (1994). Studies on the wide hybridization breeding between rice and sorghum. J. Hunan Agril. University (Natural Sci.), 1994-01. Ramalashmi, K., Prathima, P.T., Mohanraj, K. and Nair, N.V. (2014). Expression profiling of sucrose metabolizing genes in Saccharum, Sorghum and their hybrids. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 174(4) : 1510-1519. doi: 10.1007/s12010-0141048-2 Rana, B.S., Swarnalata, K. and Rao, M.H. (1997). Impact of genetic improvement on sorghum productivity in India, in Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 45 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Proceedings of an International Conference on the Genetic Improvement of Sorghum and Pearl Millet, held at Lubbock, Texas, September 22–27, 1996. International Sorghum and Millet Research (INTSORMIL) – International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), pp. 142-165. Sanjana Reddy, P. (2017). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). In Millets and Sorghum: biology and genetic improvement. (Ed. JV Patil), Wiley- Blackwell ISBN: 978-1-11912305-7. Tang, J., Chen, X. and Shimizu, K. (2002). Varietal differences



in photosynthetic characters and chlorophyll fluorescence induction kinetics parameters among intergeneric progeny derived from Oryza x Sorghum, its parents, and hybrid rice. J. Zhejiang Univer. Sci., 3(1) : 113-117.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Magomere, T.O. (2014). Interspecific hybridization between sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) and its wild relatives and the implication on hybrid fitness. Thesis University of Nairobi, Kenya, http://hdl.handle.net/11295/72346

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AU


RESEARCH ARTICLE :

(55)



Studies on physico-chemical properties of different varieties of mango PRANOTI LAD, S.U. KHODKE AND R.V. SALUNKHE


KEY WORDS : Physiochemical, Quality, Mango varieties

SUMMARY : A study on physiochemical characters of different mango (Mangiferaindica L.) varieties conditions was carried out at VNMKV, Parbhani. Six vatieties were studied for quality aspects. Among six varieties the variety Totapuri recorded the maximum weight of fruit (360.00g), length (14.13cm), Breadth (7.95cm), thickness (7.52cm), and volume (357.33cc). The maximum per cent of pulp was observed in Totapuri (75.16 %) and it was at par with Alphonso (74.40 %). The minimum viscosity (5003cP) was recorded in variety Totapuri. While maximum was found in 7583cP in variety Dashahari. Alphonso and Kesar mango variety was observed rich nutritionally in terms of protein, fibre, beta carotenoids, ascorbic acid, total sugar and color among all the varieties. The higher redness (a*) value was found in of Alphonso mango pulp. Totapuri was yellowish red in color with higher lightness, yellowness and lower redness value. Alphonso exhibited higher redness, lower yellowness and lightness. Sensory evolution of six varieties of mango, mango pulp was studied. Alphonso and Kesar mango variety was found best between six varieties. How to cite this article : Lad, Pranoti, Khodke, S.U. and Salunkhe, R.V. (2017). Studies on physico-chemical properties of different varieties of mango. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/ 12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : PRANOTI LAD

Department of Agricultural Processing Engineering, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA

Email : pranotilad36 @gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Mango (Mangiferaindica L.) fruit belongs to the family of Anacardiaceae. Mango commonly known as king of fruit. It is one of important tropical fruit grown in India and around the world. It is famous for its excellent flavor, attractive fragrance and nutritional value. The global production of mango in year 2014-2015 is about 54631.6 million metric ton. India ranks first in the production of mango in world. The area and production of mango in India in year 2014-

2015 is about 2163.5 million hector and 18527.0 million metric ton, respectively. In Maharashtra area under mango cultivation and production is about 157.77 million hector and 758.84 million metric ton, respectively (Anonymous, 2015a). Mango is consumed as fresh fruit. It is a nutritionally important fruit. It is good source of vitamin A, B, C and minerals. Mangoes are good source of dietar y fibre and energy.(Anonymous, 2015b).A number of products made from ripe mangoes are available in the market, including canned mango, mango


PRANOTI LAD, S.U. KHODKE AND R.V. SALUNKHE

puree, mango juice, dried mango powder, mango leather, mango slice and mango jam. The information on physicchemical characters of different varieties of mango fruits is per requisites for the selection of desirable varieties which may acceptable to consumers and gain commercial importance. Hence the aim of this study was to evaluate physico-chemical characteristics of different varieties of mango grown in Marathwada region.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Collection of samples : The study was carried out at Department of Agricultural Process Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, VNMKV, Parbhani. Fruits of mango variety Alphonso, Kesar, Amrpali, Dashahari, Neelam and Totapuriwere purchased from Parbhani Market. Care was taken while selecting the fruits that all the varieties have some stage of ripeness. Physical characteristics : Observations on physico-chemical properties were recorded. The physical characters were determined by using standard procedure as average fruit weight on electronic balance in g. volume by water displacement method in cc and specific gravity was calculated from weight and volume. The length, breadth and thickness were measur ed by vernier caliper in mm. Pulp percentage, peel percentage and stone percentage were measured. Rotational viscometer was to determine the viscosity of the fresh mango pulp. Colour (L*, a*, b* values) of the mango pulp of different varieties were determined by using Hunter Lab Colorimeter. Chemical properties : The proximate analysis of each sample of mango fruit was conducted for the contents of moisture content, ash and crude fat According to AOAC. Crude protein was calculated as N x 6.25 according to AOAC. Crude fibre was carried out using acid/alkali digestion method according to AOAC.Total carbohydrate content was calculated by subtracting the sum of the values for moisture, protein, fat, and ash content from 100. The pH of was determined by using pH meter.The content of total soluble solids (TSS) in the mango pulp was determined with the help of Hand Refractrometer (032R”Brix). Acidity was determined the methods of Jacob (1959) and Rangana (1990). Sugar content (%) was 23 48 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


analyzed using the phenol-sulfuric method Naz et al. (2014). Vitamin C was determined using 2, 6dichlorophrnol. Beta carotene was measured.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Fruit weight : Average weight of mango varied in the range of 360.0 to 119.6 g for six varieties of mango fruit. Highest average weight of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety of mango (360.0g) while lowest average weight was found in Dashahari variety of mango (119.6g) followed by Kesar, Neelam Amrpali and Alphonso mango variety. Average weight of Kesar (239.2g) and Neelam (250.5g) mango variety was found at par with each other. Table 1 showed that there was significant difference among six mango varieties with respect to weight of mango fruit. However, mango varieties differ significantly at 5% level. Similar observations were reported by Anil and Radha (2003) and Vijayanand et al. (2015). Fruit length : Average length values for six varieties of mango fruit are presented in Table 1. From Table 1itobserved that the average length of mango was found in the range of 14.13 to 8.25 cm for six varieties of mango. Maximum length of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety of mango while minimum fruit length was found in Dashahari variety of mango followed by Amrpali, Kesar, Neelam and Alphonso mango variety. It was observed that average fruit length of mango variety of Neelam and Kesar similar in range of 10.21 and 10.36 cm, respectively. Statistically, average length of different varieties of mango showed significant difference at 5% level of significance. Similar results were noted by Singh et al. (2011). Badhe et al. (2007) reported average length value of Alphonso mango variety (9.25 cm) which is similar to resulted value of Alphonso mango variety. Fruit breadth : Average breadth value of different variety of mango varied 7.95 to 5.03 cm within the six varieties of mango. Higher average breadth of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety while lower breadth was found in Dashahari variety followed by Neelam, Alphonso, Kesar and Amrpali mango variety. It was observed that average breadth value of Neelam and Totapuri similar in range of

STUDIES ON PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF MANGO

7.45 and 7.95 cm, respectively. Similar results were observed by Anil and Radha (2003) and Badhe et al. (2007). From Table 1 it was observed that there was significant difference in the breadth value of different mango varieties.

Volume : From Table 1 it was observed that statistically, the average volume showed significant difference with respect to different varieties of mango. The average volume of different varieties of mango was found in the range of 357.33 to111.80 cc. for six varieties of mango. Highest average volume of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety (357.33cc) while lowest volume was found in Dashahari (111.80 cc) mango variety followed by Neelam, Kesar, Amrpali and Alphonso variety of mango. A similar observation for volume of mango fruit of different variety was in close agreement with the value reported by Anil and Radha (2003) and Badhe et al. (2007).

Fruit thickness : The average thickness value of different varieties of mango varied in the range of 7.11 to 4.52 cm for the six varieties of mango. Average maximum thickness of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety while minimum thickness of mango fruit was found in Dashahari variety followed by Neelam, Alphonso, Amrpali and Kesar mango variety. It was found that average length value of Amrpali (7.11 cm) and Neelam (7.11 cm) mango variety at par with each other. From data presented in Table 1, it was observed that there was significant difference in the thickness of different varieties of mango. These results are in close agreement with Badhe et al. (2007).

Peel percentage : Data presented in Table 1, indicated that value of peel percentage had significant different between different varieties of mango.Peel percentage of different

Table 1 : Physical properties of different varieties of mango and i ts mango pul p Fruit Fruit weight Fruit length Fruit breadth Volume Mango variet ies thickness (gm) (cm) (cm) (cc) (cm)

Peel%

Pulp %

Stone%

Sp. gravity

Viscosity (cP)

Alphonso

182.5

09.39

7.18

6.96

190.75

14.33

74.40

13.91

1.02

7254

Amrpali

198.9

11.09

6.39

7.11

277.50

15.65

70.82

16.91

1.00

7337

Dashahari

119.6

08.25

5.03

4.52

111.80

18.73

65.71

18.90

1.00

7583

Kesar

239.2

10.36

6.94

6.32

238.00

17.10

68.99

17.75

1.00

7176

Neelam

250.5

10.21

7.45

7.11

246.75

13.60

72.60

13.47

1.01

6158

Tot apuri

360.0

14.13

7.95

7.52

357.33

15.27

75.16

15.78

1.04

5003

Mean

225.12

10.57

6.82

6.59

237.02

15.78

71.28

16.12

1.01

6751.83 261.40

S.E. ±

4.275

0.445

0.078

0.141

6.519

0.655

1.21

0.316

0.035

C.D. (P=0.05)

13.319

1.3737

0.245

0.438

20.31

2.04

3.768

0.985

NS

814.39

59.797*

160.709*

0.204*

14.272*

F value 357.441* 20.148* 169.025* * indicat e significance of value at P=0.05, respect ively

Table 2 : Proximate analysis of diffe rent varieties of mango pul p Mango varieties Moisture content (%) Fat (%) Protein (%)

8.196* 8.981* 46.063* NS=Non-significant

Fibre (%)

Ash cont ent (%)

Carbohydrates (%)

Alphonso

79.80

0.60

0.60

0.71

0.45

17.89

Amrpali

79.68

0.57

0.53

0.65

0.42

17.85

Dashahari

79.25

0.58

0.51

0.64

0.46

18.56

Kesar

80.05

0.59

0.56

0.68

0.44

17.68

Neelam

79.07

0.60

0.57

0.61

0.40

18.75

Tot apuri

84.75

0.55

0.50

0.56

0.35

13.29

Mean

80.43

0.58

0.54

0.64

0.42

17.33

S.E.±

0.554

0.054

0.015

0.018

0.053

0.23

C.D. (P=0.05)

1.722

NS

0.057

NS

F value 15.027* 0.129* * indicat e significance of value at P=0.05, respect ively

0.046 6.453*

8.193* 0.581* NS= Non-significant

0.730 74.00*



varieties of mango varied in the range of18.73 to13.60 % for six varieties of mango. The highest peel percentage of mango fruit was found in Dashahari variety while lowest peel percentage was found in Totapuri mango variety followed by Kesar, Neelam, Amrpali and Alphonso mango variety. It was observed that value of peel percentage of Dashahari and Kesar mango variety early in the range of 18.73 and 17.10%, respectively. Anil and Radha (2003), reported peel percentage value of Alphonso (14%) and Neelam (13%) mango variety which is similar to obtained value of Alphonso (14.33%) and Neelam (13.60%) mango variety. Similar results were observed by Badhe et al. (2007) and Vijayanand et al. (2015). Pulp percentage : Table 1 revealed that, value of pulp percentage of different varieties of mango showed significant difference between different varieties of mango. Pulp percentage of different variety of mango varied in the range of 75.16 to 65.71% for six varieties of mango. Maximum pulp percentage of mango fruit was found in Totapuri variety while minimum pulp percentage was found in Dashahari mango variety followed by Alphonso, Neelam, Amrpali and Kesar. From Table 1, it was observed that values of pulp percentage of Alphonso and Totapuri mango variety similar in range (74.40%) and (75.16%), respectively. Similar results were reported by Anil and Radha (2003), Badhe et al. (2007), Vijayanand et al. (2015) and Singh et al. (2011). Stone percentage : Data presented in Table 1 reported that stone percentage had significant difference between different Table 3 : Chemical composition of diffe rent varieties of mango pul p Mango variet ies pH (%) T SS (Brixo) Tit rable acidity (%)

varieties of mango. Stone percentage of different varieties of mango varied between 18.90 to 13.91% for six varieties of mango. Highest stone percentage of mango fruit was found in Dashahari variety while lowest stone percentage was found in Neelam mango variety followed by Kesar, Amrpali, Alphonso and Totapuri mango variety. From Table 1, it was found that values of stone percentage of Alphonso and Neelam mango variety are similar in range (13.91 %) and (13.47%), respectively. Similar results were observed by Anil and Radha (2003), Badhe et al. (2007), Vijayanand et al. (2015) and Singh et al. (2011). Specific gravity : Table 1, revealed that the specific gravity of different varieties of mango varied in the range of 1.00 to1.04 for six varieties of mango. The value of specific gravity of Kesar, Amrpali, and Dashehari mango variety was found at par with each other. There was non significant difference noticed for specific gravity between different varieties of mango. Similar results were reported by Anil and Radha (2003), Badhe et al. (2007) and Vijayanand et al. (2015). Viscosity of mango pulp : Data presented in Table 1, reported that viscosity had significant difference between different varieties of mango. Highest viscosity of mango pulp was found in Dashehari (7583cP) Mango variety while lowest viscosity was found in Totapuri (5003cP) variety of mango pulp followed by Amrpali, Kesar, Alphonso and Neelam. Similar results were observed by Rajkumar et al. (2006). The value of pulp viscosity of Totapuri mango variety almost same as obtained by Vijayanand et al. (2015)

Ascorbic acid (mg/100g)

Tot al sugar (%)

Bet a carotene (mg/100g)

Alphonso

4.68

20.70

0.41

23.53

18.21

7.39

Amrpali

5.49

22.60

0.44

21.88

17.05

7.20

Dashahari

4.90

21.17

0.51

20.59

16.97

7.18

Kesar

5.37

19.56

0.36

25.12

17.65

7.23

Neelam

4.40

17.78

0.49

19.25

13.95

6.10

Tot apuri

3.80

14.40

0.35

18.79

11.59

5.96

Mean

4.77

19.37

0.43

21.53

15.90

6.84

S.E. ±

0.213

0.453

0.053

0.445

0.219

0.103

C.D. (P=0.05)

0.665

1.352

0.094

1.386

0.684

0.322

3.41*

30.92*

138.09*

37.83*

F value 8.69* 45.35* * indicat e significance of value at P=0.05, respect ively 23 50 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :



reported, that the value of viscosity of Totapuri mango pulp (5704cP). Quality characteristics of different varieties mango pulp: Proximate analysis of different varieties of mango pulp : Moisture content : From Table 2, it was observed that the moisture content of mango pulp varied significantly between varieties of mango. Higher moisture content value of mango pulp was found in Topapuri (84.75%) variety while lower moisture content was found in Neelam (79.07%) mango variety of mango pulp. There was significant difference within six varieties of mango. Moisture content ranged from 84.75% to 79.07% for six varieties of mango. The value of moisture content of Alphonso, Amrpali, Dashahari and Neelam was found similar with each other. Similar observation found by Robin et al. (2012). Rajkumar et al. (2006) reported value of Alphonso mango pulp (79.75%) which is similar to value obtained for Alphonso mango pulp (79.80%). Mohammad (2013) reported that lower moisture content is indication of good shelf life. Fat : The results pertaining to analysis of variance of fat contents are given in Table 4.2. There was non significant difference for fat content values of different varieties of mango at 5% level of significance. Table 4.2 it reveals that, fat content value of mango pulp ranged from 0.60% to 0.55% for six varieties of mango. The fat contentvalue of mango pulp of Alphonso (0.60%)and Neelam (0.60%) mango variety was found at par with each other. These results in lined with finding obtained by Muhammad Table 4 : Color characteristi cs of di ffe rent varieties of mango pul p Mango variet ies L* a*

(2012), Mohammed (2013) and Naz et al. (2014). Protein : The data regarding protein content of different varieties of mango is given in Table 2. From Table 2, revealed that the values of protein content of mango pulp varied significantly within the six varieties of mango at 5% level of significance. Themaximum value of protein content of mango pulp was found in Alphonso mango variety (0.60%) while minimum in Totapuri (0.50%) mango variety followed by Neelam, Kesar, Amrpali and Dashahari. The value of protein content of mango pulp of Amrpali (0.53%) and Dashahari (0.51%) mango variety was observed nearly with each other. These results are presented in Table 2. Similar results were found by Naz et al. (2014) and Muhammadet al. (2012). Fibre content : Values of fibre content of different varieties of mango pulp are presented in Table 2. From data presented in the Table 2, showed significant difference for values of fibre content of mango pulp at 5% level of significance within six varieties of mango. The maximum value of fibre content of mango pulp was found in Alphonso mango variety (0.60%) and minimum in Totapuri (0.56%) mango variety followed by Kesar, Amrpali, Dashahari and Neelam. The value of fibre content of mango pulp of Amrpali (0.65%) and Dashahari (0.64%) mango variety was observed nearly with each other. Similar results were reported by Muhammad et al. (2012). According to Othman and Mbogo (2009) fibre helps to maintain the health of the gastrointestinal tract. Ash content : The data of ash content of different varieties of b*

Hue angle

Chroma

Alphonso

52.68

27. 11

73.77

69.82

77.97

Amrpali

53.56

25.79

72.31

70.37

76.77

Dashahari

55.26

23.02

77.55

73.46

80.89

Kesar

56.07

25.12

79.69

72.50

83.37

Neelam

63.20

10.79

65.28

70.73

78.16

Tot apuri

59.56

5.20

60.64

89.82

80.89

Mean

56.72

14.99

71.54

74.45

79.68

S.E. ±

0.33

0.23

0.47

0.46

0.47

C.D. (P=0.05)

1.020

0.720

1.472

1.440

1.450

232.64*

269.62*

41.02*

F value 142.02* 1517.89* * indicat e significance of value at P=0.05, respect ively



mango is given in Table 2. Statistically, ash content of different varieties of mango showed non significant difference at 5% level of significance. Table 2 it revealed that, the value of ash content of mango pulp was highest in Dashahari mango variety (0.45%) and lowest in Totapuri mango variety (0.35%).The value of ash content of mango pulp of Kesar (0.44%), Alphonso (0.45%) and Dashahari (0.46%) mango variety was observed nearly with each other. A similar observation for value of ash content was in close agreement with the value reported by Naz et al. (2014), Muhammad et al. (2012) and Othman and Mbogo (2009).

pH of different varieties of mango pulp showed significant difference at 5% level. From Table 3, it was observed that, the pH value of mango pulp was found highest in Kesar mango variety (5.37) and lowest in Totapuri Mango variety (3.8) varieties followed by Amrpali, Dashahari, Alphonso, and Neelam. The value of pH of mango pulp of Alphonso (4.68), Dashahri (4.90) and Neelam (4.40) mango variety was observed nearly with each other. Similar results were found by Reddy and Reddy (2009) and Akhtar et al. (2009). Rajkumaret al. (2007a) reported that pH value of mango pulp of Alphonso mango variety (4.60) which is similar to obtain value of pH of mango pulp of Alphonso mango variety (4.68).

Carbohydrates : The data of carbohydrate of different varieties of mango is given in Table 2. From Table 2 revealed that, significant difference was observed within the different varieties of mango pulp for carbohydrate value at 5% level of significance. The value of carbohydrate of mango pulp was found maximum in Neelam mango varieties and minimum in Totapuri mango variety. The value of carbohydrate of mango pulp of Alphonso (17.89%), Amrpali (17.85%) and Kesar (17.68%) mango variety was observed nearly with each other. The value of carbohydrate of mango pulp of Dashahari (18.56%) and Neelam (18.75%) mango variety was found nearly with each other. Similar results were found by Mohammed (2013).

Total soluble solids (TSS) : The values of total soluble solids of mango pulp of different varieties of mango are shown in Table 3The TSS of mango pulp of different varieties of mango was found statistically significant at 5% level of significance. Table 3 revealed that the highest TSS value for Amrpali mango variety (22.60 oBrix) while lowest TSS was obtained in Totapuri mango variety (14.40 oBrix). The value of TSS of mango pulp of Alphonso (20.70oBrix) and Dashahari (21.71 oBrix) mango variety was found nearly with each other. Higher TSS content is a good phenomenon of mango fruit (Hossain et al., 2001). Shafique et al. (2006) reported that TSS content is considered as a measure of quality for most of the fruit. Taste and particular sweetness of the fruit depend on the percentage of TSS content. According to Akhtar et al. (2009), the variability in TSS values of mango pulp of different varieties might be attributed to the alteration occurring in cell wall structure during ripening process. Moreover, various hydrolytic enzymes also affect

Chemical properties of mango pulp of different varieties : pH : The pH values of six varieties of mango pulp of different varieties are presented in Table 3. Statistically, Table 5 : Sensory e valuation of di ffe rent varieties of mango pul p Mango variet ies Color and appearance

Flavor

Texture

Taste

Overall accept ability

Alphonso

8.6

8.6

8.3

8.3

8.5

Amrpali

8.2

8.3

7.9

8.1

8.1

Dashahari

8.1

8.1

8.0

8.0

8.0

Kesar

8.5

8.4

8.1

8.2

8.2

Neelam

7.3

7.5

7.2

7.7

7.8

Tot apuri

7.8

7.4

7.3

7.3

7.5

Mean

8.08

6.80

7.80

7.93

8.01

S.E. ±

0.330

0.258

0.102

0.074

0.066 0.205

C.D. (P=0.05)

NS

F value 2.06* * indicat e significance of value at P=0.05, respect ively 23 52 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


NS

0.316

0.229

2.84*

18.94*

24.96* 31.2* NS=Non-significant


complex carbohydrates changing them into smaller compound. The variation in TSS content among varieties might be due to their inherent characteristics as well as maturity/ripening stage Safdar et al. (2012). Titrable acidity : Values of titrable acidity of mango pulp of different varieties of mango are presented in Table 3 The maximum value of titrable acidity of mango pulp was noted in Dashahari mango variety as (0.51%) while minimum in Totapuri mango variety (0.35%) followed by Neelam, Amrpali, Alphonso and Kesar. The value of acidity of mango pulp of Keasr (0.36%) and Totapuri (0.36%) mango variety was found at par with each other. According to Safdar et al. (2012), the variation in acidity among different varieties might be due to activity of citric acid glyoxalase during ripeing process which lead to the degration of citric acid their inherent characteristics as well as maturity/ripening stage. Similar result was reported by Nazet al. (2014). From the Table 3 it was observed that the value of titrable acidity of mango pulp was found statistically significant among six varieties of mango. Ascorbic acid : The values ascorbic acid of mango pulp of different varieties of mango is shown in Table 3.It was observed that the ascorbic acid of different varieties of mango pulp was found significant at 5% level of significance. From the data presented in Table 3, it can be seen that theascorbic acid value of mango pulp was found highest for Kesar mango variety (25.53 mg/100g) and lowest in Totapuri mango variety (18.79 mg/100g) followed by Alphonso, Amrpali, Dashahari and Neelam. The value of ascorbic acid of mango pulp of Amrpali (21.88 mg/ 100g) and Dashahari (20.89 mg/100g) mango variety were found at par with each other. Similar results were noted by Anil and Radha (2003), Hossain et al. (2001) and Rajkumar et al. (2007a) for ascorbic acid content of different varieties of mango pulp. Total sugar : The results pertaining to analysis of variance of different varieties of mango pulp for sugar contents are given in Table 3. The value of total sugar ofdifferent varieties of mango pulp was found statistically significant at 5% level of significance. From Table 3 it revealed that, the pulp of Alphonso mango variety possessed

highest total sugar (18.21 %) while lowest in mango pulp of Totapuri (11.59 %) mango variety. The value of total sugar of mango pulp was at par with Kesarand Amrpali mango variety recording 17.65 % and 17.05%, respectively. Total sugar of mango pulp of Amarpali mango variety was 17.05%. These results in lined with finding obtained by Reddy and Reddy (2009) and Padhiar et al. (2011). Beta carotene : The data regarding beta carotene of mango pulp of different varieties of mango is given in Table 3. From Table 3 it was observed that the different varieties of mango showed significant difference in the values of beta carotene of mango pulp. The beta carotene of mango pulp was found maximum in Alphonso mango variety (7.39 mg/100g) and minimum in Totapuri (5.96 mg/100g) mango variety followed by Kesar, Amrpali, Dashahari and Neelam. The value beta carotene of mango pulp was at par with Kesar, Amrpali, and Dashahari mango variety noted 7.20 mg/100g, 7.23 mg/100g and 7.18 mg/ 100g, respectively. Similar results were reported by Rajkumar et al. (2007). Color characteristics of mango Pulp of different varieties : Color of mango pulp is a very impor tant char acteristic which influences the consumer acceptability. Table4 shows the color of mango pulp extracted from different varieties of mango pulp (L*, a*, b*, hue and chroma value) of mango pulp. Table 4 revealed that there was significant difference in value of L*, a*, b*, hue and chroma of mango pulp. Maximum lightness of mango pulp was observed in Neelam (63.20) mango variety while minimum lightness (L*) in mango pulp of Alphonso (52.68) mango variety followed by Totapuri, Kesar, Dashahari and Amrpali. The value of lightness Totapuri and kesar mango pulp was found 59.56 and 56.07, respectively. Mango pulp of Alphonso (27.11) mango variety had highest redness (a*) value. Mango pulp of Totapuri (5.20) mango variety had lowest redness (a*) value. The higher redness (a*) value of Alphonso mango pulp corroborates with high carotenoid content Vijayanand et al. (2015). Totapuri was yellowish red in color with higher lightness, yellowness and lower redness value. It was observed from Table 4 that higher yellowish (b*) color was found in Kesar (79.69) mango variety Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 53 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


pulpwhile lower yellowish (6.64) color was found in Totapuri mango variety. Similar results reported by Vijayanand et al. (2015). From Fig4 it was observed that Alphonso exhibited higher redness, lower yellowness and lightness. Redness was more predominant in Alpohnso which appears to be the characteristic of the variety. The value of hue and chroma are depended on the value of L*, a* and b*. The values of hue angle decrease due to increases value of a* and b*. The value of hue angle was observed lower in Alphonso mango pulp. The value of hue increases due to decrease value of a* and b*. From Table 4, it was found that significant difference found in the value of hue angle and chrom between different varieties of mango pulp. The chroma, however, increases with increases in yellowness of mango pulp. The value of chroma was found maximum in Kesar mango variety pulp. Sensory evaluation of different varieties of mango pulp : The sensory analysis of different varieties of mango pulp was done by using 9- point hedonic scale in term of color and appearance, flavor, taste, texture and overall acceptability. The average value of scores obtained for different varieties of mango pulp during evaluation for various sensory attributes are shown in Table 5 Color and appearance : Table 5 showing the analysis of variance for score of color and appearance indicates that the difference in score among various judges was found to be non significant. The highest average sensory score of mango pulp was obtained for Alphonso (8.6) mango variety. Lowest average sensory score was obtained for mango pulp of Neelam (7.3) mango variety. The mean score of mango pulp of Kesar and Amrpali mango variety was found good as (8.5) and (8.2), respectively. Fig 5 represents the color and appearance of mango pulp of different varieties of mango through bar diagram. Similar results were observed by Akhtar et al. (2009) and Ubwa et al. (2014). Flavor : The mean score value for flavor of the different varieties of mango pulp are presented in Table 5, observed that the maximum mean score was obtained for mango pulp of Alphonso (8.6) variety while lowest mean score was obtained for mango pulp of Neelam (7.4) variety. 23 54 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


There was non significant difference found in terms of flavor of mango pulp of different varieties. The mean score of flavor of mango pulp of Kesar and Amrpali mango variety was found good as (8.4) and (8.3), respectively. Alphonso, Kesar and Amrpali variety mango pulp were having good flavor. Similar results were reported by Akhtar et al. (2009) and Ubwa et al. (2014). Texture : Table 5, noticed that there was significant differences in mango pulp of different varieties. From Table 5, it was observed that the higher mean score for texture was obtained for mango pulp of Alphonso (8.3) variety while lower mean score was obtained for mango pulp of Neelam (7.3) variety. The mean score of texture of mango pulp of Kesar and Amrpali mango variety was observed (8.1) and (7.9), respectively. Table 5it was noticed that the better texture was found in varieties of Alphonso, Kesar and Amrpali mango pulp. Similar results were found by Akhtar et al. (2009) and Ubwa et al. (2014). Taste : Taste is the primary factor which determines the acceptability of many fruits and has highest impact as far as market success of product, is concerned. Table 5, observed that there was significance difference in mean score of taste of mango pulp of different varieties. Data presented for mean score of taste in Table 5; it revealed that the maximum mean score of taste for mango pulp of Alphonso mango variety while lowest score for Neelam mango variety pulp. The score for taste of the different varieties of mango pulp was varied in the range of 8.2 to 7.3.The mean score value of taste was observed in mango pulp of Kesar and Amrpali mango variety (8.2) and (8.1), respectively. The excellent taste was found in the case of mango pulp of Alphonso, Kesar and Amrpali mango variety. Similar results were observed by Akhtar et al. (2009) and Ubwa et al. (2014). Overall acceptability : Overall acceptability is the important parameter in organoleptic estimation. From Table 5, it was observed that the higher mean score for overall acceptability of mango pulp was obtained for Alphonso (8.5) variety of mango. Lower score was obtained for Neelam (7.5) variety mango pulp. The mean score for overall acceptability of mango pulp of different varieties was


varied from 8.3 to 7.2. Table 5,it was observed that there was significance difference in mean score of mango pulp of different varieties at 5% level of significance. The mean score value of mango pulp of Kesar and Amrpali mango variety (7.8) and (8.1), respectively. Table 5 it was noticed that the mango pulp of Alphonso, Kesar, Amrpali and Dashahari mango variety were acceptable as compared to mango pulp of Neelam and Totapuri mango variety. Conclusion : From results of sensory evolution of six varieties of mango, mango pulp of Alphonso and Kesar mango variety was found best between six varieties. Alphonso and Kesar mango variety was observed better nutritionally in terms of protein, fibre, beta carotenoids, ascorbic acid, total sugar and color among all the varieties. Based on above investigations, Alphonso and Kesar variety of mango was found better among six varieties. Authors’ affiliations : S.U. KHODKE, Department of Agricultural Processing Engineering, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA R.V. SALUNKHE, Department of Farm Machinary and Power, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Akhtar, S., Mahmood, S., Naz, S., Nasir, M. and Saultan, M T. (2009). Sensory evaluation of mangoes (MangiferaIndica L.) grown in different regions of Pakistan. Pakistan J. Biotechnol., 41(6) : 2821-2829. Anila, R. and Radha, T. (2003). Physico-chemical analysis of mango varieties under Kerala conditions. J. Tropical Agric., 41: 20-22. Badhe, V. T., Singh, Pratap., Powar, A.G. and Bhaft, Y.C. (2007). Studies on physical properties of Alphonso mango. Agril. Engg. Today, 31(1): 20-24. Hossain, M.M., Haque, M.A., Rahim, M.A. and Rahman, M.H. (2001). Physio- morhological and composition variation in ripe fruit of three mango variety. J. Biolog. Sci., 1 (11):1101-1102. Mohammed, A.Y. Abdalrahman (2013). Physico-chemical charactereristics of different types of mango (Mangifera Indica L.) fruits grown in drafur regions and its use in jam processing. Sci. Internat., 144-147.

Muhammad, S.J., Farzana, B., Kashif, W. and Muhammad, A.K. (2010). Evaluation of physico-chemical characteristics of mango (MangiferaIndicaL.) cultivars grown in D. I. Khan. J. Agril. Res., 48 (2). Muhammad, S.H., Ramooza, R. and Farooq, U. (2004). Physicochemcal characteristics of various mango (Mangifera indica L.) varieties. J. Agril. Res., 42 (2). Muhammad, S., Saghir, A.S. and Shahzor, G.K. (2012). Effect of storage on the physicochemical characteristics of the mango (MangiferaindicaL.) variety, Langra. African J. Biotechnol., 11 (41) : 9825-9828. Naz, S., Akbar, A.M., Chohan, S., Akhtar, S. and Siddique, B. (2014). Physico-chemical and sensory profiling of promising mangocultivars grown in peri-urban areas of Multan. Pakistan J. Biotechnol., 46(1) : 191-198. Othman, O.C. and Mbogo, G.P. (2009). Physico-chemical characteristics of storagen ripened mango (Mangifera Indica L.) fruits varieties of eastern Tanzania. Tanzania J. Sci., 35. Padhiar, B.V., Saravaiya, S.N., Koladiya, P.B., Bhatt, S.T. and Patel, J.C. (2011). Biochemical changes in mango fruit varieties at different stages of growth and development under south Gujarat conditions. Asian J. Horticul., 6 (2):449-454. Patel, V.T. and Patel, H.R. (2004). Effect of drying temperature and packaging material on microbial quality of mango bar. J. Agril. Engg., 41 (2). Pradeepkumar, T., Joseph, P. and Johnkutty, I. (2006). Variability in physico-chemical characteristics of mango genotypes in northern Kerala. J. Tropical Agric., 44(1-2): 57-60. Rathore, H.A., Masud, T., Sammi, S. and Soomro, H.A. (2007). Effect of storage on physico-chemical composition and sensory properties of mango (Mangifera indicaL.) variety Dosehari. Pakistan J. Nutrition, 6(2): 143-148. Ubwa1, S.T., Ishu, M.O., Offem, J.O., Tyohemba, R.L. and Igbum, G.O. (2014). Proximate composition and some physical attribute of three mango (Mangiferaindica L.) fruit varieties. Internat. J. Agron. & Agril. Res., (IJAAR).4 : 21-29. Vijayanand, P., Deep, E. and Kulkarni, S.G. (2015). Physicochemical characterization and the effect of processing on the quality characteristics of Sindura, Mallika and Totapuri mango cultivars. J. Food Sci. & Technol., 52(2):1047-1053.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Anonymous (a) (2015).http://www.indiastat.com Anonymous (b) (2015). http://www. wikipedia.com


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RESEARCH ARTICLE :

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Performance and evaluation of tractor operated semi-automatic onion bulb planter R.V. SALUNKHE, S.V. RANE AND PRANOTI LAD


KEY WORDS : Onion bulb planter, Field efficiency, Cost of operation

SUMMARY : The experiment was carried out at Department of Farm Machinery and Power, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri (M.S.) during September to July in year 2012-13 to check the performance and evaluation of tractor operated semi-automatic onion bulb planter. The field performance of onion bulb planter was tested. Mistubishi (18.5 HP) tractor was used for carrying out the field operation. The test was conducted at an average forward speed 1.3 km.h -1. The draft required by the planter was 206.61 kgf. Wheel slippage was found to be 20.85%. The average row to row distance was observed as 600 mm and average plant to plant distance was observed as 181 mm. The actual field capacity was found to be 0.042 ha.h-1. The field efficiency of planter was found to be 53.85 per cent. The missing percentage was found to be 8.12 per cent. The seed rate obtained was 2833 kgha-1 against recommended 3000 kg.ha-1. Total cost required for operation was found to be‘ 166.82 per hour. The total cost of operation obtained per ha was ‘ 3971.90 per hectare. Whereas cost of operation observed in conventional method was ‘ 8880 per hectare. How to cite this article : Salunkhe, R.V., Rane, S.V. and Lad, Pranoti (2017). Performance and evaluation of tractor operated semi-automatic onion bulb planter. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/ HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : R.V. SALUNKHE

Department of Farm Machinary and Power, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA

Email:ravisalunkhe.7988 @gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Onion (Allium Cepa L.) is one of the most important vegetable crops grown in India. Onions are one of the oldest vegetables in continuous cultivation dating back to at least 4,000 BC. The ancient Egyptians are known to have cultivated this crop along the Nile River. They have long been valued in China and India for their flavoring. In India only fresh market onions are grown that are mostly red onions, white onion are grown on commercial scale in few states like Maharashtra, Gujarat etc. Major varieties found in India are

Agrifound dark red, Agrifound light red, NHRDF red, Agrifound white, Agrifound rose, Agrifound red, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa red and Pusa white round. There are yellow varieties of onion which are suitable for export in European countries such as Tana F1, Arad H, Suprex, Granex 55, HA 60, and Granex 429. In Maharashtra Baswant-780, N-53, N2-4-1, Arka Niketan, Phule safed, Phule Suwarna, Phule Samarth, AFDR, AFLR varieties are prominent. In Maharashtra onion is much sensitive crop and all varieties of onion are not possible to grow in all areas in


R.V. SALUNKHE, S.V. RANE AND PRANOTI LAD

all seasons. The favourable season for planting onion bulb for seed purpose is from last week of November to first week of January. Onion cannot be grown in alkaline or low lying marshy land. Best soil for onion production is friable loams and alluvium where a free drainage, absence of president weeds and presence of organic matter favour production of excellent crops. Onion is sensitive to high acidity and alkalinity. The optimum pH range is 5.8 to 6.5 (Chaudhari 2004). Major work done on onion seeder and onion transplanter but onion bulb planting for seed production is still manually done in India. Based on literature cited seed production aspect of onion is limitedly mechanized. As area under onion get increased demand for onion seeds also get increased. Therefore, it is necessary to develop technology in onion seed production on commercial basis. Bulb sizes and planting time are most determining factors for onion seed production. Suitable size of mother bulb coupled with appropriate planting time gives optimum seed yield. Generally 25-30 q of medium size bulbs are required to plant one hectare. Area under onion seed production in India is 598.49 ha (NHRDF 2011-12). Highest seed yield obtained with large size bulbs ranges from 5 to 8 cm and at spacing of 60 × 20 cm (Gaikwad 1996). Planters are those machines which plants seed in such a way that plant to plant and row to row distance is maintained. Planters are either automatic or semiautomatic. The manual plantation is very time consuming and increases the cost of plantation. Also this method does not maintain uniformity in plantation in terms of depth and spacing. Hence there is need to develop mechanical onion bulb planter that will reduce the labour cost, save the time and will keep uniformity in planting onion bulbs. Present research relates with mechanization in onion bulb planting against hand dibbling. Considering present need the project entitled “Development and performance evaluation of tractor operated (18.5 hp) semi-automatic onion bulb planter” was undertaken in the Department of Farm Machinery and Power of Dr. Annasaheb Shinde College of Agricultural Engineering, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri.

AICRP on FIM, MPKV, Rahuri. The tractor operated (18.5 hp) semi-automatic onion bulb planter is shown in Fig. The onion bulb planter consists of following functional units. Artenstein (1924) developed similar planter for potato with different spacing. – Feeding hopper – Main frame – Three point linkage – Operator’s seat – Furrow Opener – Ridgers – Power transmission unit – Ground wheel – Chain and sprocket arrangement – Shaft – Cup-feed conveyor unit.

RESOURCES

Test procedures : Testing of the semi-automatic onion bulb planter for low hp tractor was done as per the guidelines & procedure suggested by the Regional Network for Agricultural Machinery (RNAM, 1983) and ISI test code IS : 9856 –

AND

METHODS

Basic functional units of semi-automatic onion bulb planter : The machine was fabricated in the workshop of

Working mechanism: The attachment of planter was done with three point linkage to the tractor. The ground wheel in contact with soil rotates first. The rotation of ground wheel transmits rotary motion to power transmitting shaft by means of chain and sprocket arrangement. Rear pulley of conveyor unit was fitted on shaft which gives motion to conveyor unit. The conveyor belt fixed tightly on two pulleys. The rotation of pulley causes the rotation of belt on which steel cups were riveted. The operator sits on seat, picks up onion bulbs from feeding hopper and places it in cups. The placement was done in such a way that its root portion remains at top and cut portion at bottom. A guard was given with proper clearance to restrict the movement of onion bulb while dropping. The purpose of guard was to allow onion bulbs to come downside such that bulbs remain in same position as on top of belt. Due to guard the placement of bulb was done in such a way that cut portion remains at top side and root portion remains at bottom side. The bulbs were covered by forming a ridge over it with suitable height of soil by means of ridger. The plant to plant spacing was maintained by optimizing various parameters such as speed of belt, spacing between cups mounted on belt, diameter of ground wheel (Young, 1923).


PERFORMANCE & EVALUATION OF TRACTOR OPERATED SEMI-AUTOMATIC ONION BULB PLANTER

newly developed tractor operated (18.5 hp) semiautomatic onion bulb planter were conducted to evaluate its per formance as per the pr ocedur e suggested by the Regional Networ k for Far m Machinery (RNAM, 1985) and ISI test code IS : 9856 - 1981.

Fig. A :

Isometric view of tractor operated (18.5 hp) semiautomatic onion bulb planter

1981. General, laboratory and field test are carried out to check the performance of onion bulk planter. Field efficiency was calculated by following formula : Fie l de fficie ntc y,% =

(

Effecti vefi el dcapacity,ha.h–1

(

) × 100 )

The ore tical fi el dcapaci ty ha.h– 1

The germination percentage was calculated by using the following formula: Ge rmin atio n ,% =

Nu mbe rof pl an tsgermin ate d × 100 Nu mbe rof se e dsown

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The laboratory tests and the field trials of the Table 1 : Laboratory tests Sr. No. Particular 1.

Dat e of t est

2.

Capacity of seed hopper, (kg)

3.

Onion bulb characteristics

4.

General tests : The material used for different components of the implement was of mild steel. The size and specifications of these components conforms to BIS specifications. The visibility from the tractor operator’s position was found good. The operator can see most of the working components of the equipment. The depth control adjustments can be done by depth control lever. The cups on conveyor belt were fixed according to bulb spacing requirement. Laboratory tests : Details of Laboratory tests, calibration test of onion bulb for 10 revolutions of ground wheel and test data are presented in Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Performance evaluation data : The onion bulb planter was tested for the field crop of onion. The final test results for planting onion bulbs were shown in Table 4.

Value 28/12/2012 20

– Variety used

Phule Samarth

– Shape of bulb

Oblate

– Avg. diameter of bulb, (mm)

57.9

– Avg. length of bulb, (mm)

30.5

– Avg. mass of onion bulb, (g)

52.8

Machine parameter Name of implement

Semi-automatic onion bulb planter

– Length, (mm)

1080

– Widt h, (mm)

1220

– Height , (mm)

915

– Weight , (kg)

109

5.

Diamet er of ground wheel, (mm)

420

6.

Effective working width, (mm)

600

7.

Area covered in 10 revolut ions of ground wheel, m 2

7.92

8.

Avg. moist ure content , (%)

23.83



R.V. SALUNKHE, S.V. RANE AND PRANOTI LAD

Table 2 : Cali bration test of onion bul b for 10 re voluti ons of ground wheel Weight of seed, kg Test No. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

1.

2.52

2.43

2.34

2.48

2.

2.36

2.34

2.44

2.39

3.

2.46

2.33

2.40

1.46

Average

Table 3 : Test data Sr. No. Part icular 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8.

General Dat e of test Locat ion of test Type of soil Field paramet er Plot size, (m2 ) Length, (m) Width, (m) Last crop grown Met hod of land preparation Depth of planting, (mm) Accumulat ion Uncovered bulbs Missing No. of bulbs missed Missing percentage Row to row spacing, (mm) Average bulb to bulb spacing, (mm)

Table 4 : Results of perform ance e valuation of onion bulb planter Sr. No. Particular 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Area covered, (ha) Durat ion of t est, (h) Speed of operation, (km.h-1) Draft required, (kgf) Wheel slippage, (%) Effective working width, (mm) Recommended seed rate, (kg.ha-1 ) Obt ained seed rate, (kg.ha-1 ) Plant ing frequency (no.min -1) Bulb density (no.ha-1 ) Germinat ion percent age Theoret ical field capacity, (ha.h-1) Effective field capacity, (ha.h-1 ) Field Efficiency, (%) Fuel consumpt ion, (lit.h-1 ) Avg. plant count , (no.m -2) Obt ained plant populat ion, (no.ha-1 ) Recommended plant geomet ry, (mm) Obt ained avg. plant geometry, (mm) Cost of operation, `.h -1 Cost of operation, `.ha-1

Avg.

Seed rate (Kg ha-1)

2.27

2.40

3030.30

2.38

2.38

3005.05

2.38

2.41

3042.93

2.39

3017.68

Specification 04/01/2013 ‘D’ Block MPKV Rahuri Black cotton 120 20 06 Soyabean Ploughing and harrowing 40.2 nil 216 81 8.12 600 181

Value 0.012 0.46 1.30 206.61 20.85 600 3000 2833 71 92081 79.28 0.078 0.042 53.85 1.63 8.4 84000 600 × 200 600 × 181 166.82 3971.90 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 59 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

PERFORMANCE & EVALUATION OF TRACTOR OPERATED SEMI-AUTOMATIC ONION BULB PLANTER

Summary : The planter was developed and fabricated with care so that the components were free from cracks and visual defects. The welded joints were not porous. The anticorrosive and rust preventive paint was given for each component. The plastic crate was used as hopper. The hopper was fitted on angle frame. Main frame was made strong enough support to all components fixed on it. Three point linkage was used for hitching to tractor. Three point linkage was made to suit special arrangement for 18.5 hp Mitsubishi tractors. The furrow opener was fixed on main frame with nut bolts. The ridgers were fixed with clamp and nut-bolt arrangement. Two half ridgers were provided to form a single ridge. Power transmission unit consists of ground wheel, chain and sprocket, power transmission shaft, respectively. The power was transmitted from ground wheel to conveyor unit. The cup feed conveyor unit was made up of flat canvas belt and steel cups. Operator’s seat was close to hopper so that operator can easily pick up onion bulbs and place it onto cups. In laboratory tests onion characteristics, machine dimensions and soil moisture content was determined. The field trial was carried out in well ploughed and harrowed black cotton soil. The performance of developed onion bulb planter was found satisfactory for planting of onion bulb with effective field capacity 0.042 ha.h-1 and 53.85 % field efficiency. Conclusions: The planter can be used for planting onion bulbs on the top of ridge. A skilled person with one unskilled labour can operate the onion bulb planter at an average forward speed of 1.3 km.h-1 and can cover an average area 0.042 ha.h-1. The power source was 18.5 hp Mitsubishi tractor and draft required by the machine was 206.61 kgf. The depth of seed placement was observed to be 40.2 mm. The seed rate of 2833 kg.ha-1 was obtained for onion bulb which is slightly less than recommended seed rate. The average plant geometry was 600 × 181 mm as against the recommended plant geometry of 600 × 200 mm. The field efficiency of the planter was 53.85 %. Cost of operation was less as compared to conventional method. The mechanical planting can save



4980.10 ‘.ha-1 Acknowledgement: First and foremost, I am grateful to Prof. P.T. Kolekar from Agronomy department for their guidance and support during my research period. I equally owe a special debt of gratitude to my university, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola for allowing me to attain the study. Authors’ affiliations : S.V. RANE, Department of Farm Machinary and Power, Maha tma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA PRANOTI LAD, Department of Agricultural Processing Engineering, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Chaudhari, A.A. and Sarode, K.G. (2004). Performance evaluation of tractor drawn semi-automatic potato planter pp (7-28). Gaikwad, S.K. (1996). Effect of spacing and NPK fertilizer doses on growth seed yield and seed quality of onion (Allium cepa L.) M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Rahuri, Ahmednagar, M.S. (INDIA). Gupta, M.L., Vasta, D.K. and Verma, M.K. (1994). Development of power tiller operated potato planter cum fertilizer applicator agricultural mechanization in Asia and Latin. America, 25(2) : 26-28. Onion production in India (2011). National Horticultural Research Development Foundation, Nashik, M.S. (INDIA). Artenstein, W. (1924). Potato planter US Patent No.-1,501, 335. Young, T. De. (1923). Bulb planter. US Patent No. -1,453,923. Sr. No. - 185,596. Pawar, V.R. (2011). Development and Performance evaluation multicrop ridger planter.

WEBLIOGRAPHY www.sciencedirect.com www.google/scholar/bulb planter. www.google/scholar/tuber planter www.elsevier.com

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Development of agripreneurship as a tool of poverty reduction K. VEERANJANEYULU, R.V.T. BALAZZIINAAIIK, V. RAVINDERNAIK AND M. SHANKAR


KEY WORDS : Agripreneurship, Entrepreneurs, Entrepreneurship Skills, Potential areas, Employment Generation, Poverty Reduction, Agribusiness

Author for correspondence : K. VEERANJANEYULU

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, NALGONDA (TELANGANA) INDIA


SUMMARY : A shift from agriculture to agribusiness is an essential pathway to revitalize Indian agriculture and to make more attractive and profitable venture. Agripreneurship have the potential to contribute to a range of social and economic development such as employment generation, income generation, poverty reduction and improvements in nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy. Agripreneurship has potential to generate growth, diversifying income, providing widespread employment and entrepreneurial opportunities in rural areas. This paper mainly focused on basic concepts of agripreneurship, entrepreneurship skills, and needs of agripreneurship development in India along with major reason for promoting agripreneurship development in country. How to cite this article : Veeranjaneyulu, K., BalazziiNaaiik, R.V.T., V. RavinderNaik and Shankar, M. (2017). Development of agripreneurship as a tool of poverty reduction. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Indian economy is basically agrarian economy. On 2.4 per cent of world land India is managing 17.5 per cent of world population. At the time of independence, more than half of the national income was contributed by agriculture along with more than 70 per cent of total population was dependent on agriculture (Pandey, 2013). Agriculture and allied sectors are considered to be mainstay of the Indian economy because these are important sources of raw materials for industries and they demands for many industrial products particularly fertilizers, pesticides, agriculture implements and a variety

of consumer goods (Bairwa et al., 2014a). Due to the changing socio, economic, political, environmental and cultural dimensions over the world, farmers’ and nations’ options for survival and for sustainably ensuring success in changing their r espective economic environments has become increasingly critical. It is also worth noting that the emergence of the free market economies globally has resulted in the development of a new spirit of enterprise “Agripr eneurship” and the increased individual need for responsibility for running their own businesses (Alex, 2011). Entrepreneurship is connected with finding ways and means to create and develop a profitable farm business. The term the terms,


K. VEERANJANEYULU, R.V.T. BALAZZIINAAIIK, V. RAVINDERNAIK AND M. SHANKAR

entrepreneurship and agripreneurship are frequently used in the context of education and small business formation in agriculture. Dollinger (2003) defines entrepreneurship in agriculture as the creation of innovative economic organization for the purpose of growth or gain under conditions of risk and uncertainty in agriculture. Gray (2002) on the other hand defines an entrepreneur as an individual who manages a business with the intention of expanding thebusiness and with the leadership and managerial skills necessary for achieving those goals. In the face of growing unemployment and poverty in rural areas and slow growth of agriculture there is need of entrepreneurship in agriculture for more productivity and profitability of agriculture. The Agripreneurship program is necessary to develop entrepreneurs and management workforce to cater agricultural Industry across the world (Bairwa et al., 2014b). Agripreneurship is greatly influenced mainly by the economic situation, education and culture (Singh, 2013). Basic terminology related with agripreneurship development : – Agripreneurs – in general, agripreneurs should be proactive, curious, determined, persistence, visionary, hard working, honest, integrity with strong management and organizational skills. Agripreneurs also known as entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs may be defined as innovators who drive change in the economy by serving new markets or creating new ways of doing things. Thus, an agripreneurs may be someone who undertakes a variety of activities in agriculture sector in order to be an entrepreneur. – Agripreneurship – Agripreneurship is the profitable marriage of agriculture and entrepreneurship. Agripreneurship turn your farm into an agribusiness. The term Agripreneurship is synonym with entrepreneurship in agriculture and refers to agribusiness establishment in agriculture and allied sector. – Agriclinics – these are envisaged to provide expert advice and services to farmers on technology, cropping practices, protection from pests and diseases, market trends, prices of various crops in the markets and also clinical services for animal health which would enhance productivity of crops/ animals and increased income to farmers (Global Agrisystem, 2010). 23 62 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


–

Agribusiness Centres – these are envisaged to provide farm equipments on hire, sale of inputs and other services. These centres will provide a package of input facilities; consultancy and other services with the aim of strengthen transfer of technology and extension services and also provide selfemployment opportunities to technically trained persons (Chandra shekara, 2003).

Need of agripreneurship development : Since the inception of New Economic Reforms, adoption of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) and world trade organization (WTO) in 1992 – 95, it is expected that rural area will grow at par with urban area. Performance of agricultureduring first phase of economic reforms till 1998 remained driving force for this notion among all the spheres of academia, administration and government (Singh, 2013). However, things went on different path in the later years and performance of agriculture has not remained satisfactory. Till recently, agriculture used to be treated as just an activity of land tilling and crop harvesting but growing waste land, depleting natural resources, growing migration by rural youth to urban areas, negative perception of the children of farmers towards farming, and emerging technologies in agriculture have necessitated redesigning of agricultural activities. Applying the thought and practice of entrepreneurship in the field of agriculture generates wide range of economic benefits like – increased agri productivity, creation of new business ventures, new Jobs, innovative products and services, development of rural areas and increased wealth. Traditional farmers who are unaware of scientific agriculture and effective agri management systems are unable to cope up with delaying monsoons, drought, crop debts, fake seeds and shortage of fertilizer, as a result resort to committing suicide. The managerial, technical and innovative skills of entrepreneurship applied in the field of agriculture many yield positive results and a well trained agripreneurs may become a role model to all such disheartened farmers. Sah (2009) state that developing entrepreneurs in agriculture will solve the entire problem like (a) Reduce the burden of agriculture (b) Generate employment opportunities for rural youth (c) Control migration from rural to urban areas (d) Increase national income (e) Support industrial development in rural areas (f) Reduces the pressure on urban cities.

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRIPRENEURSHIP AS A TOOL OF POVERTY REDUCTION

Entrepreneur’s qualities and entrepreneurial skills for agripreneurship : Entrepreneurs are those people who exhibit common traits such as single-mindedness, drive, ambition, creative, problem solving, practical, and goal-oriented. An entrepreneur is an individual who recognizes an opportunity or unmet need and takes the risk to pursue it. He needs to develop these abilities, managing productivity and seeking out new markets (Singh, 2013). Personal qualities of an agri-entrepreneur significantly affect the agribusiness (Brockhaus and Horwitz, 1986; Nandram and Samson, 2000). Self criticism, leadership, market orientation and creativity are important for successful entrepreneurship development. Entrepreneurship skills are considered to be those competencies required to accomplish tasks and activities related to the farm business. These can be developed by learning and experience. Hanf and Muller (1997) suggest that in a dynamic environment with fast technical progress, open minded farm entrepreneurs will recognise more problems than they are able to rationally solve. Man et al. (2002) categor ized entrepreneurial competences in six key areas which includes opportunity recognition skills, relationship building, Organizing, Strategic competences, conceptual thinking and problem solving skills. Lauweres (2002) study of weaknesses in entrepreneurship and selected seven critical success factors which are management and strategic planning, knowledge of the ecosystem, capable and professional staff, understanding of the value chain perspective, craftsmanship, ability to learn and seek opportunity andenterprising personal characteristics. T hus, management skills are the complete package of skills that a farmer would use in order to develop the farm business. Kallio and Kola (1999) in a study of farmers in Finland attempted to determine what factors gave farmers competitive advantage over other farmers suggest that there are seven characteristics of a successful farm and farmer (1) profitable production seemed to be associated with continuous evaluation of production, incomes and expenditures (2) constant development of cognitive and professional skills i.e. Continual Professional Development (CPD) (3)They benefit from a positive work ethic (4) goaloriented operation, i.e., the ability to set goals, to reach them and to set new ones (5) utilization of recent information that is relevant for the individual farmer’s

own circumstances and the needs of the farm (6) favourable starting points for the enterprise, meaning good condition of machinery, buildings, land and an appropriate balance between pricing of product and investments in production (7) cooperation with others in the supply chain. Schiebel (2002) reported that successful farmers differ from others in terms of three personality traits. They have more belief in their ability to control events, problemsolvingabilities and social initiative. Agripreneurs is a dynamic business manager performing various agri based activities using different resources viz. physical resources, financial resources, human resources and information, in order to accomplish a certain goal. Major reasons for promoting agripreneurship in India: In India, 52% of total land is cultivable as against 11% in the world. All 15 major climates of the world, snow bound Himalayas to hot humid southern peninsula; Thardesert to heavy rain areas all exist in India. There are 20 agro-climatic regions and nearly 46 out of 60 soil types in the country. Sunshine hours and day length are ideally suited for round the year cultivation of crops. India is the centre for biodiversity in plants, animals, insects, micro-organism and accounts for 17% animal, 12% plants and 10% fish genetic resources of the globe. In the livestock sector, India has 16% of cattle, 57% of buffalo, 17% of goats and 5 % of sheep population of the world. Agriculture contributes 13.2% to GDP, 15.2% of total exports and provides employment to 58.4% of country’s work force (Mittal, 2009). Agriculture remains a key sector of the Indian economy accounting for 13.2 per cent share in the gross domestic product (GDP) and about 13 per cent of the total export earnings. India is the second largest producer of rice and wheat in the world; first in pulses and fourth in coarse grains. India is also one of the largest producers of cotton, sugar, sugarcane, peanuts, jute, tea and an assortment of spices. In terms of the real value added, the Indian agriculture sector ranks third, after China and the United States. The share of agriculture in the total value added to the economy, at around 13.2 per cent, is still quite high. This implies that agriculture is likely to remain a priority, both for policy makers as well as businesses, in the foreseeable future and any move to ramp up the sector calls for a multi-pronged strategy. In recent years, there has been a considerable emphasis on Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 63 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

K. VEERANJANEYULU, R.V.T. BALAZZIINAAIIK, V. RAVINDERNAIK AND M. SHANKAR

crop diversification towards horticulture (fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, medicinal and aromatic plants and spices), plantation crops (coconut, cashew nuts and cocoa) and alliedactivities. Creation of critical infrastructure for cold storage, refrigerated transportation, rapid transit, grading, processing, packaging and quality control measures open major opportunities for investment. India is second highest fruit and vegetable producer in the world (134.5 million tons) with cold storage facilities available only for 10% of the produce. We are second highest producer of milk with a cold storage capacity of 70,000 tonne and sixth largest producer of fish with harvesting volumes of 5.2 million tonnes. India is fifth largest producer of eggs in the world. Investments in cold chain required storing 20% of surplus of meat and poultry products during 10th plan require Rs 500 Crores (Sah, 2009). Thus, Indian agriculture need to convert in agribusiness due to above mentioned reasons which only possible through agripreneurship development. Role of agripreneurship in national economy : Agripreneurship plays various roles in the growth and development of national economy thr ough entrepreneurship development which increases the income level and employment opportunities in rural as well as urban areas (Bair wa et al., 2012). Agripreneurship also play following role in the economic system (Sah, 2009). – It helps in inducing productivity gains by smallholder farmers and integrating them into local, national and international markets. – It helps in reducing food costs, supply uncertainties and improving the diets of the rural and urban poor in the country. – It also generating growth, incr easing and diversifying income, and providing entrepreneurial opportunities in both rural and urban areas. Possible areas of entrepreneurship development in agriculture : Nowadays, Easy access to technology, emergence of micro financing, liberalized government rules, awareness and training programmes on agri and allied sectors and finally changing mindset of the highly qualified people to go for self-employment in the field of agriculture have contributed significantly in enhancing the potentiality for agripreneuership in India (Bairwa et al., 2014). 23 64 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Agriculture have several areas of entrepreneurship which include the activities like, Dairying, Sericulture, Goat rearing, Rabbit rearing, Floriculture, Fisheries, Shrimp Farming, Sheep rearing, vegetable cultivation, nursery farming, farm forestry(Pandey, 2013). The possible areas of entrepreneurship in agriculture are:– Agro produce processing units – There units do not manufacture any new product. They merely process the agriculture produce e.g. Rice mills, Dal mills, decorticating mills etc. – Agro Produce manufacturing units – These units produce entirely new products based on the agricultural produce as the main raw material. E.g.Sugar factories, Bakery, Straw board units etc. – Agro-inputs manufacturing units – These units produce goods either for mechanization of agriculture on for – Incr easing manufacturing plants, e.g.Fertilizer production units food processing units, agricultural implements etc. – Agro service centres –These include the workshops and service centre for repairing and serving the agricultural implement used in agriculture. – Miscellaneous areas – besides the above mentioned areas, the following areas may prove to be encouraging to establish agri enterprises such as setting up of Apiaries, feed processing units, seed processing units, mushroom production units, commercial vermin-compose units, goat rearing farmers club, organic vegetable and fruits retail outlet, bamboo plantation and jatropha cultivation. Conclusion : Agripreneurship is the need of hours to make agriculture a more attractive and profitable venture. It is clear that there is a great scope for entrepreneurship in agriculture and this potentiality can be tapped only by effective management of agri elements such as – soil, seed, water and market needs. An individual with risk bearing capacity and a quest for latest knowledge in agriculture sector can prove to be a right agripreneurs. The agriculture sector has a large potential to contribute to the national income while at the same time providing direct employment and income to the numerically larger and vulnerable section of the society. Agripreneurship is not only an opportunity but also a necessity for improving the production and profitability in agriculture and allied

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRIPRENEURSHIP AS A TOOL OF POVERTY REDUCTION

sector. Authors’ affiliations : R.V.T. BALAZZIINAAIIK, V. RAVINDERNAIK AND M. SHANKAR, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, NALGONDA (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Alex, Lwakuba (2011). A review and analysis of policies on Farmers’ Entrepreneurship Development, A publication of PELUM, Misereor, pp. 1 – 55. Bairwa, S.L. and Kushwaha, S. (2012). Agro Industry scenario in India In Edited by Prof. S. P. Singh “Agricultural research and Sustainable development in India”, Bharti Publications, New Delhi, 110093, pp 159- 182. Bairwa, S.L., Kalia, A., Meena, L.K., Lakra, K. and Kushwaha, S. (2014b). Agribusiness Management Education: A Review on Employment Opportunities. Internat. J. Scientific & Res. Publications, (IJSRP), 4(2) : 1-4. Bairwa, S.L., Kushwaha, S., Meena, L. K., Lakra, K. and Kumar P. (2014a) Agribusiness Potential of North Eastern States: A SWOT Analysis. In Edited by Singh et al. (2014). Agribusiness Potentials in India: experience from hill states. EBH Publishers (India) Guwahati – New Delhi pp. 544-556. Brockhaus, R.H. and Horwitz, P.S. (1986). The psychology of the entrepreneur (in D.L. Sexton and R.W. Smilor (eds.), The art and science of entrepreneurship. Ballinger publishing company, Cambridge, pp. 25-48. Chandra shekhra, P. (2003). Third wave in Indian agriculture: introduction to Agriclinics and agribusiness centre scheme. MANAGE Ext. Res. Rev., pp. 10-20. Dollinger, M.J. (2003). Entrepreneurship – Strategies and Resources. Pearson International Edition, New Jersey. Global Agrisystem (2010). Evaluation study of agriclinics and agribusiness centre scheme, Global Agrisystem Pvt. Ltd., NEW DELHI, INDIA.

Gray, C. (2002). Entrepreneurship, Resistance to change and Growth in Small Firms. J. Small Bus. & Enterprise Develop., 9 (1) : 61-72.

Anpassung: Informations beschaffung, Wissensakquisition, Erwerb von Fähigkeiten’ In: Schriften der Gesellschaftfür Wirtschaft- und Sozialwissenschaften des Landbause.V., 33: 207-218. Kallio, V. and Kola, J. (1999). Maatalousyritys tenmenestystekijät: AluetutkimusEtelä-Karjalassa, EteläSavossa jaKymenlaaksossa. (Success Factors of Farm Enterprises in Finland.), University of Helsinki, Department of Economics and Management, Publications No. 24. Lauwere, C.D., Verhaar, K. and Drost, H. (2002). Het Mysterie van het Ondernemerschap, boeren en tuinders op zoeknaarnieuwewegen in eendynamischemaatschappij’ (The Mystery of Entrepreneurship; Farmers looking for new pathways in a dynamic society, In Dutch with English summary), Wageningen University and Research Centre. Man, T.W.Y., Lau, T. and Chan, K.F. (2002). The competitiveness of small and medium enterprises - A conceptualization with focus on entrepreneurial competences. J. Busin. Venturing, 17: 123-142. Mittal, Ramesh (2009). Entrepreneurship development through Agripreneurship in India: Crossing the Boundaries with AgriExportZones (AEZ), A Paper presentation in ICARD at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi – 221005. Nandram, S.S. and Samson, K.J. (2000). Successful entrepreneurship: more a matter of character than of knowledge (in Dutch with English summary). Nyenrode Centre for Entrepreneurship, Breukelen, The Netherlands, p. 242. Pandey, Geeta (2013). Agripreneurship Education and Development: Need of the Day, Asian Resonance, 2(4)155-157. Sah, Pooja, Sujan, D.K. and Kashyap, S.K. (2009). Role of Agripreneurship in the Development of Rural Area, Paper presentation in ICARD at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi– 221005. Singh, A.P. (2013). Strategies for Developing Agripreneurship among Farming Community in Uttar Pradesh, India, Academicia: An Internat. Multidisciplinary Res. J., 3(11) 1- 12.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Drucker, P. (1985). Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Harper and Row, New York.Eenhoorn, H. www.worlconnectors.nl (www.fao.org.spfs).

Hanf, C. and Müller, R. (1997). Schlüsselaktivitätenbetrieblicher


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An economic perspective of precision farming technology adoption in paddy- a study from north eastern Karnataka K.A. SHRUTHI, G.M. HIREMATHB AND AMRUTHA T. JOSHI


KEY WORDS : Precision farming, Adoption, Technologies, Extension

SUMMARY : The ecosystem for technology and digital solutions is expanding at an impressive pace.Though India produces a large quantity of food grain, Indian farmers are not major noticeable at the global economic competition arena. The high cost of production and low productivity, lack of timely start of research on advanced science and poor grasp over cutting-edge technologies are some of the main problems of developing countries like India. The principle technology in Indian agriculture should be efficient, practical, cost effective and free from pollution. Precision farming can address both economic and environmental issues that surround production agriculture today.The increasing need to produce more from less available resources and demand for quality produce are the pressing needs for adopting precise way of farming to optimize the limited resources. Though PF is widely adopted in developed countries, the adoption of it in India is yet to take a firm ground primarily.High-tech nature of traditional PF technologies developed in advanced countries created a real challenge to search for suitable PF technologies for developing countries. Such an attempt has been made through present paper by analyzing the factors affecting adoption and constraints faced by adopters. Persuasion by the project staff and supply of technical know-how by the University scientists has influenced the farmers to adopt PF. It was noted that labour requirement, price constraints and managing crop as per grids were major constraints faced by them. Considering the adoption strategy of precision farming and its benefits, the extension workers have scope to bring awareness among farming community by various means. How to cite this article : Reshma (2017). Correlation. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/ HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : K.A. SHRUTHI

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Agricultural University, RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

Email : shruthik952@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

The implications of dramatic shifts for economic development, urbanization and energy consumption are immense and needs a viable and sustainable technology not only for the lifestyle but also to meet the huge food

grain requirement of 480 million tonnes (Mt) by the year 2050 Bisoyi (2006), with the increasing challenge of biotic and abiotic stresses experienced by cr ops,. T hus, intr oduction and adoption of modern technology in the primary and major sector that is in Indian agriculture is inevitable. It is


K.A. SHRUTHI, G.M. HIREMATHB AND AMRUTHA T. JOSHI

true for other developing countries also. Agriculture, like other industries, has made entry into the knowledgebased era, leaving its previous resource-based nature. Indian agriculture has passed the transitional transformation from subsistence to conservational and from conservational to commercialization. Future agriculture will be severely competitive, knowledge intensive and market driven. WTO agreement and liberalization of agricultural trade have created not only new scopes but also new threats to the agriculture of developing countries. Removal of quantitative restrictions on import from 1 April, 2001 in India made quality and cost competitiveness the two most important factors to sustain in the globalized market. Though India produces a large quantity of food grain, Indian farmers are not major noticeable at the global economic competition arena. The high cost of production and low productivity, lack of timely start of research on advanced science and poor grasp over cutting-edge technologies are some of the main problems of developing countries like India. Increasing the productivity on smallscale farms in developing countries is a critical part of a solution to the food insecurity problem. To face all these new challenges, increasing the productivity level of a pollution-free product is inevitable. This can be realized by applying advanced, environmental friendly technology, which can manage and allocate all resources efficiently for sustainable development of agriculture. Precision farming (PF) is such a new emerging, highly promising technology, that helps in dealing with these challenges by proper and effective management of soil and crop variability with the use of information technology. In the present situation, the potential of precision agriculture in India is limited by the lack of appropriate measurement and analytical techniques for agronomically important factors. The increasing need to produce more from less available resources, the decline in agricultural growth rate, high cost of inputs, scarcity of farm labours, indiscriminate use of fertilizer and pesticides, as well as demand for quality produce are the pressing needs for adopting precise way of farming to optimize the limited resources. PF is conceptualized by a system approach to reorganize the total system of agriculture towards a lowinput, high-efficiency, and sustainable agriculture. Hightech nature of traditional PF technologies developed in advanced countries created a real challenge to search

for suitable PF technologies for developing countries. But over time, rapid changes in the socio-economic pattern of some developing countries, such as India, China, and Brazil, created new scope and opportunities for PF to be applied in these countries.It is considered as the agricultural system of the 21st century, as it symbolizes a better balance between reliance on traditional knowledge, information and management-intensive technologies. Though it is widely adopted in developed countries, the adoption of precision farming in India is yet to take a firm ground primarily. The initiative of precision farming in India through various projects under both agriculture and horticulture has been done in various institutes and organizations like Space Applications Centres like ISRO, Ahmedabad, M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, ICAR Institutes such as IARI, New Delhi drawn up plans to do precision agriculture experiments in the institute’s farm especially through State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Project Directorate of Cropping Systems Research at Modipuramand Meerut in UP, etc. It is important to note that the initiation of PF has to be done through the demonstrations by research institutions, dissemination about PF by extension agencuies and through SAUs etc. The technology has been currently implemented in Karnataka state under the RKVY funded project on precision farming in selected field crops since 2011-12. The project was implemented through the three SAUs in the Karnataka state with UAS, Raichur as the leading centre to guide the other two Agricultural Universities (UAS, Dharwad and UAS, Bangalore) in the project activities. Farmers’ participatory approach was adopted to execute the project at the farmers’ fields of Raichur, Kalaburgi and Koppal districts, covering an area of 100 acres each in cotton, pigeonpea and paddy crops, respectively, that represent major field crops of the NorthEastern Karnataka zone, along with on-farm research demonstration plots (5.00 acres in each crop) at four research stations of UAS, Raichur (Patil et al., 2013). The present paper brief about the perspective of PF adoption, factors responsible for adoption and constraints faced by farmers growing paddy.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The study was conducted in Karnataka state with a focus on the North Eastern Karnataka region in the jurisdiction of UAS, Raichur. However, the study area Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 67 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE OF PRECISION FARMING TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN PADDY- A STUDY FROM NORTH EASTERN KARNATAKA

confined to village Jangamarakalgudi of Gangavathi taluk, Koppal district of North Eastern Karnataka as RKVYPrecision Farming project under paady was implemented in this district. The precision farming adopted farmers refers to those who are the beneficiaries of precision farming project of UAS, Raichur. The number of farmers who adopted precision farming for paddy were 38. Primary data were collected from the farmers who adopted precision farming techniques in paddy since last three years. The interview schedule was pre-tested which led to the adequate modification of the instrument. The data were collected from the sample farmers by personal interview method using the pretested schedule during the period of January and February for the agricultural year 2014-15. Implementation of PF has vast and wide range of using tools or technologies. But in the present study, technologies used were grid soil sampling, GPS, GIS, variable rate applicators/ techniques and crop sensors.The objective of present paper was to analyze the factors responsible for adoption of PF which were stated as reasons for adoption of PF and constraints faced by the paddy growers who have adopted PF in their fields. The suitable tool for this was found to be Garrett’s ranking technique. As per this method, respondents were asked for various reasons for which they have adopted precision farming and constraints that they were faced in practicing precision farming. Depending upon the level of reasons influencing adoption of precision farming and extent of constraints faced by them, rankings were assigned separately to each component of reasons and constraints influencing different respondents. The results of such rankings were converted into score value by using following formula : Pe rcen tposition=

100 × (Ri j– 0 .5 ) Nj

where, Rij = Rank given for the ith factor by jth respondent. N j = Number of factors r anked by the j th respondent. The per cent position of each rank was converted to scores by referring to tables given by Garret and Woodworth (1969). Then for each factor, the scores of individual respondents were summed up and divided by the total number of respondents for whom scores were gathered. The mean scores for all the factors were ranked and presented in results. 23 68 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Opinion survey was conducted to elicit the reasons for participation in precision farming in paddy by the farmers. The results of Garette ranking were presented in Table 1. Persuasion by the project staff was ranked as first reason for participation in precision farming by the farmers. This indicated that farmers have got interest due to effective training programme conducted by the University staff. Supply of technical inputs by the University scientists, free supply of inputs by the University, possibility of getting higher yield were the important reasons quoted by the farmers to participate in precision farming. The last rankings were observed as motivated by neighbour farmers and possibility of getting higher profit.This indicated that farmers who adopted PF do not follow the practices blindly as practiced by other farmers. Similar to the present study, the study conducted by Pandit et al. (2012) has elicited in their study that formal education, farm size, and number of precision farming meeting attended by farmers had positive effect on adoption of precision farming technologies. Table 1: Reasons for parti ci pation in precisi on farming Sr. Paddy Reasons No. Score Rank 1.

Persuasion by t he project st aff

71.64

I

2.

Mot ivat ed by neighbour farmers

34.61

VIII

3.

Supply of t echnical know-how by t he

58.17

II

University scient ists 4.

Free supply of input s by t he University

48.89

IV

5.

Possibility of getting higher yield

50.20

III

6.

Bett er utilizat ion of land capability

47.41

V

7.

Possibility of saving in inputs

42.41

VI

8.

Overall helps in saving cost of cult ivat ion

41.69

VII

9.

Possibility of getting higher profit

23.17

IX

The focus of the study was to analyze the factors that influence the adoption of precision farming in the study area. The empirical evidences attained from the statistical analysis were indicated the percentage score and the scale value were obtained by employing Scale Conversion Table given by Garrett ranking table. The scale value of first rank to ninth rank which were calculated based on percentage score (Table 1) were shown in detail in Figure 1. Similar results were reported in study conducted by Ravikumar (2016).

K.A. SHRUTHI, G.M. HIREMATHB AND AMRUTHA T. JOSHI

The constraints in adoption of precision farming at farm level were sub divided into production constraints, marketing and management constraints. The results were presented in Table 2. Requirement of more labour to identify the variability and management of variability of soil was identified as major production constraint faced by the farmers, followed by inadequate size of landholdings for adoption of precision farming technology and laser leveling problem. In addition, farmers also faced constraint with respect to lack of technical skill to follow precision farming recommendations like grid making, GPS and GIS handling. Similar studies were conducted by Robertson et al. (2012) and Gabriel (2014). Less remunerative price for produce followed by price fluctuation were stated as the top most marketing constraints. The other marketing constraints faced by farmers were high transportation cost, lack of marketing information and no premium price for precision output. With respect to management constraints, farmers stated major constraints as difficult to go for grid sampling at the beginning of every season followed by precision farming requires more time for implementationand soil analysis at the beginning of every season. Conclusion : The agriculture sector has attr acted large conglomerates, leading IT companies, investors, and young innovators in India; the ecosystem for technology

Fig. 1 :

Reasons for participation in precision farming

and digital solutions is expanding at an impressive pace. The principle technology in Indian agriculture should be efficient, practical, cost effective and free from pollution. The sustainability factor should be looked at the ability of agricultural land to maintain acceptable levels of production over a long period of time, without degrading the environment. Digital technology in Indian agriculture is not about big box solutions only. A large number of young entrepreneurs have ventured into this sector to tackle specific challenges. The technology thrust of these ventures has been on reducing the time duration of crop cycles, saving on water and energy, reducing the usage of agro-chemicals, automating for efficient farm management and strengthening farmer market linkages. Basic drawback of technology adoption in agricultural farming in India is that many of these

Table 2 : Constraints in adoption of precisi on farming at farm le vel Sr. No.

Paddy Score Rank

Constraint s

Production constraints 1. Precision farming require more labour to ident ify the variabilit y and management of variability of soil

65.39

I

2.

Inadequat e size of landholdings for adoption of precision farming technology

40.71

III

3.

Lack of technical skill to follow precision farming recommendat ions

37.15

IV

4.

Land leveling problem

57.50

II

Marketing constraints 1.

Less remunerative Price for produce

75.00

I

2.

High t ransportation cost

24.00

V

3.

Price fluct uat ion

60.00

II

4.

Lack of market ing informat ion

40.15

IV

5.

No premium price for precision out put

48.84

III

Management constraints 1.

Precision farming requires more t ime for implement at ion

58.60

II

2.

Inadequat e t raining and demonstrat ion about precision farming

27.00

IV

3.

Difficult t o go for grid sampling at the beginning of every season

60.18

I

4.

Soil analysis is difficult

54.21

III


AN ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE OF PRECISION FARMING TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION IN PADDY- A STUDY FROM NORTH EASTERN KARNATAKA

technologies used including precision farming are at an infant stage, and pricing of equipment and services is hard to pin down. Even though some farmers had started to use precision farming methods, majority of the farmers are still not aware about precision farming. This can make our current economic statements about a particular technology dated. Precision farming can address both economic and environmental issues that surround production agriculture today. Questions remain about cost-effectiveness and the most effective ways to use the technological tools, but the concept of “doing the right thing in the right place at the right time” has a strong intuitive appeal. It was found from the study that the farmers who were not adopted precision farming were in the following misconceptions about the adoption of precision farming. – There is misconceptions among the farming community that precision farming is only possible with high cost invested equipments, it involves more cost than conventional farming. – Farmers are in misbelief that it can be only adopted by large farmers and small farmers cannot adopt it. These are false with respect to reality. Precision farming does not has any compulsion of using high invested equipment or sophisticated tools. A knowledge among farmers to use inputs at variable rate, soil sampling and analysis also signifies precision farming and these knowledge base can be very well applied at small farms also. Hence the extension workers has scope to remove the misconception among farmers about the cost of precision farming implementation. Though the equipments used in precision farming are not affordable for the individual farmer in Indian farming condition, those are affordable on co-operative or on collective basis by farmers.Through the development of technology over time, by the good knowledge base the constraints faced in precision farming are expected to reduce. Considering the adoption strategy of precision farming and its benefits, there is a need to bring awareness among farming community through demonstration by extension agencies.



Authors’ affiliations : G.M. HIREMATHB AND AMRUTHA T. JOSHI, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Agricultural University, RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

REFERENCES Bisoyi, L.K. (2006). Inter linking of river basins of India-risks vs benefits. Proccedings of 19th national convention of agricultural engineers on role of information technology in hightech agriculture and horticulture, Bangalore, pp. 218. Gabriel, S.A. (2014). comparative analysis on precision farming technologies in selected crops of north eastern Karnataka. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, KARNATAKA (INDIA).

Garrett, H.E. and Woodworth, R.S. (1969). Statistics in psychology and education. Vakils, Feffer and Simons Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, pp. 329. Pandit, M., Krishna, P., Paudel, Ashok, K., Mishra and Eduardo Segarra (2012). Adoption and non-adoption of precision farming technologies by cotton farmers. Selected Paper prepared for presentation at the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association’s AAEA Annual Meeting, Seattle, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Patil, M.B., Shanwad, U.K., Veeresh, H., Mastan Reddy, B.G. PanditRathod, N.L. Rajesh, Shailendrakumar, L.B. Hugar, Pujari, B.T. and Patil, B.V., (2013). Precision agriculture initiative for Karnataka: A new direction for strengthening farming community. Sch. J. Agric. Sci., 3(10) : 445-452. Robertson, M.J., Llewellyn. R.S., Mandel, R., Lawes, R., Bramley, R.G.V., Swift, L., Mertz, N. and Callaghan, C.O. (2012). Adoption of variable rate fertilizer application in the Australian grains industry: Status, issues and prospects, Precision Agric., 13(2) : 181-199.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Ravikumar, R. (2016). An Analysis of the factors influencing the decision to adopt precision methods of farming in Tamil Nadu, India. MPRA Paper No. 73140, -online at https:// mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/73140/

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RESEARCH ARTICLE :

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Response of dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) explants on MS media with growth regulators under in vitro for mass multiplication K. SUMAN, A. ROJA RANI AND P. VEERA REDDY


KEY WORDS : Explants, Callus, somatic embryos, Acclimatization

SUMMARY : Hylocereus undatus (Dragon fruit) was micro propagated in vitro on MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) basal medium supplemented with growth regulators like BAP, Kinetin, 2-4 D, NAA and the explants response was observed. Explants were regenerated less number of shoot (1.0±0.20) on MS basal medium without growth hormones and it was acted as the control, but explants regenerated maximum number of shoots (12±0.5) on MS media supplemented with 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN. Explants were regenerated less number (1.0±0.22) and length (0.24±0.02 cm) of roots on MS medium with 3mg/L BAP+1mg/L KIN without NAA and it acted as control. Explants were regenerated maximum number (8.0±0.50) and length (3.6±0.06 cm) of roots on MS basal media with 3 mg/L BAP +1 mg/L KIN + 0.2 mg/L NAA. The minimum size (0.12±0.01 cm) of the somatic embryos was observed on MS media without 2,4-D and its acted as control. The maximum size (1.04±0.02 cm) of the somatic embryos formation was observed on the MS basal media with 2 mg/L of 2,4-D. The maximum number (16 ± 0.82) of shoots and length (3.3 ± 0.17 cm) of the shoots were observed by explants on the MS media + 3 mg/ L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN + 40 gm/L sucrose. After shoots and roots formation, the plantlets were transferred into green house and then to soil. How to cite this article : Suman, K., Rani, A. Roja and Reddy, P. Veera (2017). Response of dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) explants on MS media with growth regulators under in vitro for mass multiplication. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : K. SUMAN

AG Bioteck Lab. (India) Ltd., HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

Email : ur.reshu@ gmail.com


BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

H. undatus, a climbing cactus with aerial roots belong to Cactaceae family and blooms only at night, called moon flower or queen of the night (Barthlott and Hunt, 1993; Britton and Rose, 1963; Fournet et al. 2002). The important part in this plant is fruit, commonly known as dragon fruit. The fruit has red-

skinned covered with large and long scales, red and green at the tips with white flesh and black seeds. The fruits are scooped out with a spoon, much like a kiwi fruit. The flesh is firm and crisp, with a delicately sweet and lingering flavor (Gao-Xi and Wan, 2004). The juicy flesh can use in marmalades, jellies, ice creams and soft drinks (Xiang et al. 2004) Dragon fruits do not contain cholesterol,


K. SUMAN, A. ROJA RANI AND P. VEERA REDDY

saturated fat. So, regular consumption will help manage blood pressure and control cholesterol levels (Zhijian and Xin, 2003). The seeds have high in poly unsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids), reduce triglycerides and lower the risk of cardiovascular disorder (Wichienchot, 2010; Dasaesamoh et al., 2016; Vaillant et al., 2005; Le Bellec, 2003). Fruits are high in fiber (regular consumption can help avoid constipation, improve digestive health and help to reduce weight), rich in vitamin C, B (B1, B2, and B3), calcium, iron, lycopene and antioxidants helps in human health (Stintzing et al. 2003). The fruit as a food substitute for rice and as source of dietary fiber. Fruits contain phytoalbumins, which have antioxidant properties that help prevent the formation of cancer cells (Ruzainah et al. 2009). The flower buds of dragon fruit are used to make soups or mixed with salads and the red pulp of dragon. The multiplication of H. undatus is easily by cutting off the stems, in vitro multiplication of younger shoots of mature plant and sowing of seeds (Le Bellec and La, 2003; Yassen, 2002). The plants take 3 years for grown from seed. So, the multiplication of dragon fruit under in vitro condition is superlative method.

house of AG Bioteck Laboratories (I) Ltd., Hyderabad. The leaves were cut just above shoots with inter-nodal regions. The shoots were washed in the running tap water followed by a fungicide containing one drop of tween-20 for 15 min. with intermittent shaking. Then with surface disinfectant HgCl2 (0.1% w/v for 2 min) after repeated washes in double distilled water, the sterilized segments were then washed thoroughly with sterilized distilled water. After completion of washing, dry the explants properly by using blotting paper. After sterilization, explants were transferred to culture bottles containing MS medium or MS basal media with growth enhancers aseptically. After inoculation of explants, the mouth of bottle was quick flamed and bottles were tightly capped and sealed with parafilm to avoid contaminations. After proper labeling, bottles were transferred to growth/culture room. The culture room at the temperature of 25±2°C, 60- 70% relative humidity with photo period 16hrs light and 8hrs dark cycle with 3000 lux light intensity using fluorescent lights (Philips India Ltd.,). The photoperiod and temperature was maintained.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The present investigation was conducted at tissue culture lab of AG Bioteck Laboratories (I) Ltd., with green house for acclimatization of plantlets located in Hyderabad. All the glassware’s were obtained from Borosil India Ltd., Mumbai and molecular grade chemicals were obtained from LOBA Chemicals, Sigma, Hi-Media, E-Merck and Qualigens. MS medium (1962), consisted of salts, sucrose 3% (w/v), agar 0.8% (w/v) and different growth regulators (NAA (Naphthylacetic acid), 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), KIN (Kinetine) and BAP (Benzylaminopurine)) at different concentrations either alone or in combinations were added to the medium. The pH was adjusted to 5.7 with 1N NaOH (v/v) and 1N HCL (v/v) before autoclaving at 121oC for 20 min. The medium was then dispensed into culture vessels, i.e. glass bottles (baby jars of 250 ml capacity) at the rate of 40 ml to each bottle. These vessels were plugged with polypropylene caps and then autoclaved along with other instruments required for transfer operation, at 121 0C, at a pressure of 15 lbs for 20 min. The healthy explants were selected from the green 23 72 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Usually the micro propagation was a sensitive method and used chemicals like growth hormones were very expensive. In this protocol, only less number of growth hormones were taken and observed the growth of the H. undatus for the large scale production of plantlets. So, the plantlets were produced commercially in a large scale as cheap as possible in micro propagation. Shoot initiation: Initiation was the starting procedure for plant establishment. The formation of H. undatus shoots was carried out by the use of different concentration of growth hormones (BAP, from 1 to 3 mg/L and KIN, from 0.5 to 1 mg/L) in MS basal medium. Explants were regenerated less number of shoot (1.0 ± 0.20) on MS basal medium without growth hormones and it was acted as the control. Explants were regenerated maximum number of shoots (12 ± 0.5) on MS media supplemented with 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN (Graph A). Root initiation : The formation of the root was also important in micro propagation. NAA was a root inducing hormone and it

RESPONSE OF DRAGON FRUIT (Hylocereus undatus) EXPLANTS ON MS MEDIA WITH GROWTH REGULATORS UNDER in vitro FOR MASS MULTIPLICATION

Graph B: Effect of NAA on root regeneration from explants on MS media.

Graph A:Effect of BAP and KIN on shoot regeneration from explants on MS medium

was developed the rooting system in plants (Skoog and Miller, 1957; Hussey and Stacey, 1984). For these, the media (MS basal media with 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN with different concentration of NAA, from 0.05 to 0.30 mg/L) was prepared. The explants were inoculated in this media and responses of root were observed. In this media, shoots were also regenerated, but only roots numbers and length of roots was measured for observation of root development from explants. The explants were regenerated less number (1.0±0.22) and length (0.24±0.02 cm) of roots on MS medium with 3mg/L BAP+1mg/L KIN without NAA and it acted as control. Explants were showed superior response and regenerated maximum number (8.0±0.50) and length (3.6±0.06 cm) of roots on MS basal media with 3 mg/L BAP +1 mg/L KIN + 0.2 mg/L NAA. The explants were correspondingly regenerated same number and length of roots on MS media supplemented with 0.15 mg/L and 0.25 mg/L of NAA, respectively (Graph B). The explants were regenerated maximum number of shoots and not the roots on MS media with 3 mg/L BAP +1 mg/L KIN (Fig. A). Maximum numbers of shoots, maximum number and length of roots were regenerated by explants on MS media with 3 mg/L BAP

+1 mg/L KIN+ 0.2 mg/L NAA (Fig. B). Similar types of results were reported by in H. undatus (Dahanayake and Ranawake, 2011), in soybean (Franklin et al. 2004), in rice (Pádua, 1998) and in wheat (Anwaar, 2002). Somatic embryos: The explants were inoculated on the MS basal media with different concentration of 2,4-D from 0.5 to 3.0 mg/ L. The explants were regenerated the somatic embryos within 25-30 days. The minimum size (0.12±0.01 cm) of the somatic embryos was observed on MS media without 2,4-D and its acted as control. The maximum size (1.04±0.02 cm) of the somatic embryos formation was observed on the MS basal media with 2 mg/L of 2,4-D (Fig C) and next size was observed on MS media with concentration of 1.5 mg/L and 2.5 mg/L of 2,4-D, respectively (Graph C). The somatic embryos were kept on other media, it’s were regenerated only shoots on MS media + 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN, Fig D(a) and both shoots and roots were regenerated on MS media + 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN + 0.2 mg/L NAA, Fig D(b). Mass multiplication : Once the explants were established on the initiation media, the callus or explants or somatic embryos were further transformed multiplication media for large scale production. Explants were responded and regenerated Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 73 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

K. SUMAN, A. ROJA RANI AND P. VEERA REDDY

shoot on MS media with 3mg/L BAP+1 mg/L KIN. Different concentration of sucrose (from 10-40 gm/L) was used in MS media + 3mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN to get superior response of explants for formation of shoots. The maximum number (16 ± 0.82) of shoots and length (3.3 ± 0.17 cm) of the shoots were observed on the MS media + 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN and 40 gm/L sucrose within 25 days. Moderate numbers of multiple shoots with identical numbers were observed in 20 gm/L and 30 gm/L of sucrose (Graph D).

Graph C: Effect of 2, 4-D on Somatic embryos regeneration from explants on MS media

Graph D: Effect of sucrose on shoot regeneration from explants on MS media with 3mg BAP and 1mg KIN 23 74 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Acclimatization of plantlets : After in vitro method, the plantlets must be transferred into ex vitro condition for the further development of plantlet. The Plantlets were transferred to pots containing pre-autoclaved mixture of vermiculite and coco peat in the ratio of 1:1 at diffused light conditions at the green glass house. The transferred plantlets were covered with polythene covers for maintaining the humidity. After 4-6 days, the polythene covers were removed. The regenerated plants were transferred into natural environmental condition (ex vitro) at 20-25 days old (Fig. E). The survival rate was 85-90 percentages.

Fig. A-E: (A) Explants regenerated maximum number of shoots on MS media with 3mg/L BAP and 1mg/L KIN. (B) Maximum shoots and maximum number and length of roots were regenerated on MS media with 3mg/L BAP+1mg/L KIN+0.2mg/L NAA by explants. (C) Explants was formatted max size of the somatic embryos on MS basal media with 2mg/L of 2,4-D. (D(a)): Somatic embryos were regenerated shoots on MS media+3mg/L BAP+1mg/L KIN. (D(b): Somatic embryos were regenerated shoots and roots on MS media+3mg/L BAP+1mg/L KIN+0.2 mg/L NAA. (E:) Acclimatized plants

Conclusion : H. undatus (Dragon fruit) was micro propagated under in vitro on MS medium supplemented with growth regulators like BAP, Kinetin, 2-4 D, NAA and explants response were observed. Explants were regenerated maximum number of shoots (12±0.5) on MS media supplemented with 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN. Explants were showed superior response and regenerated maximum number (8.0±0.50) and length (3.6±0.06 cm) of roots on MS basal media with 3 mg/L BAP +1 mg/L KIN + 0.2 mg/L NAA. The maximum size (1.04±0.02 cm) of the somatic embryos formation was observed on the MS basal media with 2 mg/L of 2,4-D. The maximum

RESPONSE OF DRAGON FRUIT (Hylocereus undatus) EXPLANTS ON MS MEDIA WITH GROWTH REGULATORS UNDER in vitro FOR MASS MULTIPLICATION

number (16 ± 0.82) of shoots and length (3.3 ± 0.17 cm) of the shoots were observed by explants on the MS media + 3 mg/L BAP + 1 mg/L KIN + 40 gm/L sucrose. The Plantlets were transferred into pots, then transferred into natural environmental conditional area and survival rate was 80-90 percentages. This protocol can be used for the mass production of Dragon fruit in in vitro method. Authors’ affiliations :

and immature cotyledons. Plant Growth Regul., 43:73-79. Gao-Xi, A. and Wan, R. (2004). Study in producing piytaya ice cream. China-dairy industry., 32(10) : 9-11. Hussey, G. and Stacey, N.J. (1984). Factors effecting the formation of in vitro tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Ann. Bot., 53 : 565-578. Le Bellec, F. (2003). La pitaya (Hylocereus sp.) en culture de diversification à l’île de la Réunion, Inst. Natl. Hortic. (INH), Mém., Angers, France, 55 p.

A. ROJA RANI, Department of Genetics, Osmania University, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

P. VEERA REDDY, AG Bioteck Lab. (India) Ltd., HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Anwaar, A. Heng, Z., Wengling, W. and Mariam, B.S. (2002). Shoot Apical Meristem: In vitro Regeneration and Morphogenesis in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In vitro cellular & Develop. Biol., Pl., 38(2) :163-167. Britton, N.L. and Rose, J.N. (1963). The cactaceae: Description and illustrations of plants of the Cactus family, Vols. 1 and 2. Dover, NEW YORK, U.S.A. Barthlott, W. and Hunt, D.R. (1993). Cactaceae. In: K. Kubitzki, J.G. Rohwer, and V. Bittrich. (eds), The families and genera of vascular plants Vol II Flowering plants. Dicotyledons. Springer– Verlag, Berlin, Germany. pp.161-197 Dahanayake, N. and Ranawake, A.L. (2011). Regeneration of dragon fruit (Hylecereus undatus) plantlets from leaf and stem explants. Tropical Agril. Res. & Extn., 14(4) : 85-89. Dasaesamoh, R., Youravong, W. and Wichienchot, S. (2016). Digestibility, fecal fermentation and anti-cancer of dragon fruit oligosaccharides. Internat. Food Res. J., 23(6) : 2581-2587. Fournet, J. (2002). Flore illustrée des phanérogames de Guadeloupe et de Martinique, Tome 1, Famille des Cactaceae, Inra-Cirad-Gondwana, Paris, France, pp. 224–240. Franklin, G., Carpenter, L., Davis, E., Reddy, C.S., AlAbed, D., Alaiwi, W.A., Parani, M., Smith, B., Goldman, S.L. and Sairam, R.V. (2004). Factors influencing regeneration of soybean from mature

Pádua, V.L.M. Fernandes, L.D, Oliveira, D.E.de. and Mansur, E. (1998). Effects of Auxin and Light Treatments of Donor Plants on Shoot Production from Indica-Type Rice (Oryza sativa). In Vitro Cellular & Develop. Biol. Pl., 34(4) : 285-288. Ruzainah, A.J., Ahmad, Ridhwan, Bin Abdul Rahman, Nor Zaini Che Mahmod and Vasudevan, R. (2009). Proximate analysis of dragon fruit (Hylecereus polyhizus). American J. Appl. Sci., 6 (7): 1341-1346. Skoog, F. and Miller, C.O. (1957). Chemical regulation of growth and organ formation in plant tissue cultured in vitro. In: Synp. Soc. Exp. Bot., 11:118-130. Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A. and Carle, R. (2003). Evaluation of colour properties and chemical quality parameters of cactus juices, Eur. Food Res. Technol., 216 : 303-311. Vaillant, F., Perez, A., Davila, I., Dornier, M. and Reynes, M. (2005). Colorant and antioxidant properties of red pitahaya (Hylocereus sp.), Fruits, 60 : 1-7. Wichienchot, S., Jatupornpipat, M. and Rastall, R.A. (2010). Oligosaccharides of pitaya (dragon fruit) flesh and their prebiotic properties, Food Chem., 120 : 850-857. Xiang, G. and Rui, W. (2004). Study on the producing of pitaya ice cream. China Dairy Ind., 32 : 9-11. Yassen, M.Y. (2002). Micropropagation of pitaya (Hylocereus undatus Britton and Rose). In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Pl., 38: 427-429. Zhijian, D. and Xin, Y. (2003). Studies on the stability of red pigment in Hylocereus undatus fruit. J. South China Agric. Univ., 24 : 79-83.


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RESEARCH ARTICLE :

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Role of seed-Zn content on seed longevity of paddy genotypes J.B. MARUTHI, S.N. VASUDEVAN, B.S. JANAGOUDAR, MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM, SHIVANAGOUDA R. DODDAGOUDAR, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA


SUMMARY : Ten paddy genotypes were selected to establish the role of seed-Zn content in maintaining seed longevity of paddy genotypes. The present study revealed clear genotypic variability with respect to storability among different paddy genotypes. The genotype with highest seed-Zn content (24.79 ppm) proved as good storer by recording highest seed quality parameters viz., seed germination (85.70 %), seedling length (21.88 cm), seedling vigour index (1795), speed of germination (18.80), dehydrogenase enzyme activity (0.39 OD value), á-amylase activity (12.47 mm) with lowest electrical conductivity (153.40 µS/cm) and moisture content (10.62 %) at the end of twelve months of storage period. Whereas, genotypes with low seed-Zn content showed lowest seed quality parameters. How to cite this article : Maruthi, J.B., Vasudevan, S.N., Janagoudar, B.S., Ibrahim, Mohammad, Doddagoudar, Shivanagouda R., Kisan, B. and Macha, Sangeeta I. (2017). Role of seed-Zn content on seed longevity of paddy genotypes. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

KEY WORDS : Micronutrient, Paddy, Seed, Storage

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : J.B. MARUTHI

Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

Email : maruthijb@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a “Global Grain” cultivated widely across the world and feeds millions of mankind, is the staple food for more than half of the human population. Grown in Asia for at least 10,000 years, rice (the main product of the paddy plant) has become deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of Asian societies and is the life, heart and soul of the people throughout Asia. In India, rice continues to hold the key for sustained food production by contributing 2025 per cent to agriculture and assures food security for more than half of the total

population. Out of 2234 calories per day per capita food intake, rice accounts for 30 per cent in Indian diet. Seed being a biological or living entity, deterioration in its quality is inevitable, irreversible and inexorable. It occurs with advance in ageing, which is common for all the living organisms. In storage, number of biotic and abiotic factors viz., genotypes, production location, mechanical injury to the seed, initial seed quality, seed treatment, packaging material and storage conditions influence storage potential of seeds and results in gradual seed deterioration and ultimately death of the seeds. Orthodox seeds are


J.B. MARUTHI, S.N. VASUDEVAN, B.S. JANAGOUDAR, MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM, SHIVANAGOUDA R. DODDAGOUDAR, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA

characterized by their ability to tolerate desiccation and to retain their viability for a long time in the dry state. However, these seeds age during storage and eventually lose their ability to germinate. Several comprehensive reviews have identified free radical mediated lipid peroxidation (accumulation of reactive oxygen species), enzyme inactivation or protein degradation, disruption of cellular membranes, and damage to genetic (nucleic acids) integrity as major causes of seed ageing [1, 2]. Zinc plays a fundamental role in several critical cellular functions such as protein metabolism, gene expression, structural and functional integrity of biomembranes. Increasing evidence indicates that oxidative damage to critical cell compounds resulting from attack by reactive O2 species (ROS) is the basis of disturbances in plant growth caused by Zn deficiency [3]. Zinc interferes with membrane-bound NADPH oxidase producing ROS. In Zn-deficient plants the iron concentration increases, which potentiates the production of free radicals. Zinc plays critical roles in the defense system of cells against ROS [4, 3] and thus, represents an excellent protective agent against the oxidation of several vital cell components such as membrane lipids and proteins, SH-containing enzymes and DNA. In the present study, an effort has been made to explore the role of seed Zn content in maintaining seed longevity of paddy genotypes during storage.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Storage study was conducted at the Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur during 2015-16. The seeds of ten paddy genotypes viz., GNV-GP-62, GNV-12-96-1, RYC 667, PAU-3105-45-3-2, GNV-MSGP-1, GNV-MSGP-10, GNV-MSGP-16, GNV-MSGP-18, GNV-MSGP-28 and GNV-MSGP-29 were stored in cloth bag for 12 months period under ambient condition. Experiment was laid out in complete randomized design in three replications. Seed samples were drawn subsequently at bimonthly intervals and tested for the following seed quality parameters. The seed moisture content was calculated and expressed in per cent by using the standard procedure [5]. Germination per cent was determined as per ISTA rules for seed testing. The seeds were placed in rolled paper towels. Hundred seeds of four replications were tested at a constant temperature of 25oC. The number

of normal seedlings were evaluated on 14th day and per cent germination was expressed on normal seedling basis [5]. From the standard germination test, ten normal seedlings were selected at random in each replication on final count. The shoot and shoot length was measured, sum of shoot and root length constitute the seedling length and mean was calculated and expressed in centimeters. Seedling vigour index was computed by adopting the formula as suggested by [6] and expressed in whole number. Seedling vigour index = Germination (% ) × Mean se edling le ngth (c m)

Seed germination test was conducted as described above and daily germination counts were recorded on the germinated seeds possessing radical size of 3-5 mm. The speed of germination was calculated by using formula suggested by [7]. Speed of = germinat ion

No. of seeds germinat ed Days to first count

+….+

No. of seeds germinat ed Days to final count

The electrical conductivity and dehydrogenase enzyme activity were measured as per ISTA rules for seed testing [5]. Seed micronutrient content (Fe and Zn) and amylase activity (mm) were analyzed as per the procedure outlined by [8] and [9], respectively. The data obtained from the experiments were statistically analyzed as per [10].

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS One of the critical factors that determine the viability of seeds in storage is seed moisture content. The moisture content of seeds recorded at bimonthly interval showed increasing trend during storage (except after second and twelve months after storage), irrespective of the genotypes. Significantly highest moisture content was observed in GNV-MSGP-18 (12.46 %) and lower in PAU-3105-45-3-2 (10.62 %) at the end of storage period (Table 1). Presence of lower moisture content during second and twelve months after storage period owing to lower atmospheric relative humidity and higher temperature causes loss of moisture content from the seeds. The increase in moisture could be due to hygroscopic nature of the seed enabling moisture absorption from the surrounding atmosphere. The Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 77 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

ROLE OF SEED-ZN CONTENT ON SEED LONGEVITY OF PADDY GENOTYPES

container used in the present study was cloth bag which is moisture pervious. The other probable means of seed moisture increase are metabolic release of water, insect infestation and fungal infection as reported by [11]. Irrespective of the genotypes, germination potential of seeds decreased with advancement in storage period [12, 13]. Among the genotypes, PAU-3105-45-3-2 recorded higher seed germination (97.00 %), seedling length (25.40 cm) and seedling vigour index (2413) initially as well as up to 12 months of storage (85.70 %, 21.88 cm and 1795, respectively) while, genotype GNVMSGP-18 recorded lower quality parameters throughout the storage period. The per cent reduction was highest

in GNV-MSGP-18 (11.30 %) and lowest in PAU-310545-3-2 (15.83 %). Even after 12 months of storage, out of ten genotypes, seven genotypes maintained germination percentage above the minimum seed certification standard of 80.00 per cent (Table 1 and 2). The decrease in quality parameters during storage is mainly due to age induced phenomenon in most kind of seeds which is inevitable and irreversible and also increases in membrane leakage as reported by [6]. Higher quality parameters observed in genotype PAU3105-45-3-2 might be due to presence of high zinc content which reduce the lipid peroxidation by preventing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during

Table 1 : Seed moisture content (%), germination (%) and see dling length (cm) as influenced by paddy genotypes during storage Months of storage Genotypes Moist ure content Germination Seedling length 0 6 12 0 6 12 0 6

12

G1 : GNV-GP-62

11.50

11.68

11.60

95.00

89.40

83.00

25.40

23.50

20.35

G2 : GNV-12-96-1

11.84

12.45

12.09

93.00

86.83

80.00

23.70

21.67

19.00

G3 : RYC 667

11.54

11.82

11.66

94.50

88.67

80.00

24.80

23.07

20.00

G4 : PAU-3105-45-3-2

10.50

10.67

10.62

97.00

91.89

85.70

25.40

23.80

21.88

G5 : GNV MSGP-1

12.15

12.48

12.32

93.00

85.60

79.00

23.20

21.37

19.21

G6 : GNV MSGP-10

11.94

12.16

12.14

93.50

87.67

80.00

24.40

21.70

19.60

G7 : GNV MSGP-16

12.34

12.56

12.46

91.00

85.20

78.50

23.10

20.70

17.79

G8 : GNV MSGP-18

12.44

12.76

12.62

92.00

85.34

76.17

21.80

20.17

17.75

G9 : GNV MSGP-28

10.50

10.85

10.63

95.00

90.60

82.00

25.37

23.20

20.00

G10 : GNV MSGP-29

11.95

12.32

12.15

94.00

88.50

81.50

24.50

22.10

20.00

Mean

11.67

11.97

11.82

93.8

87.97

80.58

24.16

22.12

19.55

S.E.±

0.14

0.12

0.10

0.87

0.75

1.39

0.26

0.23

0.22

C.D. (P=0.01)

0.57

0.50

0.40

3.49

3.02

5.61

1.05

0.93

0.87

Table 2 : Seedling dry weight (mg), speed of germination and seedling vi gour index as influenced by paddy genotypes during storage Months of storage Genotypes Seedling dry weight (mg) Speed of germinat ion Seedling vigour index 0 6 12 0 6 12 0 6 12 GNV-GP-62

8.44

8.43

7.67

22.50

20.54

18.19

2319

2030

1628

GNV-12-96-1

7.72

7.34

6.90

20.00

19.56

17.72

2252

1900

1521

RYC 667

8.39

7.67

7.18

21.37

19.96

18.12

2309

2014

1659

PAU-3105-45-3-2

9.5

9.53

8.59

23.70

21.12

18.8

2413

2127

1795

GNV MSGP-1

7.78

7.21

6.44

20.53

19.63

17.42

2251

1836

1538

GNV MSGP-10

8.17

7.37

6.79

21.10

19.66

17.82

2255

1966

1541

GNV MSGP-16

7.47

7.30

6.56

19.68

19.31

17.32

2149

1821

1421

GNV MSGP-18

7.35

6.27

6.06

19.00

17.78

17.05

2050

1727

1406

GNV MSGP-28

9.43

7.88

8.39

22.75

20.39

18.45

2363

2079

1715

GNV MSGP-29

8.37

7.60

6.99

21.25

19.81

18.07

2306

1969

1571

Mean

8.26

7.66

7.15

21.19

19.78

17.90

2267

1947

1580

S.E.±

0.17

0.21

0.18

0.22

0.28

0.23

44.97

21.97

45.74

C.D. (P=0.01)

0.66

0.83

0.71

0.88

1.16

0.90

180.97

88.39

184.07




storage [3]. Similar trend was also noticed in case of speed of germination. Rate of germination declined with the progress in the storage in all the genotypes but extent of reduction varied among the genotypes. The genotype PAU-3105-45-3-2 recorded highest speed of germination in all the months of storage (23.70 at initial and 18.80 at the end of storage) over rest of the genotypes, whereas lowest was observed in GNV-MSGP-18 (Table 2). Highest speed of germination might be due to higher seed index hence, seed with higher initial capital food reserve always showed rapid and fast germination [14].

Deterioration alters the semi-permeable property of the membrane and the membrane integrity. The conductivity of the seed leachate was found to be good index of seed viability [15], vigour [16] and deterioration [17]. In the present study, electrical conductivity of the seed leachate increased with increase in period of storage [18, 19]. Among the genotypes, PAU-3105-45-3-2 released lower electrolytes to seed leachate and genotype GNV-MSGP-18 recorded more EC by releasing more electrolytes to seed leachates (Table 3). The significant variation in EC may be due to the anatomical structure, membrane permeability and composition of seed coat.

Table 3 : Ele ctri cal conductivity (µS/cm), dehydrogenase enzyme acti vi ty and α-amylase activity (mm) as influenced by paddy genotypes during storage Months of storage Genotypes Electrical conduct ivity Dehydrogenase enzyme activity α-amylase activity 0 6 12 0 6 12 0 6 12 GNV-GP-62

109.87

132.00

194.13

0.73

0.58

0.36

18.67

15.56

11.43

GNV-12-96-1

126.40

142.40

174.00

RYC 667

123.17

137.95

184.73

0.58

0.5

0.29

16.78

14.10

10.53

0.7

0.52

0.35

18.44

15.54

PAU-3105-45-3-2

99.35

115.00

11.43

153.40

0.83

0.6

0.39

20.38

16.85

GNV MSGP-1

133.65

12.47

147.95

171.78

0.56

0.48

0.29

16.67

13.67

10.47

GNV MSGP-10 GNV MSGP-16

124.25

140.65

182.43

0.59

0.50

0.30

17.32

14.84

10.67

137.65

153.00

171.18

0.48

0.37

0.29

16.50

13.45

10.1

GNV MSGP-18

142.40

159.90

160.35

0.41

0.33

0.21

15.98

12.64

9.84

GNV MSGP-28

113.00

128.80

198.65

0.71

0.56

0.37

19.67

15.76

12.29

GNV MSGP-29

124.05

140.00

186.88

0.68

0.51

0.32

17.56

14.98

11.23

Mean

123.38

139.77

182.75

0.63

0.50

0.32

17.79

14.73

11.04

S.E.±

0.87

0.97

0.74

0.11

0.02

0.02

0.60

0.38

0.42

C.D. (P=0.01) NS=Non-significant

3.49

3.91

2.97

NS

0.09

0.08

2.39

1.51

1.70

Table 4 : Protein content (%) and see d zinc content (ppm) as influence d by paddy genotypes during storage Months of storage Genotypes Prot ein cont ent 0 12 0

Zinc content 12

GNV-GP-62

9.60

9.60

20.00

19.80

GNV-12-96-1

9.90

9.90

17.49

17.49

RYC 667

9.90

9.90

13.00

12.98

PAU-3105-45-3-2

9.50

9.50

25.00

24.79

GNV MSGP-1

8.90

8.90

13.01

12.78

GNV MSGP-10

9.10

9.10

12.61

10.57

GNV MSGP-16

9.70

9.70

12.34

9.71

GNV MSGP-18

9.10

9.10

12.07

9.77

GNV MSGP-28

9.40

9.40

26.84

25.84

GNV MSGP-29

9.30

9.30

17.49

17.46

Mean

9.44

9.44

17.95

17.09

S.E.±

0.38

0.38

0.63

0.56


NS

NS

2.55

2.27



Zinc plays a fundamental role in maintaining structural and functional integrity of biomembranes. As seeds of GNV-MSGP-18 and GNV-MSGP-16 contained less seed-Zn content it might have lead to more cellular membrane deterioration causing more leakage of solutes from the membrane [6]. The dehydrogenase enzyme activity and á-amylase is a good stable metabolic marker to estimate the degree of vigour in seeds [20] and have positive association with vigour and viability of seeds [21, 22]. The dehydrogenase and á-amylase enzyme activity decreased with the advancement in storage period. At the end of storage PAU-3105-45-3-2 recorded higher dehydrogenase and á-amylase enzyme activity (0.39 OD value and 12.47 mm), whereas, GNV-MSGP-18 recorded lower (0.21 OD value and 9.84 mm) (Table 3). Decrease in enzyme activity may be related to age induced deterioration which

is a common phenomenon in any living entity and difference in genotypic response may be due to variation in inherent genotypic composition to withstand the impact of ageing [23]. Irrespective of the genotypes, seed protein content decreased during storage. Similar results with low protein content in aged seeds were documented by [24, 25]. Protein content did not differ significantly among the genotypes during storage period. However, numerically higher protein content was observed in GNV-12-96-1 (Table 4). Reduction in protein could be related to increase in moisture content that might have activated the proterolytic enzymes [11]. In the present study, Zn content of seeds were estimated before keeping the seeds for storage and at end of storage period to know the association with seed quality parameters. Irrespective of the genotypes, slight

Table 5 : Correlation between micronutrient (Fe and Zn) content and seed quality paramete rs at initial month of storage Parameters X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X1

1

X2

.854**

X3

**

.871**

1

X4

**

.946

.926**

.954**

1

X5

.894**

.939**

.889**

.925**

1

X6

-.948 **

-.918 **

-.908 **

-.968 **

-.910 **

1

X7

.950**

.946**

.898**

.953**

.966**

-.952**

X8

**

.932

**

.893

**

.973

**

.969

**

.885

-.945

**

X9

-.099

.297

-.087

-.037

.164

-.059

.914

1 .928**

1

.123

.010

X1

1

X2

.937**

1

X3

.907**

.840**

1

X4

.942**

.941**

.949**

X5

**

**

**

.963**

1

**

.941

**

.930

.945

.912

.951

.979**

.932**

1

X7

.908**

.876**

.914**

.944**

.924**

.956**

1

X8

.894**

.901**

.965**

.977**

.977**

.964**

.933**

1

X9

-.521

-.596

-.538

-.578

-.596

-.624

-.488

-.654 *

**

**

**

**

**

X10 .872 .786 .927 .868 **. Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-t ailed). X1 : Germination (%) X2 : Seedling length (cm) X5 : Seedling vigour index X6 : Electrical conductivity(µS/cm) X9 : Protein content (%) X10 : Zinc content (ppm)


X9

X10

1

X6


1

.769** -.874** .785** .863** -.138 1 *. Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-t ailed). X3 : Seedling dry weight (mg) X4 : Speed of germination X7 : Total Dehydrogenase act ivity X8 : α- Amylase activity (mm)

Table 6 : Correlation between micronutrient (Fe and Zn) content and seed quality paramete rs after 12 m onths of storage Parameters X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8

**

X10

1

X10 .814** .719* .875** .842** **. Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-t ailed). X1 : Germination (%) X2 : Seedling length (cm) X5 : Seedling vigour index X6 : Electrical conductivity(µS/cm) X9 : Protein content (%) X10 : Zinc content (ppm)

.888

X9

**

**

1

.847 -.854 .788 .890** -.505 1 *. Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-t ailed). X3 : Seedling dry weight (mg) X4 : Speed of germination X7 : Tot al Dehydrogenase act ivit y X8 : α- Amylase activit y (mm)


decline in Zn content were noticed during storage. Among the genotypes, GNV MSGP 28 maintained higher Zn content (26.84 ppm at initial and 25.84 ppm at the end of storage period) throughout the storage period (Table 4). These type of results have not been reported earlier so far and hence there is a scope for indepth study on this area in order to correlate the seed quality traits with that of micronutrient in seeds during storage there by, selection of genotypes during breeding programme can be thought off for transferring genes responsible for maintenance of micro element in seeds during storage to the promising genotypes having short seed viability. Correlation between seed quality parameters and seed-Zn content : There is an evidence in the literature demonstrating that role and association of Zn in enhancing the seed germination and vigour [26, 27]. Zinc is involved in biosynthesis of plant hormone, indole acetic acid (IAA), auxin metabolism and is a component of variety of enzymes like, car bonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase etc. plays an important role in enhancing the seed germination. In the present study, seed zinc content exhibited positive significant association with all the seed quality parameters except electrical conductivity and protein content at initial and also at the end of storage period (Table 5 and 6). Significant positive association between seed-Zn content and quality parameters during the storage might be due to the defence mechanism of seeds/ seedlings against to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is unavoidable. One of the defense enzymes against ROS is superoxide dismutase which is Zn dependent [3, 28]. Conclusion : A comprehensive assessment of the quality parameters revealed the critical role of seed-Zn content in regulating the metabolic processes associated with seed storability. Therefore, it is necessary that while breeding paddy varieties for better seed storability, screening for high Zn content would serve as more effective criteria, as compared to low Zn content. Acknowledgements : Financial support from the University of Agricultural Science, Raichur and Department of Science and

Technology, Government of India, to carry out this research work is gratefully acknowledged. Authors’ affiliations : S.N. VASUDEVAN, B.S. JANAGOUDAR, MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM, SHIVANAGOUDA R. DODDAGOUDAR, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA, Department of Seed Science a nd Technology, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

REFERENCES Walters, C. (1998). Understanding the mechanisms and kinetics of seed ageing. Seed Sci. Res., 8: 223-244. Mcdonald, M.B. (1999). Seed deterioration: physiology, repair and assessment. Seed Sci. & Technol., 27: 177-237. Cakmak, I. (2000). Role of zinc in protecting plant cells from reactive oxygen species. New Phytol., 146: 185-205. Bray, T.M. and Bettger, W.J. (1990). The physiological role of zinc as an antioxidant. Free Radicals in Biol. & Medicine., 8: 281-291. ISTA (2013). International rules for seed testing. Seed Sci. & Technol., 24 (Supplement): 23-46. Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973). Vigour determination by multiple criteria. Crop Sci., 13: 630-637. Maguire, J.D. (1962). Speeds of germination-aid selection and evaluation for seedling emergence and vigor. Crop Sci., 2: 176177. Jahan, G.S., Hassan, L., Begum, S.N. and Islam (2013). Identification of iron rich rice genotypes in Bangladesh using chemical analysis. J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 11(1): 73-78. Simpson, G.M. and Naylor, J.M. (1962). Dormancy studies in seeds of Avenafatua. A relationship between maltase, amylases and gibberellins. Canadian J. Bot., 40: 1659-1673. Snedecor and Cochra (1967). Statistical methods. The IOWA state University Press, UAS. P.593. Raja, K. (2003). Investigations on nursery and main field management techniques for quality seed production of rice hybrid CORH 2. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA). Kumari, K.V.S., Savitri, H. and Reddy, M.B. (2004). Effect of fungicides on storability of rice hybrids and their parental lines, 27th ISTA Congress Seed Symposium, Budapest, Hungary.pp83. Selvaraju, P. and Krishnaswamy, V. (2005). Improved in storage by halogen mixture and polylined gunny bag in rice. Seed Res., 33(2): 229-231. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 81 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Kavitha, S. (2002). Seed hardening and pelleting for maximizing the productivity of blackgram (Vignamungo L. Hepper). Cv. Vamban 3 under rainfed conditions. M. Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA). Mathews, S. and Bradnock, W.T. (1968). Relationship between exudation and field emergence in peas and French beans. J. Hort. Res., 8 : 89-93. Grabe, D.F. (1967). Seed quality tests and their relation to seed performance. Proc. Seedsm and short course. pp. 79-85.

Halder, S. and Gupta, K. (1982). On the mechanism of sunflower seed deterioration under low and high relative humidity. Seed Sci. & Technol., 10: 267-270. Rudrapal, A.B. and Basu, R.N. (1982). Lipid peroxidation and membrane damage in deteriorating wheat and mustard seeds. Indian J. Expt. Biol., 20: 465-470. Khidrapure, G. (2015). Organic seed production in paddy. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Agricultural Science, Raichur, KARNATAKA (INDIA).

Hibbard, R.P. and Miller, J.V. (1928). Biochemical studies on seed viability, measurement of conductance and reduction. Plant Physiol., 3: 335-352.

Roberts, E.H. (1972) Loss of viability and crop yields. In: Viability of seeds (Ed. E.H. Roberts), Chapman Hall Ltd., London, p. 313.

Kumar, B., Halesh, V.K. Deshpande, K. Priya and Dileep (2013). Effect of seed treatment with fungicides and containers on storability of hybrid rice and their parental lines. J. Bioinfolet., 10(2) : 559-565.

Anderson, J.D. (1973). Metabolic changes associated with seed senescence. Seed Sci. & Technol., 1: 401-416.

Alex, A.V. and Krishnaswamy, V. (2007). Elite seedling production in tomato. The Hindu news paper, February 8, Sci. Tech. and Agri. Colum, P-12. Saxena, O.P., Singh, G., Pakeeraiah, T. and Pandey, N. (1987). Seed deterioration studies in some vegetable seeds. Acta. Hort., 215 : 39-44.



Rengel, Z. (2008). Genetic control of root exudation. Plant Soil., 245: 59-70. Boonchuay, P.K., Cakmak, B., Rerkasem, Chanakan and PromU-Thai. (2013). Effect of different foliar zinc application at different growth stages on seed zinc concentration and its impact on seedling vigor in rice. Soil Sci & Pl Nut., 59:180-188. Broadley, M.P., White, J,. Hammond, I., Zelko and Lux, A. (2007). Zinc in plants. New Phytol., 173: 677-702.

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RESEARCH ARTICLE :


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Aromatic variety as a trap crop for stem borer management in rice A.P. PADMAKUMARI, G. KATTI AND V. RAJENDER KUMAR REDDY


KEY WORDS : Trap crop, Aromatic variety, Rice, Yellow stem borer

Author for correspondence : A.P. PADMAKUMARI

ICAR- Indian Institute of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

Email: padmakumariento @gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

SUMMARY : Yellow stem borer (YSB) is a key pest affecting all the growth stages of the rice plant from nursery to harvest. In India, we observe 4-5 generations of this pest in a cropping season. The YSB larvae emerge out from the egg masses laid on the leaf laminae, reach to the base of the tillers with the help of silken threads, enter the stem by making a tiny hole just above the water level and feed on the growing stem primordia. Once the larva gains entry into the tillers, the damage is reflected either as dead heart or white ear head or the grain filling is affected in the panicle, depending on the stage of the crop. Economic yield loss particularly due to white ear damage has been estimated to range from 38 to 80 %. During the search for an eco-friendly alternative to insecticide use, studies were carried out to explore the possibility of using a susceptible variety as a trap crop to wean way the pest from damaging the main crop. Initial efforts made at ICAR-IIRR revealed the utility of aromatic varieties of rice in trapping the larvae of yellow stem borer which were attracted to these varieties more than the non aromatic lines. Of the many varieties tested, Pusa Basmati-1 was found to be the most susceptible aromatic variety which when planted in the main field can help in minimizing the damage to the main crop. The duration of the main crop and the trap crop were considered based on which the date of sowing was adjusted so that the trap crop would come to booting a week earlier than the main crop. However, planting of main crop and trap crop was done at the same time. Planting of one row of Pusa Basmati- 1 as trap crop, preferably in east– west direction, for every 2.5- 3m of main crop, resulted in effectively managing the pest in the main field planted with popular variety. The stem borer damage observed in the main crop was half of the damage that was recorded in the trap crop. By adopting this practice in a stem borer endemic area, impulsive spraying of chemical pesticides against yellow stem borer could be avoided at the vegetative stage. The yield was higher in the main crop where trap crop was grown compared to the fields without the trap crop. Also, though the yield in trap crop was affected due to higher pest damage the resulting yield from the trap crop would still be of added advantage as aromatic rice fetches premium price. The loss in yield was offset by the higher returns for the farmer due to higher price of the produce. The strategy has been tested across various locations under both FLDs in the Telangana districts as well as different locations across different states under All India coordinated Rice Improvement Project (AICRP) with locally recommended and popular main crop varieties such as Prakash (RP4-14), Swarna, BPT 5204, MTU1010, Krishna hamsa, Tellahamsa etc. resulting in a favourable B: C ratio. The eco-friendly tactic has thus, been included as one of the integral components of recommended rice IPM modules, particularly in stem borer endemic areas. It can also be integrated along with alley ways and sex pheromones. Theres a dire need to create awareness among the farmers to adopt such eco-friendly practices of pest management to reap the benefits.


A.P. PADMAKUMARI, G. KATTI AND V. RAJENDER KUMAR REDDY

How to cite this article : Padmakumari, A.P., Katti, G. and Reddy, V. Rajender Kumar (2017). Aromatic variety as a trap crop for stem borer management in rice. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Yellow stem borer (YSB), Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) is the most dominant species among stem borers on rice in India. It is a monophagous pest which feeds and survives only on rice host. YSB is a regular and key pest affecting all the growth stages of the plant from nursery to harvest. In India there are reports of 4-5 generations of the pest in a year. The YSB larvae emerge out from the egg masses laid on the leaf laminae, slide down to the base of the tillers with the help of silky strings, invade the stem by making tiny hole just above the water level and feed on the growing stem primordia. Once the larva gains entry into the tillers, invariably the damage is reflected either as dead heart or white ear head or the grain filling in the panicle is affected depending on the stage of the crop. The yield loss has been estimated to range from 38 to 80 %. Farmers usually resort to chemical control measures for managing the pest. However, indiscriminate use of insecticides nullifies economic, environmental as well as health benefits. Sex pheromones were found to be effective and safer options in monitoring and mass trapping of the yellow stem borer moths, thus, minimizing the damage but non-availability of the pheromone lures is the major constraint in adoption of this technology. During further sear ch for environment friendly alternatives, the concept of adopting an age old practice of planting inter crop as trap crops for yellow stem borer management was found to be a promising one. Trap crops have been defined as “ plant stands that are; per se or via manipulation, deployed to attract, divert, intercept, and/or retain targeted insects or the pathogens they vector in order to reduce damage to the main crop. “ Insects and their host plants interact and become influenced by size, fragmentation and connectivity of host patches (Tscharntke and Brandl, 2004). In some instances, the trap crop and the main crop are the same crop, but the trap crop is planted earlier than the main crop (Smith and Liburd, 2015). Enhancing the effectiveness of the trap crop is vital to minimize the land sacrificed to production commonly known as “land equivalent ratio” when using trap cropping 23 84 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


as pest management strategy. General guidelines for trap cropping recommend that about 10% of the total crop area be planted with the trap crop, although the percentage of trap crop needed for a particular system has to be determined for each case. Ultimately, the combination of insect behavious and trap crop characteristics, value of the trap crop and practical considerations determines the success of a trap cropping system (Shelton and Badenez-Perez, 2006). Varma et al. (2002) demonstrated that synergizing pheromone blends with extracts of Pusa basmati1 increased the trap catch of yellow stem borer (YSB) in rice. Pusa Basmati 1, an aromatic fine grained rice variety exhibited more stem borer damage than other varieties. Based on the basic principles of trap cropping a strategy was developed at ICAR-IIRR (formerly Directorate of Rice Research) to trap the YSB insects on the susceptible Pusa Basmati1 variety (Padmakumari, unpublished ) and minimize the damage on the main crop. A proper understanding of the insect biology, behaviour and dynamics is very important in successful adoption of this strategy. Keeping in view the above principles of trap cropping, research studies on planting pattern of trap crop at ICAR-IIRR (Padmakumari and Pasalu, 2003) identified that transplanting one row of Pusa basmati 1 as a trap crop for every 9 rows of main crop (2.5-3 m) in east-west direction would minimize stem borer damage in the main crop. The sowing time of the trap crop (Pusa Basmati 1) should be adjusted such that the trap crop flowers one week before flowering of the main crop. Here we report the results of the on farm trials taken up in the farmers fields through Front line demonstrations.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The demonstrations were carried out in farmers fields of Medchal and Mahboobnagar districts of Telangana region on 25 acres of land. The main crop variety was a local popular variety of farmers choice. To facilitate easy adoption by the farmers the technology was modified to reap the optimum benefits. The duration of Pusa basmati 1 is 135 days and for a trap crop to be effective, the trap crop should reach booting stage 6-7 days before the main

AROMATIC VARIETY AS A TRAP CROP FOR STEM BORER MANAGEMENT IN RICE

crop. The duration of the main crop and the trap crop were considered based on which the date of sowing was adjusted so that the trap crop would come to booting a week earlier than the main crop (Table A). For every 2.5- 3m of main crop one row of trap crop (Pusa Basmati1) was planted preferably in east – west direction. The experiment was laid out in farmers fields of Medchal and Mahboobnagar districts of Telangana region on 25 acres of land. The main crop varieties which is of farmers choice included, Prakash, MTU1010, BPT5204, Krishna hamsa, Tellahamsa and private hybrids.There were two main treatments 1) main crop alone 2) main crop with trap crop with 4 replications in each treatment and all the recommended agronomic practices were followed for raising the crop. The duration of these varieties varied from 120-150 days. An insecticide spray was advocated to protect the main crop when the damage in the trap crop exceeded more than 25%. Observations were recorded on total tillers and number of dead hearts were recorded at 30 and 50 DAT; panicle bearing tillers, and number of white ears at pre harvest from 25 hills per replication. In each of the fields, observations were also recorded on egg mass number in 50 hills each of main crop and trap crop to observe the ovipositional preference of the insect. Three pheromone traps were also placed in each of the farmers field to record the adult moth catches of YSB. Grain yields (main crop yield and trap crop yield) were recorded from a uniform area of 9×3 sq m2 at two places in each replication separately and the yield is calculated per hectare basis. Based on the land equivalent ratio of the trap crop, benefit cost ratios were worked out from the obtained yields and the cost of cultivation involved in each case. Alley ways and trap crop: In brown planthopper endemic areas wher e taking up alley ways are recommended, the trial in farmer’s field included planting of one row of PB1 along the alley way and one row of trap crop on either side of the main crop along the alley way( which equals to two rows). Private hybrids such as 303, 6666 and 2222 were cultivated in these areas.

Table A: Sowing sche dule of the trap crop duration of the main crop is Sowing of Pusa Basmat i 1 done 120 days

10 days before the main crop

135 days

6 days before the main crop

150 days

10-13days aft er t he main crop

At the time of planting precautions were taken to – i. keep the nursery free from any stem borer infestation and ensuring no carry over from nursery to the main field. ii. ensure that the trap crop seedlings were well established in the field after transplanting. At the time of harvest, in case of use of combines for harvesting, the trap crop rows were harvested manually a day earlier to the normal harvest. All the other agronomic practices were taken up as per the recommended package of practices.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The incidence of stem borer was monitored through the pheromone trap catches. The catches varied from 2-30 moths per trap.The incidence of stem borer at vegetative stage varied from 3.9-10.5% dead hearts(DH), while the white ear (WE) damage ranged from 3.97-8.8 % in fields with main crop grown alone but when the main crop was grown along with the trap crop, the white ear damage was reduced to half of that in the main crop though in some situations there was no significant difference in dead heart damage. In three locations stem borer incidence was not observed at vegetative phase. The damage in trap crop of Pusa basmati was always high and recorded upto 13.7% farmers fields (Table 1). The time of sowing for various durations of the main crop ensured effective minimization of the damage. This has also been reflected in other main crop varieties like Swarna, Jalpriya, Karjat 3,TPS3, ADT3, Rajendra kasturi. (DRR, 2009-2011; Padmakumari et al., 2008a,b; Padmakumari, 2012). Considering the grain yield, the main crop yields were comparable between the treatments where it was grown along with trap crop and where it was raised alone. PB1 being a premium crop the yield from trap crop was an additional advantage. It was observed that the damage did not reach the economic threshold level ( less than 10% in all the fields), saving cost of insecticidal application. Hokkanen (1991) opined that the main crop seldom needs to be treated with an insecticide and thus, the natural control of pests is unaffected. Since the yield from trap crop is of high value, the benefit cost ratio was favourable (>1.5:1)in fields planted with trap crop. Trap crop with alley ways : The stem borer damage at vegetative stage ranged from 6.2 to 11.9% in main crop and 12.1 to 14.9% in trap Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 85 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


crop (Table 2). There were no discernible differences in damage between main crop alone and main crop along with trap crop as well as trap crop alone. However, at harvest, the fields with trap crop showed significantly less damage (2.4 to 5.5% WE) compared to fields with main crop grown sole (8.6 to 10.6% WE). The trap crop also showed significantly higher damage range of 10.3

to 16.1% WE). Results also suggest that the trap crop can be planted on one side of the alley way without any affect on the yield. Though the reduction in damage is more when two rows of trap crop are grown, it is not economical to raise the trap crop on either side of the alley ways. However, it was observed that trap crop can be planted along the alley way helping in integration of

Table 1: Effe ct of trap crop on stem bore r damage in the main crop Farmer

Variety

MC

TC

MC

TC

Kg/ha

1.

MT U1010+T C

9.8

13.7

4.3

9.2

7150.6

MT U1010(sole Crop)

10.5

-

8.8

-

6111.1

BPT 5204+ T C

3.8

7.6

4.9

8.7

7015.3

BPT 5204(sole crop)

7.13

-

5.2

-

6111.1

BPT 5204+ T C

1.6

8.6

3.0

12

4038.5

BPT 5204(sole crop)

7.1

_

7.3

-

3999

BPT 5204+Tc

No incidence

3.2

4.6

6708.9

2. 3. 4.

Dead heart s (%)

BPT5204(sole crop) 5.

Whit e ears (%)

-

Var 303

Tot al yield (main crop + trap crop)

3.97

No incidence

5.3

7. 8. 9.

MT U1010+ trap crop

5.0

8.0

2.8

MT U1000

5.6

-

5.8

BPT 5204+TC

1.9

7.6

1.7

BPT5204(sole crop)

8.6

Tellahamsa+Tc

3.6

Tella hamsa(sole crop)

8.8

Var.6666+T C Var.6666

10.

var6666+TC

11. 12.

7.5 8.6

6166.7

13.6

4267.2

1.52:1 1.52:1

6111 3.1:1

4000.5

4.2

1.7

6

11.8

3.3

7.86

7400.0

9.2

-

4.95

-

6600.0

12.3

5

4915.6

4.3:1

4600.0

4

11.5

2

11.7

7150.0

7.5

-

4

-

6600.0

Swarna+T C

5.4

7.8

1.4

6.7

4716.0

Swarna(sole crop)

3.9

1.7

No incidence

1.9

03:01 2.8:1

4665.0 5.1

4861.0

2.5

2:1

4081.0

Table 2: Effe ct of trap crop along the alley ways on stem bore r damage Variety Dead hearts (%DH) Whit e ears (%WE) Single row of trap crop along the alley ways a Main crop MC

2.6:1

4000.0

5.6

Prakash+TC MC- main crop: T C- Trap crop: Sc – sole crop

2.53.1

4365.8

6666

Prakash+TC

1.86:1

5740.7

7.0 6.

Total yield (TY) (kg/ha) (MC+TC)

TC

MC

TC

Var. 303

11.7

-

10.6

-

5318

Var.303+PB1 one row

11.9

14.9

5.4

10.3

5555

Two rows of trap crop (on either side of alley way) Var.303

11.7

-

10.6

-

5318

Var.303+two rows T C

10.3

12.1

5.5

16.0

4537

Var.2222

8.5

8.61

-

6111

2.39

14.1

7800

Var.2222+TC (one row) 6.2 MC- main crop: T C- Trap crop: Sc – sole crop 23 86 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


14.2

B:C

AROMATIC VARIETY AS A TRAP CROP FOR STEM BORER MANAGEMENT IN RICE

both cultural practices. Effect of trap crop on oviposition : Data on egg mass numbers collected in the treatments with trap crop and without trap crop across the different main crop varieties over years revealed no significant difference in the number of egg mass laid on the trap crop and the main crop. Earlier studies also suggested that yellow stem borer does not have any ovipositional preference (Khan et al., 1991). In our study we observed that the egg mass were laid on both the leaf blade and stems of the plants. The phenomenon is more prominent in the rabi season and there’s no significant difference in the number of egg laid between leaf blade and stems. Pimentel, (1961) suggested that the relative ‘trapping effect’ depends upon the size and purity of the plant stand. Overall, the studies revealed that stem borer damage observed in the main crop was half of the damage that was recorded in the trap crop. It can protect the main crop without much economic loss and by adopting this methodology in a stem borer endemic area, one impulsive spraying of chemical pesticides can be avoided at the vegetative stage. This would also help in conserving the natural enemies. The yields in both the main crops ( grown sole and with trap crop) would be almost same or at times higher in the main crop where trap crop is grown, but in the latter situation yield from the trap crop would be of an added advantage. Pusa Basmati 1 being a premier scented variety, fetches more price in the market. Hence, the cost benefit ratio was found favourable ( > 1.5) for the different combination of varieties. Hence the cost benefit ratio has always been favourable and is > 1.5 for the combination of varieties test. Similarly trap crop as a perimeter was advocated for management of Nephotettix virescens by Saxena et al. (1988) and for rat management (Lam, 1998). Companion crops were advocated in a climate adapted push –pull strategy to minimize the damage by striga and stemborer in maize crop thereby increasing grain yields (Midega et al., 2015).

trap crop, thereby lowering the damage below ETL. Hence, this is a technology is suitable for small farmer as the cost incurred on one spray application could be avoided with additional yield from trap crop. Here it’s a companion crop where we can harvest the yield from both the main crop and trap crop (Vandermeer, 1989). The favourable cost benefit ratio along with low insecticide use is the hidden ecosystem service whose cost is invaluable. This technology can also be integrated with alley ways, sex pheromone traps etc. and can be advocated as a component of IPM. Pest management benefits can also be realized from intercropping due to increased diversity. However, awareness needs to be created among the farmers to adopt such ecofriendly practices of pest management to reap the benefits. Further studies are being carried out to identify more suitable aromatic lines for use as trap crop to protect the main crop from much economic loss due to yellow stem borer. Understanding the chemical ecology interactions between trap crop and the pest will be the key focus area for future research. Acknowledgements : The authors express their sincere thanks to all the Project Directors of DRR and Directors of IIRR who were supportive of this eco-friendly concept right from conceptualization to popularization, Ministry of Agriculture for the sanction of FLDS, and our Technical Staff Mr K.Shravan Kumar and Mr Sankarnarayana for assisting in conduct of the trials and recording observations.We thank the farmers of Rayalapur, Girmapur ( Rangareddy district\) and Ramannapadu and Sankarampet villages in Mahaboobnagar district of Telangana State who volunteered to take up this trial. This technology is dedicated to Late Shri Sekhar who was instrumental in contacting various farmers, convincing them in the conduct of on farm trials in Medchal area and for meticulous follow up. Authors’ affiliations : G. KATTI, ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, Rajendranagar,

Conclusion : This method of pest management utilises the concept of exploitation of host plant susceptibility for management of yellow stem borer. Through this technique of raising one row of susceptible aromatic variety as intercrop, within a main crop, the stem borer damage in the main crop could be reduced by half of that recorded in the

HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA Email : [email protected]

V. RAJENDER KUMAR REDDY, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Madanapuram, MAHABOOBNAGAR (TELANGANA) INDIA Email : [email protected]

REFERENCES DRR 2009-2011. Directorate of Rice Research, 2010-12. Progress Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 87 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Report, 2010-12, Vol.2, Crop Protection (Entomology and Pathology) All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project. Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030. Hokkanen, H.M.T. (1991). Trap cropping in pest management. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 36 : 119-138. Khan, Z.R., Litsinger, J.A., Barrion, A.T., Villanueva, F.F.D., Fernandez, N.J. and Taylo, L.D. (1991).World bibliography of stem borers 1744-1990. IRRI Manila, Philippines. and International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (I C I P E). Midega, A.O., Toby, J.A., Bruce, John. A Pickett, Alice Murage and Zeyaur R. Khan (2015). Climate-adapted companion cropping increases agricultural productivity in East Africa. Field Crop Res., 180 : 118-125. Padmakumari, A.P. and Pasalu, I.C. (2003). Influence of planting pattern of trap crops on yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) damage in rice. Indian J. Plant Protect., 31 (1): 78-83. Padmakumari, A.P. (2012). Trap crop in rice – an ecofriendly method for yellow stem borer management. Swarnasedyam in.Sept., 2012. 51-52. Padmakumari A.P., Katti, G. and Pasalu, I.C. (2006). Eco-friendly management of stem borer, Paper presented in the International Rice congress held at New Delhi, 2- 7th November 2006. Padmakumari, A.P., Pasalu, I.C. and Gururaj, Katti. (2008a). Trap crop for stem borer management- an eco-friendly method.Annadata (Kannada monthly). July 28-29. Padmakumari, A.P., Pasalu, I.C. and Katti, G. (2008b). A novel eco-friendly technology for management of yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas. DRR Newsletter, 6 (1):8. Pimentel, D. (1961). The influence of plant spatial patterns on



insect populations. Annals Entomolog. Soc. America, 54: 6169. Saxena, R.C., Justo, H.D., Jr. and Palanginan, E.L. (1988). Trap crop for Nephotettix virescens (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) and tungro management in rice. J. Economic Entomol., 81(5) : 14851488. Shelton, A.M. and Badenes-Perez, F.R. (2006). Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management. Annu Rev. Entomol., 51: 285-308. Tscharntke, T. and Brandl, R. (2004). Plant insect interactions in fragmented landscapes. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 49 : 405-30. Vandermeer, J. (1989). The ecology of intercropping. Cambridge University Press, CAMBRIDGE, UK. Varma, N.R.G., Krishnaiah, K., Pasalu, I.C. and Katti, G.R. (2002). Synergizing rice yellow stem borer pheromone with addition of plant extracts and vitamin E. Indian J. Plant Protect., 30: 161163.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Hugh, A. Smith and Oscar, E. Liburd (2015). Intercropping, Crop Diversity and Pest Management. ENY862, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date February2012. Reviewed January 2015. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. Lam, Y.M. (1988). Rice as a trap crop for rice field rat in Malaysia. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference (1988). 26. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/vpcthirteen /26. Preston Sullivan. Intercropping Principles and Production Practices Agronomy Systems Guide Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA).https://www.iatp.org/files/ Intercropping_Principles_and_Production_Practi.htm

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Analysis of genetic divergence for yield contributing traits in Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir.) MEKALA SRIKANTH, S.G. BHARAD AND L.B. THULASIRAM


KEY WORDS : Cluster, D2 analysis, Genetic diversity, Pumpkin

SUMMARY : Genetic divergence among 23 pumpkin genotypes was estimated using Mahalanobis’sD2 statistic. Analysis of variance studies indicates significant differences among all the genotypes for all the characters under study. Based on D2 analysis, the genotypes were grouped into 6 different clusters, where cluster II contained the highest number of genotypes (6) followed by I (5), III (5), IV (4), VI (2) and cluster V contained the lowest (1). Clustering pattern revealed that geographical diversity was not associated with genetic diversity i.e., genotypes collected from same location were grouped into different clusters. The maximum intra-cluster distance was observed for cluster VI (6.07) and the minimum for cluster I (4.67). The maximum inter-cluster distance was observed between cluster V and VI (8.31) and that of minimum was observed in between the cluster I and II (5.80).Cluster V recorded the highest mean values for the characters vine length at 90 days (m), number of primary branches at 90 days, sex ratio, days to fruit harvest, fruit set %, fruit length (cm), rind thickness (cm), flesh thickness (cm), test weight (100 seed wt.(g).) How to cite this article : Srikanth, Mekala, Bharad, S.G. and Thulasiram, L.B. (2017). Analysis of genetic divergence for yield contributing traits in Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir.). Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND Author for correspondence : MEKALA SRIKANTH

Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, AKOLA (M.S.) INDIA

Email : [email protected] See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch ex. Poir) being an important Cucurbitaceous vegetable crop cultivated under tropical, subtropical and temperate regions all over the world Central Mexico is considered as centre of origin of pumpkin and now is widely grown in most tropical countries. India is the center of origin of many cucurbitaceous vegetables, where the cucurbits are capable of thriving and performing well even under the hot

summer. Pumpkin is very nutritious due to its high content of vitamin A. Much emphasis on alleviating vitamin A deficiency through vegetables like pumpkin, a cheaper source of carotene rich vegetable is laid by WHO (Anonymous, 2008). The knowledge pattern of inheritance of various char acters are impor tant consideration while determining the most approximate breeding procedure applicable to any particular crop. Information on genetic


MEKALA SRIKANTH, S.G. BHARAD AND L.B. THULASIRAM

divergence among the available germplasm is vital to a plant breeder for an efficient choice of parents for hybridization. Based on Mahalanobis (1936) D2 statistics. This analysis helps in assessing genetic divergence among the parents and the relative contribution of different characters to the total divergence. It is also useful in assigning genotypes to specific heterotic groups to create segregating progenies with maximum genetic variability for further breeding purposes. Information on the selection of local pumpkin genotypes on the basis of diversity is inadequate in Akola conditions keeping the above facts in view, the present investigation was undertaken to estimate the nature and magnitude of genetic diversity and traits contributing towards genetic divergence among 23 genotypes of pumpkin for further utilization in breeding programme.

male flower appears, node at first female flower appears, days to first male flower appears, days to first female flower appears, sex ratio (%), inter nodal length (cm), days to first harvest, fruit set (%), number of fruits per vine, fruit yield per vine (kg), average fruit weight (kg), fruit length (cm), fruit diameter (cm), fruit yield per hectare (tonnes), rind thickness (cm), flesh thickness (cm), fruit cavity (cc), number of seeds per fruit, test weight (100 seed weight (g)).The statistical data were analysed using WINDOSTAT version 9.1 software. The genetic divergence among genotypes was estimated by using D2 statistics (Mahalanobis, 1936). All the genotypes used were clustered into different groups by following Tocher’s method (Rao, 1952). The average intra and inter cluster distances were calculated by the formulae given by Singh and Chaudhary (1985).

RESOURCES

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

AND

METHODS

Experiment was conducted at Main Garden, Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (Maharashtra) during summer season in randomized block design with 23 genotypes of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch. ex Poir) collected in Vidarbha region of Maharastra (AKP-1 to AKP-22 and one check Arka Chandan) replicated thrice. All recommended cultural and management practices were followed to raise the healthy crop. Five competitive plants were selected randomly in each row for recording the observations on 21 parameters viz., vine length (m) 90 DAS, number of primary branches 90 DAS, node at first

The analysis of variance showed significant differences among the 23 genotypes for all 21 characters under study indicating the presence of notable genetic variability among the genotypes. Twenty threegenotypes were grouped into sixdivergent clusters on the basis of cluster analysis (Table 1). Cluster II contained highest number of genotypes (6), followed by cluster I(5) andcluster III (5), while Cluster V was composed of only one genotype.The clustering patterns of genotypes reveal that the genotypes collected from the same region did not form a single cluster. This indicates that geographic diversity is not always related to genetic diversity. These

Table 1 : Cluste ring patte rn of 23 Pumpkin genotypes Clust er No. of genotypes I

5

AKP-1

AKP-2

AKP-4

AKP-6

II

6

AKP-5

AKP-20

AKP-9

AKP-7

AKP-8

III

5

AKP-12

AKP-13

AKP-11

AKP-14

AKP-17

IV

4

AKP-16

AKP-19

AKP-18

Arka Chandan

V

1

AKP-15

VI

2

AKP-21

(21.80) 4.67

II

AKP-10

AKP-22

Table 2 : Average intra (bold) and inter-cluster D2 values for six cluste rs among 23 Pumpkin genotypes Clust er I II III IV I

AKP-3

V

VI

(33.64) 5.80

(48.58) 6.97

(44.62) 6.68

(63.04) 7.94

(68.06) 8.25

(26.31) 5.13

(37.69) 6.14

(39.69) 6.30

(56.85) 7.54

(48.30) 6.95

(29.81) 5.46

(38.06) 6.17

(56.85) 7.54

(49.84) 7.06

(31.58) 5.62

(57.76) 7.60

(55.50) 7.45

0.00

(69.05) 8.31

III IV V VI

(36.84) 6.07



ANALYSIS OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE FOR YIELD CONTRIBUTING TRAITS IN PUMPKIN (Cucurbita moschata DUCH. EX POIR.)

results corroborate the view of Rashid (2000) in pumpkin and Kunduet al. (2012) in bitter gourd.This result indicated that the genotypes that have originated from the same place may have different genetic architecture. Inter and intra cluster distance in pumpkin genotypes : The average inter and intra cluster distances (D) = 2 “ D ) are presented in Table 2. Cluster VI had the maximum intra cluster distance (D = 6.07) followed by cluster IV (D = 5.62). The least intra cluster distance observed in cluster I (D = 4.67). The other clusters like cluster II (D = 5.13), and cluster III (D = 5.46) showed medium inter cluster distance. Indicating their independent identity and importance due to the unique characters processed by the strains in the clusters.The highest inter cluster generalized distance wasfound between cluster-V and cluster-VI followed by clustersIII and cluster V. The involvement of genotypes belonging to cluster V and VI, and cluster III and V in hybridization would help in achieving novel recombinants. Cluster mean for yield and its attributes : Mean performance of six clusters for 21 characters

are shown in Table 3. Maximum mean (3.35) for vine length at 90 days (m) was observed in cluster V and minimum mean (2.85) observed in cluster VI. Number of primary branches at 90 days showed maximum mean (3.36) in cluster V and minimum mean observed in cluster VI. Sex ratio was observed maximum mean (12.52) in cluster V and productive minimum mean recorded in cluster VI. While maximum mean (2.87) for node at first female flower appear was observed in cluster I and minimum mean (2.30) was observed in cluster VI. Similarly maximum mean (15.26) for node at first male flower appear was observed in cluster III and minimum mean (2.30) was observed in cluster VI. The cluster III recorded highest mean for days to first male and female flower and cluster I recoded lowest mean for days to first male and female flower. Cluster III was characterised by highest mean (4.96) inter nodal length (cm) and cluster II recorded lowest mean (4.11) inter nodal length. Cluster V included highest mean (111.66) for days to fruit harvest and cluster VI included lowest mean (93.89) for days to fruit harvest. While cluster V comprised of highest mean (70.37) fruit set % and cluster IV comprised of lowest mean (45.52) fruit set %. Cluster I comprise of maximum number of fruits per vine (3.37)

Table 3 : Mean values of clusters for twenty one characters in 23 Pumpkin genotypes Sr. No. Character I II 3.11

3.10

III

IV

V

VI

3.18

2.90

3.35

2.85

1.

Vine length at 90 days (m)

2.

Number of primary branches at 90 days

3.13

3.22

3.09

3.00

3.36

2.97

3.

Sex rat io

11.43

11.58

10.83

11.94

12.52

10.49

4.

Node at first m al e flo wer ap p ear

2.87

2.65

2.33

2.31

2.40

2.30

5.

No de at fi rs t fem al e flo w er app ear

11.90

12.29

15.26

13.52

14.06

11.57

6.

Day s to fi rst m ale flo w er app ear

48.83

49.93

52.64

50.34

50.51

52.46

7.

Days to first female flower appear

55.37

57.87

61.98

59.69

60.68

59.24

8.

Int er nodal length (cm)

4.31

4.11

4.96

4.48

4.44

4.83

9.

Days to fruit harvest

101.42

95.09

97.33

98.11

111.66

93.89

10.

Fruit set %

51.00

50.41

47.05

45.52

70.37

60.84

11.

Number of fruit s per vine

3.37

2.90

2.90

1.79

1.33

2.44

12.

Yield per vine (kg)

8.75

10.22

10.04

8.41

11.82

12.06

13.

Average fruit weight (kg)

3.03

3.22

2.95

3.03

3.53

4.50

14.

Fruit length (cm)

21.62

27.58

25.76

26.05

32.22

27.68

15.

Fruit diamet er (cm)

16.78

22.03

20.42

22.54

13.72

23.89

16.

Fruit yield per ha (tonnes)

42.77

51.09

50.23

44.80

59.11

60.32

17.

Rind thickness (cm)

0.37

0.31

0.35

0.44

0.59

0.25

18.

Flesh thickness (cm)

3.36

3.44

4.04

4.09

5.25

4.02

19.

T ss (0 Brix)

5.09

4.53

4.18

4.61

5.00

4.51

20.

Number of seeds per fruit

199.54

164.78

191.11

202.322

189.100

317.56

21.

Test weight (100 seed wt) (g)

13.08

14.28

13.22

11.28

14.80

13.40


MEKALA SRIKANTH, S.G. BHARAD AND L.B. THULASIRAM

and cluster V comprise of minimum number of fruits per vine (1.33). For yield per vine (kg) cluster VI (12.06) showed highest and cluster IV showed lowest. Cluster VI showed highest mean (4.50) average fruit weight (kg) and cluster III showed lowest mean (2.95) average fruit weight (kg). Cluster V having maximum fruit length (32.22) and cluster I having minimum fruit length (21.62). Cluster VI comprised of highest mean (23.89) in fruit diameter (cm) and lowest mean (13.72) in cluster V. Cluster VI comprise highest mean (60.32) fruit yield per ha (tonnes) and cluster I comprised lowest mean (42.72). Similarly cluster V recorded maximum mean (0.59) for rind thickness (cm) and flesh thickness (cm) (5.25), while minimum mean (0.25) recorded in cluster VI for rind thickness (cm) and cluster I for flesh thickness (cm) (3.36).Cluster I noted highest mean (5.09) Tss (0Brix) and cluster III noted lowest mean (4.18) Tss (0Brix). Cluster VI showed highest number of seeds (317.56) per fruit, whereas cluster II recorded lowest number of seeds (164.78) per fruit. Highest test weight (100 seed wt) (g) was recorded in cluster V and lowest test weight (100 seed wt) (g) was recorded in cluster IV. While studying the genetic divergence in Pumpkin genotypes Wide range of genetic divergence was noticed among

the studied genotypes, and this divergence of the genotypes may be taken into account for selecting the parents for hybridization and future improvement programme of this crop through breeding. Contribution of individual character towards total divergent : The clusters have been formed based on the contribution of different characters to the divergence (Table 4 and Fig. 1). Among these characters number of seeds per fruit (24.90%) to total genetic diversityfollowed by rind thickness (cm) (15.20), number of fruits per vine (12.25%), fruit set % (11.46%), fruit diameter (cm) (9.49%), yield per vine (kg) (6.32%), fruit length (cm) (5.93%), inter nodal length (cm) (5.53%) and test weight (100 seed wt.) (3.56%). However, average fruit weight (kg) (1.58%), flesh thickness (cm) (1.19%), first female flower appear (1.19%), fruit yield per ha (tonnes) (0.79%), TSS ( 0 Brix) (0.40%), days to male flower appear (0.40%)have meagerly contributed to the diversity. While, vine length @ 90 days (cm), number of primary branches @ 90 days, sex ratio, node @ first male flower appear, days to first female flower appear and days to first harvest had zero contribution to the total genetic diversity.

Table 4 : Per cent contribution of di ffe rent characte rs towards di ve rsity in 23 Pumpkin genotypes Sr. No. Character Times Ranked 1 st

Per Cent contribut ion

1.

Vine length at 90 days (m)

0

0.00

2.

Number of primary branches at 90 days

0

0.00

3.

Sex rat io

0

0.00

4.

Node at first m al e flo wer ap p ear

0

0.00

5.

No de at fi rs t fem al e flo w er app ear

3

1.19

6.

Day s to fi rst m ale flo w er app ear

1

0.40

7.

Days to first female flower appear

0

0.00

8.

Int er nodal length (cm)

14

5.53

9.

Days to fruit harvest

0

0.00

10.

Fruit set %

29

11.46

11.

Number of fruit s per vine

31

12.25

12.

Yield per vine (kg)

16

6.32

13.

Average fruit weight (kg)

4

1.58

14.

Fruit length (cm)

15

5.93

15.

Fruit diamet er (cm)

24

9.49

16.

Fruit yield per ha (tonnes)

2

0.79

17.

Rind thickness (cm)

38

15.20

18.

Flesh thickness (cm)

3

1.19

0

19.

T ss ( Brix)

1

0.40

20.

Number of seeds per fruit

63

24.90

21.

Test weight (100 seed wt.) (g)

9

3.56



ANALYSIS OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE FOR YIELD CONTRIBUTING TRAITS IN PUMPKIN (Cucurbita moschata DUCH. EX POIR.)

REFERENCES Mahalonobis, P.C. (1936). On the generalized distance in Statistics. Proceedings, National Institute of Science, India 2: 49-55. Singh, R.K. and Chaudhary, B.D. (1985). Biometrical methods in quantitative genetic analysis.Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi, India. p. 318. Rao, C.R. (1952). Advanced Statistical Methods in Biometrical Research. John Wiley and Sons, New York. pp. 45-110. Rashid, M.M. (2000). Genetic divergence in pumpkin. MS Thesis. Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Salna, Gazipur. p 85.

Fig. 1 :

Cluster diagram showing the average Inter and intracluster distance (D = D 2 ) of 23 Pumpkin genotypes

Authors’ affiliations : S.G. BHARAD AND L.B. THULASIRAM, Department of Horticulture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, AKOLA (M.S.) INDIA

Kundu, B.C. (2008). Morpho-biochemical diversity and heterosis in bitter gourd (Momordicacharantia L.). Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Salna, Gazipur.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Anonymous (2008). World Health Organization, www.who.int/ vmnis/vitamina/en/


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Trends in destination-wise export of gum guar from India N. MANJUNATH, H. LOKESHA, G.B. LOKESH


KEY WORDS : Gum guar, Destination-wise, Cumulative annual growth rate

N. MANJUNATH

Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

Email:manjunatha.agecon @gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

M.G. PATIL

SUMMARY : Agriculture being the backbone of Indian economy supports the country to be in international trade domain with a great position. This is observed by looking at the export of gum guar derivatives in international trade. This paper made an attempt to analyze the trends in destination- wise export of gum guar from India. The cumulative annual growth rate of export of gum guar in India is positive in terms of quantity as well as value with 18.62 and 48.60 per cent, respectively from 2005-06 to 2014-15. The increased export growth in gum guar is mainly attributed its increasing demand from oil exploration and shale gas production in the world. A favorable development for stakeholders in the guar industry in India is that global demand for guar products in general and guar gum in particular has expanded rapidly during the last few years. How to cite this article : Manjunath, N., Lokesha, H., Lokesh, G.B. and Patil, M.G. (2017). Trends in destinationwise export of gum guar from India. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/ 12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence :

AND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Production and trade of agricultural commodities are crucial to the economic progress of developing countries. It is highly decisive, particular ly for India, since agriculture continues to be the predominant livelihood source for a large share of its population(Bhattacharya, 2011). Gum guar (Cyamopsistetragonoloba (L.) Taub) (Singh, 2004) (Singh et al., 2002) in now a days is an important industrial crop both in India and Pakistan. It is significant foreign exchange earner; because gum guar, its derivatives and the high protein meal produced from the seeds, are sold world over

to an expanding market (Anonymous, 2003). India is the largest producer of gum guar in the world, constitute about 80 per cent of the total production. Total production of gum guar in India have crossed 2.4 million metric tons during the agricultural year 2014-15 due to good weather conditions in the major gum guar producing areas in India. With a moderate production of 0.25 million metric tons in Pakistan which is another important Gum guar producing area, the total global production of Gum guar is estimated to have crossed 3 million metric tons during 2013-14. Presently, India accounts for more than three-fourth of the total world Gum guar production. The other major producers of Gum guar are Pakistan,


N. MANJUNATH, H. LOKESHA, G.B. LOKESH AND M.G. PATIL

USA, South Africa, Malawi, Zaire and Sudan. India is the world leader in the exports of gum guar and its by-products followed by Pakistan (Singh, 2014). About 25,000 tones of the total production of the country constitutes to the local market. The major importing countries of Indian gum guar and its derivatives are China, U.S.A, Canada, Lithuania, Italy, Russia and Germany, etc. (Anonymous (a) 2015), (Anonymous (b), 2015)

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The time series secondary data on destination-wise quantity and value of export of gum guar were collected from various sources such as; Agricultural processed food products export developmental authority of India and India stat.com. Growth model : The compound growth rate of export of gum guar from India were analyzed using the exponential growth function to the series data in the form Y = a bt e

where, Y= Dependent variable for which growth rate is estimated a = Intercept/constant term b = (1+r), Regression co-efficient r = (b-1)*100, compound growth rate in percentage t = Time variable e = Error term The compound growth rate was obtained from the logarithmic form of the equation as below: ln Y= ln a + t ln b

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The results and discussion part deals with the export scenario of gum guar export from India. Destination wise growth rates in export of Gum guar from India during 2005-06 to 2014-15 : The major importing countries of Indian Gum guar were China, U.S.A, Lithuania, Germany, Italy, Canada, Russia and others have been presented in Table 1. and Fig.1. Lithuania is the major emerging importing country of gum guar from India, recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 173 and 171 per cent in terms of Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 95 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

TRENDS IN DESTINATION-WISE EXPORT OF GUM GUAR FROM INDIA

Fig. 1 :

Quantity and value of export of gum guar from India during 2005-06 to 2014-15 (Quantity in MT, Value in lack rupees)

quantity and value of export, respectively. Canada is the next country to Lithuania indicating 32 per cent and 67 per cent in terms of quantity and value of export, respectively. Export of Gum guar to U.S.A. recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 28 per cent and 63 per cent in terms of quantity and value of export, respectively. Russia recorded growth rate of 17 per cent growth rate of quantity and 50 per cent in terms and value of export. China recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 4 per cent in terms of quantity and 31 per cent and value of export. Export of Gum guar to Italy recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 21 per cent and 30 per cent in terms of quantity and value of export, respectively. Export to Germany was found to be significant and negative (-1.31%) in terms of quantity but it was positive and significant in terms of value of export (19.13%). In the year 2014-15 it is the fourth largest importer of Indian Gum guar i.e., 23154 MT in terms of quantity and in 2007-08 it started importing of 16 MT. Export of Gum guar to other countries recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 11 per cent and 22 per cent in terms of quantity and value of export, respectively. It is evident from the Table 1 and Fig. 3, the total export of Gum guar to all the countries from India was also recorded a significant and positive growth rate of 18 per cent and 48 per cent in terms of quantity and value of exports, respectively. Demand for gum guar has risen considerably due to the strong demand from the oil exploration industry especially in the countries like Lithuania, Canada, U.S.A., Germany, Italy, Russia and China (Sharma, et al., 2012), (Anonymous (a), 2015), (Anonymous (b), 2015). The recent use of gum guar in shale gas production resulted in a surge in gum guar demand consumption and caught 23 96 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


the attention of other industry players i.e., food and bakery products, confections, beverages, cosmetic industries, pharmaceutical industries, paper industry , metallurgical and mining, etc. (Sharma, 2010), (Henry, et al. 2005). The major industrialized countries, the US and the EU, have made the product duty free for imports, but the emerging economies generally impose duties on the guar product. The tariff structure in China is of particular interest to India as that country is the second most important market for India after the US. There is substantial tariff escalation in China, which currently imposes a 15 per cent duty on guar gum powder, and 7 per cent on guar splits. Conclusion : It may be concluded from the study that there is an immense scope for export of gum guar from India. Though India is the largest producer of gum guar in the world, it export’s less than 60 per cent of its total production. India has a good potential for export of gum guar and it needs to strive hard to improve its export by improving upon the quantity of gum guar exports and also by improving the quality levels. There is a huge demand of Indian guar gum in the international market, showing the great scope in the future. A favorable development for stakeholders in the guar industry in India is that global demand for guar products in general and guar gum in particular has expanded rapidly during the last few years. This has been due mainly to the sharp increase in the use of guar gum in the shale gas and oil industry in the US. The food industry was earlier the major user industry for guar products but shale gas and oil industry has overtaken it and become the dominant user of guar gum in recent years. The US is the largest importer and India is the largest exporter of guar products in the world. Authors’ affiliations : H. LOKESHA AND G.B. LOKESH, Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

M.G. PATIL, Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

REFERENCES Anonymous (a) (2015). Agricultural Processed Export Developmental Authority (APEDA).

N. MANJUNATH, H. LOKESHA, G.B. LOKESH AND M.G. PATIL

Anonymous (b) (2015). Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCIS).

Singh, S.K. (2014). An analysis of performance of guar crop in India,CCS National Institute of Agricultural Marketing (NIAM).

Anonymous (2003). Annual Progress Report of AICRP on Arid Legumes,Project Coordinator’s Unit, CAZRI, Jodhpur, India.

Singh, P.K. (2004). Prospect of Indian exports in global trade: Need to Revamp Export Strategy, Southern Economist, 43(1): 40-44.

Henry, A. and Kumar, D. (2005). Trend in Guar Seed Production in arid districts of Rajasthan and India and Export of guar gum, J.Ari. Leg.,2(1) : 54-57. Sharma, P. and Gummagolmath, K.C. (2012). Reforming Guar Industry in India: Issues and Strategies,Agric. Econ Res. Rev., 25(1) : 37-48. Sharma, P. (2010). Guar Industry Vision 2020: Single Vision Strategies,CCS National Institute of Agricultural Marketing, Jaipur.

Singh, J., Arora, N.R., Saini, M.L., Grewal, R.P.S and Yadav, B.D. (2002). Guar Production and its Utilization in India, AICRP on Arid Legumes, Jodhpur, India.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Bhattacharya, R. (2011). Revealed comparative advantage and competitiveness: A case study in India for horticultural products. Proceedings of International conference on Applied economics. 21-22. Retrieved from http://kastoriateikoz. Gr/ icoae2/wordpress/wp-content/ uploads/2011/10/003.pdf.


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Impact of seed zinc and iron content of on germination and seedling vigour in pigeonpea D. HANUMANTHAPPA, S.N. VASUDEVAN, N.M. SHAKUNTALA, S. MUNISWAMY, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA


SUMMARY : A study was carried out to evaluate the influence of seed zinc and iron content on quality traits in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp). A total of 64 pigeonpea genotypes were used for mineral content (Zn and Fe) analysis and categorized into low, medium and high iron and zinc content. Five and three genotypes from each category for iron and zinc were used for seed quality analysis. Results revealed that there was a progressive increase in seed germination (from 82.92 to 96.50 % and 81.76 to 94.95 %), seedling length (25.93 to 33.48 cm and 27.38 to 32.75 cm) and seedling vigour index (2150 to 3231 and 2239 to 3110) with increase in seed-Fe and Zn content, respectively. How to cite this article : Hanumanthappa, D., Vasudevan, S.N., Shakuntala, N.M., Muniswamy, S., Kisan, B. and Macha, Sangeeta I. (2017). Impact of seed zinc and iron content of on germination and seedling vigour in pigeonpea. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHS EAR-3) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

KEY WORDS : Seed, Iron, Zinc, Pigeonpea, Seed quality

Author for correspondence : D. HANUMANTHAPPA

Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

Email : dasah4508@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Pulses constitute an important ingredient in vegeterian diet and are source of protein, containing nearly twice as much protein as that of cereals and nutritionally balances the protein requirement of vegetarian population, hence called as ‘poor man’s meat. These are also suitable for sustainable agriculture as they enrich the soil through biological fixation (Hariprasanna and Bhatt, 2002). Pigeonpea is the most important pulse crop of India and is grown on an area of 3.88 m ha with an annual production of 3.29 mt with a productivity of 849 kg per ha. In Karnataka it is grown in an area of about 0.82 m ha with a production of 0.60 mt. Average productivity

of pigeonpea in Karnataka accounts for 700 kg per ha and its potential yield marked up to 3.5 tonnes per ha. Its area, production and productivity in India in last five decades showed that there was about two per cent area increase per year but the yield levels are stagnated around 600-700 kg per ha (Anonymous, 2014). Iron and zinc are important elements out of the 16 essential elements needed for plant growth. Iron is used for the synthesis of chlorophyll and is essential for the function of chloroplasts. Zinc (Zn) is essential in protein synthesis and gene expression in plants (Cakmak 2000; Broadley et al. 2007). It has been estimated that about 10 % of the proteins


D. HANUMANTHAPPA, S.N. VASUDEVAN, N.M. SHAKUNTALA, S. MUNISWAMY, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA

in biological systems need Zn for their structural and functional integrity (Andreini et al. 2006). This element has also been indicated to be required as a cofactor in over 300 enzymes (Coleman 1998). During germination, production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) is well known (Cakmak et al. 1993; Bailly et al. 2002; Qin and Liu 2010) and Zn plays a central role in detoxification of ROS in plant cells (Cakmak 2000; Broadley et al. 2007). Earlier studies indicated that growing wheat crops with high seed Zn resulted in better seedling vigor and viability, higher yield, and lessening of seed rate required for sowing, especially on potentially Zn deficient soils (Rengel and Graham 1995; Rengel 2002; Cakmak 2008). Applying Zn fertilizers in the soil also increases dry matter, grain yield and grain Zn concentration in rice (Shehu and Jamala 2010; Fageria et al. 2011). In case of pigeonpea there is no much information on how the elevated level of seed zinc and ir on may consequently affect germination and seedling growth. Therefore, in the present investigation an attempt has been made to know the influence of seed-Fe and Zn content on seed germination and seedling vigour index in pigeonpea genotypes.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

A total of 64 pigeonpea genotypes available with Agricultural Research Station, Kalaburgi, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka were used for mineral content (Zn and Fe) analysis and categorized into low, medium and high iron and zinc content. Five and three genotypes from each category for iron (Low; RVKT-261, GRG-333, GRGB131, NTL-900, WRGE-97; medium: AGL-2013, WRP1, GRPH-1, TS-3R, RVK-275 and high GRG-2009, ICPL 96061, ICPL 20136, GPHR-08-11, ICP-16317) and zinc content (Low; MARUTI, TS-3R, WRP-1; medium: ICP11320, GRG-2009, BDN-2008-12 and high: ICPL 14001, GRPH-2, AGL-1632), respectively were used to study the effect of seed micronutrient (Zn and Fe) content on seed germination and seedling vigour index. Germination test was conducted with four replicates of 100 seeds each in the paper (between papers) medium in the walk-in germination room. maintained at 25 ± 1°C temperature and 90 ± 5% RH. At the end of sixth day of placing the seeds, the number of normal seedlings in each replication was counted and the germination was calculated and expressed in percentage (Anonymous, 2013).

Ge r mination % =

No . of n ormalsee dli ngs × 100 Total n o. of se e ds

From the germination test, ten normal seedlings were randomly selected from each treatment on the day of final count. The seedling length was measured from tip of shoot to root tip and the mean length was calculated and expressed as seedling length in centimeters (Anon, 2013). Seedling vigour index was computed by adopting the formula as suggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973) and expressed in whole number. Seedling vigour index = Germination (%) × Mean seedling le ngth (c m)

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Beneficial effect of high seed-Zn during seed germination and early seedling growth has been reported by several authors (Yilmaz et al., 1998 in wheat and Boonchuay et al., 2013 in paddy). In the present investigation an attempt has been made to know the influence of seed-Fe and Zn content on seed germination and seedling vigour index in pigeonpea genotypes. Out of 64 genotypes evaluated for Fe and Zn content in experiment- I, genotypes were categorized in to three levels namely, low, medium and high. These genotypes were found to have different impact on seed seed quality parameters. Seed germination significantly increased with increase in seed zinc content. Among the genotypes, ICPL 14001 which belonged to high zinc content group recorded significantly highest seed germination (94.67 % in 2014, 95.24 % in 2015 and 94.95 % in pooled mean) (Fig. 1), seedling length ((32.60, 32.90 and 32.75 cm in 2014, 2015 and pooled mean, respectively) (Fig. 2) and seedling vigour index (3105, 3115 and 3110 in 2014, 2015 and pooled mean, respectively) (Fig. 3) compared to other genotypes while, lowest was noticed in genotypes which falls under low iron content category.

Fig. 1 :

Germination (%) as influenced by seed zinc content Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 23 99 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

IMPACT OF SEED ZINC & IRON CONTENT OF ON GERMINATION & SEEDLING VIGOUR IN PIGEONPEA

Fig. 2 :

Fig. 3 :

Seedling length (cm) as influenced by seed zinc content

Seedling vigour index as influenced by seed zinc c o nte nt

So seed iron content significantly influenced the germination percentage. Seed germination significantly increased with increase in seed iron content. Among the genotypes, GRG-2009 belonged to high iron content group recorded significantly highest germination (96.00 % in 2014, 97.00 % in 2015 and 96.50 % in pooled mean) (Fig. 4), seedling length (33.33 in 2014, 33.63 in 2015 and 33.48 cm in pooled mean) (Fig. 5) and seedling vigour index (3200 in 2014, 3262 in 2015 and 3231 in pooled mean) (Fig. 6) compared to other genotypes. Whereas, genotypes which belonged to low zinc content group showed lower seed quality parameters.

Fig. 4 :

Germination (%) as influenced by seed iron content

Fig. 5 :

Seedling length (cm) as influenced by seed iron content



Fig. 6 :

Seedling vigour index as influenced by seed iron c o nte nt

There was a progressive incr ease in seed germination (from 82.92 to 96.50% and 81.76 to 94.95%), seedling length (25.93 to 33.48 cm and 27.38 to 32.75 cm) and seedling vigour index (2150 to 3231 and 2239 to 3110) with increase in seed-Fe and Zn content, respectively (Fig. 7 and 8). Seeds dense with iron and zinc content significantly recorded highest germination and seedling vigour compared to low and medium groups. The present result confirms the findings of Yilmaz et al. (1998) in wheat and Boonchuay et al. (2013) in paddy, who also observed increase in seedling vigour with progressive increase in seed-Zn content. Micronutrients caused transfer of photosynthetic material to the seeds, and when compared to the control (without foliar application), produced stronger seeds and finally improved seed germination as observed in castor bean by Mohammad et al. (2012). Genotypes with high seedZn recorded highest seedling length and seedling vigour index compared to genotypes with high seed-Fe. Increase in seed germination and seedling vigour with increase in seed-Zn could be ascribed as the micro element Zn is a component of protein synthesis and their related functions (Broadley et al., 2007). There are nearly 2800 proteins which need Zn for their structural and functional integrity (Andreini et al., 2006). These findings indicate that there may be greater necessity of Zn during root and coleoptile development for active protein synthesis and / or other related functions. During the seed germination, production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) is unavoidable and seeds /seedlings have defense mechanisms against ROS production (Qin and Liu, 2010). One of the defense enzymes against ROS is superoxide dismutase which is Zn dependent (Cakmak, 2000 and Broadley et al., 2007). It is concluded that, higher zinc and iron in pigeonpea seed effectively improves the germination and seedling vigour and genotypes with higher zinc and iron content can be used for sowing to get uniform and better seedling

D. HANUMANTHAPPA, S.N. VASUDEVAN, N.M. SHAKUNTALA, S. MUNISWAMY, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA

growth under micronutrient deficient soils, Further, these genotypes can be used in crop improvement programme to transfer the gene/s responsible for enhancing Zn / Fe in seed to the promising varieties to augment nutritional security. Acknowledgement : Financial support from the University of Agricultural Science, Raichur and University Grants Commission (UGC) to carry out this research work is gratefully acknowledged. Authors’ affiliations : S.N. VASUDEVAN, N.M. SHAKUNTALA, S. MUNISWAMY, B. KISAN AND SANGEETA I. MACHA, Department of Seed Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, (U.A.S.), RAICHUR (KARNATAKA) INDIA

REFERENCES Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973). Vigour determination by multiple criteria. Crop Sci., 13 : 630-637. Andreini, C., Banci, L. and Rosato, A. (2006). Zinc through the three domains of life. J. Proteome Res., 5 : 3173-3178. Anonymous (2013). International rules for seed testing. Seed Sci. & Technol., 24 (Supplement): 23-46. Bailly, C., Bogatek-Leszczynska, R., Come, D. and Corbineau, F. (2002). Changes in activities of antioxidant enzymes and lipoxygenase during growth of sunflower seedlings from seeds of different vigour. Seed. Sci. Res., 12 : 47-55. Boonchuay, P., Cakmak, K., Rerkasem, B., Chanakan and PromU-Thai. (2013). Effect of different foliar zinc application at different growth stages on seed zinc concentration and its impact on seedling vigor in rice. Soil Sci. & Pl. Nut., 59: 180188. Broadley, M., White, P., Hammond, J., Zelko, I. and Lux, A. (2007). Zinc in plants. New Phytol., 173: 677-702.

Cakmak, I., Strbac, D. and Marschner, H. (1993). Activities of hydrogen peroxide-scavenging enzymes in germinating wheat seeds. J. Exp. Bot., 44 : 127-132. Cakmak, I. (2000). Role of zinc in protecting plant cells from reactive oxygen species. New Phytol., 146 : 185-205. Cakmak, I. (2008). Enrichment of cereal grains with zinc: Agronomic or genetic biofortification. Plant Soil, 302: 1-17. Coleman, J.E. (1998). Zinc enzymes. Curr. Opin. Chem Biol., 2: 222-234. Fageria, N.K., Dos Santo, A.B. and Cobucci, T. (2011). Zinc nutrition of lowland rice. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 42 : 1719-1727. Hariprasanna, K. and Bhatt, J. (2002). Pulses production looking at constraints and prospects. Agriculture Today, Aug. 8 : 49-53. Mohammad, R.S., Ahmad, T. and Elnaz, T. (2012). Study of germination and seedling characteristics of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) mother plant’s seeds under foliar spray of micronutrient. Euro. J. Expert. Bio., 2(4) : 980-983. Qin, J. and Liu, Q. (2010). Oxidative metabolism-related changes during germination of mono maple (Acer mono Maxim.) seeds under seasonal frozen soil. Ecol. Res., 25 : 337-345. Rengel, Z. (2002). Genetic control of root exudation. Plant Soil. 245 : 59-70. Rengel, Z. and Graham, R. (1995). Importance of seed zinc content for wheat growth on zinc-deficient soil. I. Vegetative growth. Plant Soil., 173 : 259-266. Shehu, H.E. and Jamala, G.Y. (2010). Available Zn distribution, response and uptake of rice (Oryza sativa) to applied Zn along a toposequence of lake Gerio Fadama soils at Yola, north-eastern Nigeria. J. Am. Sci., 6: 1013-1016. Yilmaz, A., Ekiz, H., Torun, B., Gultekin, I., Karanlik, S., Bagci, S.A. and Cakmak, I. (1997). Effect of different zinc application methods on grain yield and zinc concentration in wheat cultivars grown on zinc-deficient calcareous soils. J. Plant Nutr., 20: 461-471.


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Studies on physical and chemical properties of soil profiles in village Baragaon nandur, taluka Rahuri, dist- Ahmednagar of state Maharastra VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN, A.G. DURGUDE AND A.L. PHARANDE


KEY WORDS : Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols, F.C, P.W.P, PH, EC, N.P.K.

Author for correspondence : VADDEPALLY PAVAN

Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA


SUMMARY : Soil profile studies was conducted in Baragaon Nandur Village, four soil orders viz., two entisols, one inceptisols, vertisols were analyzed for soil physical and chemical properties which are derived from basalt, basaltic alluviam and slightly conditioned by topography. These orders were shallow (entisols), moderately deep (inceptisols), very deep (vertisols).The available moisture content at 33 kPa and 1500 kPa for Entisols (A) soil series is 28.55 and 15.35 per cent, respectively. In Inceptisols it was ranged from 37.15 to 39.38 per cent at 33 kPa and 23.00 to 23.20 per cent at 1500 kPa while in Vertisols it was ranged from 42.89 to 49.39 per cent at 33 kPa and 22.89 to 30.09 per centat 1500 kPa. and in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 31.06 to 32.88 per cent at 33 kPa and 18.93 to 20.67 per cent at 1500 kPa, respectively.The pH of the soils (1:2.5 soil: water suspension) ranged from 8.23 in Entisols (A), 8.11 to 8.25 in Entisols (B), 8.13 to 8.42 in Inceptisols and 8.12 to 8.38 in Vertrisols.the EC value of Entisols (A) was 0.24, while in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 0.31 to 0.42 dSm-1. In Inceptisols it was ranged from 0.28 to 0.53 dSm-1.In case of Vertisols, EC value ranged from 0.24 to 0.48 dSm-1. The highest nitrogen content was observed in Entisols (B) (326.50 kg ha-1) followed by Vertisols (295.82 kg ha-1) followed by Entisols (A) (254.01 kg ha1 ) and Inceptisols (228.92 kg ha-1). The depth wise available P content in Entisols (A) was 8.50 kg ha-1. In Inceptisol it was ranged 12.95 to 15.68 kg ha-1, in Vertisols it was varied from 7.39 to 15.91 kg ha-1. And in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 4.43 to 11.92 kg ha-1.Available K content in Entisols (A) was 281.0. In Entisols (B) it was ranged from 196.0 to 313.6 kgha-1, In case of Inceptisols it was ranged from 258.5 to 393.4 kg ha-1. Vertisols ranged from 202.3 to 494.5 kg ha-1.The present investigation was undertaken to generate comprehensive information about the characteristics of soil for evolving proper soil and water management strategies so as to maximize and sustain agriculture production. How to cite this article : Pavan, Vaddepally, Chauhan, M.R., Durgude, A.G. and Pharande, A.L. (2017). Studies on physical and chemical properties of soil profiles in village Baragaon nandur, taluka Rahuri, dist- Ahmednagar of state Maharastra. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/ 1-8.

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Soils are considered as the integral part

of the landscape and their characteristics are largely governed by the landforms in which


VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN, A.G. DURGUDE AND A.L. PHARANDE

they are developed. Topogr aphic maps, aerial photographs and remote sensing data provide useful tools for geomorphic analysis of the region and help in the soil survey and mapping (Pandey and Pofali, 1982). The life supporting systems of a country and socioeconomic development of its people depends on the soils. More than ever before, a renewed attention is being given to soils due to rapidly declining land area for agriculture, declining in soil fertility and increasing soil degradation, land use policies and irrational and imbalanced use of inputs (Kanwar, 2004). All the above factors call for a paradigm shift in research away from the maximum crop production to the sustainability of the crop production system without degradation of soil health and environmental quality. Systematic study of morphology and taxonomy of soils provides information on nature and type of soil, their constraints, potential, capabilities and their suitability for various uses (Sehgal, 1996). Soils of Maharashtra State have been broadly classified as 1) The laterites and lateritic soils 2) The costal saline and costal alluvium soils 3) Shallow medium and deep black soil 4) Gray and red soils of mixed parent materials and 5) Saline, saline-alkaline and non-salinealkaline soils (Raychaudhari and Chakravarty, 1943). Soil is a vital natural resource and should be used judiciously according to its potential to meet the increasing demands of ever growing population. To ensure optimum agricultural production, it is imperative to know best fact about our soils and their management to achieve sustainable production. The quality of soil needs to be looked into because presently the natural resources are being over exploited. Soils of Maharashtra State are categorized as poor in fertility and vary widely in genetic, morphological, physical, chemical and biological characteristics (Challa et al., 1995). The nutrient deficiencies started appearing in different areas due to introduction of intensive production systems after green revolution period. It is due to net removal rates of micronutrients by crops being higher under intensive productivity regimes (Kanwar, 2004). The nutrient deficiencies situation was further increased by the discontinuous and diversified use of organic manures and chemical fertilizers. A soil profile is a historic record of all the soil farming processes and farms the unit of study in pedological investigation. It also helps in soil classification and forms

the basis for practical studies of soils. A study of soil profile is important from crop husbandary point of view, since it reveals the surface and subsurface characteristics and qualities, namely depth, texure, structure, drainage conditions and soil-moisture relationships, which directly affect plant growth. It helps to classify the soils and to understand soil-moisture-plant relationships. Study area : The Village Baragaon Nanduris boundary between region located in between 19° - 21’N latitude and 74°35’ E longitude and covers total geographical area of 3845 ha. The elevation is 500m above mean sea level. The Village Baragaon Nandur, is situated about 38 km away from Ahmednagar city. Soils of Village Baragaon Nanduris derived from the igneous rocks viz. Basalt (Deccan trap) which is basic in nature containing mainly feldspars, augite and small amount of titaniferrous magnetite mineral. In the vesicular rocks the any of daloidal cavities are filled with mineral like zeolite and quartz. The soils of Village Baragaon andurare under the cultivation of Jowar, Bajara, Wheat, Gram, Pigeon Pea, Soybean, Black Gram, Safflower, Sugarcane and Cotton crops. The natural vegetation grown comprises of dry deciduous tree species and some grasses. The climate is usually hot and potential evapo-transpiration (PET) is far excess of the precipitation and is classified as semi-aired tropical. Village Baragaon Nandur, Taluka Rahuri, Dist- Ahmednagar experience a hot spell from the month of March and May, with rains from June to September. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures were ranged from 32.9 0 C and 18.80 C, respectively. The Village Baragaon Nandur has annual precipitation of 517.8 mm. The rainfall is torrential, erratic, scanty and ill distributed.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The survey and sampling was carried out in Village BaragaonNandur, Taluka Rahuri, Dist- Ahmednagar. Four soil profile site were selected by using GPS (Global Position System) for study after travelling through the area where inceptisols, entisols, vertisols are present. Recorded of surveyed fields, latitude, longitude and altitude was maintained. Profile were dug at selected sites and detailed morphological examination was carried out as per procedure laid down in USDA soil survey manual. Soil sample were collected horizon wise. The Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 03 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

STUDIES ON PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL PROFILES IN VILLAGE BARAGAON NANDUR, TALUKA RAHURI, DIST- AHMEDNAGAR OF STATE MAHARASTRA

Table A : Standard analyti cal methods use d for physical and chemical analysis of soil samples Sr. No. Parameters Met hod used

Reference

Physical properties 1. Field capacity (FC)

Pressure plate method

Richard (1968)

2.

Pressure plate method

Richard (1968)

Chemical properties 1. pH (1:2.5)

Permanent wilt ing point (PWP)

Potent iometric

Jackson (1973)

2.

EC (1:2.5)

Conductometric

Jackson (1973)

3.

Available nit rogen

Alkaline permanganate method

4.

Available phosphorus

0.5 M NaHCO3 (pH 8.5)

Watanabe and Olsen (1965)

5.

Available pot assium

(N NAmmonium acet ate)

Jackson (1973)

soil samples from selected site were collected by using stainless steel auger to avoid iron contamination. Total 12 samples collected from the different horizons of two Entisols, one Inceptisol, and one Vertisol. Soil samples were brought to the laboratory and air dried under shade avoiding contamination with foreign materials and then crushed with a wooden pestle. The sample is then screened through a 2mm sieve and the pebbles, stones and roots were rejected. About 0.5 to 1kg of air dried crushed soil sample was put in the plastic sample bottle, labeled and stacked on the open sample racks for analysis. Each soil sample was analysed for following physical, chemical properties of soil.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The soil profile study was conducted on four soil orders of Village Baragaon Nandur such as two Entisol, one Inceptisol, and one Vertisols. The result of the investigation is described under following heading. Physical properties of soil profile : Details of data regarding the physical properties are presented in Table 1. Moisture constants : The available moisture content at 33 kPa and 1500 kPa for Entisols (A) soil series is 28.55 and 15.35 per cent, respectively. In Inceptisols it was ranged from 37.15 to 39.38 per cent at 33 kPa and 23.00 to 23.20 per cent at 1500 kPa while in Vertisols it was ranged from 42.89 to 49.39 per cent at 33 kPa and 22.89 to 30.09 per cent at 1500 kPa. and in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 31.06 to 32.88 per cent at 33 kPa and 18.93 to 20.67 per cent at 1500 kPa, respectively. It was observed that available water capacity of Entisols (A) was 13.2, Inceptisols was 24 04 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Subbiah and Asija (1956)

ranged from 14.15 to 17.78 Vertisols was ranged from 19.30 to 21.00 and in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 10.39 to 13.95. The Inceptisols and Vertisols having high water holding capacity this could be due to very fine nature of smectitic clays with higher content of total clay and medium to deep profile depth. A linear relationship between clay content and moisture retention was also observed by Balpande et al. (2007) and Nagar et al. (1995) water retention at 33 kPa and 1500 kPa depends upon clay, COLE, smectitic mineral content of soil. (Ashok kumar and Prasad, 2010). Chemical properties of soil profile : Details of data regarding the chemical properties is presented in Table 1. Soil reaction (pH) : The pH of the soils (1:2.5 soil: water suspension) ranged from 8.23 in Entisols (A), 8.11 to 8.25 in Entisols (B), 8.13 to 8.42 in Inceptisols and 8.12 to 8.38 in Vertrisols i.e. moderate alkaline in reaction. In general, no definite depth wise trend in respect of soil pH was observed. The similar observations were also reported for Entisols, Inceptisols and Vertisols soils of Maharashtra by Anantwar et al. (2000). In Vertisols, the pH in most cases increases with depth and become alkaline in the sub surfaces. This might be due to bicarbonate precipitated as CaCO3due to high evaporative demand under semi-arid conditions. Electrical conductivity (EC) : It was observed that the EC value of Entisols (A) was 0.24, while in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 0.31 to 0.42 dSm-1. In Inceptisols it was ranged from 0.28 to 0.53 dSm-1.In case of Vertisols, EC value ranged from

VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN, A.G. DURGUDE AND A.L. PHARANDE

0.24 to 0.48 dSm-1 with average mean value 0.34 dSm1 .From above observation it is revealed that EC value of Inceptisols and Vertisols are near about same but more than Entisols. In general, the lower sub-surface horizons of different soil series have slightly higher soluble salts than surface (Ap) Horizon. The higher EC value in subsurface layer might be indicated more salts accumulation as compared with surface horizon. The variation of electrical conductivity of Entisols, Vertisols and Inceptisols soil series confirmed the impact of topography on soluble salts accumulation in surface and subsurface horizon. Similar values of EC for shrink and swell soils of India were also reported by Sohan Lal et al. (1994) and Anantwar et al. (2000). Available nitrogen : The data on available N, P, and K content of the soil orders are given in Table 1. The highest nitrogen content was observed in Entisols (B) (326.50 kg ha-1) followed by Vertisols (295.82 kg ha-1) followed by Entisols (A) (254.01 kg ha -1 ) and Inceptisols (228.92 kg ha -1 ). Although a variation in available N content in these soils was observed, all the soils were categorized as low to moderate in nitrogen content. In general, the depth wise decrease in available N content in all the soils probably due to decrease in organic carbon content with depth.

Available phosphorus : The depth wise available P content in Entisols (A) was 8.50 kg ha-1. In Inceptisol it was ranged 12.95 to 15.68 kg ha-1, in Vertisols it was varied from 7.39 to 15.91 kg ha-1. And in Entisols (B) it was ranged from 4.43 to 11.92 kg ha-1.The available P content was ranged from very low to moderate. In case of Inceptisols and Vertisols available P content was moderate in surface layer. It might be due to pre-sowing fertilizer applications. Depthwise decrease in available P content was observed in all the soil orders. Available potassium : Available K content in Entisols (A) was 281.0. In Entisols (B) it was ranged from 196.0 to 313.6 kgha -1 , In case of Inceptisols it was ranged from 258.5 to 393.4 kg ha -1 . Vertisols ranged from 202.3 to 494.5 kg ha -1 . Maximum K content was observed in Vertisols on the surface horizon (494.5 kg ha -1 ) while minimum K content was observed in Entisols (B) in lower horizon (196.0 kg ha -1 ). K content was ranged from moderate to very high, respectively. Entisols are very low in available K content same result was reported by Ashok kumar and Prasad, (2010) in sugarcane growing soils of Ahmednagar District.

Table 1 : Physical and Chemical properties of Re presentati vePe dons of Village Baragaon Nandur Physical properties Chemical propert ies Pedonno. F.C PWP AWC % pH (1:2.5) E.C. (dSm -1 ) N

P

K

Pedon 1 Entisols (A) P1 -0-22

28.55

15.35

13.2

8.23

0.24

254.01

8.87

281.0

P2 -0-26

37.36

23.20

14.16

8.42

0.28

228.92

15.68

393.4

26-58

37.15

23.00

14.15

8.23

0.53

185.02

13.18

269.7

58-75

39.38

21.60

17.78

8.13

0.49

122.30

12.95

258.5

P3 -0-28

42.89

22.89

21.00

8.38

0.24

295.82

15.91

494.5

28-66

49.09

29.60

19.49

8.31

0.44

181.88

9.42

414.4

66-90

49.39

30.09

19.30

8.25

0.48

125.44

7.50

427.1

90-120

47.79

28.29

19.50

8.12

0.31

112.89

7.39

202.3

P4 - 0-30

32.88

18.93

13.95

8.25

0.31

326.50

11.92

313.6

30-68

31.49

19.09

12.40

8.22

0.42

301.05

8.87

246.4

68-100

31.06

20.67

10.39

8.18

0.38

197.21

4.43

201.6

100-150

32.19

19.50

12.69

8.11

0.36

188.16

5.09

196.0

Pedon 2 Ince ptisols

Pedon 3 Vertisols

Pedon 2 Entisols (B)


STUDIES ON PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL PROFILES IN VILLAGE BARAGAON NANDUR, TALUKA RAHURI, DIST- AHMEDNAGAR OF STATE MAHARASTRA

Authors’ affiliations : M.R. CHAUHAN, A.G. DURGUDE AND A.L. PHARANDE, Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Anantwar, S.G., Babrekar, P.G.. Bhaskar, B.P. and Challa, O. (2000). Variability in swell shrink potentials in two transects on basaltic plateau of Wardha District Maharashtra. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 48 : 145-151. Ashokkumar, H.P. and Prasad, J. (2010). Some typical sugarcane growing soils of Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra, Their Characterization and nutritional status of soil and pant. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 58 : 257-266. Ashokkumar, H.P. and Prasad, J. (2010). Some typical sugarcane growing soils of Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra, Their Characterization and nutritional status of soil and pant. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 58 : 257-266. Balpande, H.S., Challa, O. and Prasad, J. (2007). Characterization and classification of grape growing soils in Nasik District, Maharashtra. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 55 : 80-83. Challa, O. (1995). Gilgai micro relief in swell shrink soils. A case study from Solapur District. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 43 : 649652. Chinchmalatpure, A.R., Brinjal, R., Challa, O. and Sehgal, J. (2000). Available micronutrient status of soil on different parent material and landform in a micro-watershed of Wunna catchment near Nagpur (Maharashtra). Agropedol., 10 : 53-58. Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil chemical analysis, Prentice Hall of India. Private limited New Delhi, p. 498. Kanwar, J.S. (2004) Address by the guest of honour, 69th annual convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science held at the



Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU). HydrabadJournal of the Indian Society of Soil Science52, 295-296. Nagar, R.P., Gupta, P.K., Karkansi, P.K., Sharma, S.P. and Saxena, L. (1995). Soil and water characteristics of different soil series of Chambal command area of Rajastan. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 44 : 329-334. Nelson, D.W. and Sommer, L.E. (1982). Total carbon and organic matter. Methods of Soil Analysis part-II. Page, A.L. (Ed.). Agron. Mono. No.9 American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin. pp.185-187. Pandey, S. and Pofali, R.M. (1982). Soil-physiography relationship. Review of soil research in India. Part II. XII International Congress of Soil Science, New Delhi, India, 8-16 February, 1982, pp.572-584. Richards, L.A. (ed) (1968). Pressure Plate membrane apparatus. Soil Sci. Soc. America Proceedings. 25459 : 456-459. Sehgal, J. (1996). Pedology, Concept and applications, Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi. pp,123-125. Sohan Lal, Deshpande, S.B. and Sehgal, J.L (1994) Soil handbook 18, US. Govt. Printing office Washington, D.C. 139140.103. Subbiah, B.V. and Asija, G.L. (1956) A rapid procedure for the estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Current Sci., 25 : 259260. Thakur, D.S., Bapat, P.N., Dubey, D.D. and Gupta, G.P. (1999). Clay properties, mineral stabillty and mineralogy of Vertisols of Central India. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 47 : 781-788. Watanabe, F.S. and Olsen, S.R. (1965). Test of Ascorbic Acid methods for Phosphorus in water and Sodium bicarbonate extract of soil. Proceedings Soil Sci. Soc. America, 21 : 677678.

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Studies on morphological properties of soil profiles in village Baragaon nandur, taluka Rahuri, distAhmednagar of state Maharastra VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN AND A.G. DURGUDE


KEY WORDS : Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols, Horizon, Texture, Structure, Consistency, Colour

SUMMARY : Soil profile studies onentisols, inceptisols and vertisols in Village Baragaon Nandur was carried out during the year 2015-16.foursoil orders viz., two entisols, one inceptisols, vertisols of village Baragaon Nandur were analyzed for soil morphological properties which are derived from basalt, basaltic alluviam and slightly conditioned by topography. These orders were shallow (entisols), moderately deep (inceptisols), very deep (vertisols) and have depth 22 to 120cm, and have their colourmunsell notation in 10YR/7.5YR in hue with value ranges from 5 to 7 and Chroma ranges from 1 to 4. The structure of Entisols (A) and Entisols (B) are weak fine subangular blocky. While Inceptisols showed medium subangular blocky structure at surface horizon and it was changed to medium angular blocky structure at subsurface and Vertisols showed coarse hard subangular blocky at surface horizon and it was changed to medium strong angular blocky at subsurface horizon. but angular blocky type structure is a common feature in slickenside zone of vertisols and inceptisols. The textural class of Entisols (A) was silty clay while Entisols (B) showed clay loamy texture throughout the profile from surface to subsurface horizons, While Inceptisols and Vertisols showed clay textural class throughout the solum. The consistence of the Vertisols and Inceptisols was very hard when dry, moderately firm to moderately very firm when moist. The present investigation was undertaken to generate comprehensive information about the characteristics of soil for evolving proper soil and water management strategies so as to maximize and sustain agriculture production. How to cite this article : Pavan, Vaddepally, Chauhan, M.R. and Durgude, A.G. (2017). Studies on morphological properties of soil profiles in village Baragaon nandur, taluka Rahuri, dist- Ahmednagar of state Maharastra. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : VADDEPALLY PAVAN

Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA


BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Soils are considered as the integral part of the landscape and their characteristics are largely governed by the landforms in which they are developed. Topographic maps, aerial photographs and remote sensing data provide

useful tools for geomorphic analysis of the region and help in the soil survey and mapping (Pandey and Pofali, 1982). The life supporting systems of a country and socio-economic development of its people depends on the soils. More than ever before,


VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN AND A.G. DURGUDE

a renewed attention is being given to soils due to rapidly declining land area for agriculture, declining in soil fertility and increasing soil degradation, land use policies and irrational and imbalanced use of inputs (Kanwar, 2004). All the above factors call for a paradigm shift in research away from the maximum crop production to the sustainability of the crop production system without degradation of soil health and environmental quality. Systematic study of morphology and taxonomy of soils provides information on nature and type of soil, their constraints, potential, capabilities and their suitability for various uses (Sehgal, 1996). Soils of Maharashtra State have been broadly classified as 1) The laterites and lateritic soils 2) The costal saline and costal alluvium soils 3) Shallow medium and deep black soil 4) Gray and red soils of mixed parent materials and 5) Saline, saline-alkaline and non-salinealkaline soils (Raychaudhari and Chakravarty, 1943). Soil is a vital natural resource and should be used judiciously according to its potential to meet the increasing demands of ever growing population. To ensure optimum agricultural production, it is imperative to know best fact about our soils and their management to achieve sustainable production. The quality of soil needs to be looked into because presently the natural resources are being over exploited. Soils of Maharashtra State are categorized as poor in fertility and vary widely in genetic, morphological, physical, chemical and biological characteristics (Challa et al., 1995). The nutrient deficiencies started appearing in different areas due to introduction of intensive production systems after green revolution period. It is due to net removal rates of micronutrients by crops being higher under intensive productivity regimes (Kanwar, 2004). The nutrient deficiencies situation was further increased by the discontinuous and diversified use of organic manures and chemical fertilizers. A soil profile is a historic record of all the soil farming processes and farms the unit of study in pedological investigation. It also helps in soil classification and forms the basis for practical studies of soils. A study of soil profile is important from crop husbandary point of view, since it reveals the surface and subsurface characteristics and qualities, namely depth, texure, structure, drainage conditions and soil-moisture relationships, which directly affect plant growth. It helps to classify the soils and to understand soil-moisture-plant relationships. 24 08 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Study area : The Village BaragaonNanduris boundary between region located in between 19° - 21’N latitude and 74°35’ E longitude and covers total geographical area of 3845 ha. The elevation is 500m above mean sea level. The Village Baragaon Nandur, is situated about 38 km away from Ahmednagar city. Soils of Village Baragaon Nandur is derived from the igneous rocks viz. Basalt (Deccan trap) which is basic in nature containing mainly feldspars, augite and small amount of titan ferrous magnetite mineral. In the vesicular rocks the any of daloidal cavities are filled with mineral like zeolite and quartz. The soils of Village Baragaon Nandurare under the cultivation of Jowar, Bajara, Wheat, Gram, Pigeon Pea, Soybean, Black Gram, Safflower, Sugarcane and Cotton crops. The natural vegetation grown comprises of dry deciduous tree species and some grasses. The climate is usually hot and potential evapo-transpiration (PET) is far excess of the precipitation and is classified as semi-aired tropical. Village Baragaon Nandur, Taluka Rahuri, DistAhmednagar experience a hot spell from the month of March and May, with rains from June to September. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures were ranged from 32.90C and 18.80C, respectively. The Village Baragaon Nandur has annual precipitation of 517.8 mm. The rainfall is torrential, erratic, scanty and ill distributed.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The survey and sampling was carried out in Village Baragaon Nandur, Taluka Rahuri, Dist- Ahmednagar. Four soil profile site were selected by using GPS (Global Position System) for study after travelling through the area where inceptisols, entisols, vertisols are present. Recorded of surveyed fields, latitude, longitude and altitude was maintained. Profile were dug at selected sites and detailed morphological examination was carried out as per procedure laid down in USDA soil survey manual. Soil sample were collected horizon wise. The soil samples from selected site were collected by using stainless steel auger to avoid iron contamination. Total 12 samples collected from the different horizons of two Entisols, one Inceptisol, and one Vertisol. Soil samples were brought to the laboratory and air dried under shade avoiding contamination with foreign materials and then crushed with a wooden pestle. The sample is then screened through a 2mm sieve and the pebbles, stones

STUDIES ON MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL PROFILES IN VILLAGE BARAGAON NANDUR, TALUKA RAHURI, DIST- AHMEDNAGAR OF STATE MAHARASTRA

and roots were rejected. About 0.5 to 1kg of air dried crushed soil sample was put in the plastic sample bottle, labeled and stacked on the open sample racks for analysis. A brief description of standard test procedure followed for various morphological characteristics are described in this section. Table A : Standard analytical methods used for morphologi cal properties of soil samples 1.

Horizon

As per morphological

Soil Survey Staff

2.

Text ure

propert ies

USDA Manual

Hand feeling method

3.

Structure

By visual

(1975.)

4.

Consistency

Hand feeling

5.

Colour

Munsellcolour chart s

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The soil profile study was conducted on four soil orders of Village Baragaon Nandur such as two Entisol, one Inceptisol, and one Vertisols. The result of the investigation is described under following heading. Morphological characteristics of soil profile : The Morphological features of representative soil profiles Entisols, Vertisols and Inceptisols, were examined in detail. The information regarding morphological

characters is presented in detail in Annexure-II. The Classification and abbreviated morphological features are presented in Table 1. Soil depth : The least depth (22 cm) was observed in Entisols (A). In case of Inceptisols it showed 75 cm depth. In Entisols (B) the depth is more than 100 cm and Vertisols showed very deep 120 cm depth. The shallowness in the Entisols (A) might be due to recently formed soil without any subsurface diagnostic horizon and incase of Entisols (B) it was developed on the bank of river with recently formed alluvial parent material showing very high depth but no horizonation. Deep soils formed due to deposition of basaltic material causing deeper soil solums in case of Vertisols and Inceptisols. The depth variability in soil solum also reflects the association of soil characteristics in relation to variability in geomorphic unit. Similar observations were also reported for Indian Entisols, Inceptisols, Vertisols. (Bhattacharjee et al., 1977, Bhattacharyya et al., 1992, Challa, 1995). Soil colour : The surface and subsurface soilcolour of Entisols ranged from pale brown 10 YR 6/3 to 10 YR 7/4 (very

Table 1 : Morphologi cal characteristi cs of re presentative Pedons of Village Baragaon Nandur Pedon No.

Horizon

Pedon 1 TypicUstorthent (Entisols A) Pedon 1 Ap Cr

Consistency Dry Moist

Depth

Texture

St ructure

Colour

0-22

Sic

1f sbk

dsh

mfr

7.5 YR5/2

22+

Weathered

-

-

-

-

Basalt Pedon 2 Verti cHaplustept (Inceptisols) Pedon 2

Ap

0-26

C

2 msbk

dvh

mfi

10 YR 3/2

B

26-58

C

2 mabk

dvh

mvfi

10 YR 4/1

B

58-75

C

2 mabk

dvh

mvfi

10 YR 3/1

Cr

75+

-

0-28

C

3c sbk

dvh

mfi

10 YR 4/1

Bw

28-66

C

2 mabk

dvh

mvfi

10 YR 3/2

Bss

66-90

C

2 mabk

dvh

mvfi

10 YR 3/2

Bwss

90-120

C

2 mabk

dvh

mvfi

10 YR 3/3

Pedon 3 TypicHapluste rt(Vertisols) Pedon 3 Ap

Pedon 4 TypicPluventi c(Entisols B) Pedon 4 Ap

0-30

Cl

1f sbk

dsh

mfr

10 YR 6/3

A21

0-68

Cl

1f sbk

dsh

mvfr

10 YR 7/4

A22

68-100

Cl

1f sbk

dsh

mvfr

10 YR 7/4

A23

100-150+

Cl

1f sbk

dsh

mvfr

10 YR 7/4


VADDEPALLY PAVAN, M.R. CHAUHAN AND A.G. DURGUDE

pale brown) in case of Entisols (B) and 7.5 YR 5/2 (brown) in case of Entisols (A).The surface and subsurface colour of Inceptisols ranged from 10 YR 3/1 (grey) to 10 YR 4/1 (very dark grey) and the Vertisols ranged from 10 YR 3/2 (dark grey) to 10 YR 4/1 (dark brown). Bhattacharya et al. (1992) studied the Inceptisol pedons of Pune district of Maharashtra and reported that the Inceptisols had hue 10YR, value around 4 to 3 and chroma 4 or less. Soil texture : The textural class of Entisols (A) was silty clay while Entisols (B) showed clay loamy texture throughout the profile from surface to subsurface horizons, While Inceptisols and Vertisols showed clay textural class throughout the solum. Entisol (A) developed recently on basaltic parent material while Entisols (B) developed on the bank of river of Village Baragaon Nandur which is deposited by water without developing any surface diagnostic horizon. However, Inceptisols and Vertisols developed on flat topography with the weathering of basaltic parent material.

Plate 1: Representative profile of Entisols (A) of Baragaon Nandur village

Soil structure : The structure of Entisols (A) and Entisols (B) are weak fine subangular blocky. While Inceptisols showed medium subangular blocky structure at surface horizon and it was changed to medium angular blocky structure at subsurface and Vertisols showed coarse hard subangular blocky at surface horizon and it was changed to medium strong angular blocky at subsurface horizon. Vertisols and Inceptisols, showed coarse moderately hard sub angular at surface layer and medium strong angular blocky at subsurface layer (Patil et al., 2010). Soil consistency : The consistence of the Vertisols and Inceptisols was very hard when dry, moderately firm to moderately very firm when moist. The consistency observed might be due to high content of swelling and shrinking type of smectitic group of clay and low content of sand. The consistence of Entisols, shallow and deep soil orders was slight hard to hard when dry, moist friable to moist very friable when moist. Variability in the consistency of different soil series indicates the variation in nature and quantity of clay formed under different pedogenic processes. 24 10 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Plate 2: Representative profile of Entisols (B) of Baragaon Nandur village

STUDIES ON MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL PROFILES IN VILLAGE BARAGAON NANDUR, TALUKA RAHURI, DIST- AHMEDNAGAR OF STATE MAHARASTRA

Authors’ affiliations : M.R. CHAUHAN AND A.G. DURGUDE, Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, AHMEDNAGAR (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Bhattacharjee, J.C., Lande, R.J. and Kalbande. A.R.(1977) A new approach in the of Vertisol morphology. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 25 : 221-232. Bhattacharyya, T., Mondal, C. and Deshmukh, S.N. (1992). Soil and land use pattern in part of Western Maharashtra. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 40 : 513-520. Challa, O. Vadivelu, S. and Sehgal, J.T. (1995). Soils of Maharashtra for optimizing land use. NBSS Pub,54 (soils of India series). NBSS and Land Use Planning Nagpur, India. p.112. Kanwar, J.S. (2004). Address by the guest of honour, 69th annual convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science held at the Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU). Hydrabad. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 52 : 295-296.

Plate 3: Representative profile of inceptisols of Baragaon Nandur village

Kanwar, J.S. (2004). Address by the guest of honour, 69th annual convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science held at the Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU). Hydrabad. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 52 : 295-296. Pandey, S. and Pofali, R.M. (1982). Soil-physiography relationship. Review of soil research in India. Part II. XII International Congress of Soil Science, New Delhi, India, 8-16 February, 1982, pp.572-584. Patil, G.B., Patil, M.S., Nagarjuna, S., Prasad, Jagdish and Srivastava, Rajeev (2010). Characterizatton, evaluation and mapping of land resourse in Lendi watershed, Chandrapur District of Maharashtra using remote sensing and GIS. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 58 : 442-448. Raychoudhari, S.P. and Chakravarty (1943). Studies on Indian red soils. J. Indian Agril. Sci., 13 : 252-254. Rudramurthy, H.V. and Dasog, G.S. (2001). Properties and genesis of associated red and black soils of North Karnataka. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 49 : 301-309. Sehgal, J. (1996). Pedology, Concept and applications, Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi. pp,123-125. Sharma,P.K. and Dev, G. (1985). Physioghraphy-soil relationship in transect in North-East Panjab. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 33 : 604-612.

Plate 4: Representative profile of Vertisols of Baragaon Nandur v illag e

Soil Survey Staff (1975). Soil Taxanomy- a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil survey USDA, Washington D.C.


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Effect of different levels of NPK and vermicompost on physico-chemical properties of soil in greengram [Vigna radiata L.)] cv. samrat BADAVATH SRINIVAS, NARENDRA SWAROOP AND B. CHANDRA SHEKER


KEY WORDS : Physico- Chemical properties, Greengram, NPK, Vermicompost content

SUMMARY : In order to investigate the influence of different levels of NPK and vermicompost on physico-chemical properties of soil, growth and yield parameters of greengram, an experiment based on randomized blocks design with 9 treatments, 3 replications and 27 plots was carried out at research farm department of Soil Science, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (Deemed-to-be-University), Allahabad. Treatments were included witness (control), 2 and 4 t/ha vermicompost and NPK fertilizers. Results showed that all agronomic traits were significantly affected by combination of vermicompost and chemical fertilizers compared to the control. The maximum physical and chemical properties were recorded in the treatment T8 (N, P and K @ 100 % + vermicompost @ 100 %). Bulk density (1.28 Mg m-3), Particle density (2.74 Mg m-3), %Pore space (51.07 %), pH of soil (7.53), Electrical conductivity (0.25 dS m-1), Organic carbon (0.77 %), Available nitrogen (334.0 Kg ha-1), Available phosphorus (34.71 Kg ha-1), Available potassium (206.35 Kg ha-1), Where as minimum Physico-chemical properties of soil characters was recorded with the treatment T0 (control). How to cite this article : Srinivas, Badavath, Swaroop, Narendra and Sheker, B. Chandra (2017). Effect of different levels of NPK and vermicompost on physico-chemical properties of soil in greengram [Vigna radiata L.)] cv. samrat. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.


BACKGROUND

BADAVATH SRINIVAS

Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) is important short duration, draught tolerant pulse crop which also commonly known as “green gram”. It is an important source of inexpensive protein and iron, and is a good substitute for meat in most Asian diets and a significant component of various cropping systems (Rudy et al., 2006; Srinives et al., 2000). Mungbean is considered as a substitute

Department of Soil Science, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (Deemed-to-beUniversity), ALLAHABAD (U.P.) INDIA

Email:badavathsrinivas51 @gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

of animal protein and forms a balanced diet when used with cereals (Khan and Malik, 2001; Anjum et al., 2006; Mansoor, 2007; Delic et al., 2011). Mungbean yield and quality can be improved by the balanced use of fertilizers and also by managing the organic manures properly. The low yield of mungbean besides other factors may partially be due to lack of knowledge about nutrition and modern production technology (Hassan, 1997). Moreover, lack of attention on fertilizer use is


BADAVATH SRINIVAS, NARENDRA SWAROOP AND B. CHANDRA SHEKER

also instrumental in lowering mungbean yields (Mansoor, 2007). Current trends in agriculture are centered on reducing the use of inorganic fertilizers by biofertilizers such as vermicompost (Haj Seyed Hadi, 2011). The management practices with organic materials influence agricultural sustainability by improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soils (Saha et al., 2008).

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

A field Experiment was conducted on research farm of department of Soil Science, Allahabad School of Agriculture, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (Deemed-to-be-University) Allahabad, (U.P.) India. The soil of experimental area falls in order Inceptisol and the experimental field is alluvial in nature. The design applied for statistical analysis was carried out with randomized block design having with 9 treatments, 3 replications and 27 plots. Treatments were T0 – (L0 V0) @0 % NPK ha-1 + 0% Vermicompost ha-1, T1 – (L0V1) @ 0% NPK ha-1 + 50% Vermicompost ha-1, T2 – (L0 V2) @ 0% NPK ha-1 + 100% Vermicompost ha-1, T3 – (L1V0) @ 50% NPK ha-1 + 0% Vermicompost ha-1, T4- (L1 V1) @ 50% NPK ha-1 + 50% Vermicompost ha -1 , T 5 - (L 1 V 2 ) @ 50 % NPK ha -1 +100 % Vermicompost ha-1, T6 – (L2 V0 ) @ 100% NPK ha-1 + 0 % Vermicompost ha-1, T7 – (L2 V1) @ 100% NPK ha-1 + 50% Vermicompost ha-1, T8- (L2 V2) @ 100 % NPK ha1 + 100 % Vermicompost ha-1.having the treatments was replicated thrice. The source of inorganic nutrients

sources as Urea, SSP, MOP, and organic nutrients sources as Vermicompost, respectively. Basal dose of fertilizer was applied in respective plots according to treatment allocation unifurrows opened by about 5cm. depth before sowing seeds in soil at the same time sowing of seeds was shown on well prepared beds in shallow furrows, at the depth of 5cm, row to row distance was maintained at 30 cm and plant to plant distance was 10 cm, during the course of experiment, observations were recorded as mean values of the data.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The results showed that the treatment T8- (L2 V2) @ 100% NPK ha -1 + 100% Vermicompost ha -1 was recorded maximum for the physico-chemical characters such as bulk density (1.28 Mgm-3), particle density (2.74 Mgm-3), % pore space (51.07 %), pH of soil (7.53), electrical conductivity (0.25 dSm-1), organic carbon(0.77 %), available nitrogen (334.00 Kgha -1 ), available phosphorous (34.71 Kgha-1), available potassium (206.35 Kgha-1). Whereas the treatment T0- (L0 V0) @0 % NPK ha-1 + 0% Vermicompost ha-1 was recorded minimum for the physic-chemical characters such as bulk density (1.06 Mgm-3), particle density (1.53 Mgm-3), pore space per cent (45.99 %), pH of soil (6.97), electrical conductivity (0.15 dSm-1 ), organic carbon(0.56 %), available nitrogen (296.27 Kgha-1), available phosphorous (25.13 Kgha-1), available potassium (131.50 Kgha-1).

Table 1 : Physico-chemical parameters of greengram due to NPK and Vermicompost Bulk Part icle Pore pH Electrical Organic T reatment density densit y space of conductivity carbon combinat ion (Mgm -3 ) (Mgm -3 ) % soil (dSm -1 ) (%)

Available nitrogen (Kg ha-1)

Available phosphorus (Kg ha-1)

Available potassium (Kg ha-1)

T 0 =L 0 V0

1.06

1.53

45.99

6.97

0.15

0.56

296.27

25.13

131.5

T 1 =L 0 V1

1.08

1.54

46.09

7.15

0.17

0.6

303.6

26.32

146.47

T 2 =L 0 V2

1.13

1.58

47.2

7.29

0.19

0.62

304.65

27.07

153.95

T 3 =L 1 V0

1.15

1.62

47.32

7.3

0.19

0.66

311.99

28.94

157.7

T 4 =L 1 V1

1.16

1.89

48.45

7.32

0.21

0.66

314.08

29.02

168.92

T 5 =L 1 V2

1.18

1.97

49.16

7.33

0.22

0.69

320.37

30.51

172.66

T 6 =L 2 V0

1.24

1.97

49.29

7.36

0.24

0.71

321.42

31.71

191.38

T 7 =L 2 V1

1.26

2.63

50.27

7.5

0.25

0.75

327.7

33.81

197.79

T 8 =L 2 V2

1.28

2.74

51.07

7.53

0.25

0.77

334.0

34.71

206.35

F- t est

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S.E. ±

0.05

0.25

0.42

0.09

0.02

0.04

2.02

0.72

1.82

C.D. (P=0.05) S: Significant

0.14

0.75

1.24

0.28

0.07

0.11

6.06

2.17

5.45


EFFECT OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF NPK & VERMICOMPOST ON PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL IN GREENGRAM [Vigna radiata L.)] CV. SAMRAT

Authors’ affiliations : NARENDRA SWAROOP, Department of Soil Science, Sam Higginbottom Institu te of Agriculture, Technology a nd Sciences (Deemed-to-be-University), ALLAHABAD (U.P.) INDIA B. CHANDRA SHEKER, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, DHARWAD (KARNATAKA) INDIA

REFERENCES Anjum, M.S., Ahmed, Z.I. and Rauf, C.A. (2006). Effect of Rhizobium inoculation and nitrogen fertilizer on yield and yield components of mungbean. Internat. J. Agric. Biol., 2 : 238240. Delice, D., Stajkovic-Sibrinovic, O., Kuzmanovic, D., Rasulic, N., Mrvic, V., Andjelovic, S. and Knezevic-Vukcevic, J. (2011). Effects of bradyrhizobialinoculation on growth and seed yield of mungbean in Fluvisol and Humoflovisol. African J. Micro. Res., 5(23) : 3946-3957. Haj Seyed Hadi M.R., Darzi, M.T., Ghandehari, Z. and Riazi, G.H. (2011). Effects of vermicompost and amino acids on the flower yield and essential oil production from Matricaria chamomile L. J. Medi. Pl. Res., 5(23) : 5611-5617. Hassan, R. (1997). Growth and yield response of mung bean to different seed rates and levels of phosphorus. M.Sc. Thesis,



Agronomy Department, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. Khan, A. and Malik, M.A. (2001). Determing biological yield potential of different mungbean cultivars. J. Biol. Sci., 1 : 575576. Mansoor, M. (2007). Evaluation of various agronomic management practices for increased productivity of Mungbean (Vigna radiate L. Wilszek). Ph.D Thesis, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Gomal University, D.I. Khan. Rudy, S., Sontichai, C., Theerayut, T., Sumana, N. and Peerasak, S. (2006). Genetics, agronomic, and molecular study of leaflet mutants in mungbean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). J. Crop Sci. Biotech., 10(3) : 193-200. Saha, S., Mina, B.L., Gopinath, K.L., Kundu, S. and Gupta, H.S. (2008). Relative changes in phosphatase activities as influenced by source and application rate of organic composts in field crops. Bio. Resour. Technol., 99 :1750-1757. Srinives, P., Hual-alai, N., Saengchot, S. and Ngampongsai, S. (2000). The use of wild relatives and gamma radiation in mungbean and black gram breeding. In: Proc. 7th MAFF Inter. Workshop on Genetic Resources Part 1. Wild Legumes. October 21-25, 1999, Tsukuba, Japan.

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Effect of seed treatment and foliar spray of bioagents and fungicides on the disease severity of Ascochyta blight of chickpea incited by Ascochyta rabiei C. MAHARANA, NEHA SINGH, L.B. YADAV AND Y. SINGH


KEY WORDS : Field trial, Cicer arietinum, Bioagents, fungicides, Disease severity

SUMMARY : Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei) of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an economically important disease transmitted through the seed and stubble. The experiment was conducted during Rabi season of 2015-2016 in Tarai region of Uttarakhand to determine the efficacy of combined action of seed treatment along with foliar spray in preventing the disease. Seed treatment with carbendazim+thiram (1:2) and 3 foliar sprays of pyraclostrobin + metiram was found the best among all in terms of reducing the maximum disease severity of Ascochyta blight to 82.63 per cent. Least per cent disease control over the check was recorded in seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. flourescens and 3 sprays of chlorothalonil (65.29%). How to cite this article : Maharana, C., Singh, Neha, Yadav, L.B. and Singh, Y. (2017). Effect of seed treatment and foliar spray of bioagents and fungicides on the disease severity of Ascochyta blight of chickpea incited by Ascochyta rabiei. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/18.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : C. MAHARANA

Centre of Advance studies, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, (G.B.P.U.A.&T.), PANTNAGAR (UTTARAKHAND) INDIA

Email : maharana_patho @rediffmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) belongs to family leguminaceae, commonly known as ‘gram’ or ‘Bengal gram’ or çhana’ occupies a position of pride among the leguminous crops owing to its great importance both as vegetable and as pulse. In a country like, India where most of the population is primarily vegetarian chickpea has a special place in the daily diet of people due to its high protein content and manifold uses. They are rich source of protein and form an important part of vegetarian diet containing about 18-24% of protein, 38-59% carbohydrate, 3% fiber,

4.8-5.5% oil, 3% ash, 0.2% calcium, and 0.3% phosphorus. (Hulse, 1991). In spite of the evolution of improved varieties and adoption of recommended package of practices, the average production of this crop is very low in India in comparison to many other countries of the world. Among the various factors, responsible for lowering down its yield, the disease especially those cause by fungi, are considered to be the major ones. The fungus, Ascochyta rabiei, is the causal agent of chickpea blight and is the major biotic constraint limiting chickpea production in Northern Indian condition (Nene,


C. MAHARANA, NEHA SINGH, L.B. YADAV AND Y. SINGH

2012). Severe attacks may result in total loss of the crop (Reddy and Singh 1990; Singh et al., 1981; Singh and Reddy 1990; Solh et al., 1994) and, in some years, the disease has even affected international trade (Dusunceli et al., 2007). Pande et al. (2005) recently reviewed the biology and management options of Ascochyta blight of chickpea. It is an important foliar disease of chickpea problematic in areas where cool (15-25ºC) and humid weather (>150 mm rainfall) prevails during the crop season (Pande et al., 2005). In India, Ascochyta blight is largely distributed in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and known to occur widely in North Western Plain Zone covering Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Western UP and North West Rajasthan and causing a yield loss of about 50-90 per cent (Grewal and Pal, 1986). Ascochyta blight of chickpea is the main reason behind yield instability of chickpea particularly in Northern Indian condition.

Disease management is an integral component of overall integrated crop management practices. Use of fungicides, botanicals and bioagents has been found effective in managing the foliar diseases of chickpea. Various systemic and non systemic fungicides, different plant extracts and different bioagents have been tested against Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Labr. for controlling the Ascochyta blight disease and minimizing the crop losses. Various workers have tested several fungicides, botanicals and bioagents over a period of time and have been found effective at different concentration at different places (Demirci et al., 2003; Shtienberg et al., 2006; Jabeen and Javaid, 2010, Benzhora et al., 2011). Inspite of many limitations of pesticides, chemicals still play a dominating role in pest management programme. Search for newer and safer chemicals, their combinations and alternative is a continuous process. One aim of the current work was therefore, to determine the effect of

Table A : Seed dressing fungicides and bioagents used for testing against Ascochyta blight of chickpea under field conditi ons Sr. No. Treatments (Foliar spray + Seed treatment) 1.

Tebuconazole+Flupyram (seed t reament with Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed)

2.

Tebuconazole+Flupyram (seed t reament with Trichoderma harzianum PBAT-21 + Pseudomonas fluoresens PBAP-27 @ 10g/kg seed)

3.

Chlorothalonil (seed treament with Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed)

4.

Chlorothalonil (seed treament with Trichoderma harzianum PBAT-21 + Pseudomonas fluoresens PBAP-27 @ 10g/kg seed)

5.

Carbendazim (seed treament wit h Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed)

6.

Carbendazim (seed treament wit h Trichoderma harzianum PBAT-21 + Pseudomonas fluoresens PBAP-27 @ 10g/kg seed)

7.

Pyraclostrobin+Metiram (seed treament with Thiram + Carbendazim (2:1) @ 3g/kg seed)

8.

Pyraclostrobin+Metiram (seed treament with Trichoderma harzianum PBAT-21 + Pseudomonas fluoresens PBAP-27 @ 10g/kg seed)

9.

Control

Table B: The descri ption of the rating scale use d in the present study Rat ing Descript ion 1

No infection on any part of the plant.

2

Minute lesions on lower leaves, flower and pods covered under dense canopy, usually not visible.

3

Lesions on less than 5% of t he leaves, flowers and pods covered and dense plant canopy.

4

Lesions and some fungal growth (conidiospores and conidia) can be seen on up to 15% of the leaves,

React ion Asymptomatic (A) Resistant (R) Moderately Resist ant (MR)

flowers and pods and branches covered under dense plant canopy. 5

Lesions and slight fungal growth on up to 25% of the leaves, flowers, pods, stems and branches covered under dense plant canopy.

6

Lesions and fungal growth on up to 40% of the leaves, flowers, pods, stems branches and defoliat ion, 25%

Susceptible (S)

of the plants killed. 7

Large lesions and good fungal growth on up t o 60% of the leaves, flowers, pods, stems branches, defoliation common, drying of branches and 50% of the plants killed.

8

Large Lesions and profuse fungal growth on up to 80% of t he leaves, flowers, pods, st ems, branches, defoliation, drying of branches and 75% of the plants killed.

9

Large lesions and very profuse fungal growth on up to 100% of the flowers, pods, stems branches, almost complete defoliation, drying of plants and 100% of the plant s killed.



Highly suscept ible (HS)

EFFECT OF SEED TREATMENT & FOLIAR SPRAY OF BIOAGENTS & FUNGICIDES ON THE DISEASE SEVERITY OF ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT OF CHICKPEA INCITED BY Ascochyta rabiei

combined action of seed treatment along with foliar spray in preventing the disease.

RESOURCES

AND

Then observation was taken on per cent disease index after spraying of fungicides at seven days interval by using 1-9 rating scale.

METHODS

The Present investigations were carried out at Department of Plant Pathology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. Field trial was carried out at N.E. Borlaug Crop Research Centre (NEBCRC) for Rabi season 2015-16. Topographically, Pantnagar falls in the humid-subtropical climate of North West Plain Zone (NWPZ) commonly known as Tarai at the foothills of lower Himalayas-Shivalik range. It is situated at 290 N latitude and 79.730E longitude, at an altitude of 243.8 metre above the mean sea level (MSL). The experiment was conducted during Rabi season 2015-2016 in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. The size of each plot was 4.0 x 2.0 m2 with a row to row spacing of 30 cm and plant to plant 10 cm. A highly susceptible variety, H 208 was used in the present study. A control plot is also maintained without any seed treatment. All the plots were screened under natural disease occurrence condition. A uniform fertilizer dose (N20 P 40 K 50 Kg/ha) was applied in each plot. Indoxacarb 0.0075 per cent in 750 L of water per hectare was sprayed twice on the crop at fifteen days interval to prevent crop damage from gram pod borer and other foliage insects. The selected bioagents and seed protectant fungicides (Table A) are used for seed treatment before sowing followed by spraying with different fungicides with first appearance of disease.

Disease evaluation : Plants selected for disease assessment were the 10 at the centre of the second and third rows (5 from each row) of each of the sub-plots. Disease severity on vegetative parts of the plants was assessed at 7 day intervals after detection of the first symptoms, using a 19 scale given by Pandey et al., 2009 (Table B). Where 1 denotes no disease and 9 denotes a dead plant. But in ambiguous cases it was sometimes necessary to use the % of broken branches as an additional criterion. PDI =

Sum of all diseaserating × 100 Total numberof plants observed× maximum rating value

Per cent disease index (PDI) was calculated by using following formula described by McKiney (1923). The data obtained in the field experiments were analyzed statistically by Factorial Randomized Block Design (FRBD) using STPR programme (GBPUA&T statistical software), and MS Excel. Data recorded were compared by the means of critical differences at five per cent level of significance in field condition.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The result presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1 indicates the effect of seed treatment and foliar spray of bioagents and botanicals on the disease severity that showed marked differences in disease severity percentage.

Table 1: Effe ct of seed treatment and foli ar spray of bioagents and botanicals on the di sease se ve rity of Ascochyta blight of chickpea Per cent disease index (PDI) Per cent Disease Treatments 1 2 3 Control over check* Seed treatment with carbendazim+thiram (1:2) and 3 sprays of Tebuconazole + Flupyram

42.97

33.08

23.16

70.39

Seed treatment with Trichoderma harzianum + Pseudomonas fluroscens and 3 sprays of

36.30

27.95

19.57

74.98

Seed treatment with carbendazim+thiram (1:2) and 3 sprays of Chlorot halonil

34.08

26.24

18.37

76.51

Seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. fluroscens and 3 sprays of sprays of Chlorot halonil

50.38

38.79

27.15

65.29

Seed treatment with carbendazim+thiram (1:2) and 3 sprays of Carbendazim

25.93

19.97

13.98

82.12

Seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. fluroscens and 3 sprays of Carbendazim

27.41

21.11

14.78

81.10

Seed treatment with carbendazim+thiram and 3 sprays of Pyraclost robin + Met iram

25.19

19.39

13.58

82.63

Seed treatment with T. harzianum + P.fluroscens and 3 sprays of Pyraclostrobin + Metiram

28.89

22.25

15.57

80.09

Control

57.78

65.21

78.22

C.D. (P=0.05)

4.83

2.79

8.37

Tebuconazole + Flupyram

CV 16.68 (*Per cent Disease Control (PDC) on t erminal PDI t aken at 7 Days after 3rd Spray, 1 Seven days after 1st spray (7DAIS), 2 Seven days aft er 2nd spray (7DAIIS), 3 Seven days after 3 rd spray (7DAIIIS)) Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 17 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

C. MAHARANA, NEHA SINGH, L.B. YADAV AND Y. SINGH

The perusal of data given in (Table 1, Fig. 1), it was observed that all treatment combinations were significantly superior in reducing the severity of the disease over the check. Among the treatments, seed treatment with carbendazim + thiram and 3 sprays of pyraclostrobin + metiram was found the best among all by reducing the maximum disease severity of Ascochyta blight to 82.63 per cent recorded at seven days after 3rd spray over the check followed by Seed treatment with carbendazim + thiram (1:2) and 3 sprays of carbendazim and Seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. fluroscens and 3 sprays of carbendazim with a per cent disease control of 82.12 and 81.10 per cent, respectively.

Summary and conclusion : Based on the present study, it can be concluded that most of the fungicides and bioagents in combination have good control over Ascochyta blight disease of chickpea. However, Seed treatment with carbendazim + thiram and 3 sprays of Pyraclostrobin + Metiram at 15 days interval each has a greater effect on the disease severity showing highest per cent disease control (82.63%) over the check. Seed treatment with carbendazim + thiram (1:2) and 3 foliar sprays of pyraclostrobin + metiram was found the best among all in terms of reducing the maximum disease severity of Ascochyta blight to 82.63 per cent significantly superior from other treatments. Least per cent disease control over the check was recorded in seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. flourescens and 3 sprays of chlorothalonil (65.29%). Authors’ affiliations : NEHA SINGH, L.B. YADAV AND Y. SINGH, Centre of Advance studies, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, (G.B.P.U.A.&T.), PANTNAGAR (UTTARAKHAND) INDIA

REFERENCES Ahmad, S. and Beniwal, S.P.S. (1991). Ascochyta blight of lentil and its control in Ethiopia. Tropical Pest Mgmt., 37: 368-373. Fig. 1 :

Effect of seed treatment and foliar spray of bioagents and botanicals on the disease severity of Ascochyta blight of chickpea

Whereas, least per cent disease control over the check was recorded in seed treatment with T. harzianum + P. fluroscens and 3 sprays chlorothalonil (65.29%) followed by seed treatment with carbendazim + thiram (1:2) along with foliar spray of Tebuconazole + Flupyram (70.39%), which were observed at seven days after 3rd spray. Considerable works on the use of combination of seed treatment and foliar sprays to control Ascochyta blight of chickpea have been done. Many workers found that integration of Trichoderma sp. with fungicides gave significantly higher disease control in several crops as were reported by (Mukhopadhyay, 1994; Vyas, 1994 and Dubey, 2000). Simillarly, other s repor ted that Benomyl, carbendazim, chlorothalonil, thiabendazole, thiram and mixtures of these were effective in reducing seed to seedling transmission in pulse crops (Kaiser et al., 1973, 2000; Grewal, 1982; Ahmed and Beniwal, 1998; Kimber and Ramsey, 2001). 24 18 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Benzohra, I.E., Bendahmane, B.S., Labdi, M. and Benkada, M.Y. (2011). In vitro bio-control Using the antagonist Trichoderma harzianum against the Algerian isolates of Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Labr., the agent of Ascochyta blight in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Internat. J. Microbiolog. Res., 2(2) : 124-128. Demirci, F., Bayraktar, H., Baballogullu, I., Dolar, F.S. and Maden, S. (2003). In vitro and in vivo effects of some fungicides against the chickpea blight pathogen Ascochyta rabiei. J. Phytopathol., 151: 519-524. Dubey, S.C. (2000). Biological management of web blight of groundnut (Rhizoctonia solani). Indian J. Mycol. & Pl. Pathol., 30 : 89-90. Dusunceli, F., Wood, J.A., Gupta, A., Yadav, A. and Yadav, S.S. (2007). International trade. In: Chickpea breeding and management (S. S. Yadav; Redden, R.; Chen, W. and Sharma, B. Eds.). CAB International, Wallingford. pp. 562–582. Grewal, J.S. (1982). Control of important seed borne pathogens of chickpea by seed treatment. Indian J. Genet., 42: 393-398. Grewal, J.S. and Pal, M. (1986). Fungal disease problems in chickpea. In: Vistas in Plant Pathology (Varma, A. and Verma, J.P. Eds.). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi. pp. 157-170.

EFFECT OF SEED TREATMENT & FOLIAR SPRAY OF BIOAGENTS & FUNGICIDES ON THE DISEASE SEVERITY OF ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT OF CHICKPEA INCITED BY Ascochyta rabiei

Hulse, J.H. (1991). Nature, composition and utilization of pulses. In: Uses of Tropical Grain Legumes, Proceedings of a Consultants Meeting, ICRISAT, AP, India. pp. 11-27. Jabeen, K. and Javaid, A. (2010). Antifungal activity of Syzygium cumini against Ascochyta rabiei- the cause of chickpea blight. Natural Product. Res., 12 : 1158-1167. Kaiser, W.J., Okhovat, M. and Mossahebi, G.H. (1973). Effect of seed-treatment fungicides on control of Ascochyta rabiei in chickpea seed infected with the pathogen. Plant Disease Reporter, 57 : 742-746. Kaiser, W.J., Ramsey, M.D., Makkouk, K.M., Bretag, T.W., Acikgoz, N., Kumar, J. and Nutter, F.W. (2000). Foliar diseases of cool season food legumes and their control. In: Linking Research and Marketing Opportunities for Pulses in the 21st Century (Knight, R. Ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 437-455. Kimber, R.B.E. and Ramsey, M.D. (2001). Using fungicides to control ascochyta blight of chickpea. In: Proceedings of the 13th Biennial Conference of the Australasian Plant Pathology Society. Cairns, Australia. pp. 199. Mc Kinney, H.H. (1923). Influence of soil temperature and moisture on infection of wheat seedlings by Helminthosporium sativum. J. Agril. Res., 26 : 195-217. Mukhopadhyay, A.N. (1994). Biocontrol of soil borne fungal plant pathogens: current status, future prospect and potential limitations. Indian Phytopathol., 47 : 119-126. Nene, Y.L., Reddy, M.V., Haware, M.P., Ghanekar, A.M., Amin, K.S., Pande, S. and Sharma, M. (2012). Field diagnosis of chickpea diseases and their control. Information bulletin no. 28 (revised). International Crops Research Institute for the SemiArid Tropics, Patancheru, A.P. 502 324, India. pp. 60. ISBN 929066-199-2. Pande, S., Sharma, M., Kaur, L., Basandrai, A.K., Gaur, P.M., Khan, T., Siddique, K.H.M. and Gowda, C.L.L. (2009).

Development of screening techniques and identification of new sources of resistance to Ascochyta blight disease of chickpea. In: Proceedings of Ascochyta, the second International Workshop. Pullman, Washington, USA. Pullman, Washington: Washington State University. pp. 63. Pande, S., Siddique, K.H.M., Kishore, G.K., Bayaa, B., Gaur, P.M., Gowda, C.L.L., Bretag, T.W. and Crouch, J.H. (2005). Ascochyta blight of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): a review of biology, pathogenicity and disease management. Australian J. Agril. Res., 56: 317-332. Reddy, M.V. and Singh, K.B. (1990). Relationship between Ascochyta blight severity and yield loss in chickpea and identification of resistant lines. Phytopathologia Mediterranea, 29 : 32-38. Shtienberg, D., Vintal, H., Brener, S. and Retig, B. (2000). Rational management of Didymella rabiei in chickpea by integration of genotype resistance and post infection application of fungicides. Phytopathol., 90: 834-842. Singh, K.B. and Reddy, M.V. (1990). Patterns of resistance and susceptibility to races of Ascochyta rabiei among germplasm accessions and breeding lines of chickpea. Plant Disease, 74: 127-129. Singh, K.B., Hawtin, G.C., Nene, Y.L. and Reddy, M.V. (1981). Resistance in chickpea to Ascochyta rabiei. Plant Disease, 65: 586-587. Solh, M.B., Halila, H.M., Hernandez-Bravo, G., Malik, B.A., Mihov, M.I. and Sadri, B. (1994). Biotic and abiotic stresses constraining the productivity of cool season food legumes in different farming systems: Specific examples. In F. J. Muehlbauer, & W. J. Kaiser (Eds.), Expanding the production and use of cool season food legumes (pp. 219–230). The Netherlands: Kluwer. Vyas, S.C. (1994). Integrated biological and chemical control of dry root rot of soybean. Indian J. Mycol. & Pl. Pathol., 24: 132-134.


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On farm trial: a technology tool for increasing pigeonpea yield in Nalgonda district of Telangana K. MAMATHA, VANKUDOTHU RAVINDER NAIK AND M. SHANKAR


KEY WORDS : Pigeonpea, PRG-176, Ujwala, On farm trial

SUMMARY : The field experiment was carried out as an On Farm Trial among 10 farmers in 5 villages of Miryalaguda, Nalgonda District in the year 2015-16. Among all the pulses, pigeonpea is having long duration and indeterminate cropping pattern. When the crop is sown in Kharif season, flowering is coinciding with drought (terminal moisture stress) which is a major drawback with this crop in the district. To overcome the problem, a short and medium duration pigeonpea variety i.e., Ujwala (PRG176) was introduced to the farmers of Nalgonda through On Farm Trial. The OFT was conducted under close supervision of KVK scientists. The results of the OnFarm Trialindicated that the variety introduced is feasible and economic for the farmers and viable over farmers practice. 36% yield increase was observed with adoption of new variety. How to cite this article : Mamatha, K., Naik, Vankudothu Ravinder and Shankar, M. (2017). On farm trial: a technology tool for increasing pigeonpea yield in Nalgonda district of Telangana. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : K. MAMATHA

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture (P.J.T.S.A.U.) , Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA


AND

OBJECTIVES

The pigeon pea (Cajanuscajan) is a perennial legume from the family Fabaceae. Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant, so can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea as a droughtresistant, nutritious alternative crop. It is a hardy, widely adapted and drought tolerant crop with a large temporal variation (90 – 300 days) for maturity. These traits allow its cultivation in a range of environments and cropping systems. Globally, pigeonpea area has recorded a 56% increase in area since

1976. It is currently grown on 4.8 M ha. It is grown in Asia, Eastern and Southern Africa, Latin America and Caribbean countries. It is cultivated worldwide on 4.92 million hectares (M ha) with an annual production of 3.65 Mt and productivity of898 kg ha-1.India ranked first in area and production in the world with 74% and 63% of world area and production, respectively. In productivity, Philippines ranked first with 1669 kg ha-1 (Pulses status.2016). pigeonpea is grown in 2.747 lakh hectares in Telangana with maximum area under Southern Telangana Region (1.810 lakh hectares). pigeonpea is grown in Kharif season in Telangana. pigeonpea is cultivated in nearly 4 million ha in India.


K. MAMATHA, VANKUDOTHU RAVINDER NAIK AND M. SHANKAR

Invariably, the traditional pigeonpea cultivars and landraces are long duration types grown as intercrops with early maturing cereals and legumes. In addition to its main use as de-hulled split peas, its immature green seeds and pods are also consumed fresh as a green vegetable. The crushed dry seeds are fed to animals while the green leaves form a quality fodder. In rural areas, dry stems of pigeonpea are used for fuel. In a cropping season, pigeonpea plants fix about 40 kg ha-1 atmospheric nitrogen and add valuable organic matter to the soil through fallen leaves. Its roots help in releasing soil-bound phosphorus to make it available for plant growth. With so many benefits at low cost, pigeonpea has become an ideal crop for sustainable agriculture systems in rainfed areas. Earlier, farmers avoided pigeonpea due to its long maturity period. To tackle with this problem Regional Agricultural Research Station, Palem have released a short duration variety called PRG-176. Introduction of this short-duration variety in the region have encouraged more farmers to grow pigeonpea. Farmers in India consider short-duration pigeonpea varieties a boon as the crop requires fewer inputs, thrives well even under limited water conditions due to its deep root system. This gives farmers the opportunity to grow postrainy season crops.There are distinct agroecological regionssimilar to Telangana in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Gujarat. Pigeonpea hybrids are already gaining momentum in these states. Short duration varieties of pigeonpea can be further expanded to other states to enhance productivity and to combat climate change.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

On farm trial on Introduction of pigeonpea variety PRG-176 was conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kampasagar in the year 2015-16 in 5 villagesi.e. Duggepally, Garakuntapalem, Aghamotkur, Tripuraram and Neelaigudem of Nalgonda district. Ten innovative and receptive progressive farmers from all the villages were selected for conducting the trial to ensure their active participation. The demonstration of improved technology was taken in area of 0.40 ha of each farmer. Total 4 ha area was covered in 1 year for demonstration of short duration pigeonpea variety. The experiment was laid out with pigeonpea cultivated variety Ujwala (PRG176). This variety was compared with farmers practice

i.e. treated as a control. The result was compared with the full package of practice. The primary data on output of pigeonpea yield were collected from the selected pigeonpea farmers, besides the data on local practices commonly adopted by the farmers of this region were also collected with the help of interview schedule and presented in terms of percentage. Qualitative data was converted in to quantitative form and expressed in term of per cent increased yield was calculated by the using formula : Pe rce nt yieldincre ase d= B : C Ratio=

Demonstrat e d yie l d– local che ck yie ld Local che ck yie ld

Ne tre turns Cost of cultivatio n

Technology g ap = Po tential yield – Demonstration yield Extension gap = Demonstration yield – Farmers yield

Te ch n ol ogy in de x(%) =

Te ch n ol og y gap × 100 Poten tialyi e ld

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The qualitative characters and difference between demonstration package and farmers practices were also considered in the trial. The details presented in Table1.Package of Practices were the same for both treatments except the variety. Yield : During one year of frontier technologies results obtained are presented in Table 2. The results revealed that the pigeonpea an average yield was recorded 1690 kg ha-1 under demonstrated plots as compare to farmers practice 1210 kg ha-1. This results clearly indicated that the higher average grain yield in demonstration plots over the year compare to local check. The average yield of pigeonpea increased to 36 per cent over farmers practice. Technology gap : The technology gap in the demonstration yield over potential yield were 810 kg ha -1 for pigeon pea. The technological gap may be attributed to the potential nature of the intervention, dissimilarity in the soil fertility status and weather conditions (Mukharjee, 2003). Extension gap : The highest extension gap of 480 kg ha -1 was Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 21 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

ON FARM TRIAL: A TECHNOLOGY TOOL FOR INCREASING PIGEONPEA YIELD IN NALGONDA DISTRICT OF TELANGANA

Table 1: Diffe rence between demonstration package and farmers practice unde r OFT of pigeonpea Sr. No. Package OFT practice 1.

Variety

PRG-176

2.

Duration

135

3.

Date of Sowing

4.

LRG-46 210

June 12-20

th

th

Date of Harvest

Oct ober 25 – November 20

Table 2 : Yield of pi geonpea as influenced by different genotypes Average yield (kg ha-1 ) Year Farmers Pract ice

OFT

2015

1690

1210

Table 3 : Economic Im pact of pi geonpea as influence d by the change in the variety Economics of the demonstration Net ret urns 137610

Farmers Pract ice

June 12-20 th th

January 25th -February 10th

% yield increase over farmers practice 36

Economics of the farmers practice

B:C Ratio

Net returns

B:C Rat io

1:6.45

92890

1.4.45

recorded in pigeonpea. This emphasized the need to educate the farmers through various means for the adoption of improved agricultural production technologies to reverse this trend of wide extension gap. More and more use of latest production technologies with high yielding variety will subsequently change this alarming trend of galloping extension gap. This finding is in corroboration with the findings of Hiremath and Nagaraju(2010).

been advocating for long time. The productivity gain under OFT over existing practices of brinjal cultivation created greater awareness and motivated to the other farmers to adopt suitable production technology of pigeonpea in the district. Efforts should, therefore, be made by the extension agencies in their transfer of technology programmes to increase the production of pigeonpea. Authors’ affiliations :

Technology index : The technology index shows the feasibility of the evolved technology at the farmer’s fields and the lower the value of technology index more is the feasibility of the technology (Jeengar, et al., 2006).The technology index was 0.324 for pigeon pea. Economics : Economics of the trial are presented in the Table 03. The results revealed that the demonstrated variety have recorded higher net returns and B:C ratio over farmers practice. Demonstrated variety PRG-176 have recorded 137610 rupees of net returns per hectare and benefit cost ratio of 1:6.45 over farmers practice (92890 Rs ha-1 net returns and benefit cost ratio of 1:4.45). Conclusion : The OFT produces a significant positive result and provided the researcher an opportunity to demonstrate the productivity potential and profitability of the latest technology under real farming situation, which they have



VANKUDOTHU RAVINDER NAIK, AICC and University Press, (P.J.T.S.A.U.), Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA M. SHANKAR, Krishi Vigyan Kendra , Kampasagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Mokidue, I., Mohanty, A.K. and Sanjay, K. (2011). Correlating growth, yield and adoption of urd bean technologies. Indian J. Extn. Edu., 11(2) : 20-24. Poonia, T.C. and Pithia, M.S. (2011). Impact of front line demonstrations of chickpea in Gujarat. Legume Res., 34(4): 304-307. Pulses status (2016). Pulses in India Retrospect & Prospects. 61-68. Raj, A.D., Yadav, V. and Rathod, J.H. (2013). Impact of Front Line Demonstrations (FLD) on the Yield of Pulses. Internat. J. Scientific & Res. Publications, 3(9) : 1-3. Hiremath, S.M. and Nagaraju, M.V. (2010). Evaluation of onfarmfront line demonstrations on the yield of chilli. Karnataka J. Agric. & Sci., 23(2) : 341- 342.

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Extent of adoption of farmers about bt. cotton practices: problems and suggestions for improving the adoption of bt. cotton practices P. PAVAN KUMAR, S. KIRAN REDDY AND R.K. DHOREY


KEY WORDS : Adoption, Suggestion, Improving

SUMMARY : Bt. cotton, the first genetically modified (GM) crop in India, The reason for the introduction of Bt. cotton was to counter attack the three types of bollworms, viz., American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) and spotted bollworms (Earias vitella) Bt. cotton hybrids have exhibited excellent control of Bollworms and reduced the use of insecticides. This has led to create ecofriendly environment without compromising on profitable yield. In addition to reducing production cost and increasing profit. This paper makes an attempt to find out the Problems and Suggestions for the potential for the adoption of Bt. Cotton cultivation. The major problems elicited by the respondents were High cost and non –availability of required hybrid seeds at right time, High cost and non - availability of chemical fertilizer in time, More sucking pest attack, Not adopting recommended dose of fertilizers and seed rate, Lack of knowledge to manage the disease and pests, Lack of credit facility, Price fluctuations, Non-availability of labourers and high wages of labor. How to cite this article : Kumar, P. Pavan, Reddy, S. Kiran and Dhorey, R.K. (2017). Extent of adoption of farmers about bt. cotton practices: problems and suggestions for improving the adoption of bt. cotton practices. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : P. PAVAN KUMAR

Department of Agricultural Extension, Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology, FAIZABAD (U.P.) INDIA


AND

OBJECTIVES

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) referred to as the White Gold is one of the most important fiber and commercial crop playing a key role in economic, political and social affairs in our country as well as world. Cotton occupies a predominant place among cash crops touching the country’s economy at several points by generating direct and indirect employment in the agricultural and industrial sectors. Following a long history of

cultivation of traditional varieties, hybrid cotton was introduced in India for the first time in 1970.This was in the state of Gujarat and by virtue of its high yield potential it became very popular. A large number of hybrids were released. However, it was soon realized that the hybrids were highly susceptible to pest attack and damage. This became a severe problem especially from 1993-94onwards, leading to frequent crop failures as well as fluctuating declining yields. Over 150 different insect pests species are reported to attack


P. PAVAN KUMAR, S. KIRAN REDDY AND R.K. DHOREY

cotton at various stages of its growth causing sever reduction in yields, and reduction in massive pesticide use by farmers and high cost of cultivation. It is estimated that over 55 % of the pesticides sold in the Country are used on cotton. The farmers have been highly dissatisfied and have been looking for cotton varieties that have pest resistant. It was at this juncture that the transgenic varieties with Bt. arrived on the world and then in the country. Bt. cotton, the first genetically modified (GM) crop in India, was initially approved in India on March 26th 2002 for commercial cultivation in six states belonging to southern and central cotton cultivation zones of the country. The commercial cultivation of Bt. cotton in the world first began in 1996. The reason for the introduction of Bt. cotton was to counter attack the three types of bollworms, viz. American bollworm (Helicoverpaarmigera), pink bollworm (Pectinophoragossypiella) and spotted bollworms (Eariasvitella) which used to cause substantial damage to the crop, resulting in low productivity. Therefore, Mahyco (Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company), in collaboration with Monsanto, introduced Bt. cotton technology into India. Bt. Cotton carries the Cry1Ac gene derived from the common soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki, which results in the expression of the Cry1Ac protein that confers resistance to the bollworm complex (Barwal et al., 2004). Bt. cotton hybrids have exhibited excellent control of American Bollworm and reduced the use of insecticides. This has led to create ecofr iendly environment without compromising on profitable yield (Manikin et al. 2008). In addition to reducing production cost and increasing profit, Bt. cotton has lowered farming risk and improved farmer’s perspective in cultivating cotton crop.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Warangal district of Telangana will be purposively selected for higher production of Bt. cotton, Warangal is the second largest Bt. Cotton producer in Telangana state with the area of more than 2 lakh hectares of land, and locale for present investigation because the researcher is well acquainted with the locality and culture. District Warangal comprised of 9 Community development blocks. Out of these 9 blocks, the Warangal block will be selected purposively for the study because of the Warangal block is second largest producer of Bt. Cotton in district and its easy accessibility and familiarity of researcher with 24 24 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


the local language, socio economic and cultural conditions. An exhaustive list of village of Warangal block will be prepared and 5 villages will be selected randomly. Moreover, list of farm families from each of the selected village will be prepared and 20 respondents from each of the selected village will be identified through random sampling technique. Thus, a total of 100 rural farmers constitutes the sample size for the purpose of further investigation. A knowledge test was developed. Data was collected using interview schedule developed for the study. Based on obtained scores the respondents were grouped into low, medium and high knowledge categories according to equal interval method. The collected data was analyzed using appropriate statistical tools like frequency and percentage, class interval, arithmetic mean (X), standard deviation and co-efficient of correlation. Objectives : To identify the constraints in adoption of Bt. cotton faced by respondents and Remedial measures to overcome the constraints.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Constraints and suggestions elicited by the respondents in the process of acquiring knowledge and adoption of bt. cotton practices : Problems expressed by the respondents in adoption of Bt. Cotton practices It could be observed from the above table 1 that the constraints identified by the respondents for adoption of Bt. Cotton crop were : High cost and non –availability of required hybrid seeds at right time 85 per cent (I), High cost and non - availability of chemical fertilizer in time 82 per cent (II), More sucking pest attack 71 per cent (III), Not adopting recommended dose of fertilizers and seed rate 69 per cent (IV), Lack of knowledge to manage the disease and pests 66 per cent (V), Lack of credit facility 65 per cent (VI), Price fluctuations 62 per cent (VII), Non-availability of labourers and high wages of labour 60 per cent (VIII), Lack of storage facilities 55 per cent (IX), Lack of irrigation facility 45 per cent (X). From the Table 2. Suggestions related to Bt. Cotton were, Provision of improved seed in time with minimum cost is the common problem 81 per cent (I), Efforts should be made for providing fertilizers on appropriate rate 80 per cent (II), Develop sucking pest resistant varieties 71 per cent (III), Improve farmers knowledge on

EXTENT OF ADOPTION OF FARMERS ABOUT BT. COTTON PRACTICES: PROBLEMS & SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ADOPTION OF BT. COTTON PRACTICES

Table 1 : Constraints elicited by the respondents on Bt. Cotton practices Respondents Per cent

Sr. No.

Problems/Constraints

1.

High cost and non –availability of required hybrid seeds at right time 85 per cent

85

85

I

2.

High cost and non - availability of chemical fert ilizer in time.

82

82

II

3.

More sucking pest att ack.

71

71

III

4.

Not adopt ing recommended dose of fertilizers and Seed rate.

69

69

IV

5.

Lack of knowledge to manage the disease and pest s.

66

66

V

6.

Lack of credit facility.

65

65

VI

7.

Price fluctuat ions.

62

62

VII

8.

Non-availability of labourers and high wages of Labour.

60

60

VIII

9.

Lack of storage facilities.

55

55

IX

10.

Lack of irrigation facility 45 per cent .

45

45

X

No

Rank

Table 2 : Suggestions elicited by the respondents on Bt. Cotton practices Sr. No.

Suggestions

Respondents No Percentage

1.

provision of improved seed in time with minimum cost

81

81

I

2.

Efforts should be made for providing fertilizers on appropriat e rate

80

80

II

3.

Develop sucking pest resistant varieties

71

71

III

4.

Improve farmers knowledge on recommended seed rate and fertilizers applicat ions by the training”

69

69

IV

5.

Training on identificat ion of pests and diseases and their cont rol

66

66

V

6.

Government provide remunerative prices to the produce according to situat ion”

65

65

VI

7.

Arrangement of timely credit facilit ies from RRBs/ PACSs

60

60

VII

8.

Provision of st orage facilities”

58

58

VIII

9.

Government provided irrigation facilit ies and develop drought resistant varieties by the scientist s

55

55

IX

recommended seed rate and fertilizers applications by the training 69 per cent (IV), Training on identification of pests and diseases and their control 66 per cent (V), Government provide remunerative prices to the produce according to situation 65 per cent (VI), Arrangement of timely credit facilities from RRBs/ PACSs 60 per cent (VII), Provision of storage facilities 58 per cent (VIII), Government provided irrigation facilities and develop drought resistant varieties by the scientists 55per cent (IX). Authors’ affiliations : S. KIRAN REDDY AND R.K. DHOREY, Department of Agricultural Extension, Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology, FAIZABAD (U.P.) INDIA

Rank

Jain, R.K. and Bhattacharya (2000). Farmer’s involvement in bio-fertilizer demonstration and promotion campaign. Maharashtra J. Extn. Edu., 19: 130-131. Matin Qaim, Arjunan Subramanian, Gopal Naik and David Zilberman. (2003). Adoption of Bt. Cotton and Impact Variability: Insights from India. Applied Econo. Perspectives & Policy, 28:1. Rai, D.P. and Bhupendra, S. (2010). Extent of knowledge and constraints in cotton production technology in Madhya Pradesh. Indian Res. J. Extn.Edu., 10(2): 78-80. Saxena, K.K. and Singh, R.L. (2000). Adoption of organic farming practices by farmers of Malwa region. Maharashtra J. Extn. Edu., 19 : 53-56.

REFERENCES

Sarda, M.K. and Gill, S.S. (2005). Training needs of input dealers on pesticide application on cotton crop in Punjab. MANAGE Extn. Res. Rev., Jan –July: 63-64.

Gangadhar, J. (2009). Marketing behavior of cotton farmers in Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad,

Trivedi, M.K., Chauhan, N.B. and Umesh, C. (2007). Training needs of cotton growers in Bt. cotton cultivation. J. Agril. Extn. Mgmt., 15: 117-127.

TELANGANA (INDIA). Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 25 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

P. PAVAN KUMAR, S. KIRAN REDDY AND R.K. DHOREY

Vasantha, R. (2002). Critical analysis of Integrated Pest Management practices (IPM) in relation to innovation-decision process among cotton growing farmers of Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. Ph.D. Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad, TELENGANA (INDIA). Yogesh, Patel, Choudhary, R.K. and Garg, V.K. (2006). Adoption



of cotton IPM technology in Eastern Nirmar of Madhya Pradesh – a survey. J. Cotton Res. & Develop., 20: 286-288.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Sudhir Kumar, K. (2008). India: Ill effects of Bt. cotton in GE Failures and communications.http://nwrage.org

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Screening of maize rhizosperic phosphate solubiliziing isolates for plant growth promoting characteristics S. VINOD BABU, S. TRIVENI, SATHYANARAYANA


KEY WORDS : Rhizosperic, Promoting, Characteristics



R. SUBHASH REDDY AND J.

SUMMARY : Maize forms a major part of cereal crops consumed by man and serve as a source of dietary carbohydrates. It is used for livestock feed and it is the cheapest and palatable livestock feed for animals such as pig, cattle, sheep, poultry and it is also a source of raw materials for the production of corn sugar, corn starch, corn syrup and corn oil. In the present study twenty four (24) phosphate solubilizing bacteria (i.e., sixteen Bacillus and eight Pseudomonas) isolated from Maize research station and college farm, Rajendranagar, PJTSAU, Telangana and characterised by their Plant Growth Promoting Properties (PGPR) under in vitro conditions such as P, Zn and K solubilization. The isolate PSB 6 showed maximum Phosphate solubilization zone of 15.50 mm and the solubilization efficiency (%) is 258.33 %. The isolates both PSB 6 and PSB 19 showed maximum Zinc solubilization zone i.e., 14.00 mm and the solubilization efficiency (%) maximum for PSB 6 i.e., 233.30 %. The isolate PSB 11 showed maximum Potassium solubilization zone of 14.00 mm withthe solubilization efficiency (%)of 280.00 %.Apart from these all (24) isolates were screened for IAA production, exopolysacharide production, siderophore production and HCN production also. All the isolates responded positively to the IAA production except PSB 5, PSB 15 and PSB 22 were negative. All the isolates (24) were positive to the exopolysacharide production except PSB 10 and PSB 17. All the isolates (24) were positive to the siderophore production except PSB 2, PSB 9, PSB 13 and PSB 19. All the isolates (24) were positive to the HCN production except PSB 11, PSB 17 and PSB 24. How to cite this article : Babu, S. Vinod, Triveni, S., Reddy, R. Subhash and Sathyanarayana, J. (2017). Screening of maize rhizosperic phosphate solubiliziing isolates for plant growth promoting characteristics. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

S. VINOD BABU

Department of Agricultural Microbiology and Bioenergy, College of Agriculture (P.J.T.S.A.U) , Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA


BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Among the crops corn (Zea mays) is an important in temperate climatic region because of the increasing demand for food and livestock feed. Nitrogen and phosphorus

are essential nutrients for plant growth and development in corn (Wua et al., 2005). The phosphorus is mostly insoluble form in the soil and it is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen fixing and P solubilizing bacteria are important for


S. VINOD BABU, S. TRIVENI, R. SUBHASH REDDY AND J. SATHYANARAYANA

plant nutrition by increasing N and P uptake by the plants and playing a significant role as a Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). Nitrogen fixation and P solubilization (Zaidi et al. 2006) production of antibiotics (Zahir et al., 2004) are the principal mechanism for the PGPR. In the context of increasing international concern for food and environmental quality, the use of PGPR for reducing chemical inputs in agriculture is a potentially important issue. PGPR are applied to various crops to enhance growth, seed emergence and crop yield and some commercialized. PGPRs are the potential tools for sustainable agriculture and trend for the future. The present investigation continued on mainly collection of phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms from different maize rhizospheric soils and commercial PSB inoculants. Preparing the different types (carrier, liquid and biofilmed) of biofertilizer formulations and test the efficacy and persistence of biofilmed based PSB and other types of biofertilizers with Maize crop. Beneficial biofilms developed by nitrogen fixing bacteria and P - solubilising fungi in vitro conditions and also used asbiofertilizers in non - leguminous crops and also observed that the bacteria colonized fungal mycelia to form biofilms. The biofilms showed high rates of biological nitrogen fixation and organic acid production which directly influences the synthesis of in dole acetic acid like substances than microbes when used as monocultures (Seneiviratne et al., 2003).

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Soil sample collection and isolation : Samples were collected from Maize Research Station, Hyderabad and College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. For the isolation of Phosphate solubilizing bacteria Pikovaskya’s medium was used. Morphological characterization of phosphate solubilizing bacterial isolates : All the Phosphate solubilizing bacterial isolates were checked for their purity and then studied for the colony morphology and pigmentation. The cell shape and gram reaction was also recor ded as per the standard procedures given by Barthalomew and Mittewar (1950). Screening of PSB isolates for plant growth 24 28 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


promoting (PGP) properties : Pure isolates were isolated by streaking isolates on respective media and screened for following Plant growth promoting characteristics viz. production of IAA, side rophores, HCN and their ability to solublize phosphorous. Phosphate solubilization : Sterilized Pikovskaya’s agar was poured as a thin layer on to the sterilized petriplates and incubated for 24 h. After incubation the Pikovskaya’s plates were spot inoculated with isolates and incubated at 28 ± 1°C for 45 days. Formation of a clear zone around the colonies were considered as positive result for phosphate solubilization. PSE (Phosphate Solubilization Efficiency) = Z / C × 100

Z - Clearance zone including bacterial growth C - Colony diameter Zinc solubilization : The isolates were inoculated into agar medium containing 0.1% insoluble zinc compounds viz. ZnO, ZnS and ZnCO3 (Saravanan et al., 2013). Formation of a clear zone around the colonies were considered as positive result for zinc solubilization. The diameters of the clearing zones around the colonies are measured. Potassium solubilization : Bacterial colonies exhibiting clear zone of potassium solubilization on Aleksandrov agar were selected as potassium solubilizers. Secondary screening was carried out on the basis of study of zone activity of the different isolates by using Khandeparkar ’s selection ratio (Prajapati and Modi, 2012). The diameter of the clearing zone around the colonies were measured. Exo polysaccharide production (EPS) : Initially prepare TSP broth with -0.30 Mpa osmotic stress with 15% PEG 6000. Inoculated TSP broth with test culture incubate for 3 days. After incubation culture was centrifuged at 20,000 g in refrigerated centrifuge for 25 min. Collect the supernatant and filtrate supernatant 0.45 µm nitro cellulose membrane. These filtrate dialysed against 4oC. The dialysed again centrifuged at 20,000 g for 25 min remove any insoluble material and mixed with 3 volumes ice cold absolute alcohol and kept overnight at 4oC. Precipitated EPS obtained by centrifugation at 10,000 g for 15 min. Suspended in water purification of

SCREENING OF MAIZE RHIZOSPERIC PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZIING ISOLATES FOR PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING CHARACTERISTICS

EPS. (Sandhya et al., 2009). Indole acetic acid production : Indole Acetic acid Production was tested according to Gorden and Weber (1951).The active culture of each test isolate was raised in 5 ml respective broth tubes and incubated at determined temperature and time. After incubation these cultures were centrifuged at recommended rpm and time. Two drops of Orthophosphoric acid was added to 2 ml of supernatant and incubated for 30 min to develop the colour. Development of pink colour considered as positive for IAA production. Protein estimation : One ml of the sample was taken and cells were pelleted by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 8 min. Spectrophotometric measurement of colour development was done by using the method of Lowry et al. (1951). Intensity of blue colour was measured at absorbance maximum of 660 nm. Siderophore production : Siderophore production was estimated qualitatively. Chrome Azurol S (CAS) Agar medium (Schwyn and Neilands, 1987). For the detection of siderophores, each isolate was grown in synthetic medium, containing 0.5 ìM of iron and incubated for 24 h on a rotary shaker at room temperature. Chrome Azurol S (CAS) assay was used to detect the siderophores. The CAS plates were used to check the culture supernatant for the presence of siderophores. Culture supernatant was added to the wells made on the CAS agar plates and incubated at room temperature for 24 h. Formation of yellow to orange coloured zone around the well indicated the siderophore production. Hydrogen cyanide production (HCN) : The HCN production was tested by the method of Castric and Castric (1983). First respective media added with glycine plates were prepared separately and incubated for 24 h. After that, 1ml of culture of each test isolate was inoculated on respective media plates separately. A disc of what man filter paper No.1 of the diameter equal to the petri plate size, impregnated with alkaline picric acid solution (0.5 % picric acid (w/v) in 1 % sodium carbonate) was placed in the upper lid of the

inoculated petri plates under aseptic condition. The control plate did not receive the inoculum. The plates were incubated upside down at 28 ± 2°C for 48 - 72 h. Change the colour from yellow to light brown, moderate or strong reddish brown was taken as indication of HCN production. Broth assay : In vitro biosolubilization of Rock phosphate : Phosphate solubilization potential of Phospahte solubilizing microbes were studied in vitro by estimation of available phosphorus in Pikovskaya’s broth medium with known amount of Tri-calcium phosphate (0.5 g 100 ml-1) as a substrate before sterilization. Each of 5 mm mycelial bit of test fungal culture and 0.5 ml suspension of each bacterial culture was inoculated in 250 ml conical flask containing 100 ml sterilized Pikovskaya’s broth medium and make triplicate (biofilm preparation). A control without any PSM was also maintained. The fungal and bacterial isolates were allowed to grow for seven and fourteen days at 28 ± 20C in BOD incubator. To know the biosolubilisation of rock phosphate by biofilms, broth was filtered through what man filter paper No. 42 and centrifuged at 15,000 rpm for 30 min in centrifugation. The clear supernatant was collected in 100 ml volumetric flasks and volume was made up to 100 ml with sterilized distilled water. Thus, extract of each test biofilm solution was prepared then the available phosphorus in broth culture was determined (Gaur, 1990).

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Four soil samples were collected from Maize Research Station, Hyderabad and College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. Twenty four (24) phosphate solubilizing bacteria (i.e., sixteen Bacillus and eight Pseudomonas) isolates collected and screen their plant growth promoting characters. Screening of isolates for their Plant Growth Promoting (PGP) characters : Phosphate solubilization : Qualitative method : All the sixteen Bacillus isolates were able to form clear zone of phosphate solubilization on Pikovaskaya’sagar plate ranged from 15.50- 6.10 mm. Among them PSB 6 of Bacillus spp detected the highest solubilization zone (15.50 mm) followed by PSB 5 (14.80 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 29 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


mm) and the lowest solubilization zone was observed with PSB 3 (6.10 mm). All the eight Pseudomonas isolates were able to form clear zone of phosphate solubilization on Pikovaskaya’sagar plate ranged from 12.00 - 6.40 mm. Among them PSB 24 of Pseudomonas spp detected as highest solubilization zone 12.00 mm followed by PSB 20 (11.00 mm) and the lowest solubilization was showed by PSB 22 (6.40 mm).The Aspergillus spp. (Asp1) showed 10.1 mm Phosphate solubilization zone (Table 1 and Plate 1). Bacillus and Pseudomonas spp differ in the ability to produce phosphatase enzyme and production of

organic acids and hence showed different solubilization efficiency. Tensingh et al. (2015) identified the selected strains were Bacillus and Pseudomonas. The isolated strains were characterized under in vitro conditions. They showed solubilization zone ranges from 2 - 5 mm at 28 300 C. The highest solubilization was observed with Pseudomonas putida (5 mm) followed by P. flourescens (4 mm) and the lowest solubilization was observed in Bacillusmegaterium (2 mm). Similarly Uma and Sathiyavani (2012) reported phosphate solubilization by Bacillus spp from gr oundnut rhizosphere (Arachishypogaea L).

Table 1 : Phosphorus, Zinc and Potassium solubilisation e fficiency of different bacterial isolates Zone diameter Zinc Soluble P Phosphorus Zinc Culture Solubilizatio Potassium Isolate Culture concentrati Solubilization Solubilization Solubilization diameter Solubilizatio n code diameter on zone (mm) efficiency (%) zone (mm) (mm) -1 efficiency n zone (mm) (mg L ) (mm) (%)

Culture diameter (mm)

Potassium Solubilizatio n efficiency (%)

PSB1

9.10

5.00

182.00

0.63

12.20

8.00

152.50

9.30

6.00

155.00

PSB2

8.60

6.30

136.50

0.60

6.40

5.80

110.34

0.00

0.00

0.00

PSB3

6.10

5.20

117.30

0.62

7.80

5.90

132.20

8.00

6.30

126.98

PSB4

8.00

4.10

195.10

0.71

8.50

4.50

188.80

11.60

7.20

161.10

PSB5

14.80

6.00

246.60

0.79

9.50

6.00

158.33

13.50

7.30

184.90

PSB6

15.50

6.00

258.33

0.89

14.00

6.00

233.30

13.20

7.60

173.60

PSB7

12.30

8.00

153.75

0.76

0.00

0.00

0.00

8.60

6.00

143.30

PSB8

9.10

4.00

227.50

0.82

13.00

6.00

216.60

10.40

6.30

165.00

PSB9

6.60

4.00

165.00

0.68

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

PSB10

14.50

6.40

226.60

0.82

8.60

6.70

128.30

12.60

6.80

185.20

PSB11

10.40

6.40

162.50

0.75

10.30

8.40

123.80

14.00

5.00

280.00

PSB12

13.50

9.00

150.00

0.78

0.00

0.00

0.00

13.90

6.00

231.60

PSB13

9.30

7.00

132.80

0.66

9.60

7.80

124.30

9.00

6.00

150.00

PSB14

12.00

10.00

120.00

0.77

12.50

6.00

208.33

12.70

7.90

160.70

PSB15

10.80

5.50

196.30

0.60

10.60

5.60

189.20

10.30

5.20

198.00

PSB16

11.40

5.70

200.00

0.57

8.00

4.10

195.10

11.60

5.00

232.00

PSB17

8.30

6.40

129.60

0.74

10.80

5.50

196.30

12.20

5.50

221.81

PSB18

9.70

6.00

161.60

0.81

11.00

5.40

203.70

9.40

5.70

164.90

PSB19

8.70

6.90

126.00

0.65

14.00

6.80

205.88

6.00

5.30

113.20

PSB20

11.00

9.20

119.50

0.65

0.00

0.00

0.00

9.80

4.50

217.70

PSB21

8.40

6.70

125.30

0.54

12.00

7.00

171.40

0.00

0.00

0.00

PSB22

6.40

5.60

114.28

0.77

9.00

7.00

128.50

9.70

7.00

137.10

PSB23

9.40

6.00

156.60

0.81

9.30

6.00

156.60

10.00

7.00

142.80

PSB24

12.00

6.00

200.00

0.82

8.70

7.00

124.28

0.00

0.00

0.00

Asp1

10.10

5.80

174.10

0.78

10.00

6.40

156.20

12.00

8.00

150.00

CD

0.313

0.035

0.298

0.290

SE(d)

0.155

0.018

0.147

0.143

SE(m)

0.110

0.012

0.104

0.101

CV

1.855

2.969

1.751

1.617




Phosphate solubilizatio n by PSB bac ter ia

Phosphate solubilization Asp1 fungi

Zinc solubilizatio n by PSB bac ter ia

Zinc solubilization by Asp1 fungi

Po tassium solubilization by PSB11 bac ter ia

Po tassium solubilization by Asp1 fungi

HCN pro duction Plate 1 : PGPR characters of PSB isolates Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 31 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Quantitative estimation of available phosphorus in Pikovaskaya’s broth : All the sixteen Bacillus isolates were able to solubilize the available phosphorus in Pikovaskaya’s broth with known amount of Tri - calcium phosphate as a substrate. Among them PSB 6 recorded the more available phosphorus content of 0.89 mg L-1 (pH: 7.10). Second best was showed by different isolates PSB 8 and PSB 10 i.e., 0.82 mg L-1 (pH: 7.00and 6.00). The lowest was shown by PSB 16 with 0.57 mg L-1 (pH: 7.89). All the eight Pseudomonas isolates were able to solubilize the available phosphorus in Pikovaskaya’s broth with known amount of Tri - calcium phosphate as a substrate. Among them PSB 24was recorded the highest

available phosphorus content of 0.82 mg L-1(pH: 7.00). Second best was observed by the isolate PSB 18 and PSB 23 i.e., 0.81 mg L-1(pH: 6.80 and 7.00). The lowest was recorded by PSB 21 with 0.54 mg L -1 (pH: 6.00)phosphorus solublization. The Aspergillus spp (Asp1) showed available phosphorus concentration i.e., 0.78 mg L-1(pH: 6.70), respectively (Table 1). Similar results were observed by Karpagam and Nagalakshmi. (2014) i.e.,thirty seven Phosphate solubilizing microbial isolates were isolated on the Pikovskaya’s agar medium. Out of 37 microbial isolates eight isolates wer e showed highest Phosphate Solubilization Index (PSI) ranged from 1.13 - 3.00mg L1 and they were selected for the qualitativeas well as quantitative study. Among these eight potent isolates, 3

Table 2 : Evaluation of diffe rent isolates for their plant growth promoting (PGP) characters Prot ein estimation IAA product ion Exoploysacharide Isolate code (Mg L-1 ) (µg Ml-1 ) production (Eps)

Siderophore production

Hcn Production ++

PSB1

0.48

39.30

+

++

PSB2

0.30

41.50

+

-

+

PSB3

0.40

29.50

+++

++

++

PSB4

0.44

50.70

+

+

+

PSB5

0.43

0.00

+

++

+

PSB6

0.58

24.40

++

+++

++

PSB7

0.46

33.50

+

+

+

PSB8

0.41

40.60

+

+

+

PSB9

0.43

29.90

+

-

+

PSB10

0.50

25.20

-

++

+++

PSB11

0.30

39.80

+

+

-

PSB12

0.55

23.00

+

+

++

PSB13

0.42

31.50

++

-

+

PSB14

0.35

23.40

+

++

++

PSB15

0.39

0.00

+

+

+

PSB16

0.34

36.70

+

+

++

PSB17

0.43

32.50

-

+++

-

PSB18

0.45

27.70

+

+

+

PSB19

0.49

31.90

++

-

+

PSB20

0.50

49.80

+++

++

+++

PSB21

0.37

28.90

+

+

++

PSB22

0.35

0.00

++

+++

+

PSB23

0.38

29.40

+

++

+

PSB24

0.40

34.20

+++

+

-

Asp1

0.32

36.00

-

+

+

CD

0.017

0.252

SE(d)

0.009

0.125

SE(m)

0.006

0.088

CV 2.509 Strong +++ Medium ++ Low + No production 24 32 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


0.454


strains (PSM 1, PSM 2 and PSM6) showed maximum PSI on agar plates along with high soluble phosphate production of 0.37 mg L-1, 0.30 mg L-1and 0.28 mg L-1in Pikovaskaya’s broth. Zinc solubilization : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, thirteen were positive for zinc solubilization on Tris- minimal media supplemented with zinc oxide and ranged from 14.006.40 mm. Among them PSB 6 of Bacillus spp recorded the highest solubilization zone (14 mm) followed by PSB 8 (13.00 mm) and the lowest solubilization was observed in PSB 2 (6.40 mm). The zinc solubilization was negative in the isolates PSB 7, PSB 9 and PSB 12. Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, seven isolates recorded to be positive for zinc solubilization on Tris minimal media supplemented with Zinc oxide and ranged from 14.00 -8.70 mm. Among them PSB 19 of Pseudomonas isolate recorded the highest solubilization zone (14.00 mm). Second best was shown by PSB 21 (12.00 mm). The lowest was shown by PSB 24 (8.70 mm). No solubilization was recorded in the isolate PSB 20 whereas fungal isolate Aspergillus spp. (Asp1) showed 10.00 mm zinc solubilization zone. (Table 1and Plate 1) Similar results were observed by Goteti et al. (2013) who screened ten strains for zinc solubilization among which P29, P33, and B40 produced 22.0 mm clear halos on solid medium amended with zinc carbonate. Similarly P17 and B40 showed 31.0 mm zone in zinc oxide incorporated medium. Potassium solubilization : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, fourteen isolates were able to form clear zone of potassium solubilization on modified Aleksandrov media ranged from 14.00 - 8.00 mm. Among them PSB 11 isolaterecorded the highest solubilization zone (14.00 mm), followed by PSB 12 (13.90 mm). The lowest was shown by PSB 3 (8.00 mm) and solubilization was not shown by the isolates PSB 2 and PSB 9. Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, six isolates were able to form clear zone of potassium solubilization on modified Aleksandrov’s media ranged from 12.206.00mm. Among them PSB 17 isolate recorded the highest solubilization zone (12.20 mm) followed by PSB 23 (10.00 mm). Least solubilization recorded in PSB 19 (6.00 mm). No solubilization was observed in PSB 21

IAA Production

Siderophore production Plate 2 : PGP activity of PSB isolates

and PSB 24, whereas fungal isolate Aspergillus spp(Asp1) showed 12 mm Potassium solubilization zone (Table 1 and Plate 1). The results are agreement with Parmar and Sindhu (2013) who screened one hundred and thirty seven bacterial isolates for the potassium solubilization ability using spot test method on modified Aleksandrov medium plates containing mica powder. They found that out of 137 rhizobacterial isolates tested only 20 formed significant zone of K solubilization on mica powder containing medium. Out of 20 efficient isolates, 15 (i.e., HWP7, HWP28, HWP38, HWP47, HWP57, HWP63, HWP69, WPS3,CPA123, KPM15, GYB106, WPS73, NNY43, PPM115 and CPA 152) showed more solubilization zone on mica incorporated plates. Five bacterial cultures, namelyHWP15, HWP53, HWP61, CP43 and WPS118 showed small solubilization zone. Three bacterial strains i.e., HWP38, NNY43 and WPS73 showed significant K solubilization zone. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 33 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Exo polysacharide production (EPS) : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, fifteen isolates were positive for EPS production; out of which PSB 3showed maximum (+++) EPS production followed by PSB 6 and PSB 13 which showed moderate (++) production then remaining were weak (+) producers and no production was shown by the PSB 10 isolate. Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, seven isolates were positive for EPS production; out of which PSB 20 and PSB 24 were strong (+++)EPS producers followed by PSB 19 and PSB 22 showed moderate (++) producers and the remaining isolates were weak (+) producers. No production was observed by PSB 17 isolate, whereas Aspergillus spp (Asp1) was negative for EPS production (Table 2). Similar results were observed by Ashraf et al. (2006) who isolated and identified the EPS producing bacteria associated with the roots of three wheat lines grown in saline and non-saline soil. Results indicated the presence of various EPS-producing bacterial genera in unplanted saline and non-saline soil, rhizosphere and rhizoplane of the three wheat lines. Indole acetic acid (IAA) production : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, fourteen isolates were positive for IAA production; out of which maximum was shown by PSB 4 (50.70 µg mL-1) followed by PSB2 (41.50µg mL-1), PSB 8 (40.6 µgmL-1) and the least was recorded in the isolate PSB 12 (23.00 µgmL-1). PSB 5 and PSB 15 were negative for IAA production. (Table 2 and Plate 2) Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, seven isolates were positive for IAA production; out of which maximum was shown by PSB 20 (49.80 µgmL-1) followed by PSB 24 (34.20 µgmL-1), PSB 17 (32.50 µg mL-1) and the least was recorded by the isolate PSB 18 (27.70 µgmL-1). PSB 22 was negative for IAA production. Aspergillus spp (Asp1) was positive for IAA production it produced (36.00µg mL-1). Hussain and Srinivas (2013) isolated Pseudomonas spp and Azotobacter sppeach from rhizosphere of Acacia nilotica and Albizialebbeck and reported that 70% of the isolates were produced IAA. Verma et al. (2010) evaluated Rhizobium spp, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillusmegaterium and Azotobacterchroococcum for plant growth promoting properties. All the bacterial strains were found to be positive for IAA production and phosphate solubilization. 24 34 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Protein estimation : Among the sixteen Bacillus isolates the maximum protein content was recorded in PSB 6 (0.58 mgmL-1) followed by PSB 12 (0.55 mgmL-1 ) and lowest was recorded in PSB 2 and PSB 11 (0.30 mgmL-1). Among the 8 Pseudomonas isolates the maximum protein content was found in PSB 20 (0.50 mgmL-1) followed by PSB 19 (0.49 mgmL-1) and lowest was recorded in PSB 22 (0.35 mgmL-1). Protein content in Aspergillus isolate Asp1was 0.32 mgmL-1 (Table 2). Siderophore production : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, thirteen isolates were positive for siderophore production; out of which PSB 6was detected as strong (+++) siderophore producer followed by PSB 1, PSB 3, PSB 5, PSB 10 and PSB 14 showed moderate (++) producers then remaining isolates were weak (+) producers and no production was observed in PSB 2, PSB 9 and PSB 13 isolates. Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, seven isolates were positive for siderophore production; out of which PSB 17 and PSB 22 were strong (+++) siderophore producers followed by PSB 20 and PSB 23 i.e., moderate (++) producers and the remaining were found to be weak (+) producers. No production was observed in PSB 19.Aspergillus spp(Asp1) was found to be a weak (+) siderophore producer (Table 2 and Plate 2). The results are similar to the earlier findings of Sreedevi et al. (2014) isolated ten Pseudomonas spp from paddy soil. Among isolated strains three Pseudomonas isolates Pseudomonas 1, Pseudomonas 2 and Pseudomonas 3 showed maximum siderophore production on succinic acid medium and chromo azuralS (single dye) agar medium. Maximum siderophore production was observed in Pseudomonas 1, Pseudomonas 2 and Pseudomonas 3 with 94, 88 and 83 %, respectively. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) production : Among sixteen Bacillus isolates, fifteen isolates were positive for Hydrogen Cyanide production; out of which PSB 10was strong (+++) Hydrogen Cyanide producer followed by PSB 1, PSB 3, PSB 6, PSB 12,PSB 14 and PSB 16 were moderate (++) producers remaining isolates were weak (+) producers and no production was observed in PSB 11. Among eight Pseudomonas isolates, six isolates were positive for Hydrogen Cyanide production; out of


which PSB 20 was strong (+++) Hydrogen Cyanide producer followed by PSB 21 was moderate (++) producer and the remaining isolates were weak (+) producers. No production was observed in PSB 17 and PSB 24. Aspergillus spp (Asp1) was a weak (+) producer for Hydrogen Cyanide production. (Table 2 and Plate 1) The results are similar to the earlier findings of Jha et al. (2009) who reported production of HCN by some new fluorescent Pseudomonad strains. In the present study HCN production by PGPR isolates were in agreement with the earlier reports of Punkuj and Vishal (2013)on production of plant growth promoting substance by Pseudomonads. Conclusion : The isolate PSB 6 shows the highest phosphate and zinc solubilisation efficiency (258.33 % and 233.30 %).The highest protein content also was recorded in PSB 6 i.e., 0.58 mg l1. Highestsiderophore production was observed in PSB 6. Based on the above results we concluded that PSB 6 (Bacillus spp) shows more Plant growth promoting characters among 24 isolates. Authors’ affiliations : S. TRIVENI AND R. SUBHASH REDDY, Department of Agricultural Microbiology and Bioenergy, College of Agriculture (P.J.T.S.A.U) , Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA J. SATHYANARAYANA, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture (P.J.T.S.A.U) , Rajendranagar, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Ashraf, M., Berge, O., Azam, F. and Heulin, T. (2006). Bacterial exopolysaccharides and productivity of salt affected soils: Diversity of exopolysaccharide-producing bacteria isolated from the rhizosphere of wheat (TriticumaestivumL.) grown in normal and saline Pakistani soils. Pakistan J. Biolog. Sci., 2: 201-206. Barthalomew, J.W. and Mittewer, T. (1950). A simplified bacterial strain. Stain Technol., 25 : 153. Castric, K.F. and Castric, P.A. (1983). Method for rapid detection of cyanogenic bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 45(2) : 701702. Gaur, A.C. (1990). Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms as biofertilizer. Omega Scientific Publishers, NEW DELHI, INDIA. Gordon, S.A. and Weber, R.P. (1951). Colorimetric estimation of indole acetic acid. Brief papers: plant physiol., 26: 192-195.

Goteti, P.K., Emmanuel, L.D.A., Desai, S. and Shaik, M.H.A. (2013). Prospective zinc solubilising bacteria for enhanced nutrient uptake and growth promotion in maize (Zea mays L.). Internat. J. Microbiol., 3: 18-20. Jha, B.K., Pragash, M.G., Cletus, J., Raman, G. and Sakthivel, N. (2009). Simultaneous phosphate solubilisationpotential and antifungal activity of new fluorescentPseudomonadstrains, P.aeruginosa, P.pelcoglossicidaand P.mosselii. World J. Microbiolog. Biotechnol., 25 : 573-581. Karpagam, T. and Nagalakshmi, P.K. (2014). Isolation and characterization of phosphate solubilizing microbes from Agricultural soil. Internat. J. Current Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 3(3) : 601-614. Lowry, O.H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L. and Randall, R.J. (1951). Protein measurement with folin-phenol reagent. J. Biol. & Chem., 193 : 265-275. Parmar, P. and Sindhu, S.S. (2013). Potassium solubilization by rhizosphere bacteria: influence of nutritional and environmental conditions. J. Microbiol. Res.,. 3(1): 25-31. Prajapati, K.B. and Modi, H.A. (2012). Isolation and characterization of potassium solubilizing bacteria from ceramic industry soil. J. Microbiol., 1(2-3) : 8-14. Punkaj Kumar and Vishal Kumar Deshwal (2013). Production of Plant growth promoting substance by Pseudomonads. J. Academia & Industrial Res., (JAIR), 2. Sandhya, V., Ali, S.K.Z., Minakshi, G., Gopal Reddy and Venkateswarlu, B. (2009). Alleviation of drought stress effects in sunflower seedlings by the exopolysaccharides producing Pseudomonas putida strain GAP-P45. Biol. Fertile Soils, 46: 17-26. Saravanan, S., Muthumanickam, P., Saravanan, T.S. and Santhaguru, K. (2013). Antagonistic potential of fluorescent Pseudomonas and its impact on growth of Tomato challenged with phtopathogens. African Crop Sci. J., 21 (1) : 29 -36. Schwyn, B. and Neilands, J.B. (1987). Universal chemical assay for the detection and determination of siderophores. Analytical Biochemistry,160: 47-56. Seneviratne, G. (2003). Development of eco-friendly, beneficial microbial biofilms. Curr. Sci., 85: 1395-1396. Sreedevi, S.K., Suma, K., Bhuvana, C.A., Prem, K., Minakshi, G., Shankar, M., Maruthi, S., Vanaja, M. and Sharma, K.L. (2014). Improving phytochemical and nutritional quality of spinach (Spinaciaoleracea) through Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. & Develop., 29(2): 104-107. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 35 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Tensingh, B.N. and Jemeema, B.P. (2015). Isolation, identification and characterization of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) isolated from economically important crop plants. Internat. J. Curr. Microbiol. & Appl. Sci., 4(3): 915924. Uma Maheswar, N. and Sathiyavani, G. (2012). Solubilization of phosphate by Bacillus spp, from groundnut rhizosphere (Arachishypogaea L). J. Chem. & Pharmaceutical Res., 4(8): 4007-4011. Verma, J.P., Yadav, J. and Tiwari, K.N. (2010). Application of Rhizobium spp.BHURCO1 and Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria on nodulation, plant biomass and yields of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Internat. J. Agril. Res., 5(3): 148-156.



Wua, B., Caob, S.C., Lib, Z.H., Cheunga, Z.G. and Wonga, K.C. (2005). Effects of biofertilizer containing N-fixer, P and K solubilizers and AM fungi on maize growth. Geoderma, 125: 155-162. Zahir, A., Arshad,Z.M. and Frankenberger,W.F. (2004). Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Advances in Agron., 81: 97168. Zaidi, A. and Mohammad, S. (2006). Co-inoculation effects of phosphate solubilizing microorganisms and Glomus fasciculatumon green gram bradyrhizobium symbiosis. Agril. Sci., 30 : 223-230. Zaidi, C.L., Ashford, A.E. and Summerell, B.A. (2006). Phosphate solubilising bacteria associated with proteoid roots of seeding of waratah. New Phytolog., 128(3):487-496.

No Number

AU


RESEARCH ARTICLE :

(71)



Drip fertigation effects on nutrient and water use by Rabi onion (Allium cepa L.): A climatological approach D.C. LOKHANDE, A.G. MUNDHE AND A.M. BHOSALE


KEY WORDS : Crop evapotranspiration, Crop co-efficient, Drip irrigation, Fertigation, Nitrogen use efficiency, Rabi onion, Water use efficiency, Yield

SUMMARY : At AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India, irrigation and fertigation requirements of Rabi onion through drip was optimized during three years of field studies in split plot design with three replications wherein irrigation schedules as main treatments and nitrogen levels as sub-treatments were undertaken. Irrigation schedules comprised of drip irrigation I1 (0.75 ETc), I2 (1.0 ETc), I3 (1.25 ETc) and conventional check basin irrigation at 1.2 IW/CPE with 60 mm depth of irrigation. Nitrogen levels included N1 (75 kg/ha N), N2 (100% kg/ha N) and N3 (125% kg/ha N). Drip irrigation treatments (I1, I2 and I3) were scheduled at an alternate day as desired by the treatments and depending on crop evapo-transpiration rate whereas surface irrigation was scheduled when CPE reached to 50 mm. Texturally, the soil was clay with field capacity of 36% and permanent wilting point of 17%. The results showed that onion bulb yield and yield contributing characters under drip irrigation schedules were significantly higher than the conventional surface irrigation schedule. Under drip, irrigation depth at 1.25 ETc (I3) recorded significantly higher onion bulb yield than I1 (0.75 ETc), but it was on par with I2 (1.0 Etc) during all the seasons and in pooled analysis. The nitrogen level N2 (100 kg ha-1) gave significantly higher onion bulb yield than N3 (125% kg/ha), but it was at par with N1 (75 kg/ ha). Moreover, highest water use efficiency was observed under treatment I1 (drip with 0.75 ETc), whereas highest nitrogen use efficiency was under treatment I3N1 (drip irrigation with 1.25 ETc depth and 75 kg/ha N). All drip irrigated treatments recorded higher nitrogen use efficiency, as compared to surface irrigated plots. How to cite this article : Lokhande, D.C., Mundhe, A.G. and Bhosale, A.M. (2017). Drip fertigation effects on nutrient and water use by Rabi onion (Allium cepa L.): A climatological approach. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : D.C. LOKHANDE

Regional Sugarcane Research Station, Basmathnagar, HINGOLI (M.S.) INDIA

Email : dlokhande2@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over the world. In India, onion occupies about 1.17 million hectare area

having 18.92 million metric tonnes of production and average productivity of 16.1 metric tonnes ha-1. Although India has largest area under onion in the world, its productivity is less compared to many other countries. In Maharashtra, it is grown over an area of 4.4


D.C. LOKHANDE, A.G. MUNDHE AND A.M. BHOSALE

million hectare with total production of 5.36 million metric tonnes with average productivity of 12.1 metric tonnes ha-1 (Anonymous 2014-15). Onion has culinary, dietary and medicinal importance in daily life of Indian people and due to its export trade, it is a major vegetable crop to gain foreign currency. Water is not only a vital input itself, but also a mean of making other inputs available to the plant and thereby capable of increasing yield tremendously. Onion has a relatively shallow root zone crop and hence requires more frequent irrigations, as compared to other vegetable crops. The traditional irrigation method fails to supply the required quantity of water to the crop at proper time and thus, large quantity of water is lost by seepage and deep percolation. The increasing gap between the created irrigation potential and it’s utilization indicate the inefficient use of water. The areas which offer considerable promise for increasing water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture are improved irrigation scheduling and improved water application methods. The use of fertilizer through drip irrigation not only improves the fertilizer use efficiency; but also saves the fertilizer input cost, prevents nutrient and is also environmentally safe. Therefore, a field experiment was aimed at determining appropriate drip irrigation schedule for onion and to assess the impact of irrigation schedules and nitrogen levels on water and nitrogen use efficiency at AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The field experiments were conducted in split plot design with irrigation schedules as main treatments and nitrogen levels as sub-treatments. Irrigation schedules comprised of drip irrigation I1 (0.75 ETc), I2 (1.0 ETc), I3 (1.25 ETc) and conventional check basin irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE with 60 mm depth of irrigation. Nitrogen levels included N1 = 75% recommended dose of fertilizer of N, N2 (100% RD of N) and N3 (125% RD of N). The nursery beds were prepared a month before transplanting and seedlings of onion variety ‘N-53’ were grown. The seedlings were transplanted in experimental plots at a spacing of 15 cm x 10 cm. Texturally the soil was clay with field capacity of 36% and permanent wilting point of 17%. Irrigation with drip treatments (I1, I2 and I3 ) was scheduled at an alternate day as desired by the treatments and depending on crop evapo-transpiration rate. The growth stage wise crop co-efficient was used 24 38 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


for calculating the ETc from reference ET in case of drip irrigated plots. The crop co-efficient curve was developed using the Kc values as 0.7, 0.88, 1.05 and 0.75 for initial, crop development, mid season and lateseason stage, respectively. The drip irrigation system consisted of 12 mm laterals with in-line drippers of 4.0 lph discharge spaced at 60 cm distance. Five laterals were laid in each plot. Separate arrangement of valves was provided for each treatment. For conventional irrigation, water was applied when CPE reached to 50 mm. The recommended dose of fertilizers as N: P: K (100:50:50 kg/ha) was applied through drip irrigation. Fertilizers were applied in splits through irrigation water in drip irrigated plots, while in surface irrigated plots they were conventionally applied in soil. Nitrogen was applied at 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 days after planting (DAP) in equal splits, whereas P in two splits each of 25 kg/ha at 15 & 30 DAP. K was applied in three splits of 10: 20 and 20 kg/ ha at 15, 45 and 75 DAP. There was no serious problem of incidence of pests and diseases. However, two sprayings of Bavistin were taken up as preventive measures during all seasons.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Data on onion bulb and stalk yields and average weight of onion bulb during three crop seasons was subjected to pooled analysis. The error of seasons was tested with Barlett’s test of homogeneity. The error was homogeneous with respect to all the parameters. Hence, simple pooled means are presented. The results of analysis are presented in Table 1. The data indicate that the mean onion bulb yield (t/ha) under all drip irrigation schedules was significantly higher than the surface irrigated plots. In drip, irrigation scheduled at 1.25 ETc produced significantly higher bulb yield (t/ha), as compared to 0.75 Etc, but it was at par with 1.0 ETc during all the seasons and in pooled analysis. Likewise, application of nitrogen through fertigation in five equal splits at 100% of recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) resulted in significantly higher bulb yield (t/ha), as compared to 125% of RDN. However, it was at par with 75% of RDN. The interaction effect of irrigation schedule and nitrogen application on onion bulb yield was not significant. Similar trend of results were also observed in respect of average weight of onion bulb (g) and stalk yields (t/ha). On the other hand, the effect of nitrogen levels on onion bulb yield (t/ha) was also significant. The nitrogen level N2

DRIP FERTIGATION EFFECTS ON NUTRIENT & WATER USE BY Rabi ONION (Allium cepa L.): A CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH

(100% of N dose) gave significantly higher bulb yield than N3 (125 % of N dose), but it was at par with N1 (75% of N). The effect of nitrogen levels on average weight of onion bulb (g) was also significant, however, nitrogen level N3 (125% N) was significantly superior to N1 and was at par with N 2. Whereas, the effect of nitrogen level on onion stalk yield (t/ha) was nonsignificant. The interaction effect of irrigation schedules and nitrogen levels on onion bulb yield was significant wherein the treatment I3 N2 (drip irrigation at 1.25 ETc and 100 % N) gave highest onion bulb yield (68.14 t/ha) and was significantly superior to all surface and drip irrigation treatments, but it was at par with I2N2 (62.54 t/ ha) and I3N1 (65.16 t/ha). Interaction effect of irrigation schedules and nitrogen level on average weight of onion bulb (g) and onion stalk yield (t/ha) was non-significant. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency was noted under irrigation schedule I1 (drip with 0.75 ETc), followed by I2 schedule (drip with 1.0 ETc), while the lowest was

observed under I4 (surface irrigation). On the contrary, highest nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) was observed under treatment I3N1 (drip irrigation with 1025 Etc depth and 75 kg/ha N), followed by I2N1, while the lowest was noticed under I4N3 treatment. All drip irrigated treatments recorded higher NUE than surface irrigated plots (Table 2). Conclusion : Thus, the present study indicates that in-line drip irrigation system for Rabi onion is better, as compared to surface irrigation system in regards to onion bulb yield, water and nitrogen use efficiency. The drip irrigation scheduled at alternate day with depth of water application as 1.25 times the crop water requirement (ETc) based on pan evaporation and crop co-efficient gives more yield than the 0.75 and 1.0 ETc. The nitrogen application through fertigation at 100 kg/ha gives significantly higher yield than 125 and 75 kg/ha both applied through fertigation.

Table 1 : Effe ct of i rrigation schedules and nitrogen le vels on onion bulb yield (Pooled) Onion bulb yield Avg. wt . of Factors Treatments (t/ha) onion bulb (g)

Onion stalk yield (t/ha)

Total water use (mm)

WUE (kg/ha-mm)

Main : Irrigation

I1

Irrigation of 0.75 ET c mm by drip

61.68

128.33

6.97

302.38

20.40

schedule (I)

I2


65.84

139.78

8.34

383.17

17.18

I3


69.17

140.97

9.56

463.97

14.91

I4

Surface irrigation of 60 mm dept h

44.57

106.87

6.72

720.0

6.19

at 1.0 IW/CPE S.E. ±

1.52

4.10

0.47

-

-

C.D. (P=0.05)

4.45

12.02

1.38

-

-

Sub : Nitrogen level

N1

75 % N (RD)*

60.71

120.18

7.11

-

-

(N)

N2

100 % N (RD)

62.94

131.68

8.29

-

-

N3

125 % N (RD)

57.30

135.10

8.30

-

-

S.E. ±

1.32

3.55

0.41

-

-

C.D. (P=0.05)

3.86

10.41

NS

-

-

S.E. ±

2.63

7.10

0.82

-

-

NS

NS

-

-

Interactions : (I x N)

C.D. (P=0.05) *RD – Recommended dose

WUE – Water use efficiency

Table 2 : Nitrogen use e fficiency (NUE) of onion (kg/kg of N) under different treatments Treatments N1 N2

NS NS=Non-significant

N3

Mean

I1

706.3

574.7

398.4

559.8

I2

722.4

624.5

455.7

600.9

I3

868.8

681.4

429.0

659.7

I4

626.4

428.1

313.1

455.9

Mean

731.0

577.2

399.1

569.1


D.C. LOKHANDE, A.G. MUNDHE AND A.M. BHOSALE

Authors’ affiliations : A.G. MUNDHE, Department of Horticulture, Vasantrao Na ik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA A.M. BHOSALE, Wheat and Maize Research Station (V.N.M.K.V.) , PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Anonymous (2015). Economic Survey of Maharashtra 201415. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning Dept., Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai, M.S. (INDIA). Bhonde, S.R., Chougule, A.B. and Singh, N.B. (2001). Studies on the effect of age of seedlings and date of harvesting on yield and quality of onion during late Kharif season. Newsletter National Horticultural Research Development Foundation, 21(1) : 24-26.

Ann. Plant Physiol., 11(1): pp 45-48. Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. 1975. Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper: 24, FAO, United Nations, Rome: 30-35. Hussain, J. and Singh, P.N. (1994). Effect of spacing, nutrition, irrigation, interaction on lipid metabolism of onion (Allium cepa L.). J. New Agriculturist, 5(2): 135 -140. Kumar, Dhramendra, Kumar, Sanjay and Kumar, Ajay (2001). Effect of different levels nitrogen on growth and yield of onion (Allium cepa L.). Agril. Sci., 21(2): 121-123. Maher, D.P. (1991). Studies on efficiency of liquid fertilizer through drip and surface irrigation for garlic. Unpublished M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vishwavidyala, Rahuri, Ahmednagar, M.S. (INDIA).

Charjan, Y.D., Jyothi Hadi and Prarthana Sarode (2001). Nutrient uptake and yield of onion as influenced by fertilizer levels. J. Soils & Crops, 11(2): 276-277.

Patel, J.J. and Patel, A.T. (1980). Effect of N and P rate on growth and yield of onion. Gujrat Agril. University Res. J., 15 (2):1-5.

Chopade, S.O., Bansode, P.N., Hiwase, S.S. and Bhuyar, R.C. (1997). Effect of drip irrigation on physiological growth of onion.

Singh, D. and Sharma, R.P. (1991). Effect of soil moisture regimes and nitrogen fertilization on onion. Indian J. Agron., 36(1): 125-126.



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Integrated nutrient management's effect on nutrients content and nutrients uptake of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) C. CIBA AND M. SYAMALA


KEY WORDS : Nutrient, Okra

SUMMARY : A field experiment on nutrient content and nutrient uptake attributes of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) under integrated nutrient management was carried out in College Orchard of Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. The experiments were laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with fifteen treatments in three replications. The study revealed that the increased nutrient content and nutrient uptake attributes was obtained in T15 (75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + GA3-100 ppm). Application of T15 significantly highest leaf nitrogen (2.91 %), leaf phosphorus (0.36 %), leaf potassium (3.95 %), uptake of nitrogen (170.9 kg ha -1), phosphorus (9.12 kg ha-1) and potassium (214.81 kg ha-1) of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench). How to cite this article : Ciba, C. and Syamala, M. (2017). Integrated nutrient management's effect on nutrients content and nutrients uptake of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench). Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9): 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : C. CIBA

Department of Horticulture, Agricultural College and Research Institute, MADURAI (T.N.) INDIA

Email : cibahorti@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES RESOURCES

Okra one of the important summer vegetable crops of India. Organic manure alone may not be enough to meet the nutritional requirement of crop in intensive cropping system, thus, a suitable organic mat ter with chemical f er tilizer s , biofertilizers and growth regulators may help in improving the fertility, productivity and physical condition of soil. Nutrient accumulation in plant varies with the soil type, soil fertility, varieties and agroclimatic conditions.

AND

METHODS

The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with three replications. The field was ploughed to fine tilth and a general dose of farmyard manure was incorporated at the time of last ploughing. Then ridges and furrows of 60 cm apart were formed. The hybrid seeds of okra (no. 152) was obtained from Syngenta Seed Company and treated with Azospirillum and phosphobacteria biofertilizers each at 200 g and sown at different treatment combination with plant to plant spacing of 30 cm row to


C. CIBA AND M. SYAMALA

row 60 cm by simple hand dibbling. Rest of the Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria @ 1.8 kg each was applied in the soil along with the FYM before sowing the seed. According to treatment structure NAA (50 ppm) and GA3 (100 ppm) were sprayed during two stages viz., Initial flowering stage (DAS) and peak flowering stage (DAS) in different treatment combinations. The treatment details are furnished below. Details of the treatment are furnished below: T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

-

T6

-

T7 T8

-

T9

-

T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T 14 T 15 -

Recommended level NPK (40:50:30 kg / ha) Recommended dose of NPK + Azospirillum Recommended dose of NPK + Azospirillum + NAA – 50 ppm Recommended dose of NPK + Azospirillum + GA3 –100 ppm Recommended dose of NPK + Phosphobacteria Recommended dose of NPK + Phosphobacteria + NAA – 50 ppm Recommended dose of NPK + Phosphobacteria + GA3 – 100 ppm 75% recommended dose of N + 100% P and K + Azospirillum 75% recommended dose of N + 100% P and K + Azospirillum + NAA – 50 ppm 75% recommended dose of N + 100% P and K + Azospirillum + GA3 –100 ppm 75% recommended dose of P + 100% N and K + Phosphobacteria 75% recommended dose of P + 100% N and K + Phosphobacteria + NAA- 50 ppm 75% recommended dose of P + 100% N and K + Phosphobacteria + GA3- 100 ppm 75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobact eria 75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobact eria +NAA 50 ppm 75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobact eria + GA3 -100 ppm

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Nutrient status in leaves : The present study indicated a definite increase in the leaf nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content due to application of (T15) 75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + GA3-100 ppm registered highest leaf nitrogen (2.91 %), leaf phosphorus (0.36 %) and leaf potassium (3.95 %) at final harvesting stage (Table 1). Higher level of nutrients resulted in higher leaf N concentration. The combined effect of Azospirillum, Phosphobacteria help in improving K, Ca, Mg content in plants at peak flowering, such an increase in the leaf 24 42 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


nutrient content was also observed by Subbiah (1986). Leaf N concentration was also positively influenced by GA3 spray which might have been mainly by the activity of absorption of nitrogen and pr oduction of photoassimilates and protein synthesis. Leaf P concentration at both the growth stages was positively influenced by organic manures, higher nutrient levels, biofertilizers and growth regulators. Inoculation of Azosopirillum and Phosphobacteria mediate the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and solubilise the phosphorus with simultaneous uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus. The enzyme complexes released by Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium inoculation has been reported to be responsible for solubilising the unavailable form of P and rendering them available P to plants (Pacovsky et al., 1985). Higher level of nutrients resulted in highest leaf K concentration. Increase in leaf K content is due to K application in bhendi was reported by Singh (1979). Inoculation of biofertilizers also resulted in higher leaf K concentration than uninoculated control. Increased leaf N, P, K content by Azospirillum was observed in bhendi by Balasubramani (1988). It can be inferred that increased nutrient content in leaves could have been due to the formation of cytokinin, GA and IAA activities in the roots by Azospirillum leading to high absorption of nutrients. Higher rate of assimilation in plants under organic nutrition due to better absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients and further assimilation into chlorophyll would have encouraged better photosynthesis. Enhanced activity of applied GA3 would have been the cause for better absorption of K. Since the translocation of metabolites were also triggered by the phytohormones like GA3 and the portion transport essentially involves the chemical combination of source and K+ ion to reach the sink namely the developing fruits from source (leaves). The plants were essentially forced to absorb more K+ ions from the soil especially during flowering stage. On the contrary, a decrease in all leaf nutrients concentration at harvesting stage observed might be due to rapid translocation of nutrients to the developing fruits. Uptake of major nutrients : In present study, increased uptake of nitrogen (170.9 kg ha -1 ), phosphorus (9.12 kg ha -1 ) and potassium (214.81 kg ha -1 ) due to application of (T 15 ) 75% recommended dose of N + 75% recommended dose of P + 100% K + Azospirillum + Phosphobacteria + GA3-

INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT'S EFFECT ON NUTRIENTS CONTENT & NUTRIENTS UPTAKE OF OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) MOENCH)

100 ppm registered highest was observed (Table 2). The increase in N uptake at higher levels of K may be due to higher available N which was released by the higher levels of K. Enhanced uptake of nitrogen due to Azospirillum treatment was also reported in bhendi (Balasubramani,

1988 and Parvatham et al. (1989). Improved N availability in the Rhizosphere facilitates better uptake of nitrogen. The uptake of phosphorus was high under organic manures and higher level of nutrients. The significant influence of N and P uptake was reported earlier by

Table 1 : Effe ct of integrated nutrient management on leaf nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (%) in okra Leaf nitrogen cont ent (%) Leaf phosphorus content (%) Leaf potassium content (%) Treatments Peak flowering Final harvesting Peak flowering Final harvesting Peak flowering Final harvest ing stage stage st age stage stage st age T0

2.01

1.89

0.21

0.19

2.70

2.34

T1

2.05

1.95

0.21

0.19

2.77

2.47

T2

2.07

2.01

0.22

0.20

2.83

2.47

T3

2.07

2.05

0.23

0.21

2.86

2.51

T4

2.10

2.08

0.24

0.22

2.92

2.62

T5

2.09

2.09

0.25

0.22

2.95

2.64

T6

2.27

2.18

0.25

0.24

2.99

2.65

T7

2.35

2.33

0.24

0.24

3.24

2.72

T8

2.40

2.38

0.27

0.25

3.33

2.76

T9

2.48

2.40

0.28

0.26

3.39

2.80

T 10

2.50

2.42

0.28

0.27

3.57

2.84

T 11

2.69

2.54

0.29

0.27

3.62

2.91

T 12

2.72

2.55

0.31

0.27

3.66

2.93

T 13

2.78

2.57

0.33

0.29

3.82

3.01

T 14

2.86

2.60

0.34

0.31

3.86

3.06

T 15

2.91

2.63

0.36

0.34

3.95

3.36

S.E. ±

0.015

0.011

0.009

0.008

0.04

0.03

CD (P=0.05)

0.031

0.023

0.018

0.017

0.09

0.06

Table 2 : Effe ct of integrated nutrient management on uptake nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (kg ha -1 ) in okra Treatments Uptake N (kg ha-1 ) Uptake P (kg ha-1)

Uptake K (kg ha-1 )

T0

98.4

5.34

167.58

T1

101.6

5.60

167.92

T2

104.2

5.67

170.09

T3

100.6

5.89

182.62

T4

112.5

5.95

184.71

T5

120.5

6.03

190.06

T6

127.5

7.01

192.24

T7

131.1

7.46

185.82

T8

131.8

7.48

184.99

T9

134.1

7.71

194.40

T 10

140.3

7.73

197.12

T 11

141.2

7.85

193.76

T 12

152.0

8.11

204.00

T 13

159.1

8.43

204.59

T 14

167.8

8.89

208.07

T 15

170.9

9.12

214.81

S.E. ±

2.03

0.14

3.51

C.D. (P=0.05)

4.15

0.29

7.18 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 43 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


(Pandey and Dubey, 1997) in bhendi. The possible reason for better uptake of P due to biofertilizers inoculation can be due to the production of enzymatic complex by Phosphobacteria (Rokade and Patil, 1993) and Azospirillum (Abbott and Robson, 1984) which solubilise the unavailable phosphorus resulting them into forms easily available to roots. The increased absorbing root surface also might have resulted in higher nutrient uptake (Venkateswarlu and Rao, 1983). The uptake of potassium was positively influenced by higher level of nutrients. Positive effect of N application on uptake of K was reported by Hammond et al. (1951) in soybean. The synergistic effect between N and K existed leading to production of more photo assimilates and conversion into glycosides. For any plant to put forth better growth, the assimilates should consistently be transported from leaves to the growing region or storage region. This essential transport function takes place in the highly specialized phloem tissues (i.e.,) the network of interconnecting sieve tubes. The loading of sugars into the sieve elements is generally considered to be an active process operating at high flux rate (Geiger, 1975).

Bocoa Roton. F.L

Authors’ affiliations :

Singh, N.P. (1979). Effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on bhendi. Prog. Hort., 10(4) : 21-29.

M. SYAMALA, Department of Pla nt Pathology, Ta mil Na du Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

REFERENCES Abbott, L.K. and Robson, A.D. (1984). The effect of VAmycorrhizae on plant growth. In: VA-mycorrhizae (Ed. C.L.L.Powell and D.L Bhagyaraj), p.113-127.CRC press Inc.,



Balasubramani, P. (1988). Studies on the effect of Azospirillum and nitrogen on growth and yield of bhendi var. Pusa Sawani. M.Sc. (Hort.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, T.N. (INDIA). Geiger, D.R. (1975). Phloem loading In: Encylopedia of plant physiology. Vol. I. Zimmermann, M-4 Milburn, J. A. eds. P. 395431. Berlin Heidelberg NY, Springer. Hammond, L.C., Black, C.A. and Norman, A.C. (1951). Nutrient uptake by soyabeans on two IOWA soils. IOWA. Agri. Expt. Stn. Res. Bull., 384: 463-512. Pacovsky, R.S., Paul, E.A. and Bethlan-Talvy, G. (1985). Nutrition of sorghum plants fertilized with Nitrogen or inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense. Plant Soil, 85 : 145-148. Pandey, V.B. and Dubey, R.P. (1997). Influence of nitrogen, phosphorus and intrarow spacing on nutrient uptake of okra. Agric. Sci. Digest., 17(2) : 114-116. Parvatham, A. and Vijan, K.P. (1989). Effect of Azospirillum inoculation on yield and yield components and quality of bhendi. South Indian Hort., 37 (5): 350-353. Rokade, S.K. and Patil, P.L. (1993). Phosphate solubilising microorganisms. A review II. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 18 (1): 93-101.

Subbiah, K. and Permal, Rani (1986). Effect of N, K and CaCl2 on yield and nutrient uptake in tomato. South Indian Hort., 34 (2): 82-89. Venkateswarlu, B. and Rao, A.V. (1983). Response of pearl millet to inoculation with different strains of Azospirillum brasilense. Plant Soil, 74 : 379-386.

No. Number

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RESEARCH ARTICLE :


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Summer sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) production influenced by irrigation scheduling : A climatological approach D.C. LOKHANDE, U.M. KHODKE AND A.G. MUNDHE


KEY WORDS : Climatological approach, Consumptive use, Response function, Soil moisture extraction pattern, Summer sorghum , Vertisols, Water use efficiency

Author for correspondence : D.C. LOKHANDE

Regional Sugarcane Research Station, Basmathnagar, HINGOLI (M.S.) INDIA

Email : dlokhande2@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

SUMMARY : A field experiment was conducted during summer of 2010 and 2011 at AICRP on Water Management, Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani (M.S.) to study the effect of different irrigation schedules on the productivity of summer sorghum grown on Vertisols. The soil of the experimental site was low in organic carbon and nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and fairly rich in potassium and slightly alkaline in reaction. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with four replications. The net plot size was 5.4 m x 3.6 m. The treatments comprising of four irrigation schedules viz., I1-0.6 IW:CPE, I2-0.8 IW:CPE, I3-1.0 IW:CPE and I4-As per the canal rotation interval. During both years, seeds of summer sorghum Var.SPV-655 were dibbled with spacing of 45 cm x 15 cm on 30 th January in flat beds. Scheduling of irrigation was done on the basis of climatological approach (IW:CPE). Depth of irrigation was maintained 60 mm per irrigation in each treatment. The pooled results revealed that summer sorghum performed better throughout the growth stages and significantly higher grain, fodder, bhoosa, biological yields and bio-energy values were recorded under irrigation scheduled at 1.0 IW:CPE (15 irrigations) which being on par with 0.8 IW:CPE (12 irrigations), as compared to 0.6 IW:CPE (10 irrigations) and canal rotation interval (10 irrigations) treatment. Whereas, significantly lowest values of economic yields were recorded by canal rotation interval treatment than others. During both the years of study, highest mean daily and total consumptive use of water was recorded with 1.0 IW:CPE, ratio while the lowest values were recorded with 0.6 IW:CPE, ratio however, WUE was decreased with increase in the frequency of irrigation schedules. In addition, summer sorghum plants extracted most of their moisture needs from the uppermost soil layers (0-15 cm and 16-30 cm soil depths) than the lower successive soil layers. The economic yield-irrigation water relations showed that during first and second year; these relationships were quadratic and exponential, respectively, however, on pooling; the results showed linear response. Thus, it is concluded that scheduling of irrigation with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio (12 irrigations) found optimum for cultivation of summer sorghum on Vertisols under assured irrigated conditions of Parbhani (M.S.). How to cite this article : Lokhande, D.C., Khodke, U.M. and Mundhe, A.G. (2017). Summer sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) production influenced by irrigation scheduling : A climatological approach. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.


D.C. LOKHANDE, U.M. KHODKE AND A.G. MUNDHE

BACKGROUND

AND

slightly alkaline in reaction. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with four replications. The net plot size was 5.4 m x 3.6 m. The treatments comprising of four irrigation schedules viz., I 1-0.6 IW:CPE, I2-0.8 IW:CPE, I3-1.0 IW:CPE and I4-As per the canal rotation interval. During both years, seeds of summer sorghum Var.SPV-655 were dibbled with spacing of 45 cm x 15 cm on 30th January in flat beds. Scheduling of irrigation was done on the basis of climatological approach (IW:CPE). Depth of irrigation was maintained 60 mm per irrigation in each treatment.

OBJECTIVES

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolar (L.) Moench] is a major source of food for millions of people in the semi-arid tropics (SATs); while in the tropical areas it serves as an important source of food and livestock feed. India is one of the nine major sorghum growing countries in the world. Amongst the cereals, sorghum is the staple food of the people of Maharashtra where it is extensively grown in kharif and rabi season and far low in summer season. Grain sorghum performance is better in summer season than kharif season owing to favourable climatic conditions; particularly optimum temperature and bright sunshine (Ramu et al., 1991). Although, sorghum being a tropical crop and resistant to high temperature, it may suitably adopt to summer season even under relatively limited irrigation water. Scheduling of irrigation on the basis of climatological approach (IW:CPE) showed positive results in sorghum as reported by Kandasamy and Subramanian (1979). Keeping this view in mind, the present investigation was carried out to study the response of summer sorghum to different irrigation schedules on Vertisols of Parbhani (M.S.).

RESOURCES

AND

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS The pooled mean data of two years (Table 1) revealed that the grain, fodder, bhoosa, biological yields and bio-energy of summer sorghum were significantly higher under irrigation scheduled at 1.0 IW:CPE which being on par with 0.8 IW:CPE, as compared to rest of the irrigation schedules. However, in respect of bioenergy, during second year of study; 1.0 IW:CPE proved significantly better over other irrigation schedules. The cumulative effect of improvement in yield components under higher frequency of irrigation schedules led to maximum production of grain yield which ascribed to more number of irrigations at shorter intervals under these treatments (Mohammad Ikramullah et al., 1996). These results are in consonance with those reported by Kandasamy and Subramanian (1979), Patel et al. (1990), Ramu et al. (1991), Pujari et al. (1992), Singh and Singh

METHODS

A field experiment was conducted at AICRP on Water Management, Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani (M.S.). The soil (Vertisols) of the experimental site was low in organic carbon and nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and fairly rich in potassium and

Table 1: Grain, fodder, bhoosa, biol ogical yield and bi o-energy of summer sorghum as influence d by various irri gati on sche dules Grain yield (kg ha-1 ) Bio-engergy (M Cal) Fodder yield (kg ha-1 ) Treatments 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled Irrigation schedules: I1 = 0.6 IW:CPE

1087

1006

1047

5061

4684

4872

2292

2214

2253

I2 = 0.8 IW:CPE

1384

1294

1339

6444

6025

6234

2693

2517

2605

I3 = 1.0 IW:CPE

1452

1397

1425

6761

6505

6633

2802

2795

2799

I4 = As per canal rotation interval

1193

1065

1129

5555

4959

5257

2326

2343

2335

71

107

87

330

384

406

112

281

201

C.D. (P=0.05) Treatments

2010

Bhoosa yield (kg ha-1 ) 2011

Pooled

2010

Biological yield (kg ha-1) 2011

Pooled

Irrigation schedules: I1 = 0.6 IW:CPE

545

461

503

3924

3681

3803

I2 = 0.8 IW:CPE

640

524

582

4717

4335

4526

I3 = 1.0 IW:CPE

666

582

624

4920

4774

4847

I4 = As per canal rotation interval

553

488

521

4072

3896

3984

C.D. (P=0.05)

28

60

46

276

452

343



SUMMER SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor (L.) MOENCH) PRODUCTION INFLUENCED BY IRRIGATION SCHEDULING : A CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH

Table 2: Water-expense components utilized by summer sorghum crop Irrigation frequency (No.)

Irrigat ion water applied (mm)

Irrigat ion interval (Days)

Consumpt ive-use (mm) (From 0-60 cm soil depth)

Daily wat eruse (mm day -1)

Wat er-use efficiency (kg ha-1 mm -1 )

11

660

12

682.55

6.21

1.59

I2 = 0.8 IW:CPE

12

720

10

809.72

7.36

1.71

I3 = 1.0 IW:CPE

15

900

8

983.21

8.94

1.48

I4 = As per canal

10

600

13

565.51

5.14

2.11

10

600

14

668.33

6.08

1.51

I2 = 0.8 IW:CPE

12

720

10

792.85

7.62

1.63

I3 = 1.0 IW:CPE

15

900

8

962.72

8.91

1.45

I4 = As per canal

10

600

14

553.73

4.94

1.92

Treatments 2010 Irrigation schedules: I1 = 0.6 IW:CPE

rot at ion int erval 2011 Irrigation schedules: I1 = 0.6 IW:CPE

rot at ion int erval

(1995) and Wani et al. (2003). During both the years of study (Table 2), amongst all the applied irrigation schedules highest mean consumptive-use of water by summer sorghum was recorded with 1.0 IW:CPE ratio followed by 0.8 IW:CPE ratio, while it was lowest with canal rotation interval treatment. Since frequent irrigated crops produced profuse vegetative growth causing more evapotranspiration losses, so they required higher consumptiveuse of water. Similar observations were reported by Pujari et al. (1992) and Kadam (1992). On the contrary, during both the years of study, it was observed that water-use efficiency was decreased with the increased frequency of irrigations and it was higher under canal rotation interval treatment. Since the lower WUE obtained under higher moisture supply was due to proportionately more increase in the evapo-transpiration than the increase in grain yield. These results are in conformity with those reported by Kadam (1992), Pujari et al. (1992) and Gorad et al. (1995). Conclusion : Based on two years of study, it is concluded that scheduling of irrigation with 0.8 IW:CPE ratio(12 irrigations) found optimum for cultivation of summer sorghum on Vertisols under assured irrigated conditions of Parbhani (M.S.).

Authors’ affiliations : U.M. KHODKE, AICRP on Water Management, (V.N.M.K.V.), PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA

A.G. MUNDHE, Wheat and Maize Research Station (V.N .M.K.V.) , PARBHANI (M.S.) INDIA

REFERENCES Gorad, C.T., Varshneya, M.C. and Bote, N.L. (1995). Evapotranspiration of post-rainy season sorghum under different soil moisture levels. J. Maharashtra Agril. Univ., 20(1) : 74-77. Kadam, N.B. (1992). Effect of Godrej antistress formulation on the economy of irrigation and growth and yield of sorghum (Sorghum bicolar L. Moench) Cv. ‘Swati’. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Ahmednagar, M.S. (INDIA).

Kandasamy, O.S. and Subramanian, S. (1979). Response of hybrid sorghum (CSH-5) to irrigation regimes and nitrogen rates. Indian J. Agron., 24(1) : 54-57. Mohammad Ikramullah; Reddy, S. Narsa and Mohammad, Shaikh (1996). Performance of sorghum in intercropping with legumes at different levels of fertilizers and irrigations. Annals Agril. Res., 17(2) : 140-142. Patel, L.K., Patel, J.C., Chaniara, N.J. and Baldha, N.M. (1990). Effect of irrigation, nitrogen and phosphorus on the productivity of Rabi ratoon sorghum. Indian J. Agron., 35(3): 266-269. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 47 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

D.C. LOKHANDE, U.M. KHODKE AND A.G. MUNDHE

Pujari, B.T., Patil, V.S. and Radder, G.D. (1992). Studies on the yield, consumptive water-use, water-use efficiency and moisture-extraction pattern by sorghum as influenced by intercropping and irrigation. Karnataka J. Agril. Sci., 5(4) : 330-337. Ramu, S.V., Palaniappan, S.P. and Panchanathan, R.M. (1991). Comparison of methods of irrigation scheduling for sorghum.



J. Maharashtra Agril. Univ., 16(1) : 56-58. Singh, B.R. and Singh, D.P. (1995). Agronomic and physiological responses of sorghum, maize and pearl millet to irrigation. Field Crop Res., 42 : 57-67. Wani, A.G., Pacharne, D.P. and Narkhede, B.N. (2003). Effect of irrigation management on yield of rabi sorghum. J. Maharashtra Agril. Univ., 28 (2) : 157-158.

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Effect of drip fertigation on chilli - agronomic use efficiency (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. KKM-1 C. CIBA AND M. SYAMALA


SUMMARY : A field experiment on water use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency and agronomic use efficiency of chiili (capsicum annuum. l) cv. KKM-1 under drip ferigation was carried out in College Orchard of Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu during Kharif 2007 and summer 2008. The experiments were laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with nine treatments in three replications. The study revealed that the increased water use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency and agronomic use efficiency characters was obtained in T9 (T5 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid) for both Kharif and summer season. Application of 100 per cent drip fertigation through water soluble fertilizers along with bio stimulants (T9) significantly higher water use efficiency (6.12 and 6.39 kg. ha mm-1), nitrogen use efficiency (33.75 and 32.58 kg. kg N ha-1 ), phosphorus use efficiency (67.50 and 65.17 kg. kg P ha-1), potassium use efficiency (135.00 and 130.33 kg. kg K ha-1), agronomic use efficiency of nitrogen (14.92 and 14.17 kg. kg N ha-1), agronomic use efficiency of phosphorous (29.83 and 28.33 kg. kg P ha-1) and agronomic use efficiency of potassium (59.67 and 56.67 kg. kg K ha-1) of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. KKM-1.

KEY WORDS : Drip Fertigation, WUF, NUF, AUF, Chill How to cite this article : Ciba, C. and Syamala, M. (2017). Effect of drip fertigation on chilli - agronomic use efficiency (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. KKM-1. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/ AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

Author for correspondence : C. CIBA

Department of Horticulture, Agricultural College and Research Institute, MADURAI (T.N.) INDIA

Email : cibahorti@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a spice cum vegetable crop belongs to the family Solanaceae. The consumption of chilli is the highest in India, maximum export is also from our country. Indian chillies and its products are brought out by a number of countries. Chillies are nature’s wonder. Its fruit, appear in different sizes, shapes and colours. Chillies have two important qualities, they have biting pungency attributed to capsaicin and captivating red colour due to the pigment

capsanthin. Capsaicin is a digestive stimulant, prevents heart diseases and curative for many rheumatic troubles. Besides, chilli is very useful in our daily diet since it is a rich source of vitamins A and C and rutin. Efficient use of available irrigation water is essential for increasing agricultural productivity for the alarming Indian population. With present potential of 114 million hectare meters (MHM) of water, only 97 m.ha. is under irrigation in India. Tamil Nadu is one of the water starving states in India, which



receives a mean annual rainfall of 946 mm. Further, efficient management of water resources is essential to meet the increasing competition for water between agricultural and non-agricultural sectors and the present day share of 70 per cent of water used for agriculture is anticipated to be reduced by 60 per cent in the coming decade. This necessitates scientific management of available water and fertilizer resources in agricultural sector. In this context, drip fertigation has most significant role to achieve higher productivity, water and nutrient use efficiency.

RESOURCES

AND

cross between Acc. 240 and Co 3. It is an early and high yielding variety. The plants are dwarf, compact and spreading. Irrigation : The irrigation was scheduled once in three days. Irrigation water was supplied after subtracting the effective rainfall from the pan evaporation. Irrigation was given on the basis of pan evaporation values (100 % PE) from USWB Class ‘A’ Open pan evaporimeter installed at Meteorological Observatory, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai.

METHODS

Experiments were carried out at the College Orchard, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu during Kharif 2007 and summer 2008. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with nine treatments replicated at three times. The field lay out and randomization of treatments was made in each plot size of 45 m2 (10 m x 4.5 m). Treatment details : T1 = RDF through soil application (120: 60: 30 kg NPK ha-1 ) T2 = 75% RDF as Urea + DAP (as basal) + KCl T3 = 75 % RDF as Water Soluble Fertilizers T4 = 100 % RDF as Urea + DAP (as basal) + KCl T5 = 100 % RDF Water Soluble Fertilizers T6 = T2 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid T7 = T3 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid T8 = T4 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid T9 = T5 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid Note: – Water soluble fertilizers : Poly feed (19 % N, 19% P and 19% K) MAP (12% N and 61% P) and KNO3 (13% N and 45 % K) – Liquid biofertilizers (200 ml /acre), Panchagavya (10 litre/ac) and Humic acid (2 litre/ac) ( TNAU recommendations) Crop and variety : The chilli, KKM -1 is a hybrid derivative from the 24 50 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Fertigation and fertilizer application schedule : The recommended dose of fertilizer (120: 60: 30 kg NPK ha -1) was taken as 100 % RDF. Urea (46 %), phosphorus in the form of single super phosphate (16%) potassium in the form of muriate of potash (60%) were applied before sowing as basal dose through soil application for the treatment T1, Phosphorus in the form of Di ammonium phosphate (18% N and 46% P) was applied as basal dose through soil application for the treatment T2 and T4. For remaining treatments, fertigation was given as per the treatment schedule. The recommended dose of 120: 60: 30 kg NPK ha1 was applied in the experimental plots. Fertigation was scheduled once in three days starting from second week after planting. Each plot consists of three laterals for irrigating six rows of crops. A tap is provided at beginning of each lateral for giving controlled fertigation. The required quantity of N, P and K fertilizers as urea, MAP and KNO3 as per the treatment were dissolved separately in 5 liters of water can to the each laterals of the individual plot. This study was conducted to find out response of chilli crop with respect to yield and fertilizer consumption under different fertilizer application. The study also found on determination of required dose of water and fertilizer application to maximize water and nutrient use efficiency.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Result and analysis for the parameters such as water use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency and agronomic use efficiency are presented in this section. It shows that highest water use efficiency of (6.12 and 6.39 kg. ha mm-1) were recorded in both Kharif and summer seasons, respectively in T9 (T5 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya

EFFECT OF DRIP FERTIGATION ON CHILLI - AGRONOMIC USE EFFICIENCY (Capsicum annuum L.) CV. KKM-1

+ Humic acid). Application of 100 per cent RDF as normal fertilizer through (T 1 ) drip system recorded significantly lower water use efficiency than the other treatments in both Kharif (3.41 kg. ha mm-1) and summer season (3.61 kg. ha mm-1 ). Generally, water use efficiency indicated the effectiveness of the applied water in terms of crop yield. The increase in water use efficiency recorded under drip fertigation system was mainly due to better performance of the crop and increased yield by effective utilization of available water

and nutrients that were supplied at regular intervals throughout the crop period to meet the crop demand. An increased water use efficiency under drip fertigation was also reported by Muralidhar (1998), Dhanalakshmi (1999) and Banger and Chaudhari (2004). Application of 100 % RDF along with bio stimulants (T9) significantly increased the nutrient use effieciency of chilli in both Kharif and summer season. T9 (T5 + liquid biofertilizers + Panchagavya + Humic acid) recorded higher nitrogen use efficiency of (33.75 and 32.58 kg.

Table 1 : Effe ct of fertigati on on water use efficiency (kg ha mm -1 ) of chillies cv. KKM-1 WUE kg ha mm -1

Treatments

Kharif

Summer

T1

3.41

3.61

T2

3.64

3.81

T3

4.61

4.10

T4

4.21

4.32

T5

5.38

5.63

T6

5.06

5.42

T7

5.80

6.16

T8

5.45

5.67

T9

6.12

6.39

Table 2 : Effe ct of fertigati on on nutrient use effi ciency (kg. kg NPK ha -1) of chillies cv. KKM-1 Nitrogen kg. kg. kg N ha-1 Phosphorus kg. kg P ha-1 Treatments Kharif Summer Kharif Summer

Pot assium kg. kg K ha-1 Kharif Summer

T1

18.83

17.67

37.67

35.33

75.33

70.67

T2

20.08

19.42

40.17

38.83

80.33

77.67

T3

25.42

24.00

50.83

48.00

101.67

96.00

T4

23.25

22.00

46.50

44.00

93.00

88.00

T5

29.67

28.75

59.33

57.50

118.67

115.00

T6

27.92

27.67

55.83

55.33

111.67

110.67

T7

32.00

31.42

64.00

62.83

128.00

125.66

T8

30.08

28.92

60.17

57.83

120.33

115.67

T9

33.75

32.58

67.50

65.17

135.00

130.33

Table 3 : Effe ct of fertigati on on agronomic use efficiency (kg. kg NPK ha -1) of chillies cv. KKM-1 Nitrogen kg. kg N ha-1 Phosphorus kg. kg P ha-1 Treatments Kharif Summer Kharif Summer -

-

Pot assium kg. kg K ha-1 Kharif Summer

T1

-

-

-

-

T2

1.25

1.00

2.50

2.00

5.00

4.00

T3

6.59

5.58

13.17

11.17

26.33

22.33

T4

4.42

3.58

8.83

7.17

17.67

14.33

T5

10.83

10.33

21.67

20.67

43.33

41.33

T6

9.09

9.25

18.17

18.50

36.33

37.00

T7

13.17

13.00

26.33

26.00

52.67

52.00

T8

11.25

10.50

22.50

21.00

45.00

42.00

T9

14.92

14.17

29.83

28.33

59.67

56.67



availability of plant nutrients and irrigation water throughout the crop growth period resulting to higher fruit yield under drip fertigation system. The increase nutrient use efficiency under drip fertigation was also reported by Veeranna et al. (2000) in chillies and Shobana (2002) in Radish. Fertigation of 100 per cent water soluble fertilizer along with bio stimulants recorded higher agronomic use efficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium than the control during both the seasons. This was mainly due to the application of optimum level of fertilizers, which resulted in higher yield of chillies. Lower agronomic use efficiency under lower level of fertigation might be attributed to lesser yield. Generally, agronomic use efficiency was considerable by drip fertigation compared to soil application of fertilizers. This could be attributed to continuous availability of nutrients and water to the active root zone of the crop and minimum leaching of nutrients away from the root zone. This is in harmony with the findings of Veeraputhiran (2000) and Aujla et al. (2005). They have reported higher agronomic use efficiency under drip fertigation compared to soil application of fertilizer. Authors’ affiliations : M. SYAMALA, Department of Pla nt Pathology, Ta mil Na du Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

REFERENCES Aujla, M.S., Thind, H.S. and Buttar, G. S. (2005). Cotton yield and water use efficiency at various levels of water and N through drip irrigation under two methods of planting. Agric. Water Manage., 71: 167-179. Fig. 1 :

Effect of fertigation on nutrient use efficiency (kg. kg NPK h-1 ) of chillies

kg N ha-1), phosphorus use efficiency of (67.50 and 65.17 kg. kg P ha-1) and potassium use efficiency of (135.00 and 130.33 kg. kg K ha -1 ). Fertigation reduces the nutrient loss and thus, permits better availability and uptake of nutrients by crops, leading to higher yield with higher nutrient use efficiency. In this experiment, drip fertigation of 100 per cent water soluble fertilizer along with bio stimulants recorded higher nutrient use efficiency. The possible reason for this phenomenon is due to better



Banger, A.R. and Chaudhari, B.C. (2004). Nutrient mobility in soil, uptake, quality and yield of sugarcane as influenced by drip fertigation in medium vertisols. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 52(2): 164-171. Dhanalakshmi, M. (1999). Effect of crop geometry, drip and fertigation on yield and quality of sugarcane. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Agricultural College and Research Institute (TNAU). Madurai, TAMIL NADU (INDIA). Muralidhar, A.P. (1998). Effect of fertigation with normal and water soluble fertilizers compare to drip and furrow systems in capsicum – maize – sunflower cropping sequence. Ph.D., Thesis, Univrsity of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru, KARNATAKA (INDIA).

EFFECT OF DRIP FERTIGATION ON CHILLI - AGRONOMIC USE EFFICIENCY (Capsicum annuum L.) CV. KKM-1

Shobana, R. (2002). Performance evaluation of microsprinkler fertigation with water soluble fertilizers on water, fertilizer use and yield of radish. M.Sc. (Ag.), Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA). Veeranna, H.K., Abdul Khalak and Sujith, G.M. (2000). Effect of fertigation and irrigation methods on yield, water and fertilizer

use efficiencies in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) South Indian Hort., 49 (Special): 101-103. Veeraputhiran, R. (2000). Effect of drip irrigation and fertigation on growth and yield of hybrid cotton. Ph.D. Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA).


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Evaluation of weather based crop insurance in Karnataka as a risk management strategy H. JEYANTHI


How to cite this article : Jeyanthi, H. (2017). Evaluation of weather based crop insurance in Karnataka as a risk management strategy. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/ 1-8.

BACKGROUND

KEY WORDS : Crop, Insurance

Author for correspondence : H. JEYANTHI

ADRTC, Institute for Social and Economic Change (I.S.E.C.) , BENGALURU (KARNATAKA) INDIA

Email : jeyanthih@ isec.ac.in

AND

OBJECTIVES

In India, many traditional crop insurance programs were implemented to mitigate the risk of farmers and secure reasonable income from the cultivation at the time of occurrence of extreme events leading to crop loss. Weather being a major risk factor, weather index based crop insurance program was experimented to specifically address the weather and its related risks in India. The first experiment was attempted by ICICI Lambord General Insurance Company in 2003 in Andra Pradesh. Agriculture Insurance Company of India, a public sector agriculture insurance company had taken up the experiment to the next level by implementing it as a commercially viable crop insurance scheme in 2007 and piloted across India in the name of Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS). Later other registered general insurance companies got license to do crop insurance and entered into crop insurance business. Over the years several improvements were made by various state

Governments and number of farmers insured increased from 6.78 lakhs during 2007-08 to 90.30 lakhs during 2015-16(Government of India 2016). But slowly the momentum in implementing the scheme is lost and the very purpose of the scheme such as early settlement of claims, quality of risk (weather) data, and compensation for qualitative yield loss (Rao, 2007; Rao, 2011;Clark et al. 2012)are missing. Now, all the stake holders of weather risk mitigation initiative such as insurance companies, State Governments, weather data providers are hesitant to move ahead with WBCIS. One of the reasons is the legal cases related to poor or no claim from WBCIS, poor index design of WBCIS and poor quality of weather data before consumer courts at National, State and district level1. Several state governments had not notified WBCIS scheme in the recent past, even if notifies only for few crops, and found difficult to get insurance companies to operate at competitive rates. At last the ultimate sufferers are the poor farmers who are in need of support to mitigate risk in cultivation and


H. JEYANTHI

the Nation is required to provide a helping hand to farmers who help to achieve self-sustainability in food production in the country. The main objective of this paper is to study the performance and efficiency of weather based crop insurance program in Karnataka as a risk management strategy in crop production. There are two types of crop insurance schemes viz. yield index based and weather index based. Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) has inherent advantages in comparison to yield index insurance with respect to moral hazard, adverse selection, fast loss assessment and low monitoring costs (Rao, 2010; Banerjee, 2012; Clarke et al., 2012). Though weather based crop insurance has more advantages, it has not shown improved and consistent performance over the years. So an effort was made here to understand the reasons behind that, study where it performed better compared to yield based crop insurance schemes in India viz. National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS) and Modified National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (MNAIS), study where it lags behind the above schemes and come up with some solutions from the study to make it a better risk management alternative. For this study the state of Karnataka was selected since the state has a diverse set of crops covered under crop insurance

So ur c e : Agricultural Statistics at a Gla nce 2 016. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi. Fig. 1 :

Crop insurance Coverage in Karnataka (Kharif, Rabi and Summer)

scheme and it has piloted all new crop insurance schemes in the country. It is one of the States where more crop insurance related problems are recorded and where private sector insurance companies are very actively participating ever since the private sector insurance companies were allowed to do crop insurance business. This study is based on the analysis of crop insurance related information such as number of farmers insured, area insured, sum insured, premium collected, claim settled, number of farmers benefitted during Kharif, Rabi

Table 1: Crop insurance coverage in Karnataka (all schemes and all seasons) No. of farmers Area insured Sum insured Gross premium Year insured (Lakhs) (Lakh Ha.) (Crore Rs.) (Crore Rs.) 2000

3.68

6.86

Claim amount (Crore Rs.)

No. of farmers received claims (Lakhs)

392.57

10.49

3.27

0.23 3.34

2001

6.76

9.89

577.03

15.84

148.65

2002

10.30

15.14

1247.29

40.85

348.20

5.99

2003

18.62

28.46

1553.15

44.01

526.82

12.49

2004

9.63

13.82

1123.23

39.89

30.50

1.51

2005

9.71

16.79

1282.41

48.52

45.37

1.31

2006

13.40

26.90

1535.83

47.40

206.68

6.21

2007

6.81

16.56

1152.27

44.01

33.96

1.02

2008

13.71

21.32

1591.91

50.13

154.38

3.74

2009

12.10

17.28

1655.39

59.27

243.20

5.79

2010

7.82

11.38

1522.68

48.13

52.20

0.95

2011

17.00

22.60

2153.85

104.04

176.89

7.07

2012

9.86

12.88

2011.19

133.73

249.04

5.06

2013

6.63

9.12

1602.49

134.43

62.61

2.38

2014

11.12

15.25

3246.86

333.81

223.82

4.99

2015

11.99

17.04

3698.27

94.72

872.98

Tot al

169.13

261.27

8.71 70.78

CAGR (%) 2.52 1.03 10.38 16.39 Source: Agricultural Stat istics at a Glance 2016. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Minist ry of Agricult ure and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 55 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

EVALUATION OF WEATHER BASED CROP INSURANCE IN KARNATAKA AS A RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

and Summer season in the State of Karnataka. The disaggregated district wise and crop wise data were collected for a period of 16 years from 2000 to 2015from Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agriculture, Government of Karnataka. Different crops and districts notified under different crop insurance schemes were collected from the notifications issued by the Government of Karnataka for various years. Other than the crop insurance data collected, discussion was made with officials in AIC of India and Crop Insurance Cell, Government of Karnataka. It was planned to conduct the performance analysis by studying the growth in the above data over the years since inception, analyzing crop wise and district wise crop insurance penetration by calculating proportion of insured area to normal area under cultivation, and comparing with yield based insurance by calculating insurance coverage under both set of schemes. Performance of scheme was also analyzed and compared by calculating average premium rate, average claim rate, average claim cost, claim ratio, pricing multiple, average sum insured per unit of insurance (here it is area in hectare), average claim received per beneficiary farmer and proportion of insured farmers received claims.

The paper is organized as follows. The following section discusses the district wise and crop wise performance of crop insurance schemes in Karnataka. Next section explains the performance of Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme in Karnataka and then comparative performance analyses with other crop insurance schemes. The paper ends with findings and conclusions of the study. Performance of crop insurance schemes in Karnataka : The first ever crop insurance program started in India during 1972 which was based on individual approach and lasted up to 1978. Later Pilot Crop Insurance Scheme (PCIS) and Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme (CCIS) were operational in the country from 1979 to 1984 and 1985 to 1999, respectively. From 1999 Rabi season, the CCIS was discontinued and replaced by the National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS), which was being implemented as the flagship yield based crop insurance program by the Government of India. In Karnataka crops are cultivated during three seasons viz. Kharif, Rabi and Summer and for the

Table 2: District wise Insurance coverage of Agricultural Crops in Karnataka Normal Area under Average area insured Average area insured Sr. Agriculture Crops (WBCIS Period 2006-2010) (MNAISPeriod2011-2015) District No. % to tot al % insured to % insured to Area Area Area area normal area normal area

(Area in l akh ha) Area insured during 2015 Area

% insured to normal area

% to tot al insured 18.7

1.

Kalburgi

10.21

9.2

3.97

38.9

2.52

24.7

3.19

31.3

2.

Belgaum

9.93

9.0

0.67

6.8

0.74

7.4

0.76

7.7

4.5

3.

Vijayapura

9.66

8.7

1.24

12.8

1.81

18.8

1.98

20.5

11.6

4.

Raichur

6.77

6.1

1.20

17.7

0.45

6.7

0.23

3.4

1.4

5.

Bellary

5.72

5.2

0.17

3.0

0.15

2.6

0.22

3.8

1.3

6.

Bagalkot

5.47

4.9

0.91

16.6

0.61

11.2

0.44

8.1

2.6

7.

Mysore

5.19

4.7

0.05

1.0

0.06

1.1

0.04

0.8

0.2

8.

Koppal

4.74

4.3

1.09

23.1

0.37

7.9

0.45

9.5

2.7

9.

T umkur

4.7

4.3

0.49

10.4

0.59

12.5

0.52

11.0

3.0

10.

Gadag

4.56

4.1

1.23

26.9

1.26

27.7

1.68

36.8

9.9

11.

Bidar

4.47

4.0

1.94

43.4

1.16

26.0

1.25

28.1

7.4

12.

Yadgir

4.24

3.8

0.64

15.0

0.62

14.6

0.84

19.7

4.9

13.

Dharwad

4.11

3.7

0.84

20.5

1.57

38.3

1.95

47.3

11.4

14.

Haveri

4.05

3.7

1.09

26.9

1.41

34.8

1.47

36.3

8.6

15.

U.Kannada

0.95

0.9

0.39

41.3

0.43

45.7

0.45

47.6

2.7

Other districts

25.78

23.3

2.45

9.5

1.06

4.1

1.56

6.0

9.2

State 110.55 100.0 17.86 16.2 14.83 13.4 17.03 15.4 100.0 Source: Normal area data from Government of Karnat aka (2016b), Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State and average area insured data is author’s calculation based on dat a collected from Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agricult ure, Government of Karnataka. 24 56 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


H. JEYANTHI

purpose of crop insurance these three seasons are notified separately. Yield data is recorded separately for these seasons, premium collected and claims are settled accordingly. Kharif is the major crop cultivation season in Karnataka. On an average 89 per cent of premium collected is from Kharif season and remaining 11 per cent is collected during Rabi and Summer seasons together 2 . NAIS scheme was implemented in Karnataka from 2000onwards till 2015 except 2014. During 2007 Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) was introduced

in few districts of Karnataka. Later it was extended to all districts but during 2014, only commercial and horticultural crops alone were covered under the scheme. During 2010 Rabi season, Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS) was introduced in three districts of Karnataka viz. Kalburgi, Tumkur and Shivamoga and later extended to Uttara Kannada during 2011 and all districts during 2014. During 2014, NAIS was withdrawn and only commercial schemes viz. MNAIS and WBCIS were operational in all districts. But again during 2015 NAIS scheme was introduced

Table 3: Crop wise Insurance cove rage in Karnataka Normal Area Crop

(Area in l akh ha) Average area insured (2006-2010)

Average area insured (2011-2015)

Area insured during 2015

Area

% to total area

Area

% insured

Area

% insured

Area

% normal area insured

% to tot al insured during 2015

Cereals: Paddy

13.84

12.5

2.40

17.4

1.68

12.2

1.97

14.2

11.6

Jowar

14.08

12.7

0.81

5.7

1.26

8.9

1.43

10.2

8.4

Maize

11.66

10.5

1.72

14.7

1.97

16.9

2.44

20.9

14.3

Ragi

7.81

7.1

0.06

0.8

0.02

0.3

0.08

1.0

0.4

Bajra

3.21

2.9

0.11

3.4

0.05

1.5

0.05

1.4

0.3

Wheat

2.65

2.4

0.19

7.0

0.41

15.4

0.28

10.6

1.6

Minor Millet s

0.42

0.4

0.01

2.0

0.01

2.2

0.00

0.7

0.0

Tot al Cereals:

53.67

48.5

5.30

9.9

5.40

10.1

6.24

11.6

36.7

Pul ses: Bengal gram

9.04

8.2

1.03

11.4

1.52

16.9

2.68

29.6

15.7

Red gram

6.43

5.8

4.07

63.4

3.25

50.5

3.75

58.3

22.0

Green gram

3.76

3.4

1.38

36.6

1.06

28.1

1.24

33.1

7.3

Horse gram

2.71

2.5

0.27

10.0

0.04

1.4

0.02

0.6

0.1

Black gram

1.28

1.2

0.64

49.8

0.31

24.2

0.16

12.7

1.0

Other pulses

2.04

1.8

0.00

0.0

0.00

0.0

0.00

0.0

0.0

Tot al Pulses:

25.26

22.8

7.39

29.3

6.18

24.5

7.85

31.1

46.1

Tot al food grains:

78.93

71.4

12.69

16.1

11.58

14.7

14.10

17.9

82.8

Oilseeds: Groundnut

8.42

7.6

1.84

21.9

1.25

14.9

1.51

17.9

8.9

Sunflower

9.05

8.2

2.66

29.4

0.81

9.0

0.45

5.0

2.7

Soya bean

1.88

1.7

0.27

14.4

0.39

20.5

0.70

37.3

4.1

Sesamum

0.78

0.7

0.06

8.2

0.07

8.9

0.03

4.3

0.2

Safflower

0.68

0.6

0.22

32.1

0.28

41.3

0.22

32.9

1.3

Other oilseeds

0.79

0.7

0.02

2.6

0.03

4.4

0.01

1.8

0.1

Tot al Oilseeds:

21.60

19.5

5.07

23.5

2.84

13.1

2.94

13.6

17.2

Cotton

4.34

3.9

0.10

2.3

0.51

11.7

0.00

0.0

0.0

Sugarcane, Tobacco & Mest a

5.68

5.1

0.00

0.0

0.00

0.0

0.00

0.0

0.0

Commercial Crops:

Grand Total 110.55 100.0 17.86 16.2 14.93 13.5 17.03 15.4 100.0 Source: Normal area data from Government of Karnat aka (2016a), Profile of Agricult ure St at istics Karnataka St ate and average area insured dat a is author’s calculation based on dat a collected from Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agricult ure, Government of Karnataka. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 57 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


and during 2016 it was replaced with Prime Minister Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and Restructured WBCIS schemes. Crop insurance coverage in Karnataka is presented in Table 1 and Graph 1. In Karnataka, under crop insurance 1.69 crore farmers were covered in the past 16 years (2000 to 2015) altogether in all seasons combined and on an average 38 per cent of the insured farmers received claims. Number of farmers insured recorded Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 2.52 per cent while Gross Premium collected recorded CAGR of 16.39 per cent. Highest participation of farmers was observed during 2003 (NAIS was the only scheme) followed by 2011 (MNAIS was the major scheme) and 2008 (NAIS was the major scheme and WBCIS was introduced). Under NAIS regime fixed premium was charged which was less and affordable to farmers. Under this scheme, insurance company’s claim liability was only up to premium amount and balance claims were shared by State and Central Governments equally. In NAIS scheme, there was sufficient time to participate in the insurance scheme by farmers even after the risk period had been started by observing the weather conditions and thereby whenever weather condition was bad, farmers’ participation would be more. Thereby there was more moral hazard and adverse selection issues in NAIS scheme leading to huge loss to exchequer in terms of high claim payouts. Then Government introduced commercial schemes viz. WBCIS and MNAIS where the risk (commercial) premium was charged and claim liability rest with insurance companies. Though premium subsidy was given3, premium payable by farmer was higher than premium payable under NAIS scheme and making it less affordable for farmers. When WBCIS was Table 4: WBCIS Insurance cove rage in Karnataka from inception Number of farmers Area insured Sum insured Year (Lakhs) (Lakh Ha.) (Crore Rs.)

introduced it was expected to offer lot of benefits such as early claim settlement due to real time weather data (Crop Cutting Experiment (CCE) based data takes long time to generate), fewer claim expenses to insurer compared to yield based scheme (due to no monitoring expenses for CCE), fool proof data (more chances for manipulation in CCE data), meet the insurance needs of commercial and horticultural crop growers and to provide insurance coverage to the crops for which historical yield data was not available. Though WBCIS was introduced during 2007, there was not much increase in premium collection since the scheme was operational in few districts only. Also WBCIS was compulsory for loanee farmers (farmers who availed loan from bank for crop cultivation) in that districts, but non-loanee farmers could opt for NAIS where cut off dates for participation was long. There was a steep rise in premium collection from 2011 onwards because of introduction of MNAIS scheme and it was highest during 2014 since commercial schemes charging risk premium alone were operational during the time. Performance of crop insurance schemes - district wise analysis : District wise normal area under agricultural crops and area covered under crop insurance schemes are presented in Table 2. Total normal area under agricultural crops is 110.55 lakh ha in the state of Karnataka.Kalburgi, Belgaum, Vijayapura, Raichur and Bellary districts constitutes about 38 per cent of total normal area under agricultural crops. Average area insured is analyzed for two periods. One period is to match with the period of WBCIS implementation and another period from 2011 to 2015 to match with effective MNAIS implementation

Gross premium (Crore Rs.)

Claim amount (Crore Rs.)

No. of farmers received claims (Lakhs)

2007

0.44

0.50

53.01

7.03

5.24

0.35

2008

0.29

0.35

44.12

4.44

3.89

0.22

2009

1.08

1.32

169.78

17.44

16.38

0.71

2010

0.55

0.70

101.33

10.77

2.90

0.33

2011

1.57

1.91

248.89

25.80

9.82

1.22

2012

2.12

2.69

384.51

42.91

43.54

2.06

2013

2.14

2.71

364.69

40.29

39.96

1.91

2014

1.74

1.80

963.41

115.41

62.99

1.24

Tot al 9.92 11.98 Source: Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agricult ure, Government of Karnataka. 24 58 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


8.04

H. JEYANTHI

period. Only in Kalburgi, Bidar, Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri and U.Kannada districts more than 20 per cent of normal area under agricultural crops was insured. There was a huge decline in crop insurance coverage in Koppal and Bidar districts from 2006-2010 to 2011-2015 and huge increase in insurance coverage in Dharwad and Haveri districts during the same period. The reason behind reduction in insurance coverage in Koppal and Bidar districts was the reduction in insurance coverage under Greengram, blackgram, redgram, groundnut, and sunflower crops because of introduction of WBCIS and MNAIS schemes where risk premium was charged which was very much higher than the NAIS flat premium rates for these crops. The increase in insurance coverage in Dharwad and Haveri was due to increase in the coverage of Bengal gram, cotton and maize where insurance coverage of cotton was increased due to the introduction of WBCIS. U.Kannada always topped in insurance coverage with more than 40 per cent of normal area under agriculture covered. In Karnataka, on an average only about 15 per cent of normal area under agricultural crops are insured. Out of 17.03 lakh ha area insured during 2015, Kalburgi (18.7%), Vijayapura (11.6%), Dharwad (11.4%), Gadag (9.9%), Haveri (8.6%) and Bidar (7.4%) districts constitutes about 68 per cent of total area insured and the same trend was observed in the previous years too.

So ur c e : Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agriculture, Government of Karnataka Fig. 2 :

Premium, Claims and Claim ratio under NAIS, MNAIS and WBCIS in Karnataka

Table 5: Com parison of Insurance cove rage under various crop insurance schemes in Karnataka Area insured (Lakh Ha) Proportionat e Area insured (%) Year NAIS MNAIS WBCIS NAIS MNAIS 2000

WBCIS

6.86

100

2001

9.89

100

2002

15.14

100

2003

28.46

100

2004

13.82

100

2005

16.79

100

2006

26.90

100

2007

16.06

0.50

97.0

3.0

2008

20.96

0.35

98.3

1.7

2009

15.96

1.32

92.4

2010

10.56

0.11

0.70

92.8

1.0

2011

17.55

3.15

1.91

77.6

13.9

8.4

2012

6.56

3.63

2.69

50.9

28.2

20.9

2013

2.94

3.47

2.71

32.3

38.0

29.7

2014

0.00

13.44

1.80

0.0

88.2

11.8

100.0

0.0

0.0

2015 Source:

17.03 0.01 0.00 Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agriculture, Government of Karnataka

7.6 6.2



Performance of crop insurance schemes - Crop wise analysis : Crop wise insurance coverage in Karnataka is presented in Table 3. Cereals constituted about 49 per cent of total normal area under agricultural crops but only 10 per cent of them were insured. Pulses constituted about 23 per cent of normal area and about 29 per cent of themwere insured during 2006-2010. Oilseeds occupying 20 per cent of normal area, 24 per cent of them were insured during the same period. Insurance coverage under pulses and oilseed crops reduced during 2011 to 2015 period due to high premium charged under commercial schemes viz. WBCIS and MNAIS. Sugarcane crop was insured during 2002 and after that it was never notified in Karnataka. Cotton occupying about four per cent of normal area under agricultural crops, on an average only 2.3 per cent of it was insured during the period 2006-2010. After the introduction of WBCIS in all districts, area insured under cotton increased during the period 2011-2014 (11.7%) and during 2015, it was not notified and not insured and the reasons behind are explained in later section. Out of 17.03 lakh ha insured during the year 2015, redgram (22%), bengalgram(15.7%), maize (14.3%), paddy (11.6%), groundnut (8.9%), jowar (8.4%) and greengram (7.3%) constituted about 88 per cent of total insured area and all other crops constituted the remaining 12 per cent. This indicates that only major cereals, pulses and oilseed crop were insured mainly and minor crops were not given much importance by farmers to protect it from risk of loss. Government and insurance industry haven’t shown much interest in protecting low value crops from crop

loss. This is not a good trend observed in the state which will affect self-sufficiency in food production and lead to increased demand for imported food and lead to nutritional imbalance. In case of oilseeds more than 30 per cent of normal area under soya bean and safflower were insured which is a good signobserved from the analysis. Performance of WBCIS in Karnataka : WBCIS scheme was implemented in the state of Karnataka from 2007onwards when it was introduced in the country on pilot basis during 2007. Slowly insurance coverage under WBCIS scheme increased from 0.50 lakh ha during 2007 to 1.80 lakh ha during 2014 and the scheme was withdrawn during 2015 due to unsatisfactory performance under WBCIS during the previous year as observed by the state government1 (also refer claim ratio given in graph 2). The performance of the scheme is presented in Table 4. Totally about 10 lakh farmers were covered and Rs.264 crore premium was collected during the eight years period (2007-2014). Over the eight years period in Karnataka, insurance companies were able to provide claim benefit to nearly 81per cent (cumulative across all seasons) of the farmers insured by it. The average claim ratio2 in WBCIS for the eight years was nearly 72 per cent which indicates that out of every 100 rupees of premium received, companies have paid out an average of 72 rupees as claims to the insured farmers. Sum insured per hectare for each crop was fixed in WBCIS scheme which was same for both loanee and nonloanee farmers unlike yield based schemes (NAIS and MNAIS) where it was different. Sum insured per

Table 6: Anal ysis on premium colle cte d and claim settle d in Karnataka Average premium rate (%) Average claim rate (%) Year MNAIS NAIS WBCIS MNAIS NAIS WBCIS

MNAIS

Pricing multiple (%) NAIS WBCIS

2007

-

3.36

13.26

-

2.61

9.89

-

129

134

2008

-

2.95

10.06

-

9.72

8.82

-

30

114

2009

-

2.82

10.27

-

15.27

9.65

-

18

106

2010

6.42

2.59

10.63

-

3.33

2.87

-

78

371

2011

12.91

2.26

10.36

8.20

8.89

3.95

157

25

263

2012

10.40

2.34

11.16

7.79

15.12

11.32

133

15

99

2013

12.03

2.62

11.05

1.46

2.25

10.96

826

116

101

2014

9.56

-

11.98

7.04

-

6.54

136

-

183

2015

9.77

2.56

-

5.10

23.62

-

191

11

-

Average Notes: Source:

10.18 2.90 11.10 7.71 12.64 8.00 247 69 171 Average Premium rate=Gross premium/Sum insured, Average claim rat e= Claims/Sum insured, Pricing multiple= Average Premium rate/Average Claim rat e For NAIS, final average pertains to 16 years period from 2000-2015 Author’s calculat ion based on data collect ed from Crop Insurance Cell, Department of Agriculture, Government of Karnat aka.



H. JEYANTHI

hectare was revised upwards in WBCIS scheme during 2014 and thereby there was a big jump in total sum insured and premium collection during 2014 but number of farmers insured and area insured reduced from previous year because of increased farmer premium due to increased sum insured. Comparative performance of WBCIS scheme in Karnataka : To analyze the comparative performance of WBCIS scheme, crop insurance data pertaining to other schemes were collected and analyzed. When WBCIS was implemented in the year 2007, it was compulsory for loanee farmers to go with the scheme and optional for nonloanee farmers to go with NAIS or WBCIS. Up to the year 2013, both the field crops, commercial and horticultural crops were notified under WBCIS in the selected districts. In Kharif 2014, it was decided by the state government that field crops will be notified under yield based insurance scheme and commercial and horticultural crops will be notified under weather based crop insurance scheme since ascertaining yield data is difficult/cumbersome process for the later. The scheme guidelines of yield based insurance schemes says that for a crop to be notified under yield based insurance scheme, availability of historical yield data for adequate number of years and capacity of the State to undertake requisite number of Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs). The crops that do not fulfill this criterion usually will be notified under weather based crop insurance scheme by the State Government. Table 5 reveals that though WBCIS was implemented from Rabi 2007, less than 10 per cent of area was insured under WBCIS scheme and remaining

area was insured under NAIS scheme till 2009. When MNAIS scheme was introduced on pilot basis during 2010 Rabi season, only about one per cent of area was insured under the scheme, but later area insured recorded steep increase till 2014. From 2013 Rabi season NAIS scheme was withdrawn by central government and National Crop Insurance Programme (NCIP) was introduced with two components viz. MNAIS and WBCIS. During 2014 area insured under WBCIS declined from previous year because field crops were moved to MNAIS scheme. In 2015 NAIS scheme was again notified in Karnataka replacing MNAIS scheme because of political change at the Centre and the new Government was planning for introducing new crop insurance scheme from the year 2016 onwards. During 2015 WBCIS was not implemented in Karnataka because of its poor performance in previous years and improvement efforts made by the government took time. By the time the government thought of notifying WBCIS scheme, risk period was already exposed and so the scheme was not notified. Again during Rabi 2015 season state government made efforts to insure some of the horticultural crops usually notified under WBCIS schemes such as onion, tomato and potato under MNAIS scheme1. Based on the trial taken during Rabi 2015, from 2016 onwards, Karnataka government decided to implement Prime Minister Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)a new yield based scheme for all vegetable crops and ensured that almost all crops are notified under the scheme except fruits and plantation crops which are covered under Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS). Premium collected, claim settled and claim ratio under NAIS, MNAIS and WBCIS schemes from their

Table 7: Com parison of risk assumed (sum insure d) and risk compensated(claim settled) unde r various crop insurance schemes in Karnataka Per hectare Sum Insured (Rs.) Per farmer claims (Rs.) % insured farmers received claims Year MNAIS NAIS WBCIS MNAIS NAIS WBCIS MNAIS NAIS WBCIS 2007

6847

10588

4321

1486

10

81

2008

7383

10089

4270

1792

26

76

2009

9307

12669

4464

2307

46

66

2010

13316

14383

7871

892

8

59

2011

10523

8970

12984

2646

804

32

39

78

2012

17713

14478

14299

9719

5845

2114

23

47

97

2013

18921

19765

13458

3868

6048

2087

12

9

90

2014

16988

53395

4282

5095

40

2015 Source:

53335 21697 34465 10027 10 73 Author’s calculat ion based on data collect ed from Crop Insurance Cell, Department ofAgricult ure, Government of Karnat aka.

71 -



inception were given in Graph 2. Most of the years in the past 16 years period claim ratio (claim to premium ratio) was more than 100 per cent under NAIS scheme and reverse in case of WBCIS and MNAIS which were commercial schemes and mostly implemented with the participation of private insurance companies along with AIC of India, the Public Sector Undertaking. From the point of view of insurance company, regulator and the exchequer, claim ratio analysis is an important aspect as it tells how much is paid as claims from the premium income. Average claim ratio under NAIS was 450 per cent, in MNAIS 89 per cent and in WBCIS it was about 72 per cent. It means, from every 100 rupees premium received, 450, 89 and 79 rupees were paid as claims, respectively in NAIS, MNAIS and WBCIS schemes. From this it can be concluded that it is not possible to run crop insurance schemes as like NAIS by charging flat low premium since it was not possible to meet the claims from premium income. When risk premium was charged under commercial schemes viz. MNAIS and WBCIS, it was profitable for insurance companies and exchequer too. But when there was a cap on risk premium charged in commercial schemes during 2013 Rabi season and 2014 Kharif and Rabi seasons2, it was reflected in reduced claims and claim ratio was less during the time. In case of WBCIS, weather triggers which forms the basis for claim settlement were set to match with capped premium and so it reflected in worst claim ratio under WBCIS during 2014. Being WBCIS a profit making business, private insurance companies have shown much interest in the scheme and actively participated. Because of this, weather trigger setting become a number game, technically difficult for the government to evaluate and resulted in worst performance year after year and at last Government of Karnataka decided to withdraw the scheme during the year 2015. Next, analysis on premium collected and claim settled under WBCIS scheme was done in comparison with NAIS and MNAIS schemes and results are presented in Table 6. Average premium rate1 indicates premium charged for every 100 rupees sum insured and average claim rate (cost)2 indicates for every 100 rupees sum insured how much was paid as claims. When we compare the average premium rate (premium to sum insured ratio) of three crop insurance schemes, in all the years average premium rate of NAIS was the lowest 24 62 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


followed by WBCIS and MNAIS. When we compare the average claim rate (claim to sum insured ratio) over which loadings were done to arrive at commercial premium it was less than the premium rate in all the years under MNAIS and WBCIS and reverse in case of NAIS. Pricing multiple3 explains the premium loadings4 done to arrive at commercial premium quoted by insurance companies. For example if claims are on an average two rupees and premium charged is three rupees, then pricing multiple is 150 per cent. From the analysis, we come to know that loading was on an average 247 per cent in case of MNAIS and 171 per cent in case of WBCIS. Premium loading which takes care of business procurement expenses, claim handling expenses and profit margin should be maintained at reasonable level so that premium rate will be affordable for farmers. In case of NAIS, premium was not sufficient to meet the claim expenses which were known from the pricing multiple which was less than 100. Under MNAIS scheme, during 2013 pricing multiple was 800 per cent which shows how insurance companies were heavily loaded the premium and earned huge profit whose books were also protected through reinsurance arrangements. In crop insurance, sum insured indicates maximum amount of risk assumed by the insurance company. Likewise risk compensated is the amount of claim settled against the risk of loss to the farmer. Premium rates and claims are expressed as a percentage of sum insured. Analysis of this risk assumed and risk compensated reveals many facts such as how much risk of farmer is insured and against the insured risk how is compensated. The result of this analysis under various crop insurance schemes in Karnataka is presented in Table 7. The base for sum insured in crop insurance schemes is the scale of finance fixed by the banks since scale of finance is fixed based on the cost of cultivation of the crops. When there is loss of crop, farmer is going to lose all the expenses incurred to cultivate the crop and so scale of finance formed the basis for sum insured in crop insurance. Under WBCIS, loss of yield was estimated by proxy index of weather parameters. Weather triggers leading to loss of yield and compensation per unit of trigger above/below the benchmark for each phase of crop growth is defined and maximum sum insured for each phase is also defined and that is called termsheet. Premium is also quoted based on the above term sheet. i.e. Sum insured and premium rates are predefined in

H. JEYANTHI

the term sheet. But in case of yield based insurance schemes sum insured was fixed differently for loanee and non-loanee farmers. In NAIS scheme sum insured was the loan amount disbursed for loanee farmer and it was product of Threshold Yield (TY) and Minimum Support Price for nonloanee farmers. Actual total risk of a farmer is the loss in input cost expenses and loss of output. Sum insured basis for loanee farmers covers part of input cost expenses and for non-loanee farmers it covers the risk of loss in output only and so both the basis of sum insured were less than the actual total risk of crops. Later under MNAIS scheme improvement was made in the definition of sum insured as loan sanctioned for loanee farmers and improvement in the definition of TY led to increase in sum insured per hectare for nonloanee. Under MNAIS scheme, TY was defined as the average yield of recent past seven years excluding maximum two declared calamity years yield multiplied by the Indemnity Level (IL). The same in NAIS was defined as three (for paddy and wheat) or five (for other crops) years average yield multiplied by IL. In NAIS ILs were 60%, 80% and 90% for high, moderate and low risks which was improved to 70%, 80% and 90% in MNAIS which further improved to 80% and 90% later. So per hectare average sum insured was comparatively better in MNAIS and WBCIS scheme than NAIS scheme. WBCIS scheme was really proposed to manage moderate risk or catastrophic risk of crops. Per cent insured farmers received claims shows that under WBCIS scheme, more insured farmers received claims than other two schemes. It means there were frequent claim payments under WBCIS scheme, which was also reflected in less per farmer claims than other two schemes. It also indicates that under WBCIS small risks were compensated or small amount of benefit was given regularly instead of compensating adequately when there was a huge loss and also led to high premium rates because of frequent claim payment. Performance of the crop insurance scheme cannot be judged alone from claim payout to more farmers but need to be judged from adequate compensation when there was a loss. Summary and Conclusion : In Karnataka about 90 per cent of the crop insurance premium was collected during Kharif crop season and remaining during Rabi and Summer season.

District wise analysis of crop insurance schemes’ performance in Karnataka reveals that there was huge decline in area covered under crop insurance in some districts where pulses were mainly insured due to the introduction of commercial schemes viz. MNAIS and WBCIS where high premium was charged for these crops. At the same time due to the introduction of same schemes in some other districts where commercial and horticultural crops were mainly grown crop insurance area coverage increased. Crop wise analysis reveals that insurance coverage under pulses and oilseed crops reduced during past six years due to high premium charged under commercial schemes viz. WBCIS and MNAIS. It also reveals that only major cereals, pulses and oilseed crop were insured and minor crops were less insured. It can also be interpreted that government and insurance industry haven’t shown much interest in protecting low value crops from crop loss. Comparative performance analysis of insurance schemes in Karnataka reveals that for every 100 rupees premium received, 450, 89 and 79 rupees were paid as claims, respectively in NAIS, MNAIS and WBCIS schemes. From this it can be concluded that it is not possible to run crop insurance schemes as like NAIS by charging flat low premium but when risk premium was charged under commercial schemes viz. MNAIS and WBCIS, it was mainly profitable for insurance companies and but not for farmers. Average premium rate charged was high in MNAIS followed by WBCIS and low in NAIS. But the average claim rate (claim to sum insured ratio) over which loadings were done to arrive at commercial premium, was less than the premium rate in all the years under MNAIS and WBCIS and reverse in case of NAIS. Premium loading which takes care of profit, expenses other than claims were high enough making commercial insurance schemes unaffordable for farmers. Analysis of risk compensation reveals that under WBCIS, more insured farmers received claims than other two schemes. It means that there were frequent claim payments under WBCIS scheme, which was also reflected in less per farmer claims than other two schemes. It can be interpreted that under WBCIS small risks were compensated regularly instead of compensating adequately when there was a huge loss also leading to high premium rates. From the analyses above it can be concluded that reducing the premium rates under WBCIS and making the scheme pay for large Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 63 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


losses so that farmers themselves manage small and moderate risks will only help in revival of the scheme for which it was originally proposed in the country.

related expenses and for profit. These are called premium loadings.

REFERENCES Endnote: This is based on details of legal cases collected from legal department of AIC of India. 1 It is calculated based on the season wise data collected for past 16 years. 2 Maximum premium under NAIS was 3.5% for Kharif and 2.5 % for Rabi season. Additional subsidies were there for small and marginal farmers under NAIS. Under commercial schemes, subsidy rates and minimum premium were defined for different premium slabs. For the last premium slab under which most of the crops fall 6% net premium was payable. 3 Information sourced from correspondence made by State government with Ministry of Agriculture on poor performance of WBCIS during 2014 while stating reason for withdrawal of WBCIS during 2015. 4 Claim ratio: Claim to Premium ratio 5 See details at Modified National Agriculture Insurance Scheme Rabi Summer 2015-16 Government Order (Government of Karnataka (2015)). 6 See details in National Crop Insurance Programme (NCIP) Operational Guidelines at www.agriinsurance.gov.in. 7 Premium rate: Premium as a percentage of Sum Insured 8 Claim rate (cost): Claim as a percentage of Sum Insured 9 Pricing multiple: Premium rate above the pure claim rate expressed as a percentage of sum insured (Average Premium rate/Average Claim rate). It explains the premium loadings done. 10 Premium loadings: In insurance other than claims, insurer incurs cost such as commission to procure the business, administrative expenses, expenses for claim processing and settlement etc. While calculating the commercial premium insurer loads the pure premium i.e. claim cost with commission, procurement expenses, claim



Clarke, Daniel J., Oliver, Mahul, Kolli, N. Rao and Verma, Niraj (2012).Weather based crop insurance in India.Policy Research Working Paper 5985.Washington DC: World Bank. Government of India (2016). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2016. Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, NEW DELHI, INDIA.

Government of Karnataka (2014). Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme. Rabi 2014-15 Government Order. Bangalore, KARNATAKA (INDIA).

————— (2015). Modified National Agriculture Insurance Scheme. Rabi and Summer 2015-16 Government Order. Bangalore, KARNATAKA (INDIA) Rao, K N (2007). Weather based Crop Insurance: Panacea or Providence? IRDA Journal, 6(1), 20-22. ————— (2010). Index based Crop Insurance. Agric. & Agricultural Science Procedia.1,193-203. ————— (2011). Weather Index Insurance: Is it the Right Model for Providing Insurance to Crops? ASCI J. Mgmt., 41(1): 86-101.

WEBLIOGRAPHY Banerjee, Chira and Banerjee, Chirantan (2012). The Basics of Basis Risk: The case of Wind Indexed Typhoon Insurance in Philippines. Retrieved from http://www.agriskmanagement forum.org/sites/agriskmanagement forum.org/files/ Documents/Basis_Risk.pdf.Accessed on 7 December 2012. ————— (2016a). Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State.Retrieved from http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/stat/ 20.htm.Accessed on 11 February 2016. ————— (2016b). Profile of Agriculture Statistics Karnataka State.Retrieved from http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/stat/ 21.htm.Accessed on 11 February 2016. www.agri-insurance.gov.inRetrieved from http://www.agriinsurance.gov.in/Document/aws_gui_cre.pdf. Accessed on 12 August 2015.

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Economic analsysis of ratoon management in sugarcane and its assessment on productivity in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu V. DAVID CHELLA BASKAR AND M.S. RAMAN


How to cite this article : Baskar, V. David Chella and Raman, M.S. (2017). Economic analsysis of ratoon management in sugarcane and its assessment on productivity in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND

KEY WORDS : Ratoon Management, Sugarcane, Productivity

Author for correspondence : V. DAVID CHELLA BASK AR

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

Email : davidbaskar@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

Sugarcane is the second most important industrial crop in the country occupying about 5 million hectares in area. India is the second largest producer of sugar after Brazil. About 4 million growers are involved in the cultivation of sugarcane. Sugar industry contributes significantly to the rural economy as the sugar mills are located in the rural areas and provide large scale employment to rural population. The various by products of sugar industry also contribute to the economic growth by promoting a number of subsidiary industries. Sugarcane is emerging as a multiproduct crop used as a basic raw material for the production of sugar, ethanol, electricity, paper and boards, besides a host of ancillary products. Molasses is the cheapest feedstock for the distilleries and the large part of the ethanol requirements is met by the distilleries in the country. The ethanol requirement of the country is going up steadily and the potential of ethanol as a

bio-fuel is seriously debated. Generation of electricity using bagasse has become a standard option for the sugar industry. The use of bagasse as a substitute raw material for wood pulp in paper industry is vital for economic and environmental sustainability. Demand for Sugar and allied products : Sugarcane is the basic raw material for sugar production, while molasses and bagasse which are the by-products of sugar industry form the feed stock for Ethanol production and cogeneration, respectively. The demand for sugar, ethanol and electricity is increasing due to growing population and rising per capita income. The projected requirement of sugar in 2030 is 36 million tonnes, which is about 50% higher than the present production. To achieve this target, the sugarcane production should be about 500 million tonnes from the current 350 million tonnes for which the production has to be increased by 7-8 million tonnes annually. The increased production has


V. DAVID CHELLA BASKAR AND M.S. RAMAN

to be achieved from the existing cane area through improved productivity and sugar recovery since further expansion in cane area is not feasible. The demand for ecofriendly commodities (such as ethanol, renewable green power through co-generation) is expected to grow by more than 100% by 2030. Though 5% ethanol blending with petrol was made mandatory from 2003 in 9 states and 4 union territories, the target could not be achieved due to limited availability of bio ethanol, even necessitating imports. National Policy on Bio-fuel proposes to scale up the blending to 20% by 2017, which may necessitate significant increase in domestic ethanol production. At present there are about 300 distilleries operating in the country which have a total installed capacity of 4000 million litres of alcohol in a year. However, the highest production ever achieved has been only 2700 million liters in the year 2006-07. In India sugarcane molasses is the only feedstock for production of ethanol, except for a small number of distilleries producing potable liquors from grains and other feed stocks and thereby ethanol production is totally dependent on sugar production. The estimated ethanol requirement for fuel, potable and industrial use would be 5700 million liters in 2030 which means that the production should be more than doubled to meet the projected requirements. Very few economic research studies have been attempted, so far to study the economic aspects of Sugar cane in Vellore district. In the light of this fact, an enquiry in to the economic aspects of sugarcane production was taken up in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. The specific objectives of the study are: i) to estimate the costs and returns for sugarcane cultivation, ii) to study the socio economics features of the selected area and iii) to study the pr oduction constr aints in sugar cane cultivation. Description of the study area : Knowledge on basic features of the study area is necessary to understand the problems, collating the results and suggesting relevant policy options for the study area. A brief description of factors relevant to the study such as demographic features, agro-climatic conditions, soil types, land use pattern, size of operational holdings, sources of irrigation, livestock inventory and other infrastructure facilities of the Vellore district are described. 24 66 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Review of literature : Gupta and George (1974) worked out the economic viability of Santra gardens in Nagpur using pay back period, net present value, internal rate of returns of gardens and benefit cost ratio. Excluding land cost, investment in the project had a pay back period of seven to nine years and yielded an internal rate of return of 29.3 to 45.9 per cent depending on the size of grove. The net present value and benefit cost ratio even at high discount rate of 12 per cent varied from Rs.4,260 to Rs. 7,910 per acre and 1.85 to 2.64, respectively according to size of grove. Vandana et al. (1996) estimated the gross returns as Rs. 42,009.25 and the net income as Rs. 3,379.07 per hectare while farm efficiency measures like farm business, income, family labour income and farm investment income were Rs.23,682.06, Rs.4,224.38 and Rs. 17,838.71 per hectare, respectively in Banana. Cembalo (2002) stated that managing perennial crop farms involves long run objectives like maximizing profits as well as short run objectives like minimizing seasonal labour employed. Perennial crop management, moreover, involves making decisions on technical and long run financial issues because of its stream of returns and costs over more than a decade.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

The Vellore district of Tamil Nadu was purposively selected for the study because of its high Sugar cane production. In Vellore district, all the taluks under Ratoon sugar cane were arranged in the descending order of the area under sugarcane and the top two taluks viz.,Walajah and Arcot were selected purposively for the study. The villages in the selected taluks were arranged in the descending order of the area under sugar cane. The first two villages with largest area under sugar cane viz., Kadaperi and Sumaithangi in Walajah taluk and Kaniyanur and Kavanur in Arcot taluk were purposively selected for the study. All the Ratoon sugar cane growers in the selected four villages were listed separately. To have a clear idea about the cost of cultivation and management of the orchard, the forty farmers were randomly selected for the study.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Cost and returns of sugarcane : The cost of cultivation of sugarcane i.e. the total

ECONOMIC ANALSYSIS OF RATOON MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE & ITS ASSESSMENT ON PRODUCTIVITY IN VELLORE DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU

cost incurred on various items for field preparation to harvest was worked out and represented in the Table 1. Table 1 : Maintenance cost of sugarcane culti vati on (Rs./ha) Sr. No. Part iculars Amount spent 1.

Land preparation

8450.90 (13.01)

2.

Planting

4201.52 (6.47)

3.

Manuring

8150.56 (12.55)

4.

Fert ilization

13435.3 (20.69)

5.

Intercultivation

4435.6 (6.83)

6.

Plant product ion

9152.13 (14.09)

7.

Irrigation

5860.45 (9.02)

8.

Harvest ing

11003.4 (16.94)

9.

Land revenue and cess Tot al

260 (0.40) 64949.80 (100.00)

Land preparation : Land preparation is an important operation in establishing a sugarcane field. Plough was done with tractor. Total amount incurred in this operation was Rs. 8450.90 per hectare, which accounted for 13.01 of the total establishment cost. Planting : An amount of Rs. 4201.52 per hectare was incurred on planting material, which accounted for 6.47 per cent of the total cost. Manuring : Most of the farmers were using farm yard manure for sugar cane crop. The cost incurred on manuring was Rs. 8150.56 per hectare, which accounted to 12.55 per cent to the total cost. Fertilization : The cost incurred on fertilizers and its application was Rs. 13435.3 hectare which accounted for 20.69 per cent of the total cost. Intercultivation : Intercultivation was done to improve the soil condition and also to conserve soil moisture. The cost incurred on intercultivation was Rs. 4435.6 per hectare, which accounted for 6.83 per cent of total cost. Irrigation : The newly planted saplings are to be watered regularly during the first few months after planting,

depending on the condition of the soil. The cost incurred on irrigation was Rs. 5860.45 per hectare which was worked out to be 9.02 per cent to the total cost. Plant protection : The cost incurred on planted protection was Rs. 9152.13 per hectare which accounted for 14.09 per cent of the total cost. While calculating the production of sugar cane the maintenance cost incurred after first fruiting was included in direct cost .sugar cane can be maintained for three years by ratoon cropping and good economic returns can be expected. Sugar cane cultivators incurred Rs.11263.40 as maintenance costs in the first year which included harvesting cost of Rs. 11003.4 accounting for 97.69 per cent and land revenue and cess of Rs.260 accounting for 2.31 per cent. Total cost of cultivation of sugar cane under Ratoon: On examination of the Table 2. it is evident that the total variable costs per hectare included human labour of Rs.32533.85 and bullock labour of Rs.2275.40 and machine labour of Rs.1498.97 in addition to other input costs like planting material of Rs.3498.77, FYM of Rs.1500, fertilizers of Rs.14479.85 plant protection chemicals of Rs.8000.56 fuel of Rs.1505.71 and interest on working capital of Rs.8591.00. It is inferred from the particulars furnished in the table that sum of all the years costs incurred on the sample farmers were Rs. 25835.30 out of which rental value of owned land gets major share of Rs.13377.00 (9.83%) followed by annuity value of Rs.7763.00 (5.71%), interest on fixed capital of Rs.2895 (2.13%) and land revenue and of cess Rs.300 (0.22%). Cost of cultivation of sugar cane according to cost concepts : The cost of cultivation of a crop is not uniquely defined on account of the fact that various components of costs differs in their in their economic significance and therefore it becomes necessary to work out aggregate costs differing in composition Gross returns obtained by selling sugar cane was found to be Rs.277150.00 and net income was Rs.148511.40 per hectare over a period its life time. Farm efficiency measures like farm business income, family labour income and farm investment income were worked out to be Rs. 14392.88, and Rs. 137648.88 and Rs.14375.94. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 67 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

V. DAVID CHELLA BASKAR AND M.S. RAMAN

Table 2 : Ope ration wise cost structure of sugarcane (Rs./ha) Particulars Rs. Variable cost Human Labour 32533.85 (23.92) Owned 6586.94 (4.84) Hired 25946.91 (19.08) a) Land Preparation 5437.80 (4.00) Owned 960.00 (0.71) Hired 4477.80 (3.29) b) Planting 607.26 (0.45) Owned 104.64 (0.08) Hired 502.62 (0.37) c) Manuring 1291.66 (0.95) Owned 500.10 (0.37) Hired 791.56 (0.58) d) Fert ilizat ion 2512.26 (1.85) Owned 860.05 (0.63) Hired 1652.21 (1.21) e) Plant protect ion 3005.87 (2.21) Owned 1008.60 (0.74) Hired 1997.27 (1.47) f) Irrigat ion 6084.80 (4.47) Owned 1510.62 (1.11) Hired 4574.18 (3.36) g) Intercultivation 2692.83 (1.98) Owned 500.62 (0.37) Hired 2192.21 (1.61) h) Harvest ing 10962.57 (8.06) Owned 1300.00 (0.96) Hired 9662.57 (7.10) 2275.40 (1.67) Bullock labour Owned 600.00 (0.44) Hired 1675.40 (1.23) a) Land Preparation 1489.97 (1.10) Owned 392.50 (0.29) Hired 1097.47 (0.81) b) Intercultivation 730.57 (0.54) Owned 150.23 (0.11) Hired 580.34 (0.43) 1498.93 (1.10) Machine l abour Owned 250.63 (0.18) Hired 1248.30 (0.92) 852.86 (0.63) Owned 215.36 (0.16) Hired 637.50 (0.47) Int ercult ivat ion 631.16 (0.46) Owned 20.36 (0.01) Hired 610.80 (0.45) 37575.89 (27.63) Input materi al 1.Seed 3498.77 (2.57) 2.FYM 1500.00 (1.10) 3.Fertiliser 14479.85 (10.65) 4.Plant prot ection chemicals 8000.56 (5.88) 5.Fuel 1505.71 (1.11) 8591.00 (6.32) Interest on working capital – Land revenue and Cess 300.05 (0.22) – Depreciation 1500.25 (1.10) – Rent al value of owned land 13377.00 (9.83) – Int erest on fixed capital 2895.00 (2.13) – Annuity value 7763.00 (5.71) Sub Tot al (B) 25835.30 (18.99) Total cost (A+B) 136018.98 (100.00)



Table 3 : Income measures for sugarcane cultivation (Rs./ha) Sr. No. Part iculars Value 1.

Gross income

277150.00

2.

Net income

148511.40

3.

Farm business income

14392.88

4.

Family labour income

137648.88

5.

Farm investment income

14357.94

Summary and conclusions : Vellore district was purposively choosen for the study. In this district two taluks were selected and from each taluk two villages were selected based on the highest area under sugar cane cultivation. Then a total of 40 farmers were selected from four villages with ten from each village. Thus, one district, two taluks, four villages and 10 farmers from each village, totaling to 40 farmers formed the sample for the study. The constraint data were collected from the sugar cane growers and the required data on costs and returns of sugar cane production were collected with a well structure and pretested schedule. Tabular and functional analyses were used and interpreted for arriving at valid conclusions. Establishment costs and maintenance costs : The costs were classified in to establishment costs and maintenance costs. the total variable costs per hectare included human labour of Rs.32533.85 and bullock labour of Rs.2275.40 and machine labour of Rs.1498.97 in addition to other input costs like planting material of Rs.3498.77, FYM of Rs.1500, fertilizers of Rs.14479.85 plant protection chemicals of Rs.8000.56 fuel of Rs.1505.71 and interest on working capital of Rs.8591.00. The total cost of production of sugar cane per hectare was worked out as Rs.136018.98 of which 18.99 per cent constituted the fixed costs. The annuity value was Rs.7763.00 per hectare which accounted to 5.71 per cent of total cost of production. Cost A1/A2, Cost B1, Cost B2, Cost C1, Cost C2 and C3 were worked out to be Rs.76594.6, Rs.82395.35, Rs.106234.8, Rs.82051.00, Rs.136459.90. and Rs.128638.60 per hectare, respectively. Returns : Gross returns obtained by selling sugar cane was found to be Rs.277150.00 and net income was Rs.148511.40 per hectare over a period its life time.

ECONOMIC ANALSYSIS OF RATOON MANAGEMENT IN SUGARCANE & ITS ASSESSMENT ON PRODUCTIVITY IN VELLORE DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU

Farm efficiency measures like farm business income, family labour income and farm investment income were worked out to be Rs. 14392.88, and Rs. 137648.88 and Rs.14375.94. Constraints for cane yield and productivity : Production constraints : Sugarcane cultivation in the country falls under 5 agro climatic region viz, Peninsular, East Coast, North West, North Central and North East Zones. The productivity in each zone is affected a varied number of factors. Yield in sub-tropical india is affected by the prolonged winter, which reduces the effective growing period. Drought, water logging, salinity and alkalinity affect cane production significantly in many states. Approximately 2.97 lakh ha of cane area is prone to drought, affecting the crop at one or other stage of growth. Drought can bring down the yields by 30-50% and in severe drought situations the loss could be as high as 70 per cent. Floods and water logging are serious problem in Eastern UP, Bihar, Orissa, Coastal Andhra and parts of Maharashtra. Approximately 2.13 lakh ha of sugarcane area is flood prone in different states. Water logging affects all stages of crop growth and can reduce germination, root establishment, tillering and growth resulting in reduced yield. Sugarcane is cultivated in about 7-8 lakh hectares under saline conditions. Though the crop is moderately tolerant to salinity, the losses are significant. The following were the main identified areas

for constraint in the study area. – Land is the major constraints for cultivation sugarcane. – Non availability of high yielding variety. – Dearth of good quality seed. – Improper water management. – Uses of imbalanced fertilizer doses. – Negligence in plant protection. – Unremunerative Prices for sugar. – Farmer organization is very crucial in promoting sugar cane as well as research in uses of the different plant parts and varieties. Also important is knowledge on the economic importance of the crop. Authors’ affiliations : M.S. RAMAN, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

Email : [email protected]

REFERENCES Gupta, G.S. and George, P.S. (1974). Profitability of Nagpur santras cultivation. Indian J. Agril. Econ., 29 : 134-142. Cembalo, L. (2002). A possible approach in modeling farm with fruit tree production. Rivista-di-Economia-Agraria, 60 (1) : 103-123. Vandana, K.V., Raju, V.T., Bhavani, I., Manu, Swami and Naidu, G. (1996). Economic evaluation of acid lime cultivation in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. Agricultural Situation in India, 111 (6) : 413-415.


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Farmer participatory seed production and adoption of rice-technology package by tribal farmers in Ranga Reddy district of Telangana AMTUL WARIS, NIRMALA BANDUMULA AND L.V. SUBBA RAO


KEY WORDS : Rice Technology, Tribal

SUMMARY : The “strategic extension campaign” (SEC) methodology developed by FAO emphasizes the importance of people’s participation in strategic planning, systematic management, and field implementation of agricultural extension and training programmes. The Tribal-Sub-Plan Act formulated by the Government of India is to ensure, accelerated development of Scheduled Tribes (ST) with emphasis on achieving equality focusing on economic, educational and human development of Scheduled Tribes. The present study was undertaken in Rangareddy district of Telangana to analyse the socio-economic characteristics of tribal farmers, to disseminate and demonstrate the rice technology package among tribal farmers and to train the selected tribal farmers on seed production of improved rice varieties. A rice technology package was demonstrated on the selected farmers’ fields of Ranga Reddy District, under the TSP scheme, which has benefitted the tribal farmers as the adoption resulted in a yield advantage of 16-25 per cent over the local checks. This may be attributed to the adoption improved rice varieties, training on the package of practices and seed production and weed management. Hence, efforts should be made to disseminate the improved rice varieties and information on good management practices in general and weeds management in particular. How to cite this article : Waris, Amtul, Bandumula, Nirmala and Rao, L.V. Subba (2017). Farmer participatory seed production and adoption of rice-technology package by tribal farmers in Ranga Reddy district of Telangana. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

BACKGROUND Author for correspondence : AMTUL WARIS

ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

Email : amtul.waris@ gmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

AND

OBJECTIVES

The “strategic extension campaign” (SEC) methodology developed by FAO emphasizes the importance of people’s participation (i.e., intended beneficiaries such as small farmers) in strategic planning, systematic management, and field implementation of agricultural extension and training programmes (Adhikarya, 1994). Its

extension strategies and messages are designed based on the outcomes of a participatory problem identification process on the factors responsible for partial or nonadoption of recommended technology. In the context of agricultural extension, a campaign is one of the methods of extension which can reach a large number of target beneficiaries in a short time period.


AMTUL WARIS, NIRMALA BANDUMULA AND L.V. SUBBA RAO

The focus of SEC activities is to create a demand through information and motivation approaches and to satisfy the demand through education and training for adopting the recommended technology package. The SEC method has been successfully implemented with FAO assistance in many countries for different crops, with topics such as line-sowing method of rice cultivation, maize production, cocoa cultivation, tick-borne disease control, contour tillage etc. A series of training programs were organized for tribal farmers to adopt a technology package comprising of improved rice varieties developed by the Indian Institute of Rice Research viz., Improved Samba Mahsuri, DRR Dhan 42, DRR Dhan 44, DRR Dhan 46, and quality seed production. Moreover, in the present study the SEC was specifically utilised to create awareness about weed control measures. The Tribal-Sub-Plan Act formulated by the Government of India is to ensure, acceler ated development of Scheduled Tribes (ST) with emphasis on achieving equality focusing on economic, educational and human development along with ensuring security social dignity and promoting equity among Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, by earmarking a portion, in proportion to population of Scheduled Tribes in the State, of the total plan outlay of the State as the outlay of the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) of the State. The State shall, in every financial year, earmark in such manner as may be prescribed, a portion of the total Plan outlays of the State which shall be proportionate to the Scheduled Tribe population of the State, to be called as Tribal Sub-Plan Fund. Thus, TSP is the Plan approved by the State Council for inclusion in the Annual Plan of the Department to bridge the gap in development of Scheduled Tribes and shall include the ST component of general schemes. Many innovative schemes have been planned by the Tribal Welfare Department, Government of Telangana for the all-round development of tribal population in the State. To improve the delivery mechanism of Government Welfare Schemes, it is proposed to convert Tribal Thandas into Gram Panchayats. Many innovative schemes are being taken up as per the provisions of the Tribal Sub Plan Act, 2013, while preparing the Annual Plan.the Girijan Co-operative Corporation (GCC) undertakes procurement of minor forest produce (MFP) and agriculture produce from tribals at remunerative prices and also provides seasonal agricultural credit to ST farmers (TWD).

In Ranga Reddy district of Telangana, Scheduled Tribe population constitutes 5.63% of the total population of the district (Census 2011). The occupational composition indicates that 23.63% of the tribal farmers are cultivators, 30.46% agricultural labour, 2.92% household industry and 41% are employed in other categories (DES, 2015). Lack of information of farming techniques, defective and faulty weighing, lack of adequate storage facilities, high seed cost, high marketing cost, high interest rate of private agencies, Delay in loan sanction from bankers, high labour cost, availability of marketing facilities, low support price by government, financial crisis in family were the constraints reported by tribal farmers of Khammam (Pavan Kalyan, 2013). In this backdrop, the present study was conducted in Rangareddy district of Telangana during the year 201415, with the following objectives: Objectives : To analyse the socio-economic characteristics of tribal farmers. To disseminate and demonstrate the rice technology package among tribal farmers. To train the selected tribal farmers on seed production of improved rice varieties.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

A benchmark-baseline was undertaken to analyse the farmers’ practices with respect to rice cultivation in the selected tribal hamlets of Ranga Reddy District of Telangana in 2014. A series of participatory appraisal exercises were conducted to identify, analyse and prioritize the constraints being faced by farmers in rice cultivation in the study area. The rice-technology package was jointly evolved by scientists-farmers and extension personnel as a participatory strategy. To study the existing rice production practices being followed by farmers, a survey was undertaken and data was collected from 100 farmers of four tandas viz., Dubbacherla, Kollapadakal, Kallamcheruvu and Nagireddypally Tandas of Rangareddy District of Telangana. The varieties being grown, inputs used and yield obtained were recorded. Out of the 100 sample farmers, based on the financial resources available, the inputs under TSP project were provided to 50 farmers and they were motivated to adopt the selected rice Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 71 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

FARMER PARTICIPATORY SEED PRODUCTION & ADOPTION OF RICE-TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE BY TRIBAL FARMERS IN RANGA REDDY DISTRICT OF TELANGANA

technology package for achieving higher yields. Data were collected using structured questionnaires administered to rice farmers. Focus Group Discussions preceded data collection. Selection of rice farmers was done by random sampling. Rice technology package : The following rice-technology package of popularization of new rice varieties, farmers’ participatory paddy seed production, labor saving technologies and weed management based on the need identification was jointly evolved by scientists-farmers and extension personnel as a participatory strategy. Popularization of new rice varieties : Since the SEC is aimed at increasing awareness/ knowledge level of the identified target beneficiaries, in the present study SEC was organized to popularize the new varieties developed by the ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR).The varieties included, Improved Samba Mahsuri, a bacterial leaf blight resistant variety, DRR DHAN 42 and DRR DHAN 44 are drought tolerant varieties. ICAR-IIRR has developed an improved, bacterial blight resistant, high yielding, fine grain variety possessing premium grain and cooking quality, named as Improved Samba Mahsuri (RP Bio-226), through the deployment of Marker-assisted selection for the first time in South India. DRR DHAN 42 variety has been released by ICAR-IIRR for cultivation in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Puducherri and Tamil Nadu. The duration is 120-125 days with long slender grain type with a yield potential of 3.5-4.0t/ha under moderate drought 1.5 to 2.5t/ha,severe drought and 5.5 to 6.0 t/ha under normal conditions,is resistant to diseases like blast, moderately resistant to bacterial blight and brown spot. Whereas, DRR Dhan 44 has been released as an early duration, high yielding, long slender grain variety suited to transplanted and direct seeded aerobic cultivation with good weed competitive ability. It has tolerance to drought at reproductive stage and high nutrient use efficiency and has weed competitive ability and performs well under aerobic cultivation. Farmers’ participatory Paddy Seed production : Seed is a critical and basic input for attaining higher 24 72 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


crop yields and majority of farmers, especially small and marginal farmers suffer mainly because of poor quality and exorbitant prices of seeds. Training farmers in community-based seed production may have an impact on farmers’ access to seed; therefore it is imperative to train farmers to produce their own seed with stringent quality control and at a low cost. The Seed kits, small samples of seed of improved varieties, (improved samba mahsuri, DRR Dhan 42, DRR Dhan 44 and DRR Dhan 46) were distributed to selected farmers with information on steps to be followed for seed production. This can serve as one of the means to insert new varieties and quality seed into local seed systems, aiming at a faster diffusion of improved varieties through informal farmerto-farmer exchanges. Labor saving technologies : Direct wet-seeding is an alternate method of growing rice instead of conventional transplanting. In this method, sprouted seeds are sown on well prepared puddled land. Direct seeding can be done either by hand broadcasting or by using Drum Seeder. Drum Seeder technology overcomes the problem of labour scarcity and saves costs compared to transplanted rice. The seed is dropped in rows @ 20 cm row to row spacing and the seed rate is about 25 – 37.5 kg / ha. In Direct seeding method the cost of cultivation is reduced by about Rs.10000 14000 per ha as the operations like nursery field preparation, rising nursery, nursery pulling and manual transplanting as done in traditional transplanting method are not required. Weed management : Weeds are a major problem as they compete for light, water and nutrients, lowering the rice crops productivity and reducing profit margins because of the high cost of control. Management practices that provide long-term solutions to weeds have been developed. However, adoption of these practices by farmers has not been widespread, as only a relatively small proportion of landholders achieve effective weed control. The challenge is to communicate information to, and motivate, the large proportion of smallholder farmers that are not controlling weeds effectively.The farmers were trained to identify the different weeds, the critical period of weed control and motivated to adopt the various methods of weed control viz., cultural, chemical, mechanical and biological.


OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Important socio-economic characteristics of sample households are presented in Table 1. The average family size of the surveyed households was five members per household. The average number of family labour involved was 3 per household. The average age of the sample farmers was 43.4 years indicating that majority of the farmers in the study area were middle aged, agile and were actively taking part in paddy cultivation. Education plays an important role in the adoption of innovations/new technologies. The education level (average number of schooling years) was two years and 55 per cent of the respondents were illiterate. This high rate of illiteracy may be due to the reason that the majority of the sample farmers were middle aged. Twenty five per cent of the respondents had 1-5 years of schooling and 18 per cent had 6-10 years of schooling. Only two per cent of the respondents had more than 10 years of

schooling. The average size of the farm was 0.42 hectares as all most all the farmers were with small and marginal holdings in the study area. The number of years a farmer has spent in the farming business may give an indication of the practical knowledge he has acquired on how he can overcome certain inherent farm production and adoption problems. In order to have efficiency in crop management it is essential that farmers have experience in raising a particular crop (Onumadu and Osahan, 2014). The selected households had fairly long experience in rice cultivation (21 years). Adoption of rice technology package by tribal farmers : The DSR farmers used 8.75 kgha-1 more seed as compared to transplanted rice (Table 2). The main reason for using higher seeding rate in DSR is the fact that DSR requires higher seed rate than the transplanted method

Table 1: Socio-e conomi c characteristi cs of the sample farme rs Sr. No. Particulars 1.

Age (Yrs)

2.

Educat ion

Number 43.4

Average years of schooling(yrs)

2

Illiterate

55

1-5yrs

25

6-10 yrs

18

>10 Yrs

2

3.

Farm size (ha)

0.42

4.

Family size (No.)

5.

Family labour (No.)

3

6.

Experience in rice cult ivat ion (yrs)

21

5

Table 2 : Effe ct of drum seeding on seed input and yield compared to conventional transplanting method Input Increase (+) or Decrease (-) in amount (kg/ha) Seed requirement

8.75

Weedicide (Rs./ha)

763

Yield

124

Table 3: Yieldlevels of demonstrated and check varieties Sr. No. Variety

Yield (t/ha)

Local check

Yield

1.

DRR Dhan 46

4.8

MTU 1010

4 (20%)

2.

Improved samba mahsuri

4.5

Tella hamsa

3.87 (16%)

3.

DRR Dhan 44

5.0

MTU 1010

4 (25%)

4. DRR Dhan 42 *Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage to the total

4.7

IR 64

3.93(19.5%)


FARMER PARTICIPATORY SEED PRODUCTION & ADOPTION OF RICE-TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE BY TRIBAL FARMERS IN RANGA REDDY DISTRICT OF TELANGANA

and also partly because of the fear of the farmers about the seed rotting which may occur due to rain after sowing. The labor costs for weeding were significantly higher for DSR than the transplanting method. This is due to combined effect of applying more herbicides and manual labor for weed management under DSR method of rice cultivation. Adoption of DSR has resulted in a yield advantage of 124 kgs/ha over the conventional transplanting method. Similarly, various extension methods were successfully used (Chandrasekhararao et al., 2013) to popularize drum seeder technology through training programmes, front line demonstrations, group discussions, exposure visits, field days, kisan melas, news paper coverage, radio, TV and popular articles. The improved varieties demonstrated on the selected fields of the tribal farmers had a yield advantage over the local checks (Table 3). An yield of 4 t/ha was realised in case of DRR Dhan 46 and DRR Dhan 44 over the local check MTU 1010 and Tella hamsa with a yield advantage of 20 and 25 percent, respectively. Improved samba mahsuri and DRR Dhan 42 had a yield advantage of 16 per cent and 19.5 percent, respectively over the local checks. Training on seed production of improved samba mahsuri was imparted to the sample farmers. Seed production of improved samba mahsuri yielded 90 tons of seed and the smallholder farmers’ requirements of seed was met through informal farmer-to-farmer exchange of seed. It is therefore important to give due recognition to the informal sector which serves as a lowcost source of seed especially for resource-poor at affordable prices. The tribal farmers adopted the recommended herbicides based on severity of the infestation and could save money on labor as only one manual weeding was required subsequent to application of the recommended herbicides. Thus, the tr aining programs and SEC for popularization of new rice varieties has benefitted the tribal farmers. Similar results have been reported by earlier researchers. The training programs organized by KVK have benefited the farmers as trainees had more knowledge and extent of adoption of package of practices of wheat crop than non-trainees (Dubey and Shrivastava 2007). Tsado et al. (2014) based on the findings of their study recommended that training rice farmers should be given topmost priority to improve their skills on the adoption of improved rice packages to increase their productivity and consequently their income. 24 74 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


Conclusion : The rice technology package disseminated and demonstrated under the TSP scheme has benefitted the tribal farmers of Ranga Reddy District as the adoption of rice technology package by the tribal farmers resulted in a yield advantage of 16-25 per cent over the local checks. This may be attributed to the adoption improved rice varieties, training on the package of practices and seed production and weed management. Hence, efforts should be made to disseminate the improved rice varieties and information on good management practices in general and weeds management in particular. Training farmers in community-based seed production may enhance the farmers’ access to seed at low cost along with the assurance of quality as farmers face lot of problems of spurious seed which adversely affects the yield thereby the income. Thus, the farmer-scientist participatory evolved technology package was readily adopted by tribal farmers which resulted in higher yields.The SEC methodology enabled popularization of the new rice varieties among tribal farmers. Authors’ affiliations : NIRMALA BANDUMULA AND L.V. SUBBA RAO, ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, HYDERABAD (TELANGANA) INDIA

REFERENCES Adhikarya, R. (1994). Strategic extension campaign: A participatory-oriented method of agricultural extension. Rome: FAO/United Nations. Chandrasekhararao, C., Jitendranath and Murthy, T.G.K. (2013). Resource optimisation in rice through direct seeding by drum seeder. Internat. J. Agric. & Food Sci. Technol., 4(3): 239-246. Dubey, Akhilesh Kumar and Srivastava, J.P. (2007). Effect of training programme on knowledge and adoption behaviour of farmers on wheat production technologies. Indian Res. J. Extn. Edu., 7(2and3) : 41-43. Tsado, J.H., Ojo, M.A. and Ajayi, O.J. (2014). Impact of training the trainers’ programme on rice farmers’ income and Welfare in North Central. Nigeria J. Advanced Agril. Technol., 1(2)157160. Onumadu, F.N. and Osahon, E.E. (2014). Socio-economic determinants of adoption of improve rice technology by farmers in Ayamelum local government area of Anambra State. Nigeria Internat. J. Scientific & Technol. Res., 3(1) : 308-314.


WEBLIOGRAPHY Direct seeding in rice using drum seeder Retrieved on 1/8/ 2017 http://www.aesa-gfras.net/admin/kcfinder/upload/files/ Good%20Practice%20Bala.pdf

Strategic extension campaign - A participatory-oriented method of agricultural extension. Retrieved on 31/7/2017 http:// www.fao.org/documents/


No. Number

AU


RESEARCH ARTICLE :


(78)


Impact of different sources of organic manures in comparison with RDF and INM on important quality parameters of rice variety co(r)48 with yield and derived correlation and regression equations under site-specific organic farming condition S. ALAGAPPAN AND R. VENKITASWAMY


KEY WORDS : Grain yield of rice and milling characteristics of paddy, quality parameters of rice, correlation and regression equations

Author for correspondence : S. ALAGAPPAN

Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

Email : alga.s@ rediffmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

SUMMARY : Field experiments were carried out at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India during Samba 2012 (August-December) and Samba 2013 to study the impact of different sources of organic manures in comparison with RDF and INM on important quality parameters of rice variety CO(R)48 with yield and derived correlation and regression equations under site-specific organic farming condition. The field experiment consisted of fourteen treatments which were laid out in Randomized Block Design, replicated thrice and square planting (25 x 25 cm) was adopted, the same layout was maintained for next year Samba rice season. The quality parameters such as milling percentage, hulling percentage, head rice percentage, co-efficient of shelling, volume expansion ratio, water absorption ratio, elongation ratio, amylose content and protein content under organic farming were recorded higher during both the years of experimentation. Similarly, the grain yield of rice was also recorded during both the years of experimentation. All the important milling characteristics of paddy and the important quality parameters of rice were subjected to correlation and regression analysis and the separate correlation and regression equations were derived for grain yield of rice for both the years of study under site-specific organic farming condition. The important milling characteristics of paddy and the important quality parameters of rice were recorded with 100 % RDN through green manure (Dhaincha) Sesbania aculeata applied treatment, followed by 25% RDN through each organic manures combination recorded better results than other organic, RDF and INM treatments in both the years of experimentation. The performance of INM imposed treatment followed by RDF recorded more rice grain yield than the organic treatments, whereas the quality parameters wise, the organic treatments such as 100% RDN through green manure followed by 25% RDN through each organic manures combination recorded better results under organic farming than RDF and INM imposed treatments during both the years of investigation. How to cite this article : Alagappan, S. and Venkitaswamy, R. (2017). Impact of different sources of organic manures in comparison with RDF and INM on important quality parameters of rice variety co(r)48 with yield and derived correlation and regression equations under site-specific organic farming condition. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.


S. ALAGAPPAN AND R. VENKITASWAMY

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Organic farming can provide quality food without adversely affecting the soil health and environment. The number of organic farms are increasing in India day by day. The demand for organic products are increasing all over the world as increasing number of people are becoming health conscious. Food materials produced organically has got in place in food market in developed and developing countries (Urkurkar et al., 2010). In this direction, organic production of rice may increase the profitability of the farmers by earning foreign exchange through exports (Mahajan et al., 2012). Organic sources of nutrients are the best alternative for improving physical and biological properties of soil and improving crop productivity of rice based high value crops (Yadav et al., 2013). Research programmes undertaken to increase the production and productivity of rice is of great value in the service of mankind and the nation (Barwale, 1993). A knowledge of association between yield and morphophysiological and quality traits will help to make simultaneous selection for more characters. Partitioning the correlation co-efficients into direct and indirect effects will help in estimating the actual contribution of an attribute and its influence through other characters. Awareness about crop quality and soil health increased the attention of people towards organic farming (Sharma et al., 2008). Balanced use of nutrients through organic sources like farmyard manure, vermicompost, green manuring, neem cake and biofertilizers are prerequisites to sustain soil fertility, to produce maximum crop yield with optimum input level (Dahiphale et al., 2003). The organic manures leave behind sufficient residual effect for the sequence crops (Singh et al., 1996). The cropping sequence of rice-pulse is practically feasible, viable, economical, eco-friendly water saving technology for sustaining soil fertility and rice productivity (Srinivasa Reddy, 2002).

Good crop stand establishment is one of the key components for efficient use of resources and inputs, consequently for achieving desired level of productivity. Efficient utilization and recycling of on farm resources is highly possible in organic farming situations to produce more farm inputs and for enhancing the quality of the farm produces. The wider spacing adoption (25 x 25 cm) for transplanting of rice enhanced the number of tillers per hill, enhances the rice productivity and economic returns (Gujja and Thiyagarajan, 2009).Therefore, the field experiment was conducted to find out the impact of different sources of organic manures in comparison with RDF and INM on the dependant variable (yield) of rice variety CO(R)48 with different independent variables (different milling and quality parameters) of rice with derived correlation and regression equations under sitespecific organic farming condition.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Description of the study site : Field experiments were carried out at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India during Samba 2012 and 2013 (August-December) and the experimental plot was in ‘O’ block of the Wetland farm, situated at the Western agro-climatic zone of Tamil Nadu at 11oN latitude and 77oE longitude and at an altitude of 426.7 m above mean sea level. The soil of the experimental field was clay loam in texture belonging to Typic Haplustalf with low in available N (254.0 and 260.0 kg ha-1), low in available P (16.7 and 17.8 kg ha-1) and high in available K (402.0 and 418.0 kg ha-1) during the first and second years, respectively. Materials used for the experiment : Planting materials : The medium duration rice variety called CO(R)48 was used in Samba season as the test crop during 20122013.

Table A : Nutrient content of organic manures used in the field expe riment on dry weight basi s Samba 2012 Nutrient cont ent (%) Organic manures N P K Ca Mg C : N Ratio N

Samba 2013 Nutrient cont ent (%) P K Ca Mg C : N ratio

Farm yard manure

0.60

0.42

0.64

0.21

0.18

20:96

0.58

0.40

0.68

0.18

0.17

23:00

Vermicompost

1.91

0.64

1.20

0.31

0.27

18:98

1.88

0.68

1.24

0.33

0.28

18:82

Poultry manure

2.27

1.42

1.24

4.22

0.65

17:36

2.25

1.45

1.22

4.01

0.62

17:41

Green manure (Dhaincha)

2.67

0.68

1.26

1.17

0.75

18:91

2.65

0.66

1.28

1.07

0.77

18:64

Sesbania aculeata Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 77 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute

IMPACT OF DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ORGANIC MANURES IN COMPARISON WITH RDF & INM ON IMPORTANT QUALITY PARAMETERS OF RICE VARIETY CO(R)48 WITH YIELD & DERIVED CORRELATION & REGRESSION EQUATIONS UNDER SITE-SPECIFIC ORGANIC FARMING CONDITION

Treatments and experimental design : Treatment details : T1 : Absolute control ( No fertilizers / manures) T2 : 100% Recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) through FYM T3 : 100% RDN through Vermicompost T4 : 100% RDN through Poultry manure T5 : 100% RDN through Green manure* T6 : 50% RDN through FYM + 50% RDN through Vermicompost T7 : 50% RDN through FYM + 50% RDN through Poultry manure T8 : 50% RDN through FYM + 50% RDN through Green manure* T9 : 50% RDN through Vermicompost + 50% RDN through Poultry manure T10 : 50% RDN through Vermicompost + 50% RDN through Green manure* T11 : 50% RDN through Poultry manure + 50% RDN through Green manure* T12 : 25% RDN each through FYM + Vermicompost + Poultry manure + Green manure* T 13 : Recommended Dose of Fertilizers (RDF) through inorganic fertilizers (150:50:50) NPK kg ha-1 T 14 : Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) practice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha-1) *Green manure : Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata)

incorporation as green leaf manure at the time of puddling (two weeks prior to transplanting). T13 and T14 involving inorganic fertilizer applied plots were established separately well away from organic treatmental plots. Experimental design : The experiments were laid out in a Randomized Block Design with three replications. The gross and net plot sizes were 5.0 x 4.0 m and 4.5 x 3.5 m, respectively. Experimental procedure : Organic manure application : On N equivalent basis, required quantities of farmyard manure, decomposed poultry manure, vermicompost were applied in the soil one week before transplanting, wher eas the dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) green manure was applied two weeks prior to transplanting on wet weight basis. Different sources of organic manures nutrient content were furnished in (Table A), and the quantity applied as per treatment schedule were furnished in (Table B). Inorganic fertilizer application : Recommended doses of 150:50:50 kg ha-1 of N, P and K in the form of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash were applied to the rice crop in respect of treatment T13. The N was applied in four equal splits viz., at basal, active tillering, panicle initiation and

Table B : Quantity of organic manures added on N e qui valent basis and quantity of P2O 5 and K2O substituted (kg ha -1 ) Quantity added for 100 % N P2 O5 and K2 O P2 O5 and K2 O Treatment s 2012 2013 Substituted during 2012 Subst ituted during 2013 T 1 : Absolut e control

-

-

-

-

-

-

T 2 : 100% RDN through FYM

25000

25862

105.00

160.00

103.00

176.00

T 3 : 100% RDN through VC

7853

7979

50.30

94.24

54.26

98.94 81.34

T 4 : 100% RDN through PM

6608

6667

93.83

81.94

96.67

T 5 : 100% RDN through GM

25281

25470

38.20

70.79

37.36

72.45

12500 + 3927

12931 + 3990

77.65

127.12

78.63

137.47

T 6 : 50% RDN each of FYM + VC T 7 : 50% RDN each of FYM + PM

12500 + 3304

12931 + 3334

99.42

120.97

99.84

128.67

T 8 : 50% RDN each of FYM + GM

12500 + 12640

12931 + 12735

71.60

115.40

70.18

124.23

T 9 : 50% RDN each of VC + PM

3927 + 3304

3990 + 3334

72.07

88.09

75.47

90.14

T 10 : 50% RDN each of VC + GM

3927 + 12640

3990 + 12735

44.25

82.52

45.81

85.70

T 11 : 50% RDN each of PM + GM

3304 + 12640

3334 + 12735

66.02

76.37

67.02

76.90

T 12 : 25% RDN each of FYM + VC + PM +

6250 + 1963 +

6466 + 1995 +

71.86

101.75

72.83

107.19

1653 + 6320

1666 + 6368

-

-

-

-

-

-

GM T 13 : RDF : (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

T 14 : INM Practice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha -1 ) FYM : Farmyard manure, VC : Vermicompost, PM : Poult ry manure and GM: Green manure Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) INM : (150:50:50) NPK kg ha-1, Azospirillum @ 2.5 kg ha-1 , Phosphobacteria @ 2.5 kg ha-1, Zinc sulphat e @ 50 kg ha-1 and Green manure 6.25 t ha-1 24 78 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :



flowering stages. The entire dose of P and K were applied basally before sowing. Only rice crop was fertilized while greengram was raised as a residual crop without any organic and fertilizer application.

harvested first and the net plots were then harvested and threshed, cleaned and dried to 14% moisture level and the grain yield from net plot was calculated and expressed in kg ha-1 (Hemalatha et al., 2000).

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) application: In INM treatment T14, 6.25 t ha-1 of green manure Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) was incorporated two weeks prior to transplanting along with the recommended doses of 150:50:50 kg ha-1 N, P and K in the form of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash were applied to the rice crop. In addition to this, application of 5 kg ha-1 of Azospirillum, 5 kg ha-1 of Phosphobacteria and 50 kg ha-1 of zinc sulphate were applied as basal prior to transplanting.

Milling characteristics of paddy : Milling percentage : The hulled brown rice was subjected to milling for 90 seconds i.e., 5% milling (Chauhan et al., 1994) [9] in “Satake grain testing mill” and the weight was recorded. The milling percentage was calculated by using the following formula and presented in percentage.

Water management : The experimental plots were irrigated to 2 cm depth uniformly in all the treatments after the appearance of hair line cracks, upto panicle initiation stage. After panicle initiation, the crop was irrigated to 5 cm depth. Irrigation was stopped 15 days prior to harvesting of the crop. Weed management : One Cono weeding was given on 15 days after transplanting followed by two hand weeding on 30th and 45thday after transplanting to keep the field under weed free condition. No herbicide was applied for organic treatments whereas for inorganic and INM treatments Butachlor @ 2.5 lit ha -1 as pre emergence herbicide applied on 3 DAT. Plant protection : Neem seed kernel exract @ 3% and Panchagavya @ 3% were sprayed at 35 and 50 days after transplanting as a prophylactic measure against rice leaf folder and stem borer. Panchagavya @ 3% was again sprayed at 70 days after transplanting along with liquid formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 500 ml ha-1 against the neck blast, leaf spot diseases and grain discoloration. For the inorganic treatments (T13 and T14), the chemical plant protection measures were taken as recommended in CPG (2012) on need basis. Grain yield : Harvesting was done manually using hand sickles and for the rice crop, border rows in the plots were

Mi ll in gpe rce ntage=

Total we ightof mi ll edrice ( g ) × 100 Total w e ight of roughri ce (g )

Head rice recovery : Head rice percentage was estimated as below : He adrice pe rce n tage=

Total h eadri ce (g ) × 100 total rou ghri ce ( g )

Broken rice percentage : Broken rice percentage is defined as the percentage of broken rice to the weight of total quantity of rice obtained by shelling. Broken rice (%) = [ W2/ (W1 +W2 )] x 100

where, W1 -Weight of whole rice in the sample (g), and W2 -Weight of broken rice in the sample (g). Co-efficient of shelling : Co-efficient of shelling (C) was calculated with the following formula : C = (W - W1) / W

where, W - Total quantity of shelled paddy (g), and W1 - Weight of unshelled paddy (g) Effectiveness of shelling : The effectiveness of shelling (ES) was calculated with the following formula : ES = C x H

where, C - Co-efficient of shelling, and H - Head rice percentage.



Physical parameters of rice grain : The rice grains were cleaned manually to remove foreign matters such as stones, sand, clay particles, shrivelled, discoloured and infected grains. The following physical parameters were studied to evaluate the quality of rice. Length : The length was estimated by the method described by Khan and Ali (1985).Ten rice grains of uniform size were kept length-wise on a graph paper and the mean length was me measured and expressed in mm. Breadth : The breadth was estimated by the method described by Khan and Ali (1985). Ten rice grains of uniform size were kept breadth-wise on a graph paper and the mean breadth was measured and expressed in mm. Length breadth (L : B) ratio : The data on measured length and breadth for individual sample used to calculate L:B ratio. Thousand grain weight (g) : One thousand kernels each of the milled rice was counted randomly in duplicate and weighed in a single pan balance in grams. Chemical parameters of rice grain : Rice samples of each treatment were cleaned by removing stones and other foreign particles. Good grains were powdered and used for chemical analysis. Moisture : Five gram samples were placed in moisture weighing bottle and kept in hot air oven maintained at 105°C. After 16--+1 or 16-1 hours of drying, they were cooled in a desiccators for 30 minutes. The weight of the seeds before and after drying was recorded and expressed in gram. The moisture content of the seed was calculated using the following formula (ISTA., 1999). Moistu recon te n t(%) =

M 2 – M3 × 100 M 2 – M1

where, M1 - Weight of the weighing bottle alone, M2 - Weight of bottle + seed sample before drying, 24 80 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


and M3 - Weight of bottle + seed sample after drying. Fat content : Fat was estimated as crude ether extract of the dry material. Fat content in per cent was calculated by the following formula (A.O.A.C.,1980). Fat conte ntin percen tage=

W e i gh tof ei th e re xtract W e igh tof th e sampl e

Protein : Protein content of rice sample was estimated as per the method suggested by Lowry et al. (1951). The estimation of protein was based on the development of blue colour by the hydroxyl groups present in the amino acids with the folin-ciocalteau phenol reagent. The protein content of sample was expressed as percentage. Carbohydrate : Carbohydrate content was estimated from the samples of each treatment by anthrone method as suggested by Hedge and Hofreiter (1962) and expressed as percentage. Amylose content : The method suggested by Sadasivam and Manickam (1996) was followed in determining amylose content. Fibre : The method suggested by Sadasivam and Manickam (1996) was followed in determining fibre content. Total ash : Ash content percent was calculated by using the following formula (A.O.A.C., 1980) : Ash con te n tper ce nt =

W e igh tof th e ash × 100 W e i gh tof th e sample tak en

Cooking qualities rice : Optimum cooking time : The time taken for cooking was estimated by the method described by Jayachandran (1997). Five gram of sample was taken in a boiling test tube. To this, 35 ml of water was added and placed in a boiling water bath. A few rice grains were periodically withdrawn and pressed between two slides and the cooking time was adjusted to be complete when white chalky spots had


disappeared. Water absorption ratio : The milled rice was put into a test tube containing distilled water @ 50 mL per two gm of milled rice. It was allowed to soak for 30 minutes and then boiled for 45 minutes at 770 C to 800C. The test tubes were taken out and placed in a beaker containing cold water for cooling. The cooked rice was blotted for free of water without the loss of solids and weighed to find out water absorption. The water absorption ratio was calculated by the formula and expressed in mL / 100 gm by multiplying the value with 100. The water absorption ratio was estimated by the method described by Khan and Ali (1985). It is the ratio between the weight of the cooked rice to the uncooked. Waterabsorption(mL/ 100 g) =

Weightof cookedrice (g) – Weightof milledrice (g) Weightof milledrice(g)

Volume expansion ratio : The volume of the initial milled rice was measured by water displacement method in a graduated measuring cylinder. Then the milled rice was put into a test tube and cooked in boiling water bath for 20 minutes. then the cooked rice was decanted on a filter paper to remove the excess water. Then the cooked rice volume was measured again, by water displacement method. The volume expansion is calculate by using following formula. The volume expansion ratio was estimated by the method described by Khan and Ali (1985). It is the ratio between the cooked volume to the uncooked. Vo lu meexpan si on=

Volu meof cook edri ce (g ) Volu meof mi ll edri ce (g)

Elongation ratio : The length of 20 milled grains were recorded and they were pre soaked for 30 minutes and placed directly into a test tube containing boiling water and cooked for 20 minutes. Then the length was measured with the help of a thread. The kernel length after cooking was calculated by using the following formula : Elon gationratio =

Kern ell e ngthafter cook in g( mm) Ke rn e ll en gthbe forecook i ng(mm)

Kernel length and breadth after cooking : Ten normal milled grains are pre soaked to 10 to 30 minutes and placed directly into boiling water either by

direct dropping or in a wire cage or basket until its optimum cooking time. The length and breadth of cooked rice are measured and the average is worked out : Linearelongationratio(LER ) =

Lengthof cookedrice Lengthof raw rice

Breadthwise expansionratio(BER) = Lengthbreadthratioafter cooking(LBAC) =

Breadthof cookedrice Breadthof raw rice Kernellengthafter cooking Kernelbreadthafter cooking

Correlation and regression : The data on important growth, yield parameters and nutrient uptake were correlated with the rice grain yield and their significant relationship was tested using ‘t’ test and these levels of significance was noted as * for (0.05) and ** for (0.01). The significant parameters were further regressed using stepwise regression analysis and regression equations were derived. Correlation studies were made between grain yield and yield parameters. The values of correlation co-efficient (r) was calculated and tested for their significance at five per cent as per the procedure outlined by Snedekar and Cocoharan (1967). Simple regression analysis was also made and test of significance was done at five per cent as outlined by Snedekar and Cocoharan (1967). Statistical analysis : The data on various characters studied during the course of investigation were statistically analysed as suggested by Gomez and Gomez (2010). Wherever, the treatment differences were found significant by the ‘ F ‘ test, critical differences were worked out at five per cent probability level and the values furnished. Treatment differences that were non-significant were denoted by ‘ NS ‘. The correlation analysis was made between yield components and yield.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Rice grain yield : The treatments imposed had direct influence on rice grain yield in both the years of experimentation (Table 3). The grain yield of rice extended from 3602 to 6235 kg ha-1 during 2012 and from 3646 to 6270 kg ha-1 during 2013. The INM practice (T14) recorded higher grain yield (6235 and 6270 kg ha-1 in 2012 and 2013, respectively). The percentage yield increased under INM ranged from 73.1 in 2012 to 72.0 in 2013 over absolute control. The grain yield under INM practices was comparable with Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 81 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


recommended RDF (5603 and 5680 in 2012 and 2013, respectively) and resulted in yield reduction of 11.3 per cent and 11.4 per cent over INM in both the years of study. Among the organic treatments, 100% RDN though green manure (T5) recorded higher grain yield (5084 and 5140 in 2012 and 2013, respectively) resulted in yield reduction of 22.6 per cent and 22.0 per cent over INM and the percentage yield increase over absolute control ranged from 41.1 in 2012 to 41.0 in 2013, respectively. Next to 100% RDN through green manure, higher grain yield was recorded with 25% RDN through each organic manure (T12) (5004 and 5120 in 2012 and 2013, respectively) resulted in percentage yield increase over absolute control was 38.9 in 2012 and 40.9 in 2013. While comparing all the organic treatments, the percentage yield increase ranged from 8.5 to 41.1 in 2012 and 9.2 to 41.0 in 2013, respectively over absolute control. The RDF treatment recorded higher grain yield (5603 and 5680 in 2012 and 2013, respectively) resulted in percentage yield reduction of 11.3 and 11.4 over INM and percentage yield increase of 9.9 and 10.5 over 100 per cent RDN through green manure treatment. The lower grain yield (3602 in 2012 and 3646 in 2013) was obtained with absolute control (T1), which did not receive organic manures and recommended NPK fertilizers. The treatments like INM, RDF, 100% RDN through green manure, and 25% RDN through each organic manures

resulted in percentage yield increase (73.1 and 72.0, 55.6 and 55.8, 41.1 and 41.0, and 38.9 and 40.9, respectively) over absolute control in both the years of study. Physiologically proper partitioning might have occurred from source to sink, as a result improved the yield attributes. The results are similar to the findings of Vijay Kumar and Singh (2006). Mohandas et al., (2008) observed that the enhanced and continuous supply of nutrients by the enriched organics leading to better tiller production enhanced panicle length and filled grain of rice which ultimately leads to higher total biomass production of rice. Padmaja Rao (1998) indicated that further filling of grains with photosynthates is likely to occur. Steady and continuous supply of N throughout the entire crop gr owth per iod due to gradual transformation and mineralization of organics, solubilization of water insoluble P compounds by organic acids released during decomposition of organics resulting in greater P availability to crop coupled with higher native K availability might have played a key role in ensuring superior yield attributes by organics in combination with inorganic N like in INM practice. This was in agreement with the findings of several workers who reported all increase in yield contributing characters due to addition of mineral N along with organics like Sesbania aculeata, Gheethalakshmi (1996), Veerabadran and Solaiappan (1996) and Basnet (1999), FYM, Parida et al., (1995)

Table 1 : Effe ct of organi c manures, fe rtilizers and INM on milling quali ty of raw paddy (samba 2012) Milling Whole Unshelle Head rice Treatments recovery rice d paddy recovery (%) (g) (g) (%)

Broken rice (%)

Co-efficient of shelling

Effectiveness of shelling (%)

T 1 : Absolute control

61.9

34.6

12.50

58.6

41.4

0.74

44.0


65.2

40.6

9.80

61.4

38.6

0.80

51.0


65.7

41.0

9.20

62.4

37.8

0.81

52.3


66.4

41.4

8.40

63.2

36.8

0.82

53.0


69.1

46.8

5.90

68.4

31.2

0.89

58.7

T 6 : 50% RDN each of through FYM + VC

64.4

40.0

9.20

60.2

39.2

0.78

48.3

T 7 : 50% RDN each of through FYM + PM

66.6

41.8

8.20

63.7

36.4

0.83

53.3

T 8 : 50% RDN each of through FYM + GM

65.6

40.8

8.60

61.8

38.2

0.81

51.4

T 9 : 50% RDN each of through VC + PM

66.8

42.0

7.90

64.0

36.2

0.79

53.7

T 10 : 50% RDN each of through VC + GM

64.9

40.4

8.90

61.0

38.8

0.82

50.0

T 11 : 50% RDN each of through PM + GM

65.8

41.2

8.80

62.8

37.4

0.74

52.7

T 12 : 25% RDN each of through FYM+VC + PM + GM

67.2

42.1

7.70

64.2

35.9

0.84

54.2

T 13 : (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

62.4

39.6

10.40

59.4

39.8

0.76

46.2

T 14 : INM Practice

67.4

42.3

7.60

64.3

35.8

0.84

54.8

S.E. ±

6.3

3.9

0.89

5.9

3.6

0.08

4.9


NS

7.9

1.84

NS

7.4

NS

10.1




and Geethalakshmi (1996), poultry manure, Dixit and Gupta (2000), Hemalatha et al., (1999) and Mohandas et al., (2008). Generally, the tiller formation in rice is highly influenced by solar radiation interception, total sunshine reception, nutrient uptake, rate of photosynthesis and other physiological phenomena and ultimately

enhanced the growth and development and yield of rice reported by Yoshida (1976). Rice quality parameters : Milling characteristics of paddy : The INM practice, addition of organic manures and

Table 2 : Effe ct of organi c manures, fe rtilizers and INM on milling quali ty of raw paddy (samba 2013) Milling Head rice Whole Unshelled Treatments recovery recovery rice (g) paddy (g) (%) (%)

Broken rice (%)

Coefficient of shelling

Effectiveness of shelling (%)


61.7

34.2

12.3

58.4

41.2

0.75

43.9


65.0

39.6

9.6

61.2

38.4

0.79

51.2


65.5

39.0

9.0

62.2

37.6

0.80

52.3


66.2

41.1

8.2

63.0

36.6

0.81

53.1


69.2

46.4

5.8

69.2

31.0

0.88

58.8


64.2

39.8

10.0

60.0

39.0

0.79

48.4


66.4

41.4

8.0

63.5

36.2

0.82

53.2


65.4

40.6

9.4

61.6

38.0

0.80

51.2


66.6

41.8

7.7

64.0

36.0

0.82

53.2


64.7

40.2

9.8

60.8

38.6

0.80

50.3


65.5

41.0

8.7

62.6

37.2

0.81

52.3

T 12 : 25% RDN each of through FYM+VC+PM+GM

67.0

42.0

7.5

64.0

35.7

0.83

54.0

T 13 : (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

63.4

38.2

10.2

59.2

37.2

0.78

47.2

T 14 : INM Practice

67.2

42.0

7.4

64.1

35.5

0.83

54.6

S.E. ±

6.2

3.8

0.9

5.9

3.5

0.08

4.9


NS

7.8

1.8

NS

7.3

NS

10.1

Table 3 : Effe ct of organi c manures, RDF and INM on physical characteri stics of raw rice grain samba 2012 Grain Grain Grain Treatments yield length breadth L/B ratio (kg ha-1) (mm) (mm)

Grain yield (kg ha-1)

sam ba 2013 Grain Grain lengt h breadth (mm) (mm)

L/B ratio


3602

5.20

1.80

2.69

3646

5.22

1.81

2.70

T 2 : 100% RDN t hrough FYM

4164

5.25

1.85

2.73

4190

5.24

1.84

2.72

T 3 : 100% RDN t hrough VC

4296

5.28

1.88

2.76

4380

5.26

1.89

2.77

T 4 : 100% RDN t hrough PM

4377

5.30

1.90

2.78

4550

5.31

1.91

2.78

T 5 : 100% RDN t hrough GM

5084

5.35

1.93

2.80

5140

5.37

1.94

2.82


3910

5.24

1.84

2.70

3980

5.25

1.85

2.73


4721

5.31

1.91

2.79

4833

5.30

1.90

2.79


4236

5.26

1.86

2.74

4316

5.25

1.92

2.78

T 9 :50% RDN each of through VC + PM

4923

5.32

1.92

2.80

4986

5.31

1.91

2.78

T 10 :50% RDN each of through VC + GM

4079

5.24

1.84

2.72

4140

5.26

1.86

2.74

T 11 :50% RDN each of through PM + GM

4322

5.29

1.89

2.77

4430

5.28

1.88

2.76

T 12: 25% RDN each of through FYM + VC + PM + GM

5004

5.33

1.92

2.80

5120

5.32

1.92

2.79

T 13 :RDF (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

5603

5.22

1.83

2.70

5680

5.23

1.83

2.71

T 14 :INM Practice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha-1 )

6235

5.32

1.92

2.80

6270

5.31

1.91

2.79

S.E. ±

425

0.50

0.18

0.26

432

0.50

0.18

0.26


874

NS

NS

NS

889

NS

NS

NS



recommended NPK fertilizers in the first and second crop of rice had marked influence on the quality parameters in both the year of investigation (Table 1 and Table 2). Milling recovery : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the milling recovery percentage in both the years of experimentation. However, the milling recovery was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Similar trend was also observed by Dixit and Gupta (2000) and Sreenivasa Reddy (2002). Hulling percentage : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the hulling recovery percentage in both the years of experimentation (Table 2). However, the hulling recovery was higher in all the treatments. Similar trend was also observed by Dixit and Gupta (2000) and Sreenivasa Reddy (2002). Whole rice : The treatments imposed had marked influence on weight of whole rice in both the years of experimentation. Application of 100 per cent RDN through green manure (T5) registered with more weight of whole rice (46.8 g during 2012 and 46.4 g during 2013) and it was

comparable with INM practice (T14) (42.3 and 42.0) during 2012 and 2013. Lower weight of whole rice was registered in absolute control (T 1 ) (34.6 and 34.2, respectively) during both the years of study. The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T 13) recorded with lower weight of whole rice (39.6 and 38.2) during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with higher weight of whole rice and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) during both the years of study. Unshelled Paddy : The treatments imposed had marked influence on weight of unshelled paddy in both the years of experimentation. The highest unshelled paddy was observed in absolute control (T1) (12.5 g during 2012 and 12.3 g during 2013) followed by recommended NPK fertilizers (T13) (10.4 and 10.2) during both the years of experimentation. Application of 100 per cent RDN through green manure (T5) registered with lower weight of unshelled paddy (5.9 g during 2012 and 5.8 g during 2013) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) (7.6 and 7.4) during 2012 and 2013. Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with lesser weight of unshelled paddy when compared with recommended dose of fertilizer treatment and absolute control during both the years of study.

Table 4 : Effe ct of organi c manures, RDF and INM on chemi cal compositi on of rice (samba 2012) Moist ure Protein Carbohydrat e Treatments (%) (%) (%)

Amylose (%)

Fat (%)

Fibre (%)

Total ash (%)

T1

: Absolut e control

12.4

5.82

74.50

19.00

0.51

0.182

0.830

T2

: 100% RDN through FYM

12.2

7.01

76.60

24.47

0.53

0.194

0.872

T3

: 100% RDN through VC

12.2

6.82

77.00

24.50

0.54

0.196

0.874

T4

: 100% RDN through PM

12.2

7.05

77.40

24.52

0.54

0.199

0.876

T5

: 100% RDN through GM

12.4

7.14

78.28

26.82

0.58

0.229

0.882

T6

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + VC

12.1

6.44

75.40

20.43

0.52

0.192

0.840

T7

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + PM

12.2

7.06

77.50

24.53

0.55

0.200

0.877

T8

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + GM

12.2

6.96

76.80

24.48

0.53

0.195

0.873

T9

: 50% RDN each of t hrough VC + PM

12.3

7.08

77.53

24.53

0.55

0.200

0.877

T 10 : 50% RDN each of t hrough VC + GM

12.1

6.64

76.20

24.45

0.53

0.193

0.870

T 11 : 50% RDN each of t hrough PM + GM

12.2

7.03

77.20

24.51

0.54

0.198

0.875

T 12 : 25% RDN each of through FYM + VC + PM + GM

12.2

7.09

77.56

24.54

0.56

0.202

0.878

T 13 : RDF (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

12.2

7.00

76.00

24.24

0.51

0.188

0.862

T 14 : INM Pract ice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha-1 )

12.2

7.10

77.55

24.55

0.56

0.203

0.879

S.E. ±

1.2

0.65

7.31

2.28

0.05

0.018

0.083


NS

1.33

NS

4.68

NS

0.038

NS




Head rice recovery : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the head rice recovery percentage in both the years of experimentation. However, the head rice recovery was higher in all the treatments except absolute control.

Broken rice : The treatments imposed had marked influence on broken rice percentage in both the years of study. The absolute control (T 1 ) had shown higher broken rice percentage of 41.4 and 41.2 during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Lower broken rice percentage was recorded

Table 5 : Effe ct of organi c manures, RDF and INM on chemi cal compositi on of rice (samba 2013) Moist ure Prot ein Carbohydra Amylose Treatments (%) (%) te (%) (%)

Fat (%)

Fibre (%)

Tot al ash (%)

T1

: Absolut e control

12.4

5.84

74.62

19.03

0.51

0.184

0.835

T2

: 100% RDN through FYM

12.2

7.02

76.80

24.50

0.54

0.196

0.874

T3

: 100% RDN through VC

12.2

6.83

77.20

24.53

0.55

0.198

0.876

T4

: 100% RDN through PM

12.2

7.06

77.60

24.55

0.55

0.201

0.878

T5

: 100% RDN through GM

12.5

7.17

78.50

26.86

0.59

0.231

0.884

T6

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + VC

12.2

6.46

75.60

20.47

0.53

0.194

0.842

T7

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + PM

12.2

7.07

77.70

24.56

0.56

0.202

0.879

T8

: 50% RDN each of t hrough FYM + GM

12.2

6.98

77.00

24.51

0.54

0.197

0.875

T9

: 50% RDN each of t hrough VC + PM

12.3

7.10

77.73

24.57

0.56

0.202

0.879

T 10 : 50% RDN each of t hrough VC + GM

12.2

6.66

76.40

24.48

0.54

0.195

0.872

T 11 : 50% RDN each of t hrough PM + GM

12.2

7.05

77.40

24.54

0.55

0.199

0.877


12.2

7.09

77.76

24.57

0.57

0.204

0.879

T 13 : RDF (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

12.2

7.01

76.20

24.38

0.52

0.191

0.868

T 14 : INM Pract ice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha-1 )

12.2

7.12

77.68

24.58

0.57

0.205

0.881

S.E. ±

1.2

0.65

7.33

2.28

0.52

0.019

0.083


NS

1.33

NS

4.68

NS

0.039

NS

Table 6 : Effe ct of organi c manures, RDF and INM on cooking time, volume expansion ratio and water absorption ratio of milled rice samba2012 sam ba2013 Cooking Volume Cooking Volume Wat er Treatments Water time expansion t ime expansion absorpt ion absorption ratio (minut es) ratio (minutes) rat io ratio T 1 : Absolute control

18.16

2.48

4.11

18.48

2.40

4.10


18.16

2.56

4.15

18.16

2.62

4.18


18.17

2.68

4.20

18.17

2.70

4.22


18.17

2.92

4.27

18.17

2.90

4.26


18.46

3.24

4.68

18.50

3.26

4.70


18.15

2.54

4.13

18.18

2.55

4.15


18.18

2.96

4.28

18.19

2.97

4.25


18.17

2.58

4.16

18.18

2.66

4.20


18.19

2.97

4.29

18.20

2.98

4.26


18.16

2.55

4.14

18.15

2.60

4.16


18.17

2.86

4.24

18.18

2.87

4.25


18.20

2.98

4.30

18.22

2.99

4.27

T 13 : RDF (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

18.22

2.52

4.12

18.27

2.50

4.11

T 14 : INM Practice (RDF + GM @ 6.25 t ha-1 )

18.23

3.00

4.33

18.26

3.10

4.28

S.E. ±

1.73

0.26

0.40

1.74

0.26

0.40


NS

0.54

NS

NS

0.54

NS



with 100 per cent RDF through green manure (T5) (31.2 and 31.0) and it was comparable with all the other organic treatments and INM practice (T14) (35.8 and 35.5) during both the years of study. Among the organic treatments, the highest broken rice percentage was noticed with 50 per cent RDN through FYM and vermicompost (T6) (39.2 and 39.0) followed by 50 per cent RDN through vermicompost and green manure (T10) (38.8 and 38.6) in both the years of experiments. The recommended NPK fertilizers resulted with higher broken rice percentage (39.8 and 37.2) and it was inferior to absolute control during both the years of study. Co-efficient of shelling : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the Co-efficient of shelling in both the years of experimentation. However, the Co-efficient of shelling was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Effectiveness of shelling : The treatments imposed had marked influence on effectiveness of shelling percentage in both the years of study. Higher effectiveness of shelling percentage was registered with 100 per cent RDN through green manure (T5) (58.7 and58.8) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) (54.8 and 54.6) during 2012 and 2013.

Lower effectiveness of shelling percentage was registered in absolute control (T1) (44.0 and 43.9) during both the years of study. The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T 13 ) recorded with lower effectiveness of shelling percentage of 46.2 and 47.2 during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with higher effectiveness of shelling percentage and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) during both the years of study. Physical characteristics of raw rice grain : Grain length : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the grain length in both the years of experimentation. However, the grain length was higher in all the treatments except absolute control (Table 3). Grain breadth : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the grain breadth in both the years of experimentation. However, the grain breadth was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. L/B ratio : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the L/B ratio in both the year s of

Table 7 : Effe ct of organi c manures, fe rtilizers and INM on cooking characteristics of mille d ri ce samba 2012 Treatments KLAC KBAC LBAC LER BER (mm) (mm) (mm)

KLAC (mm)

samba 2013 KBAC LER BER (mm)

LBAC (mm)


9.42

2.30

1.70

1.19

3.99

9.55

2.31

1.71

1.20

4.01


9.72

2.32

1.74

1.21

4.04

9.82

2.43

1.75

1.23

4.08


9.78

2.36

1.74

1.21

4.03

9.92

2.44

1.75

1.24

4.08


9.86

2.42

1.75

1.22

4.02

9.98

2.46

1.76

1.24

4.07


11.02

2.56

1.88

1.20

4.12

11.04

2.58

1.90

1.22

4.14


9.65

2.30

1.73

1.20

4.04

9.77

2.40

1.73

1.23

4.09


10.0

2.45

1.75

1.22

4.02

10.00

2.48

1.75

1.24

4.07


9.76

2.34

1.74

1.21

4.03

9.86

2.43

1.74

1.24

4.08


10.01

2.46

1.77

1.22

4.02

10.02

2.49

1.77

1.25

4.07


9.70

2.31

1.74

1.20

4.04

9.80

2.42

1.74

1.23

4.09


9.80

2.39

1.76

1.21

4.03

9.96

2.45

1.76

1.24

4.08

T 12 : 25% RDN each of through FYM+VC+PM+GM

10.02

2.47

1.76

1.22

4.02

10.03

2.50

1.77

1.25

4.07

T 13 : (150 : 50 : 50 ) NPK kg ha-1

10.04

2.49

1.77

1.24

4.03

10.04

2.52

1.78

1.26

4.08

T 14 : INM Practice

10.03

2.48

1.76

1.22

4.02

10.02

2.51

1.78

1.25

4.07

S.E. ±

0.94

0.23

0.17

0.12

0.38

0.95

0.23

0.17

0.12

0.39

C.D. (P=0.05) KLAC : Kernel lengt h after cooking KBAC : Kernel breadt h after cooking BER : Breadth wise expansion rat io

NS

NS NS NS NS NS NS=Non-significant LER : Linear elongat ion ratio LBAC : Length breadth rat io aft er cooking

NS

NS

NS

NS




experimentation. However, the L/B ratio was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Chemical composition of rice : Moisture : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the moisture percentage of rice in both the years of experimentation (Table 4 and 5). Protein : The treatments imposed had direct influence on protein content of rice in both the years of study (Table 4 and 5). Higher protein content was recorded with100% RDN through green manure (T5) (7.14 and 7.17%) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) (7.10 and 7.12 %) during 2012 and 2013 The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T13) recorded with the protein content of 7.00 and 7.01% during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Lower protein content was recorded for absolute control (T1) (5.82 and 5.84% during 2012 and 2013, respectively). Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with more protein content and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) during both the years of study. Similar trend was also observed by Parida et al., 1995,, Hemalatha et al., (2000) and Hemalatha et al. (1999). Carbohydrate : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the carbohydrate content of rice in both the years of experimentation. However, the carbohydrate content of rice was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Amylose : The treatments imposed had direct influence on amylose content of rice in both the years of study. The higher amylose content was registered with with100% RDN through green manure (T5) (26.82 and 26.86%) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) (24.55 and 24.58%) during 2012 and 2013.The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T13) recorded with the amylose content of 24.24 and 24.38% during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Lower amylose content was recorded for absolute control (T1) (19.00 and 19.03% during 2012 and 2013, respectively). Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with more amylose content and it was comparable with INM practice ( T14) during both the years of study. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 87 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Similar trend was also observed by Parida et al., (1995), Hemalatha et al., (1999 and 2000) and Sreenivasa Reddy, (2002). Fat : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the fat content of rice in both the years of experimentation. However, the fat content of rice was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Fibre : The treatments imposed had very less influence on fibre content of rice in both the years of study. The more fibre content was recorded with 100 per cent RDN through green manure (T5) (0.229 and 0.231%) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14 ) (0.203 and 0.205 during 2012 and 2013 The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T13) recorded with the fibre content of 0.188 and 0.191 per cent during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Lower fibre content was recorded for absolute control (T1) (0.182 and 0.184 during 2012 and 2013, respectively). Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with more fibre content and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) during both the years of study. Total ash : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the total ash content of rice in both the years of experimentation. However, the total ash content of rice was higher in all the treatments except absolute control. Cooking quality of milled rice : The cooking qualities like, cooking time, volume expansion ratio and water absorption ratio were recorded for both the years of study and furnished in Table 6. Cooking time : The different treatments imposed did not influence the cooking time (minutes) during both the years of experimentation (Table 6). Volume expansion ratio : The treatments imposed directly influenced on volume expansion ratio of rice in both the years of study (Table 6). The higher volume expansion ratio was observed with 100 per cent RDN through green manure 24 88 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :



(T5) (3.24 and 3.26 %) and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) (3.00 and 3.10 during 2012 and 2013. The recommended dose of NPK fertilizers (T 13 ) recorded with the volume expansion ratio of 2.52 and 2.50 per cent during 2012 and 2013, respectively. Lower volume expansion ratio was recorded for absolute control (T1) (2.48 and 2.40 during 2012 and 2013, respectively). Invariably all the organic treatments resulted with more volume expansion ratio and it was comparable with INM practice (T14) during both the years of study. Similar trend was also observed by Shanmugasundaram 91987), Parida et al. (1995) and Singh et al., (2000).

years of experimentation. However, the linear elongation ratio was higher in 100% RDN through green manure applied treatment than all the other treatments whereas, lower linear elongation ratio was recorded in absolute control. The increased length / breadth ratio after cooking was observed with 100% RDN through green manure followed by INM practices. This character is considered as desirable trait in high quality rice. Nguyen et al. (2002) reported that the application of organic manures gave a higher L:B ratio of rice after cooking than with inorganic fertilizers.

Water absorption ratio : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the water absorption ratio in both the years of experimentation. However, the water absorption ratio was higher in all the treatments except absolute control.

Cooking characteristics of milled rice : The cooking characteristics of milled rice like kernel length after cooking, kernel breadth after cooking, linear elongation ratio, breadth wise expansion ratio and length breadth ratio after cooking were recorded for both the years of experimentation (Table 7).

Linear elongation ratio : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the linear elongation ratio (LER) in both the

Kernel length after cooking : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the kernel length after cooking (KLAC) in

Table 10 : Regression anal ysis between grain yield of rice with di ffe rent quality paramete rs (samba 2012 and 2013) Sr. Paramet ers Regression Equat ion No. 1.

2.

3.

4

5.

6.

7.

R2 values

Milling qualit ies of raw paddy

Y = 5.295 + 693.407 (MILREC) -205.207 (WHOLE) + 400.297 (UNSHELL) -266.570

0.979

(2012)

(HEADREC) - 526.272 (BROKEN)

Milling qualit ies of raw paddy

Y = 29.766 + 447.003 (MILREC) -139.883 (WHOLE) + 265.816 (UNSHELL) -111.758

(2013)

(HEADREC) - 389.483 (BROKEN)

Physical characteristics of raw

Y = -32.079 -11143.809 (GRNLEN) - 3231.180 (GRNBRDT) + 23895.769 (L/B RATIO) +

rice (2012)

203.324 (G1000WT)

Physical characteristics of raw

Y = -122.541 - 3625.869 (GRNLEN) + 10420.553 (GRNBRDT ) + 18.267 (L/B RATIO) +

rice (2013)

238.384 (G1000WT)

Chemical composit ion of rice

Y = 16.755 - 208.272 (PROTEIN) + 683.943 (CARBOHYD) + 393.639 (AMYLOSE) +

(2012)

37713.915 (FAT) - 27408.913 (FIBRE) - 81632.119 (TOTASH)

Chemical composit ion of rice

Y = 6.256 + 7.368 (PROTEIN) + 564.353 (CARBOHYD) + 330.231 (AMYLOSE) +

(2013)

36394.278 (FAT) -21483.042 (FIBRE) -71795.792 (TOTASH)

Cooking qualities of milled rice

Y = - 9.114 - 702.190 (COOKTIM) + 1001.790 (VOLEXP) + 3426.415 (WATEXP)

0.921

Y = - 24.346 - 491.394 (COOKTIM) + 1933.743 (VOLEXP) + 1922.466 (WATEXP)

0.957

Cooking characteristics of

Y = - 12.973 + 1787.636 (KLAC) + 1093.589 (KBAC) - 4045.142 (LER) + 4401.250 (BER) -

0.986

milled rice-open cooked (2012)

3446.212 (LBAC)

Cooking characteristics of

Y = -56.540 - 592.173 (KLAC) + 22862.207 (KBAC) - 7725.936 (LER) - 31140.226 (BER) +

milled rice-open cooked (2013)

1614.128 (LBAC)

0.972

0.575

0.535

0.932

0.937

(2012) 8.

Cooking qualities of milled rice (2013)

9.

10.

0.954



both the years of experimentation. However, the kernel length after cooking was higher in 100 per cent RDN through green manure applied treatment than all the other treatments whereas, lower kernel length after cooking was recorded in absolute control. Kernel breadth after cooking : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the kernel breadth after cooking (KBAC) in both the years of experimentation. However, the kernel breadth after cooking was higher in 100 per cent RDN through green manure applied treatment than all the other treatments whereas, lower kernel breadth after cooking was recorded in absolute control. Breadth wise expansion ratio : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the breadth wise elongation ratio in both the years of experimentation. However, the breadth wise elongation ratio was higher in 100 per cent RDN through green manure applied treatment than all other treatments whereas, lower linear elongation ratio was recorded in absolute control. Length breadth ratio after cooking : The treatments imposed did not significantly influenced the length breadth ratio after cooking (LBAC) in both the years of experimentation. However, the length breadth ratio after cooking was higher in 100 per cent RDN through green manure applied treatment than all the other treatments whereas, lower the length breadth ratio after cooking was recorded in absolute control. Correlation between grain yield with milling qualities of paddy, physical and chemical composition and cooking qualities of rice : The correlation between grain yield with milling qualities of paddy viz., (milling recovery, head rice recovery and broken rice r ecovery), physical characteristics of rice viz., (grain length, grain breadth, L/B ratio and thousand grain weight), chemical composition of rice viz., (moisture content, protein content, carbohydrate content, amylose content, fat content, fibre content and total ash content), cooking qualities of rice viz., (volume expansion ratio and water expansion ratio) and cooking qualities of rice (opencooked) viz., (kernel length after cooking, kernel breadth 24 90 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


after cooking, length elongation ratio, breadth elongation ratio and length breadth after cooking) were positively correlated at one per cent level during 2012 and 2013 (Table 8 and 9). Regression between grain yield with milling qualities of paddy, physical and chemical composition and cooking qualities of rice : To see the stepwise regression analysis, the independent variables which had a significant relationship with a dependent variable from the correlation study were selected and used. The equations presented in Table 10, represents the regression between grain yield with milling qualities of paddy viz., (milling recovery, head rice recovery and broken rice recovery) with the R2 values of (0. 979 and 0.972), physical characteristics of rice viz., (grain length, grain breadth, L/B ratio and thousand grain weight) with the R2 values of (0.575 and 0.535), chemical composition of rice viz., (moisture content, protein content, carbohydrate content, amylose content, fat content, fibre content and total ash content) with the R2 values of ( 0.932 and 0.937), cooking qualities of rice viz., (volume expansion ratio and water expansion ratio) with the R2 values of (0.921 and 0.957) and cooking qualities of rice (open-cooked) viz., (kernel length after cooking, kernel breadth after cooking, length elongation ratio, breadth elongation ratio and length breadth after cooking) with the R2 values of (0.986 and 0.954) were regressed during both the years of experimentation. Conclusion : The grain yield of rice, was higher recorded with INM practice followed by RDF treatment, whereas among the organic treatments, 100% RDN through green manure followed, by 25% RDN through each organic manures combination recorded more grain yield rice during both the years of experimentation. This study mainly focused on the correlation and regression analysis. The correlation between the grain yield of rice with important milling characteristics of paddy and cooking qualities of rice were positive during 2012 and 2013. The regression analysis was performed to assess the reliability of the most contributing independent variable (important milling characteristics of paddy and cooking qualities of rice) on dependent variable (rice grain yield) over seasons. To see the stepwise regression analysis, the independent variables which had a significant relationship with a


dependent variable. Separate regression equations were derived and furnished in Table 10. Authors’ affiliations : R. VENKITASWAMY, Department of Agronomy, Ta mil Na du Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

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nitrogen on rice quality. Internat. Rice. Hemalatha, M., Thirumurugan, T., Joseph, M. and Balasubramanian, R. (2000). Effect of different sources and levels of nitrogen on growth and yield of rice. J. Maharastra Agril. Univer., 254(3) : 255-257. ISTA (1999). International rules for seed testing, Seed Sci. Technol. Suppl. Rules, 27: 25-30. Jayachandran, M. (1997). Breaking barriers in rice during northeast monsoon through agronomical manipulation. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA).

Khan, M.S. and Ali, C.A. (1985). Cooking qualities of some rice varieties. J. Agric. Res., 23(3): 231-233. Lowry, O.H., Rose Brough, N.T., Farr, L.T. and Randall, R.J. (1951). Protein measurement with folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193: 265-275. Mahajan G., Gill, M.S. and Dogra, B. (2012). Performance of basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.) through organic source of nutrients. Indian J. Agril. Sci., 82: 459-461.

CPG. (2012). Crop production guide, Published by Department of Agriculture, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA).

Mohandas, S., Paramasivam, V. and Sakthivel, N. (2008). Phosphorus and zinc enriched organics for enhancing the yield of transplanted rice in new cauvery delta, Tamil Nadu. J. Ecobiol., 23(1): 73-76.

Dahiphale, A.V., Giri, D.G., Thakre, G.V. and Gin, M.D. (2003). Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield and yield contributing parameters of the scented rice. Ann. Plant Physiol., 17(1): 24-26.

Nguyen, Van Quyen., Sharma, S.N. and Gautam, R.C. (2002). Comparative study of organic and traditional farming for sustainable rice production. Omon rice, 10: 74-78.

Dixit, S. and Gupta, B.R. (2000). Effect of farmyard manure chemical and biofertilizers on yield and quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and soil properties. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 48(4): 773-780. Geethalakshmi, V. (1996). Studies on the direct and residual effect of non-conventional green leaf manures,with N for ricerice cropping system. Ph.D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA). Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. (2010). Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. (2nd Edn.) John Wiley and Sons, NEW YORK, U.S.A.

Gujja, B. and Thiyagarajan, T.M. 2009. Indian food security? The system of rice intensification. Gate Keeper Series., 143: 45. Hedge, J.E. and Hofreiter, B.T. (1962). Estimation of carbohydrate In: Carbohydrate chemistry, R.L. Whistler and J.N. Be Miller (eds). Academic press, NEW YORK, U.S.A. Hemalatha, M., Thirumurugan, V. and Balasubramanian, R. (1999). Influence of organic, biofertilizer and organic forms of

Padmaja Rao, S. (1988). Studies on nitrogen management in relation to quality grain and yield in lowland irrigated rice. Madras Agric. J., 75(7-8) : 276-280. Palaniappan, S.P. (2000). An overview of green manuring in rice based cropping systems. Adv. Agril. Res., 8: 141-161. Parida, R.C., Sahoo, D. and Mitra, G.N. (1995). Effect of nutrient imbalance on grain yield and protein content of wetland rice. J. Potassium Res., 11(3-4) : 302-306. Sadasivam, S. and Manickam, I.C. (1996). Biochemical methods for agricultural sciences. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp. 11-12. Sangeetha, S.P., Balakrishnan, A. and Devasenapathy, P. (2013). Influence on organic manures on yield and quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) in Rice- Blackgram cropping sequence. American J. Pl. Sci., 4: 1151-1157. Shanmugasundaram, V. (1987). Studies on the effect of rock phosphate with organic and partially acidulated rock phosphate on soil chemical properties, yield, nutrient uptake and certain quality parameters in rice IR 50. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. (INDIA). Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 91 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Sharma, M., Pandey, C.S. and Mahapatra, B.S. (2008). Effect of biofertilizers on yield and nutrient uptake by rice and wheat in rice-wheat cropping system under organic mode of cultivation. J. Eco-friendly Agric., 3(1) : 19-23. Singh, A., Singh, R.D. and Awasthi, R.P. (1996). Organic and inorganic sources of fertilizers for sustained productivity in rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) sequences on humid hilly soils of Sikkim. Indian J. Agron., 41(2): 191-194. Singh, Y., Chaudhary, D.C., Saxena, A., Kumar, R., Bharwaj, A.K., Singh, S.P. and Kumar, A. (2000). Yield maximization of rice-wheat cropping system through integrated nutrient management. In: National symposium on agronomy: challenges and strategies for the new millennium. Nov. 15-18, Gujarat, p. 19. Snedekar, G.W. and Ccoharan, G. (1967). Statistical methods, 6th Edition, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Limited. Srinivasa Reddy, M. (2002). Prospects of organic farming in rice-based croppin systems. Ph.D. Thesis Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad, TELANGANA (INDIA).



Urkurkar, J.S., Chitale, Srikanth and Tiwari, Alok (2010). Effect of organic v/s chemical nutrient packages on productivity, economics and physical status of soil in rice. (Oryza sativa L.) - Potato (Solanum tuberosum) cropping system in Chhattisgarh. Indian J. Agron., 55(1) : 6-10. Veerabadran and Solaiappan, V.V. (1996). Effect of rainfed green manure crops on succeeding rice (Oryza sativa L.) J. Agron. 41(1): 147-149. Vijay Kumar and Singh, O.P. (2006). Productivity and economics of rice-wheat cropping system as influenced by organic manures and fertilizer management under irrigated conditions. Internat. J. Agric.Sci., 2(2): 629-632. Yadav, S.K., Singh Yogeshwar, Yadav, M.K., Babu Subhash and Singh Kalyan (2013). Effect of organic nitrogen sources on yield, nutrient uptake and soil health under rice (Oryza sativa L.) based cropping sequence. Indian J. Agril. Sci., 83: 170175. Yoshida, S., Doughlas, A., Fornojamesh, W., Cock. and Geomez, K.A. (1976). Laboratory Manual for Physiological Studies in Rice. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines. p. 75.

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RESEARCH ARTICLE :

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Efficacy of sulphur on growth, yield and quality of blackgram in Typic Haplustert and Typic Rhodustalf in soils of Tamil Nadu B. GOKILA, S. SIVAGNANAM, G. MARIAPPAN AND K. BASKAR


KEY WORDS : Blackgram, Sulphur, Alfisols, Vertisols, Vylogam, Peelamedu series

SUMMARY : Sulphur is an essential element for plant growth because it is present in major metabolic compounds such as amino acids (methionine and cysteine), glutathione, proteins, and sulpho lipids in oil seeds and pulses. Pulses are particularly sensitive to S deficiency, which imparts the low quality of seeds and yield. Therefore, the investigation was assessed with three different S sources as Gypsum, Ammonium sulphate and Potassium sulphate were tried at two levels (S @10 and 20 kg ha-1). Field experiment were conducted during rabi season of 2014 to study the effect of yield and quality of irrigated blackgram as influenced by the sulphur application in Peelamedu (Typic Haplustert) and Vylogam series (Typic Rhodustalf). The result revealed that, the highest growth parameters such as plant height (54.7 cm, 55.9 cm), Number of leaves plant-1(54.8, 58.8), Number of pods plant-1(34.7, 38.8), Number of seed pod-1(7.4, 8.4) like yield parameters such as grain (1145, 1275 kg ha -1) and straw yield (1645, 1990 kg ha-1) and quality parameters viz., protein (23, 24.2 %) and methionine (8.92, 8.97 mg g-1) were significantly increased by the different S sources when compared to control in Vylogam and Peelamedu series. Irrespective of the different S sources, S @ 20 kg ha-1 as K2SO4 coupled with recommended dose of fertilisers plus 0.5 % K2SO4 foliar spray at 30th and 45th DAS were significantly registered better response in blackgram at both the series. The synergistic effect of sulphur with NPK fertilisers on blackgram growth, yield and quality characters in alfisols and vertisols of Tamil Nadu. How to cite this article : Gokila, B., Sivagnanam, S., Mariappan, G. and Baskar, K. (2017). Efficacy of sulphur on growth, yield and quality of blackgram in Typic Haplustert and Typic Rhodustalf in soils of Tamil Nadu. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : B. GOKILA

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

Email : singh_gokila@ rediffmail.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Blackgram (Vigna mungo) is one of the most important pulse crops grown in India, particularly Tamil Nadu. It is mainly grown for human consumption but also used as fodder for cattle and green manure for soil fertility. Seeds are mainly cooked, as ‘Dal’ in our

country. Being a legume crop, blackgram has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically with the nodule producing bacteria Rhizobium sp. Responses of blackgram to added fertilizers such as nitrogen and phosphorus have been found to vary with soil conditions. Increase of pulse production


B. GOKILA, S. SIVAGNANAM, G. MARIAPPAN AND K. BASKAR

is urgently needed to meet up the demand of the people to reduce import, to save foreign currency and to increase pulse consumption for maintaining good health. Increase of pulse production can also minimize the scarcity of fodder because the whole plant or it is by products can he used as good animal feed. Pulses in India have long been considered as the poor man’s meat and important diet due to rich in protein that nutritionally imbalances the protein from cereal grain, supply minerals and vitamins and provide an abundance of energy. But protein deficiency is a chronic problem in the developing countries like India. The World Health Organization recommends a per capita consumption of pulses at 80 g per day and the Indian council of Medical Research has a recommended a minimum consumption of 47 grams but at present the per capita availability of pulses is only 40g per day in India (Chaturvediand Masood Ali, 2002). Modern intensive farming has resulted in higher demand for fertilizer because of removal of all the essential nutrients in higher proportions by the crops. Most of our attention for fertilizer use has been restricted to the use of N, P and K, the three primary nutrients required by the crops in large quantities. Sulphur is an important secondary nutrient elements and it is indispensable for the synthesis of certain amino acids like cysteine, cystine and methionine besides being involved in various metabolic and enzymatic processes of plants (Schnug, 1991; McGrath et al. 1996 and Zhao et al. 1999). It is a constituent of protein and glutathione, a compound that play an important role in plant respiration and synthesis of essential oils. In countries like India, vitally concerned with increasing of food production, S is one element that must not be overlooked. Low S levels in Indian soils is regularly the main reason for low yield of cereals, pulses, oilseeds and commercial crops due to its involvement in the assimilation of nitrogen, photosynthesis, in synthesis of proteins and S containing amino acids. The widespread S deficiency in Indian soils depends more on climate, vegetation, parent material, soil texture, and management practices. Sulphur and nitrogen both are required for the synthesis of protein; therefore, the ratio of total N to total S in plant tissue can reflect the ability of N and S in protein synthesis (Brunold and Suter, 1984). Singh and Aggarwal (1998) found that among the sources of sulphur, gypsum produced significantly higher pods per plant and seed per pod of black gram. Singh et al., (1999) reported that potassium sulphate was significantly better 24 94 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


than elemental sulphur and pyrite but remained on par with gypsum in production of pods per plant and seeds per pod of Lentil. Sharma and Singh (1997) reported that application of sulphur at the rate of 40kg ha-1 enhanced plant height, branches, pod per plant and 1000 gram weight in green gram. Aulakh and Pasrich (1986) reported that application of S @ 40 kg ha -1 may be regarded as beneficial dose of sulphur application from the point of view of more protein content in seed of black gram. Information on sulphur with blackgram in vylogam and peelamedu series is rather limited. Bearing this background, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of sulphur on yield and quality of blackgram in Typic Haplustert of Madurai district.

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

A field experiment was conducted in private fertiliser firm (BG crop sciences) at Thenamallur village, T. Kalligudi block, Madurai district with the test crop of Black gram during the year and the experimental site is located at 9° 41’ 17.6" N latitude and 77° 55 50.6"E longitude at an elevation of 127 meters above mean sea level. The soils of the experimental site belonged to Vylogam series and according to USDA soil taxonomy it is classified as Sandy clay loam, fine loamy mixed isohyperthermic Typic Rhodustalf. Initial nutrient status and characteristics of the experimental site of this series was low in KMnO4 – N (234 kg ha-1), high in Olsen – P (24.8 kg ha-1), medium in NH4OAc- K (244 kg ha-1), deficient in CaCl2 extractable S (9.9 mg kg-1), medium status in organic carbon (5.43 g kg-1), deficient in DTPA extractable Zn (0.92 mg kg -1 ), sufficient DTPA extractable Fe (9.10 mg kg -1 ), moderate in DTPA extractable Cu (1.64 mg kg -1 ) and high in DTPA extractable Mn (34.8 mg kg-1) of sandy clay loam. The second field experiment was conducted at farmer’s field of Annaikaripatti village, T.Kallupatti block, Madurai district with the test crop of Black gram (VBN4) during 2014. The experimental site is located at 9°40 N latitude and 77°35 E longitude at an elevation of 215 meters above mean sea level. The soils of the experimental site belonged to Peelamedu series and according to USDA soil taxonomy it has been classified as clay loam, fine montmorillonitic isohyperthermicTypic Haplustert. The characteristics of the both experimental soilare presented in Table.1. In Peelamedu series, the soils were clay loam with the neutral pH of 7.40 and

EFFICACY OF SULPHUR ON GROWTH, YIELD & QUALITY OF BLACKGRAM IN TYPIC HAPLUSTERT & TYPIC RHODUSTALF IN SOILS OF TAMIL NADU

non-saline electrical conductivity of 0.30 dSm-1. The total sesquioxides and AEC were recorded as low of 4.50 per cent and 2.40 c molc kg-1respectively. The available N, P and K status of the soils were low, high and medium of 261, 25.4 and 298 kg ha -1respectively. The available CaCl2 - S was low of 9.30 mg kg-1. Blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) variety VBN 4 was used as a test crop in both the field experiments to evaluate the efficacy of sulphur on growth, yield and quality of blackgram.We sow two seeds per hill and thinned after 6 days after germination. Spacing was 45 x 15 cm. Irrigation was scheduled at every ten days interval after the life irrigation was given. The experimental design used was randomised block design with three replications.Recommended dose of fertilizer as NPK @ 25: 50: 25 kg ha-1. Three S fertilizer sources [Gypsum (Ca SO4), ammonium sulphate (NH4 SO4) and potassium

sulphate (K2SO4)] and two levels (S @10, 20 kg ha-1) and soil application(as basal dose), foliar spray (only 0.5% K2SO4) and combined application along with control a total 14 treatments were used for the experiment during 2014. All the experimental data were statistically analysed as per the procedure outlined by Gomez and Gomez (1984).

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Effect of sulphur application on growth parameters of blackgram : Plant height (cm) : Sources and levels of sulphur significantly influenced the plant height at harvest stage of blackgram which varied from 45.4 to 54.7 cm and 44.8 to 55.9 cmin Vylogam and Peelamedu series, respectively (Table 2). The highest plant height of 54.7 cm in the treatment

Table 1 : Ini tial physi co – chemi cal properties of the experimental site I and II Sr. No. Soil parameters Parti cle size distribution 1. Textural class Physical properties 1. Bulk density (Mg m -3)

Vylogam

Peelamedu

Sandy clay loam

Clay loam

1.37

1.30

2.

Part icle density (Mg m -3)

2.71

1.96

3.

Water holding capacity (%)

31.9

41.4

4.

Pore space (%)

36.4

47.6 7.89

Physico- chemical prope rties 1.

Soil react ion (pH )

7.17

2.

EC (dSm -1 )

0.43

0.3

3.

CEC (c mol(p +) kg-1 )

12.3

19.8

4.

AEC (c molc kg-1 )

4.20

2.40

Chemical properties 1. Tot al Sesquioxides (%)

12.6

4.50

2.

Organic carbon (g kg-1)

5.43

4.10

3.

Tot al nitrogen (%)

0.052

0.043

4.

Tot al phosphorus (%)

0.047

0.051

5.

Tot al pot assium (%)

0.283

0.55

6.

Alk- KMnO4 –N (kg ha-1)

234

261

7.

Olsen – P (kg ha-1)

24.8

25.4

8.

NH4Oac - K (kg ha-1)

244

298

9.

CaCl2 - S (mg kg -1)

9.9

9.30

10.

Exchangeable Ca (c mol(p+) kg -1)

7.80

11.6

11.

Exchangeable Mg (c mol(p+) kg -1)

2.92

5.89

12.

DTPA extractable Zn (mg kg -1 )

0.92

1.78

-1

13.

DTPA extractable Fe (mg kg )

9.10

4.10

14.

DTPA extractable Cu (mg kg -1)

1.64

3.14

15.

DTPA extractable Mn (mg kg -1 )

34.8

16.5 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 95 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


receiving S @ 20 kg ha-1as Potassium sulphate plus 0.5 per cent K2SO4foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T9) and this was on par with S @ 20 kg ha-1as potassium sulphate plus 100 per cent RDF (T 8 ) (54.5 cm ). Regarding Peelamedu series, the treatment T9recorded highest plant height of 55.9 cm followed by T8 (55.3cm) in blackgram.This was ascribed due to the increasing levels of sulphur could have increased the ferridoxin content which is responsible for nodulation activity. Ferridoxin are rich in sulphur and contain Fe-S clusters which play vital role in N2 fixation. These nodulation encourage the activity of rhizhosphere region increases the nutrient retention in root zone which in turn increased the nutrient absorption and translocation from assimilate to shoot encourage the plant height of blackgram. In both locations S application increases the plant height augmented to synergism of sulphur with N and other macro and micro nutrients which has increased the plant height of blackgram. This was supported by the findings of FahminaAkteret al. (2013) who revealed that among the different fertilizer doses, application of S @ 40 kg ha -1 recorded the highest plant height which was statistically similar with 20 kg S ha-1 this was ascribed to the favourable effects of sulphur on N-metabolism and

consequently on the vegetative growth of soybean. Number of leaves per plant : The significant influences of sulphur application on number of leaves per plant of blackgram was ranged from 37.1 to 54.8 and 38.2 to 58.8 in Vylogam and Peelamedu series, respectively (Table 2). The higher number of leaves per plant was noticed at S @ 20 kg ha1 as Potassium sulphateplus 0.5 per cent K 2 SO4foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T9) of 54.8 and this was on par with S @ 20 kg ha-1as potassium sulphateplus 100 per cent RDF (T 8) (52.8) as compared to other treatments in Vylogam series. Regarding Peelamedu series, T9 recorded the highest number of leaves per plant (58.8) followed by T 8 (53.1).There was significant influences of sulphur application on number of leaves per plant in blackgram and the highest number of leaves per plant was noticed in S @ 20 kg ha-1 as Potassium sulphate plus 0.5 per cent K2SO4foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T9) as compared to other treatments both in Vylogam and Peelamedu series. This was ascribed due to the S application leads to higher absorption and translocation of nutrients assimilates to shoot which has increased the number of leaves per plant in blackgram.

Table 2 : Effe ct of sulphur on growth and yiel d attributes of blackgram (VBN 4) in Hapluste rt) series Vylogam (Typic Rhodust alf) Plant No of No. leaves No of pods 100 grain Treatment height seeds pod weight (g) plant -1 plant -1 -1 (cm)

Vylogam (Typi c Rhodustalf) and Peelamedu (Typic

Plant height (cm)

Peelamedu (Typic Haplust ert ) No. No of No of leaves pods seeds plant -1 plant -1 pod -1

100 grain weight (g)

T1

45.4

37.1

24.7

5.1

4.75

44.8

38.2

28.9

6.1

4.76

T2

45.9

43.4

27.2

5.2

4.76

47.4

42.8

31.3

6.3

4.77

T3

46.3

45.3

28.1

5.4

4.76

47.9

45.9

31.9

6.5

4.77

T4

46.4

46.2

28.4

6.3

4.77

48.5

47.8

32.8

7.2

4.78

T5

47.2

46.4

29.1

6.5

4.78

49.0

48.3

34.2

7.4

4.79

T6

52.3

49.3

30.9

5.5

4.79

53.8

52.7

35.3

6.4

4.80

T7

53.2

50.9

32.8

6.4

4.80

54.2

50.2

36.9

7.3

4.81

T8

54.5

52.8

33.2

7.1

4.80

55.3

53.1

37.4

8.1

4.81

T9

54.7

54.8

34.7

7.4

4.81

55.9

58.8

38.8

8.4

4.82

T 10

47.3

47.2

27.4

5.3

4.78

49.3

48.4

31.4

6.2

4.79

T 11

47.5

47.9

30.2

5.5

4.79

49.7

49.2

33.2

6.5

4.80

T 12

47.7

48.9

30.9

6.2

4.79

50.1

51.1

35.1

7.3

4.80

T 13

51.7

49.2

32.1

6.5

4.80

52.9

52.9

35.9

7.2

4.81

T 14

45.3

39.9

26.3

5.1

4.76

45.7

41.4

30.1

6.4

4.77

Mean

48.9

47.1

29.7

6.0

4.78

50.3

48.6

33.8

7.0

4.79

S.E. ±

1.02

0.95

1.51

0.1

0.10

1.02

1.11

0.68

0.2

0.10

C.D.

2.09

1.96

3.02

0.3

0.20(NS)

2.10

2.28

1.40

0.4

0.21(NS)

(P=0.05) NS=Non-significant 24 96 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :



This result was corroborating with the findings of Mir et al. (2013) who augmented that among the sulphur levels, application of sulphur @ 40 kg ha-1 significantly increased the number of leaves per plant in blackgram as compared to no sulphur application. This significant influence of sulphur application on increasing the growth and yield might be attributed to its role in chlorophyll synthesis. Effect of sulphur on yield and yield attributes : Number of pods per plant : Application of treatment influenced number of pods per plant and it ranged from 24.7 to 34.7and 28.9 to 38.8 in Vylogam and Peelamedu series, respectively (Table 2). Among the treatments, the number of pods per plant recorded thehighest in the treatment receiving S @ 20 kg ha -1 as Potassium sulphate plus 0.5 per cent K2SO4foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T 9) of 34.7 followed by T8 (S @ 20 kg ha-1 as Potassium sulphate plus 100 per cent RDF)(33.2) in Vylogam series. In Peelamedu series, the highest number of pods per plant was noticed in T9 (38.8) followed by T8 (37.4). This was augmented that application of S increases the yield by increasing the S from source (assimilate) to sink (seed) which would have increased the number of pods per plant. Besides, S application increases the photosynthetic activity over all growing environment (rhizohsphere region

of roots) and greater partitioning of metabolites and adequate translocation of nutrients to developing structure leads to increase the number of pods per plant in blackgram. This result was corroborated with the findings of Kokaniet al. (2014) who found that application of S @ 20 kg ha-1had registered significantly higher number of pods per plant which had been attributed that sulphur improve overall nutritional environment of the rhizosphere as well as in the plant system, which in turn enhanced the plant metabolism and photosynthetic activity resulting in better growth and yield attributes of plant. Number of seeds per pod : The result envisaging the number of seeds per plant of blackgram arranged from 5.1 to 7.4 and 6.1 to 8.4 in Vylogam and Peelamedu series, respectively (Table 2). The highest number of seeds per pod was registered in the treatment receiving S @ 20 kg ha -1 as Potassium sulphateplus 0.5 per cent K2SO4as foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T9) of 7.4 followed by S @ 20 kg ha-1as Potassium sulphate plus 100 per cent RDF (T8) of 7.1 in Vylogam series. In the case of Peelamedu series, T 9 recorded the highest number of seeds per pod (8.4)closely followed by T8 (8.1) as compared to other treatments in blackgram.This might due to synergism between S and most of nutrients which was responsible

Table 3 : Effe ct of sulphur application on grain and haulm yield (kg ha -1) of blackgram in Vylogam (Typic Rhodustalf) and Peelamedu (Typi c Hapluste rt) series Vylogam (Typic Rhodustalf) Peelamedu (Typic Haplustert ) Treatment Grain yield (kg ha-1 ) Haulm yield (kg ha-1 ) Grain yield (kg ha-1 ) Haulm yield (kg ha-1 ) 100% recommended dose of fert ilisers (RDF)

807

982

825

1098

T 1 + S (10 kg ha )as Gypsum

858

T 2 + Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4at 30th and 45 th DAS

879

1089

983

1187

1107

1008

T 1 + S (20 kg ha-1 ) as Gypsum

1221

899

1132

1025

T 4 + Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4 at 30 th and 45 th DAS

1290

921

1221

1033

1356

T 1 + S (10 kg ha )as Pot assium sulphate

1049

1332

1142

1435

T 6 +Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4 at 30 th and 45 th DAS

1098

1411

1167

1553

T 1 + S (20 kg ha-1) as Potassium sulphat e

1101

1598

1217

1878


1145

1645

1275

1990

T 1 + S (10 kg ha-1) as Ammonium sulphate

945

1288

1075

1389

T 10 +Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4at 30 and 45 DAS

953

1394

1100

1493


986

1476

1200

1623

T 12 + Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4 at 30 th and 45th DAS

999

1520

1208

1765


825

1012

907

1136

Mean

962

1301

1083

1458

S.E. ±

23

36

26.4

29.7

C.D. (P=0.05)

48

74

54.3

61.1

-1

-1

th

th



for higher growth, yield and also leads to encourage the nutrient availability and assimilation. This result was in concurrence with the findings of Vaiyapuriet al. (2010) who revealed that application of S @ 30 kg ha-1 increases all yield attributing characters viz., no. of branches plant1 , no. of pods plant-1, no. of seeds pod-1 and 100 seed weight of soybean due to better plant metabolism. Effect of sulphur on grain and haulm yield of blackgram : The grain and haulm yield of blackgram was significantly influenced by the application of S (Table 3).The grain and haulm yield ranged from 807 to 1145, 982 to 1645, 825 to 1275 and 1098 to 1990 kg ha -1 in Vylogam series and Peelamedu series, respectively. Among the treatments, T9registered significantly highest grain yield of 1145 and 1275 kg ha-1 and haulm yield of 1645 and 1990 kg ha-1 in Vylogam series and Peelamedu seriesand this was on par with T8(S @ 20 kg ha-1 as Potassium sulphate plus 100 % RDF) the grain and haulm yield of 1101 and 1598 kg ha-1, 1217 and 1878 kg ha-1 in Vylgam and Peelamedu series, respectively. The lowest grain and haulm yieldswere noted in control of 807 and 982 kg ha -1 , 825 and 1098 kg ha -1 in Vylogam series andPeelamedu series, respectively. It is an established fact that photosynthesis together with availability of assimilates (source) and storage (sink) exert an important

regulative function on the complex process of yield formation. Application of sulphur could have improved the nitrate recovery and diversion of greater proportion of assimilation to developing pods. This result was in close association with the findings of Shubhangiet al. (2014) and Kokaniet al. (2014) who reported that the grain (1153 kg ha-1) and haulm (2548 kg ha-1) yields of blackgram produced significantly higher with S @ 20 kg ha-1 over control. Effect of sulphur application on quality parameters of blackgram : Protein content : The protein content of blackgram varied from 18.1 to 23.0 and 18.9 to 24.2 per cent in Vylogam and Peelamedu series, respectively (Table 4). Among the treatments, application of S @ 20 kg ha-1as Potassium sulphateplus 0.5 per cent K2SO4foliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T9) recorded the highest protein content of 23.0 per cent in which was on par with application of S @ 20 kg ha-1as Potassium sulphate plus 100 per cent RDF (T8) (22.5 %) in Vylogam series. In Peelamedu series, the same treatment T9 recorded the highest protein content of 24.2 per cent followed by T 8 (23.7 %) in blackgram.Application of S serves for several structural, regulation of secondary metabolites and catalytic functions in the sense of proteins, tripeptide glutathione

Table 4 : Effe ct of sulphur application on quality parame ters of bl ack gram (VBN 4) in Vylogam (Typic Rhodustalf) and Peelamedu (Typic Hapluste rt) series Vylogam (Typic Rhodust alf) Peelamedu (Typic Haplustert ) Treatments Protein (%) Met hionine (mg g-1) Protein (%) Met hionine (mg g-1) 100% recommended dose of fert ilisers (RDF)

18.1

6.76

18.9

6.79

T 1 + S (10 kg ha )as Gypsum

18.9

7.12

19.8

7.17


19.3

7.52

20.4

7.58

T 1 + S (20 kg ha-1 ) as Gypsum

19.9

7.60

21.3

7.67


21.1

7.76

22.2

7.82

T 1 + S (10 kg ha )as Pot assium sulphate

21.9

8.36

22.8

8.39

T 6 +Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4 at 30 th and 45 th DAS

22.2

8.40

23.4

8.45

T 1 + S (20 kg ha-1) as Potassium sulphat e

22.5

8.76

23.7

8.78


23.0

8.92

24.2

8.97


20.2

7.96

21.5

8.02

T 10 +Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4at 30 and 45 DAS

20.5

8.00

21.7

8.08


20.7

8.32

22.0

8.37

T 12 + Foliar spray 0.5 % K2 SO4 at 30 th and 45th DAS

21.0

8.60

22.3

8.68


18.6

6.88

19.2

6.94

Mean

20.6

7.93

21.7

7.98

S.E. ±

0.46

0.14

0.39

0.16

C.D. (P=0.05)

0.94

0.30

0.79

0.34

-1

-1

th

th




(redox buffer) and certain proteins such as thioredoxin, glutaredoxin and protein disulphide isomerase. This attributing to regulation activity, involved in light reaction (CO2 fixation) of photosynthesis, which will increase the assimilation of N and S responsible for S containing amino acids, viz., methionine and cysteine. In both the sites, the soil organic matter was found to be low to medium in status which would have showed less competition to sorption sites, which leads to SO42concentration higher in solution phase. High tenacity of SO42- induced higher NO3- and SO42- absorption and translocation in tissues. Sulphur and nitrogen both are required for the synthesis of protein and indeed the ratio of total N to total S in plant tissue can reflect the ability of N and S in protein synthesis. Thus, a change in the ratio of reduced-N to reduced-S (NR/SR), which is a reflection of the amount of S in amino acids, suggests that protein metabolism has been significantly altered which has important implications in maintain protein quality. This result was corroborating with the findings of Singh and Sarkar (2013) who revealed that sulphur applied to these low S soils not only increase the crop yields, but also affect crop quality such as oil content of oilseeds and protein content of pulses. As S is an important constituent of some essential amino acids (e.g., cysteine, cystine and methionine), soil S deficiency can lower protein quality. Methionine content : As in the case of protein, the methionine content of blackgram was also significantly influenced by S application and it varied from 6.76 to 8.92 and 6.79 to 8.97 mg g -1 in Vylogam and Peelamedu series. While comparing the treatments, application of S @ 20 kg ha1 asPotassium sulphateplus 0.5 per cent K2 SO4asfoliar spray plus 100 per cent RDF (T 9 ) r ecor ded significantlythe highest methionine content of 8.92 mg g -1 in Vylogam series and this was on par with application of S @ 20 kg ha-1as Potassium sulphate plus 100 per cent RDF (T8) (8.76 mg g-1). In Peelamedu series the highest methionine content was recorded in T9(8.97 mg g-1)followed by T8 (8.78 mg g-1). The lowest methionine content was registered in control (6.79 mg g-1).This was ascribed by application of S regulating nitrate reductase enzyme (Nitrate assimilation pathway), these leads to maintain the N: S (15:1) ratio in blackgram plant tissues. Nitrogen is found to be responsible for regulation of SO42assimilation in ATP-sulphurylase. In both the locations

SO4 2- adsorption were higher leads to higher NO 3 retention in solution phase of soil. Application of sulphur increases sulphur availability which has a role in regulating nitrate reductase, in addition to its role in regulating ATP-sulphurylase. Moreover, nitrogen availability has a role in regulating ATP-sulphurylase as well as in regulating nitrate reductase. The synthesis of cysteine as a result of the incorporation of sulphide moiety into O acetylserine appears to be the meeting point between N-and S metabolism. This result was corroborating with the findings of Josefsson (1970) who found that S fertilization had increased the S-containing amino acids in rapeseed and Jarvanet al. (2008) reported an increase in cysteine and methionine content in wheat grain due to S fertilization. Conclusion : It could be concluded that, in Tamil Nadu most of the soils are red soils with higher free iron and aluminum oxides, low CEC and low to medium organic carbon status which was less fertile compared to black soils. Application of sulphur in Vylogam series increases the adsorption of S leads to increase the macro and micro nutrient availability in soil. Sulphur showed synergism with macro nutrients (N, P, K and S) and micro nutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu) in soil. The availability criteria have increased the assimilation of nutrients from source to sink which encourages the content, uptake and yield of blackgram.In Peelamedu series, sesquioxides content was low when compared to Vylogam series but this series had high amount of Ca and Mg leads the chemisorption of some anions leads to deficiency of phosphorus, sulphur and micro nutrients due to higher pH. Application of sulphur in this series has improved the overall soil rhizosphere environment which lead to improve the nutrient status of this series. In both the locations Potassium sulphate (20 kg ha-1 and 0.5 % foliar spray) is found as a best source as compared to ammonium sulphate and gypsum. Hence inorder to improve the productivity of blackgram in pulses growing soils of Madurai district in addition to recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O, soil application of 20 kg ha-1 as Potassium sulphate plus foliar spray of 0.5 per cent K2SO4 on 30 DAS and 45 DAS is essential to reduce the sub optimal yield. Acknowledgements : The authors are grateful to University Grand Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 24 99 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Commission for aided Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for financial support during this study. Authors’ affiliations : S. SIVAGNANAM, G. MARIAPPAN AND K. BASKAR, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, COIMBATORE (T.N.) INDIA

REFERENCES Aulakh, M.S., Pasricha, N.S. and Dev, G. (1977). Response of different crop with sulphur fertilization in Punjab. Fert News., 22(9): 32-36. Brunold, C. and Suter, M. (1984). Regulation of sulfate assimilation by nitrogen nutrition in the duckweed Lemna minor L. Plant Physiol., 76: 579-583. Chaturvedi, S.K. and Masood Ali (2002). Poor man’s meat needs fresh fillip. Survey of Indian Agric., 63-70. Fahmina Akter, Md. Nurul Islam, A.T.M. Shamsuddoha, M.S.I. Bhuiyan, Sonia Shilpi (2013). Effect of Phosphorus and Sulphur on Growth and Yield of Soybean (Glycine max L.). Internat J. Bio-resource and Stress Mgmt., 4(4): 555-560. Jarvan, M., Edesi, L., Adamson, A., Lukme, L. and Akk, A. (2008). The effect of sulphur fertilization on yield quality of protein and baking quality of winter wheat. Agronomy Res., 6(2) : 459-469. Josefsson, E. (1970). Glucosinolate content and amino acidcomposition of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) meal as affected by sulfur and nitrogen nutrition. J. Sci. Food Agric., 21: 98-103. Kokani, J.M., Shah, K.a., Tandel, B.M. and Nayaka, P. (2014). Growth, yield attributes and yield of summer blackgram (Vigna mungo L.) as influenced by FYM, phosphorus and sulphur.



The Bioscan., 6: 429-433. McGrath S.P., Zhao, F.J. and Withers, P.J.A. (1996). Development of sulphur deficiency in crops and its treatments. Proceedings of the fertiliser society, No.379. Peterborough. The Fertiliser society. Mir, A.H., Lal, S.B., Salmani, M., Abid, M. and Khan, I. (2013). Growth, yield and nutrient content of blackgram (Vigna mungo) as influenced by levels of phosphorus, sulphur and phosphorus solubilizing bacteria. SAARC J. Agric., 11(1) : 1-6. Schnug, E. (1991). Sulphur nutritional status of European Crops and consequences for agriculture. Sulphur Agric., 15:7- 12. Sharma, M.P. and Singh, R. (1997). Effect of phosphorus and sulphur application on yield and quality of greengram (Phaseolus radiates L.). Indian J. Agril. Sci., 63(3): 507-508. Shubhangi, J.D., Patil, V.D. and Mamta, J.P. (2014). Effect of various levels of phosphorus and sulphur on yield, plant nutrient content, uptake and availability of nutrients at harvest stages of soybean [Glycine max (L.)]. Internat. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 3(12): 833-844. Singh, S. and Sarkar, A.K. (2013). Sulfur Management for Optimizing Oilseed and Pulse Production in Rain-fed Jharkhand. Better Crops., 97(2): 13-17. Singh, V., Singh, R. and Singh, R. (1999). Relative efficiency of sources of sulphur on lentil and its nutrition in an alluvial soil. Ann. Pl. Soil Res., 1:14-17. Vaiyapuri, K., Mohamed Amanullah, M. and Rajendran, K. (2010). Influence of sulphur and boron on yield attributes and yield of soybean. Madras Agric. J., 97 (1-3): 65-67. Zhao, F.J., Hawkesford, M.J. and McGrath, S.P. (1999). Sulphur assimilation and effects on yield and quality of wheat. J. Cereal. Sci., 30: 1-17.

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RESEARCH ARTICLE :

(80)



An economic analysis of integration of oil markets in Tamil Nadu R. LOGANATHAN, K. MANI, M. CHANDRASEKARAN AND V.J. VASANTHI


KEY WORDS : Economic, Integration, Oil Market

SUMMARY : India was an exporter of edible oilseeds and oils in 1960’s, but it depends upon imports to the extent of nearly 50 per cent of its edible oils requirements as on date. In this situation, India needs to protect the consumers as well as oilseed growers. This has become all the more important as any decrease in world market prices is certain to affect the domestic prices of oilseeds and hence the income and levels of livings of these farmers. A study to analyze the integration of oilseed markets in economy of Tamil Nadu was found necessary so as to suggest suitable strategies to increase the production of oilseeds in the state and simultaneously working out measures for taking advantage of trade openness in a dynamic setting without affecting the basic objective of domestic food and nutritional security. During 1970s, area of most of the oilseeds crop increased in Tamil Nadu and this recorded the positive growth than production and productivity. During 1980s, oilseeds recorded positive growth both in area as well as production. During 1990s, only oilseeds crop has recorded the enormous growth in productivity than area as well as production. During 2000-01 to2005-06, the oilseeds had less negative growth in production than area as well productivity. When 1970-71 to 2005-06 periods was analyzed as a whole, the oilseeds crops had shows rapid growth in production as well productivity. Tables 1 through 3 the supply response function estimated for the present study describes would reveal factors considered by farmer while deciding about area to be allotted for different crops. Lagged price and lagged yield of groundnut crop were the significant factors affecting the decision of farmers to allocate the area under crops. The Cointegration analysis describes the two groundnut market prices (Chennai, Mumbai markets) were in non-stationarity condition, hence, these two markets were two ways co integrated. How to cite this article : Loganathan, R., Mani, K., Chandrasekaran, M. and Vasanthi, V.J. (2017). An economic analysis of integration of oil markets in Tamil Nadu. Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) : 1-8; DOI: 10.15740/ HAS/AU/12.TECHSEAR(9)2017/1-8.

Author for correspondence : R. LOGANATHAN

Adhiparasakthi Agricultural College, Kalavai, VELLORE (T.N.) INDIA

Email : logu822000@ ya hoo.com See end of the article for authors’ affiliations

BACKGROUND

AND

OBJECTIVES

Indian vegetable oil economy is the fourth largest in the world, next to U.S.A, China and Brazil, accounting for about 14.5 per cent of the world’s oilseeds area and 6.65 per cent of

the production, Currently, India accounts for 6.8 per cent of the oil meal production, 5.9 per cent of the oil meal export, 6.1 per cent of the vegetable oil export, 9.00 per cent of the vegetable oil import and 9.3 per cent of the edible oil consumption of the world.(In and


R. LOGANATHAN, K. MANI, M. CHANDRASEKARAN AND V.J. VASANTHI

B. Indler,1997).The diverse agro-ecological conditions in India are suited for growing as many as nine annual oilseeds crops viz., groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, sesame, soyabean, safflower, castor, linseed and niger and two perennial oil crops viz., coconut and palm. Status of Indian oilseeds economy : Oilseeds play the second important role in the Indian agricultural economy, next only to food grains in terms of area, production and market value. They occupy a distinct position after cereals, constituting 14.87 per cent of the country’s gross cropped area and accounting for nearly 1.4 per cent of the gross national product and 7 per cent of the value of all agricultural products. In India, oilseed crops are mostly grown under rainfed conditions and they support the livelihood of small and marginal farmers in arid and semi-arid regions of the country. They occupy an area of 27.86 million ha with 27.98 million tonnes of production registering a productivity level of 1004 kg/ha (Srinivasan P. V, May, 2004, Paper No. 69, MTID, IFPRI, Washington). The major oilseeds growing States in terms of share in the national oilseeds area are Madhya Pradesh (20.34 %), Rajasthan (18.87 %), Maharashtra (13.10 %), Gujarat (10.87 %) Andhra Pradesh (10.48 %) and Karnataka (10.26 %). Area under oilseeds in these six States cover about 84 per cent of the total oilseed area and incidentally contributed the same 84 per cent of the total output of oilseeds in the country during 2005-06.Among the oilseeds, soybean ranks first by contributing 36.98 per cent of the total oilseed output during 2006-07, followed by rapeseed and mustard (29.83 %), groundnut (20.59 %) and other six-oilseed crops put together (12.60 %). The edible vegetable oil industry is one of the most vibrant industries in India, with an annual turn over of Rs.38,070 crores (Central Statistical Organisation. 2007. National Accounting Statistics, Govt. of India, New Delhi. (Central Statistical Organization, 2005-06). It is the most complex one in terms of co-existence of large number of vintage models of units of different sizes and ownerships such as public, cooperative and private sectors following different production technologies. The per capita consumption of edible oil in India grew from 4.1kg in 1971-72 to 11.2 kg in 2006-07. It almost tripled from 1970’s to 2006-07. Changes in income, consumer preferences, imports and 25 02 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


prices are the major reasons for increase in per capita consumption in India. Oilseeds policy in India : India followed the policy of import substitution in the oil seeds and edible oil sector till 1994-95. This policy of doubling the output in order to stabilise the oilseeds production in the country, led to diversification into new crops such as soybean and sunflower in the place of rapeseed-mustard and groundnut. India became selfreliant in edible oils almost up to 98 per cent and oilseeds meal occupied major share in exports from India. Imports of oilseeds and edible oils were canalized through the State Trading Corporation (STC) while exports of oil cakes were restricted. Similarly, exports of oilseeds and oils were restricted (banned) where as the exports of oil cakes were allowed. The imported oils were passed on to state governments for sale through Public Distribution System (PDS) at administered prices. These prices included custom duty and service charges of STC, since 1989. A part of imported oil was also allotted to vanaspati industry at concessional rates. To ease the supply position and to support rapid technological change in the oilseeds sector, certain development programmes were also pursued. They were: i) Oilseed Grower’s Cooperative Project ii)National Oilseed Development Project iii)Technology Mission on Oilseeds and iv)Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm and Maize. With the surge in import of edible oils, India began making frequent tariff adjustments since 1998 with a view to bring down the growth of imports and protect domestic oilseed growers and processors from imports and to cushion the effect of fluctuating world prices on domestic consumers. The tariff hikes also made the tariff on soybean oil increasingly preferential since tariff on palm, rapeseed and sunflower oils could be raised well above the 45 per cent tariff binding of soyabean oil. In addition to adjusting tariff, the Government established a Tariff Rate Value (TRV) system for palm oil in August 2001 and for soyabean oil in September 2002. To check and control the spiraling inflationary situation, the Government of India reduced import duty for all crude edible oils to zero level with effect from. 1.4.2008. Simultaneously, it also reduced import duty for all refined edible oils to 7.5 per cent with effect from 1.4.2008.

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATION OF OIL MARKETS IN TAMIL NADU

The problem focus : In 1960s, India was an exporter of edible oilseeds and oils, but it depends upon imports to the extent of nearly 50 per cent of its edible oils requirements as on date. In this situation, India needs to protect the consumers as well as the Indian oilseed growers. This has become all the more important as any decrease in world market prices is certain to affect the domestic prices of oilseeds and hence the income and levels of livings of these farmers. A majority of oil millers are small entrepreneurs and wide fluctuations in prices of oilseed and edible oils could affect their livelihoods also. A study to analyze the integration of oilseed markets in economy of Tamil Nadu was found necessary so as to suggest suitable strategies to increase the production of oilseeds in the state and simultaneously work out measures for taking advantage of trade openness in a dynamic setting without affecting the basic objective of domestic food and nutritional security. With the above background and with the broad objective of analyzing the integration of oilseeds market in Tamil Nadu; the present study was taken up with the following specific objectives. The specific objectives of the study are – To analyses the temporal growth in area, production and productivity of major oilseed crops grown in Tamil Nadu; – To estimate the average and acreage Response of Oilseeds in India; – To estimate the integration of important Oilseeds market in Tamil Nadu (Local) with central market (Mumbai);

RESOURCES

AND

METHODS

Monthly time series data on the prices of groundnut for the period from 1970-71 to 2005-06 for local (Chennai) and central markets (Mumbai) prices were collected. Monthly time series data on the prices of groundnut and gingelly from January1994 to May 2008 in the local market and central market were collected to study the co-integration. Secondary data of area, production, productivity of groundnut and gingelly for thirty six years (1970-71 to2005-06) were analysed to estimate the compound growth rates and the co-efficient of variation. Besides, co-efficient of variation of the farm harvest prices for

groundnut and gingelly were also calculated. The acreage response model for groundnut was worked out. Monthly price data of groundnut crop in local (Chennai) market and also central (Mumbai) market data for fourteen years (1994-2008) were used in the co integration model. Also, co-integration was done for the groundnut kernel prices in Chennai market and ground nut kernel prices in Mumbai market to test the change in the influence of prices in local market over the central market. Market integration : The market integration concept explains the relationship between the prices prevailing in two markets that are spatially separated. When markets are integrated, it implies that the markets in the system operate in unison, as a single market system. Ravallion (1986) opined that if trade would take place at all between any two regions, then price in the importing region would equal to price in the exporting region plus the unit transport cost incurred by moving between the two. If this could hold true, then the markets can be said to be spatially integrated. Narasimhan et al. (1988) investigated the short run inter-relationships between prices of oils and oilseeds in Bombay market by applying Koyck’s distributed lag model revealed the existence of integration between these markets. However, price integration in many cases was found to be unidirectional, indicating that substitution was possible only in one direction and not both ways. This was due to the technology and cost constraints involved in substituting one oil for an other apart from consumer preference. Nasurudeen and Subramanian (1995) in their attempt to estimate the extent of vertical and horizontal integration of oil and oilseed prices using the Koyck’s distributed lag model, revealed that the assumption of complete oil price integration could not be fully accepted. The results of vertical integration confirmed the hypothesis that changes in oilseed price was linked to changes in its oil and cake prices. The Mumbai oilseed market showed the characteristics of perfect market condition by its quick adjustment to price changes. Multiple Co-integration technique of market integration analysis using maximum likelihood method was developed by Johansen (1988) and extended by Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 25 03 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


Johansen (1980) and Juselius (1990) Granger (1986) postulated that when there is a pair of series Xt and Yt each of which is I (l), a linear combination of these two series will also be I (l). This means that there exists a long run equilibrium relationship between the two series. The basic idea behind cointegration of series that the presence of co-integration ensures that the series will move closely together in the long run since the difference between them is stationery with well defined mean and variance. In the present study, the concept of co-integration developed by Engle and Granger (1987) has been used for testing market integration. Ravallion (1986) proposed a dynamic model of spatial differentials to test market integration. The main advantage of this method is that one could distinguish between the concepts of short-run market integration and a long-run adjustment process. Besides, the hypothesis of market integration could be tested within a more general model as restricted forms. However, this method was also not free from limitations. It was pointed out that there existed a strong presence of multicollinearity among the explanatory variables, which would result in obtaining biased estimates which are used to test the hypotheses. Tests that are based on biased estimates would naturally be misleading. Further, the conventional methods discussed above have also been ignored the major properties of time series variables like non-stationarity, which might have resulted in yielding unreliable results. Most market commodity prices, whether international or domestic, are basically non-stationary. A stochastic process is said to be stationary, if its mean and variance between any two time periods depend only on the distance or lag between the two time periods and not on the actual time at which the covariance is computed (Gujarati, 2004). If time series data like prices which are non-stationary are used, it usually would yield a high R2 and t ratios which are biased towards rejecting the null hypothesis of no relationship even if there is a relationship between the variables concerned (Granger and New Bold, 1977). The underlying principle of co-integration analysis is that, although many economic time series may tend to trend upward or downward over time in a non-stationary fashion, group of variables may drift together. Cointegration tests start with the premise that for a long25 04 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


run equilibrium relationship to exist between two variables, it is necessary that they should have the same intertemporal characteristics. Thus, the first step involves testing for stationarity of the variables. Economic interest in the theory of testing the unit roots have led to the development of a variety of tests to test for the order of integration and the presence of unit roots in time series data. In econometrics, a time series that has a unit root is known as a random walk, which is an example of a non-stationary time series. If the original series is found to be non-stationary, the first differences of the series are tested for stationarity. Thus, the number of times a series must be differenced, before it becomes stationary is referred to as the ‘order of integration’ i.e., if the series attains stationarity after differencing ‘d’ times, then it is said to be integrated of the order ‘d’ represented as I(d). Stationarity : Before analyzing any time series data, testing for stationarity is a pre-requisite since econometric relations between time series have the presence of trend components (Davidson and Mackinnon 1993). A series which is stationary after being differenced once is said to the integrated of order 1 and denoted by I (1). In general, a series which is stationary after being differenced d times is said to be integrated of order ‘d’ and it is denoted by I (d). A series which is stationary without differencing is said to be I (o). Thus, I (1) = Yt = Q + Yt-1 + Et I (0) Yt = Yt – Yt-1 = Q + Et A test of stationarity (non- stationarity) that has become widely popular over the past several years is the unit root test, which is explained below : Yt =  Y t-1 + Ut

(1 )

Where Ut is a white noise. If  = 1 i.e., in the case of unit root of (1) becomes a random walk model without drift which is non - stationary stochastic process. Let us substract Yt-1 from both sides of (1) Yt - Yt-1 =  Yt-1 - Yt-1 + Ut Yt = ( -1) Yt-1 + Ut Yt =  Y t-1 + Ut

(2 )

When, =  - 1 and  is as usual first difference operator. Testing null hypotheses : The null hypothesis is: H0: = 0, this would mean that  =1 then, a unit root, i.e., time series under


consideration is non- stationary. Before proceeding to estimate (2), it may be noted that if  = 0, the model becomes Yt = Yt-Yt-1 = Ut. Since, Ut is the white noise, it is stationary which means that the first difference of a random walk time series is also stationary. Take the first difference of Yt and regress these on Yt-1 and test whether the slope of the regression co-efficient () is zero or not. If it is zero, then it is concluded that Yt is non-stationary and if  is negative, then Yt is stationary. Under the null hypothesis that  = 0 i.e.,  =1, the value of  the estimated co-efficient of Yt-1 does not follow t – distribution, even for large samples, i.e., it does not have an asymptotic normal distribution. Dickey and Fuller (1979) have proved under null hypothesis that  = 0,  the estimated value of the coefficient of Yt-1 in (2) follows the t (tau) statistics. They have calculated critical value of the t (tau) statistic on the basis of Monte Carlo Simulations. The tau (t) statistic is known as Dickey-Fuller test. Interestingly, if the hypothesis that ä = 0 is rejected (i.e. the time series is stationary), Students t – test can be used. The nature of unit root process is such that it may have random walk process and it may have no drift or it may have drift or it may have both deterministic and stochastic trends. To allow for various possibilities, the Dickey Fuller test is estimated in three different forms under the null hypothesis. Yt is a random walk Yt- =  Yt-1 + Ut. Yt is a random walk with drift Y /t = t +  Yt-1 + Ut Yt is a random walk with drift around a stochastic trend and Y t= t + 2t +  Y t-1 + Ut

Where, t is the time or trend variable. In each case, the null hypothesis is that  = 0, that is, there is a unit root. The time series is non- stationary and the alternate hypothesis is that  < 1, the time series is stationary. If null hypothesis is rejected, it means that Yt is stationary time series with zero mean. Yt is stable with non-zero B mean 1 1L if, Yt is stationary around deterministic trend. In applying Dickey-Fuller test, it was assumed that the error term Ui was serially uncorrelated. But in the case of Ui are correlated, Dickey Fuller have developed a test known as augmented Dickey-Fuller test. This test was conducted by augmenting the preceding three equations by adding lagged values of the dependent variable (Y). The augmented Dickey-Fuller test, consists

of estimating the following Regression model Yt =  1 + 2t +  Y t-1 + t Σ Y t-1 + Et

E is a white noise In Augmented Dickey-Fuller, it is tested whether  = 0 or not and the ADF follows the same asymptotic distribution as that of the DF statistic so that the same critical values can be used. The most widely used tests for unit roots are the Dickey-Fuller test (DF) and the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test (ADF). Both would test the null hypothesis that the series has a unit root or in other words, it is not stationary. The DF test is applied by running the regression of the following form. Yt = 1 +  Y t-1 + Ut

where, Yt = (Y1 - Yt-1 ); Yt = ln Yt The ADF test is run with the equation : m

Δ Yt = β 1 + δYt 1 + αi ∑ΔYt i + et i= 1

where, Yt = (Yt - Yt-1); Yt-1 = (Yt-1 – Yt-2) The critical values of the‘t’ statistic of the lagged term have been tabulated by Dickey and Fuller (1979). They have also been considerably extended by Mackinnon (1991) through Monte Carlo simulations. Once it is established that the two price series are non stationery, and then analysis for Co-integration was done as follows : GPMt = 0 + 1(GPC t) + Z t

where, GPMt = Mumbai groundnut kernel price in tth period in Rs./tonne GPCt = Chennai groundnut kernel price in tth period in Rs./tonne or US$/tone 0 = Intercept 1 = Value of parameter to be estimated and Zt = Random error The test was also done for taking GPCt and GPMt as dependent and independent variables. Co-integration was done for the groundnut kernel prices in Chennai (local) market and Mumbai (central) market to test the presence of integration. The difference here lies in the critical values compared for the test statistics. The DF test in the present context is known as Engle-Granger (EG) test whose critical values are provided by Engle and Granger (1987). For the Cointegrating Regression Durbin Watson Test Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : 25 05 Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


(CRDW), the DW‘d’ statistic obtained from the cointegrating regression can be used. But here, the null hypothesis is that d = 0 rather than d = 2. A significant CRDW‘d’ would indicate the presence of co-integration between the concerned variables (Sargan and Bhargava, 1983). Now, if two time series were co-integrated, then it could be said that there is long run equilibrium between the two series. But there can be disequilibrium in the short run. The Granger Representation Theorem states that if two variables were co-integrated, then there existed an error correction representation of the variables, where the error tended to correct in the longrun. Δ Yt = α 0 + α1 ΔX t + α2 Z t 1 + εt

The speed at which the prices tend to approach the equilibrium in each period (month) depends on the magnitude of a2 whose expected sign is negative. This negative sign would confirm that the error would correct in the long-run. Nerlovian lagged adjustment model : Tripathy and Gowda (1993) analysed the growth, instability and area response of groundnut in Orissa. There was significant increase in area since 1970-1990 at the rate of 10.29 per cent per year. The yield was unstable in many districts. There had been increase in probability of shortfall in the production of groundnut. The per hectare yield was stagnant in the state. The area response was found by regressing area against lagged area, lagged price, price risk, irrigation and rainfall. All variables except rainfall had a significant effect on area. Price and price risk had the most significant effects on the acreage. The Nerlovian lagged adjustment model was used to study the acreage response for groundnut, i.e., to assess the factors influencing the acreage under groundnut in nmTamil Nadu. At*=Co+C1Pt-1+Ut (1 ) At-At-1=k (At*-At-1) (2 ) At=bo+b1At-1+b2Pt-1+Vt (3 ) b0=Cok; b1=(1-k); b2=C1k and Vt=Utk A t = b 0 + b 1 L A S C + b 2 LY S C + b 3 L P S C + b 4 Y R S C + b5PRSC+b6LACC+b7LYCC+b8LP CC+b8RF+Vt

At - current year area under groundnut crop (ha) LASC- one year lagged area of groundnut crop (ha) LYSC - one year lagged yield of groundnut crop (qtl/ha)

LPSC - one year lagged price of groundnut crop (Rs/qtl) YRSC - yield risk of the groundnut crop measured by standard deviation of three preceding years PRSC - price risk of groundnut crop measured by standard deviation of three preceding years LACC - one year lagged area of competing gingelly crop (ha) LYCC - one year lagged yield of competing gingelly crop (qtl/ha) LPCC - one year lagged price of competing gingelly crop (Rs/qtl) RF- Rainfall in (mm) until before one month of sowing for the groundnut crop Vt - error term.

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS Growth and variability of area : The results of Compound growth rates of area of major oilseed crops (Table1)reveal that during 1970s Groundnut had enormous growth in area(2.3%)and for other major crop Gingelly had positive growth.During the period 1980s Gingelly had enormous growth, groundnut continued to have high growth in area (2.3%),during the period 1990s groundnut had less negative growth than gingelly crop.In the recent past years Groundnut only recorded highest growth in area.Groundnut had a very high growth as well as variability in its area.High volatility in prices might be the reason for high volatility in its acreage. Growth and variability in production : The results of compound growth rates of Production (Table 2) reveal that during period 1970s Groundnut had negative growth.During 1990s Groundnut had less negative growth than Gingelly crop.In the recent years Groundnut crops had less negative growth than gingelly crop.During 1970s, 1980s there was no much difference in variability in production. During 1990s Gingelly crop had high variability in production. In the overall year Groundnut had significant variability in production.In Tamil Nadu the production is concentrated in western and southern zones, the two zones with the lowest annual rainfall. Groundnut production increased in the 1980s, but stagnated during the 1990s, due to a decline in area cultivated. Growth and variability in productivity :

25 06 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 : Hind Agricultural Research and Training Institute


The results of compound growth rates of Productivity (Table3) reveal that during period 1980s Groundnut, Gingelly crops had positive growth in production, during 1990s Gingelly crop had high positive growth than groundnut crop. In the recent years Groundnut crops recorded highly negative growth than gingelly in Productivity. Variability of the Farm Harvest Prices of major oilseed crops : The results of co-efficient variation of farm harvest price (Table4) reveal that during1970s, 1980s, 1990s, there was no significant variability in prices of majority of crops,in the recent year Groundnut recorded lowest variability and Gingelly recorded highest variability in farm harvest prices. Acreage response function of groundnut in Tamil Nadu : The Co-efficient of lagged yield of groundnut and rainfall were found to be positively affecting the significant factors. Short run and long run price elasticity : The results of Short Run and Long Run Price Elasticity (Table 6) reveal that Groundnut price elasticity of supply in short run as well as long run period is more

or less same. The cointegration analysis : The first step of cointegration analysis was done The Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit Tests for Chennai data the probability Rho values were obtained more than 0.0001 (Appendix 1). The second step of cointegration analysis was done The Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit Tests for Mumbai data the probability Rho values were obtained more than 0.0001 (Appendix 2). The third step of the above both Non Stationarity conditionsRegression results are integrated. Then it changed become the stationarity condition.now the probability Rho values were obtained exactly 0.0001 (Appendix 3). Mumbai= f (Chennai) : An increase in groundnut kernel price by Re.1/qtl Chennai would result in price increase of groundnut in Mumbai by Rs.1.10/Qtl. Chennai =f (Mumbai) : An increase in groundnut kernel price by Re.1/qtl Mumbai would result in price increase of groundnut in Chennai by Rs.0.5/Qtl Conclusions and policy implications :

Table 1: Com pound growth rates (CGR) and Co-e ffi cients of variation (C V) of the area of major oil see ds crops in Tamil Nadu 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-01to2005-06 1970-71 to 2005-06 Oilseeds crops CGR (%) CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV Groundnut

2.3

39.5

2.3

8.5

-3.8

14.6

-1.9

11.0

-0.1

26.3

Gingelly

0.3

16.6

5.0

18.9

-4.8

17.7

-6.9

18.9

-1.0

22.1

Table 2 : Compound growth rates (CGR) and co-effi cients of variation (CV) of the production of major oil seeds crops in Tamil Nadu 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-01 t o 2005-06 1970-71 t o 2005-06 Oilseeds crops CGR (%) CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV Groundnut

-1.7

35.1

5.1

18.3

-0.5

14.0

-4.1

21.8

1.5

29.6

Gingelly

1.8

21.9

5.4

23.9

-0.2

19.6

-12.3

36.9

0.5

27.9

Table 3: Com pound growth rates (CGR) and co-effi cients of variation (C V) of the productivity of major oilseeds crops in Tamil Nadu 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-01 t o2005-06 1970-71 t o 2005-06 Oilseeds crops CGR(%) CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV CGR CV Groundnut

-3.9

95.0

2.7

12.3

3.4

11.0

-2.3

11.7

1.6

56.0

Gingelly

1.5

9.5

0.4

9.3

4.8

17.5

-5.8

19.7

1.6

23.0

Table 4: Co-efficient variation of the farm harvest pri ces of major oilseed crops in Tamil Nadu Oilseeds crops 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-01to 2005-06

1970-71 t o 2005-06

Groundnut

43.3

24.5

23.6

14.0

82.8

Gingelly

20.7

22.3

20.2

16.2

68.1



From the present study, it could be concluded that area, production, and productivity of major oilseed crops declined. Productivity was noted to be more or less stagnant Table 5: Acre age response functi on of groundnut in Tamil Nadu Particulars

which could be attributed to poor adoption of technology. During 1970s, area of most of the oilseeds crops like groundnut, gingelly had increased in Tamil Nadu and this recorded the positive growth than production as well

Co-efficient s

t Stat

Constant

3.88

1.95

Lagged area of Groundnut

0.03

0.29

Lagged yield of Groundnut

0.64**

10.22

Lagged price of Groundnut

-0.26**

5.90

Rainfall

0.30

1.86

R2

0.81

Adjust ed R2 ** denot es significance at 1% levels of probability.

0.78

Table 6: Short run and long run pri ce elastici ty Crop

Price elast icity of supply

Adjustment co-efficient

Groundnut

0.97

Table 7 : Final fesults of cointegration Mumbai =f (Chennai ) Variable Label DF

Short run

Long run

-0.2600

-0.26804

Est imate

Standard Error

t Value

Pr > Ιt Ι

Int ercept

Intercept 1

476.74131

126.24245

3.78

F Zero Mean

Single Mean

Trend

1

-253.005

0.0001

-11.17

dimethoate 30 EC @ 600g a.i./ha found as the best treatment which recorded minimum larval population of H. armigera on three, seven and fourteen day after spray (DAS) i.e. 0.43, 0.43, 0.53 first spray, 0.43, 0.43,0.50 second spray and 0.30, 0.36, 0.50 third spray larvae per plant, respectively and which was at par with where the spray of chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC @ 30g a.i./ha >indoxacarb 15.8 EC @ 73g a.i./ha >acetamiprid 20 SP@ 20g a.i./ha larval population as 0.50, 0.53, 0.60 at first spray , 0.46, 0.50, 0.60 at second spray and at third spray 0.36, 0.53, 0.60 larvae per plant. The results in relation to larval population of H. armigera are in accordance with the earlier reports of (Patel and Patel, 2013) who reported that chlorantraniliprole @ 30 g a.i./ha was the most effective insecticide against pod borer complex and was followed by chlorantraniliprole + lambda cyhalothrin @ 37.5 g a.i./ha, chlorantraniliprole + lambda cyhalothrin @ 30 g a.i./ha and indoxacarb @ 75 g a.i./ha, respectively. Similarly, (Bhosale et al. 2009, Nishantha et al. 2009, Chowdary et al. 2010 and Satpute and Barkhade, 2012) reported that rynaxypyr 20 SC @ 30 g a.i. /ha as superior molecule in recording less larval population. The data on pod damage due to pigeonpea pod borers and pigeonpea grain yield is presented in (Table 2). The lowest pod damage due to H. armigera treatment application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 30g a.i./ ha >flubendiamide 20 WG@ 73g a.i./ha >dimethoate 30 EC @ 600g a.i./ha found as the best treatment which recorded lowest pod damage i.e. 5.00 per cent and this was at par with chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC @ 30g a.i./ ha >indoxacarb 15.8 EC @ 73g a.i./ha >acetamiprid 20 SP@ 20g a.i./h (6.27 %) followed by chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC @ 30g a.i./ha >acetamiprid 20SP@ 20g a.i. / ha (8.61 %), respectively. 25 28 Agric. Update, 12 (TECHSEAR-9) 2017 :


The lowest grain damage due to H. armigera treatment application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 30g a.i./ha >flubendiamide20WG@ 73g a.i./ha >dimethoate 30 EC @ 600g a.i./ha found as the best treatment which recorded lowest pod damage i.e. 2.12 per cent and this was at par with chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC @ 30g a.i./ha > indoxacarb 15.8 EC @ 73g a.i./ha >acetamiprid 20 SP@ 20g a.i./h (2.79 %). The present findings are similar with Sreekanth et al., (2013) who reported that Pod damage due to pod borer, Helicoverpa was lowest in plots treated with flubendiamide (1.16%), chlorantraniliprole (1.26%) and spinosad (1.92%) with 88.7, 87.7 and 81.2 per cent reduction over control, respectively. The untreated plot has recorded maximum pod damage of 10.22%. similarly Patel and Patel (2013) reported the Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 % SC @ 30 g a.i./ha registered the lowest pod damage due to borer and pod fly and recorded the highest yield of pigeonpea. Sreekanth et al., (2014) who reported that the pod damage due to pod fly was lowest in spinosad 45% SC (10.2%), flubendiamide 480 SC (10.4%), profenophos 50% EC (10.9%) and chlorantraniliprole 20% SC (12.5%) with 76.7, 76.3, 75.1 and 71.5 per cent reduction over control (43.8%), respectively. Highest grain yield realized due to the treatment application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 30g a.i./ ha >flubendiamide20WG@ 73g a.i./ha >dimethoate 30 EC @ 600g a.i./ha (2506 kg/ ha) as against 1450 kg per ha in untreated control. The present findings are similar with Sreekanth et al., (2013) who reported that the yield enhancement in pigeonpea with chlorantraniliprole treated plots (686.1 kg/ha) with 127.5 per cent increase over control, followed by flubendiamide (595.8 kg/ha) and spinosad (589.0 kg/ha) with 97.6 and 95.3 per cent increase over control, respectively as against the minimum yield of 301.6 kg/ha in the untreated check. Similarly Deshmukh et al., (2010) reported that the yield enhancement in chickpea with treatment of flubendiamide 0.007 per cent (1850 kg/ha) followed by indoxacarb 0.0075per cent (1805 kg/ha), spinosad 0.009 per cent (1760 kg/ha) and emamectin benzoate 0.0015 per cent (1665 kg/ha). Conclusion: From present study, it may be concluded that the treatment application of chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 30g a.i./ha >flubendiamide20WG@ 73g a.i./ha >

S.D. BANTEWAD, P.A. PAGAR AND S.G. WAGH

dimethoate 30 EC @ 600g a.i./ha was found effective for management of H. armigera population and extenuate yield. The safer chemical control methods reduce the pest population, pod and grain damage with

higher yield; therefore, chemical management popularizes as an effective, practical alternative and makes lucrative cultivation of pigeonpea.

Table 1: Effe ct of se quential application of newe r insecticides against H. armigera on pigeonpea Dosag Mean number of Helicoverpa larvae per plant Tr es First spray Second spray Third spray Treatments No. (g.a.i/ 14 14 ha) 1DBS 3 DAS 7DAS DAS 1DBS 3 DAS 7DAS DAS 1DBS 3 DAS 7DAS T1

Acephate 75 SP @ 0.15 %

750

T2

Acetamiprid 20 SP @

20

0.004 % T3 T4

0.60

0.93

(1.05) 0.86 (1.16)

0.96

0.93

0.93

(1.19) (1.21) (1.29)

(1.19)

0.90

0.93

(1.18) (1.19) (1.22)

(1.19)

0.93 0.83

1.16 1.00

1.00

0.86

0.96

(1.20) (1.21) (1.22) (1.14) (1.11)

(1.16)

(1.19)

0.90

0.83

0.90

(1.17) (1.17) (1.23) (1.08) (1.12)

(1.15)

(1.18)

0.86

0.90

0.83

0.90 (1.18)

0.90

1.03 0.96

0.66

0.73

0.83

18.5%SC >Acephate 75SP

750

(1.10)

(1.15) (1.15) (1.15)

(1.16)

(1.17) (1.19) (1.20) (1.07) (1.13)

(1.15)

Chlorantraniliprole

30

0.46

0.63

0.93

0.90

0.80

0.90

8.5%SC >Acet amiprid

20

(0.98)

(1.06) (1.08) (1.10)

(1.19)

(1.17) (1.18) (1.18) (0.98) (1.09)

(1.14)

(1.18)

0.90

0.93

0.66

0.76

30

0.73

0.93

0.80 0.73

Chlorantraniliprole

0.66

0.83

0.96

14 DAS

0.46

0.80 0.70

20SP T5

T6

T7 T8

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 %

30

0.53

0.50

0.93

0.46

0.53

0.60

SC >Indoxacarb 15.8 EC

73

(1.01)

(1.00) (1.02) (1.05)

(1.19)

(0.98) (1.00) (1.05) (1.02) (0.93)

(1.01)

(1.04)

>Acetamiprid 20 SP

20

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%

30

0.60

0.43

1.00

0.43

0.36

0.50

SC >Flubendiamide20WG

73

(1.05)

(0.96) (0.97) (1.02)

(1.22)

(0.96) (0.96) (1.00) (1.05) (0.89)

(0.93)

(1.00)

>Dimethoate 30 EC

600

Dimethoate 30 EC

600

Unt reat ed Control

-

S.E. ± C.D. (P=0.05) CV% Figures in parent heses are NS=Non-significant

0.53

0.43

1.06

0.60

0.53

0.80

0.96

(1.14)

(1.21) (1.25) (1.28) 1.10

1.16 1.20

0.50

0.60

0.43

0.50

1.03

1.06

0.53

0.60

0.30

0.93

1.03

(1.19)

(1.23) (1.23) (1.25) (1.08) (1.21) 1.66

1.53

0.66

0.36

1.20

0.96 1.30

1.03

0.96

(1.23)

(1.21)

0.53

1.10

1.73

1.80

1.60

1.66

(1.01)

(1.26) (1.26) (1.30)

(1.49)

(1.52) (1.47) (1.42) (1.29) (1.34)

(1.44)

(1.47)

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.06

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.06

0.06

NS

0.19

0.20

0.20

NS

0.20

0.20

0.21

NS

0.19

0.20

0.20

11.80

9.94

10.14 10.22

10.03

10.17

10.03

10.55

10.13

10.27

10.17

10.05

x + 0.50 transformed value DBS- Day before spray. DAS - Days after spray.

Table 2: Per cent pod and grain damage by pod bore r on Pigeonpea Sr. No.

Name of treatments

Per cent pod damage

Per cent grain damage

Grain yield (Kg/ha)

1.

Acephate 75 SP @ 0.15 %

14.16 (21.86)

7.38 (15.65)

1720

2.

Acetamiprid 20 SP @ 0.004 %

11.94 (20.21)

5.74 (13.85)

1823

3.

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC >Acephat e 75SP

11.66 (19.95)

4.76 (12.58)

2080

4.

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC >Acetamiprid 20SP

8.61 (16.66)

4.36 (11.98)

2310

5.

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC >Indoxacarb 15.8 E C>Acetamiprid 20 SP

6.27 (14.46)

2.79 (9.59)

2410

6.

Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%SC >Flubendiamide 20WG > Dimethoate 30 EC

5.00 (12.92)

2.12 (8.35)

2506

7.

Dimethoate 30 EC

15.28 (22.89)

7.30 (15.64)

1620

8.

Unt reat ed Control

19.72 (26.35)

7.96 (16.39)

1450

S.E. ±

1.69

0.73

C.D. (P=0.05)

5.12

2.21

CV % Figures of percentage in parenthesis are angular transformed values

15.14

9.75


EVALUATION OF SEQUENTIAL APPLICATION OF NEW INSECTICIDES AGAINST Helicoverpa armigera (HUBNER) ON PIGEONPEA

Authors’ affiliations : P.A. PAGAR AND S.G. WAGH, Department of Entomology, Agricultural Research Station (V.N.M.K.V.) , BADNAPUR (M.S.) INDIA

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