Exercise and Internet addiction

Exercise and Internet addiction: commonalities and differences between two problematic behaviours Mária Rendi1, Attila Szabo2,3, & Tamás Szabó1,2

This is a pre-publication version of the article: Rendi, M., Szabo, A., & Szabó, T. (2007). Exercise and Internet addiction: communalities and differences between two problematic behaviours. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 5(3), 219-232.

1

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Semmelweis University, Alkotás u. 44, Budapest, Hungary 2

National Institute for Sport Talent Care and Sport Services, Istvánmezei út 1-3, Budapest, Hungary

3

Faculty of Natural Science, University of Pécs, Ifjuság u. 6, Pécs, Hungary

Correspondence: Dr Attila Szabo (dr. habil., Ph.D.) Current contact: E-mail: [email protected]

Exercise and Internet Addiction

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Abstract The scholastic literature contains hundreds of references on subjects of exercise and Internet addiction. The media also devote substantial attention to these topics. However, these two forms of “problematic behaviours” are as yet unlisted in the DSM IV. This article reviews the consensus-based knowledge and the debated aspects of exercise and Internet abuse in light of addictive behaviours. Commonalities and differences are explored in light of active and passive physical activities and along co-morbidity with other psychiatric disorders. The existence of these addictive behaviours is also questioned while exploring their symptoms and methods of assessment. It is concluded that currently exercise addiction is better defined in the specialist areas than Internet addiction because the latter as virtual environment may not be addictive, but rather activities carried out on the internet (e.g., gambling, sex, or shopping) may incorporate addictive characteristics. Keywords: Exercise dependence, Internet, Obsessive behaviour, Physical activity, Review, Withdrawal symptoms


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Introduction A consequence of technological revolution is an increased likelihood of a sedentary lifestyle. In many nations of the world the amount of physical activity involved in survival activities has been reduced to minimum. However, human beings have evolved to deal with various physical challenges in quest for survival (Jones & Weinhouse, 1979; Péronnet & Szabo, 1993) and their body may not be able to stay in equilibrium, or homeostasis, without such challenges. Therefore, as survival activities become less physically challenging, leisure activities need to become more active to ensure optimal functioning of the body (Péronnet & Szabo, 1993). It is not surprising, then, that regular physical activity nowadays is considered to be a positive behaviour aimed at health maintenance and disease prevention. The cognitive and physiological benefits of physical activity are consistently documented in the media and the scholastic literature. There is clear and undisputed consensus with regard to the value of integrating regular physical activity in people‟s daily lives (Bouchard, Shephard, & Stephens, 1994; Biddle, Fox & Boutcher, 2000). A few (< 3%) habitual exercisers, however, get hooked to their exercise to such an extent that they lose control over it. This “problematic” behaviour has received wide coverage in the scholastic literature under the label of exercise addiction. A point of caution should be emphasized: Only a very small number of physically active people may be affected and, therefore, this rare problem is not diminishing the importance of regular physical activity in the everyday life (Szabo, 2000). Balancing out daily routines with physical activities is even more important in the past two decades during which computers and the Internet penetrated not only workplaces but also average households. The Internet is a virtual world with immense, and continuously growing, sources of information that provide continuous cognitive stimulation. Some scholars propose that the Internet has already driven human society into a different lifestyle than the one prior its existence (Tsai & Lin, 2003). Usage of the Internet, apart from its sedentary aspect, could also become “addictive” to some users (e.g. Chen, Tarn, & Han, 2004; Shapira et al., 2003; Soule, Shell, & Kleen, 2003; Tsai & Lin, 2003; Whang, Lee, & Chang, 2003). Problematic use of the Internet has also received wide coverage in the literature under to notion of Internet addiction. One manifestation of Internet addiction is tolerance, or the need for significantly increased time spent online (Chen et al., 2004). In addition to the already sedentary lifestyles, increased time spent with browsing the Internet may reduce the amount of time available for (or dedicated to) physical activities in the daily life of the average person. The scope of this review is to highlight the similarities and differences between two relatively “opposite” behavioural addictions. Although there may be numerous behavioural addictions, ranging from gambling to sex or from TV watching to video games, exercise and Internet addiction were chosen because they are similar and different at the same time. They may be considered similar in the symptoms of addiction, but different in at least three ways: 1) physical energy demand, 2) cognitive stimulation, and 3) activity specificity versus diversity. These similarities and differences will be discussed later. However, before deeper analysis, a definition - in the context of which these problematic behaviours may be examined as “addictions” - is needed.


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Definition of the Notion of Addiction Although the term “dependence” is often used as a synonym for addiction, the latter includes the former, and also includes compulsion (Goodman, 1990). Indeed, the formula for addiction, according to Goodman is: “addiction = dependence + compulsion”. He highlights that not all dependence and compulsion may be classified as addiction, hence the discussion here (and the choice of the term) by using the notion of addiction involves both dependence and compulsion. Addiction then is defined as a behavioural process that could provide either pleasure or relief from internal discomfort and it is characterized by repeated failure to control the behaviour (or powerlessness) and maintenance of the behaviour in spite of major negative consequences (Goodman, 1990). Complementing this definition, six symptoms or criteria for addiction based on Brown (1993) is used: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, personal conflict, and relapse. Commitment or Addiction? Regular exercise or Internet use in the context of one‟s work or study is part of many peoples life. They do engage in these activities with commitment, but they stay in control. However, when the commitment to exercise and/or use of the Internet is labelled as addiction (Conboy, 1994; Sachs, 1981; Thornton & Scott, 1995) a conceptual fluster is created. For example, Thornton and Scott (1995) found that they could classify 77% of a sample of 40 runners as moderately or highly addicted to running. Such a figure is obviously exaggerated (Szabo, 2000). Consequently, some researchers have realised this problem and attempted to draw a borderline between commitment and addiction to physical activity (Chapman & De Castro, 1990; Summers & Hinton, 1986; Szabo, 2000; Szabo, Frenkl, & Caputo, 1997). Due to the energy, work and dedication needed to maintain regular physical activity in contrast to the ever-stimulating and physically less demanding, or even undemanding, browsing of the Internet, the differentiation between commitment and addiction should be made clear. Commitment to physical activity or to the regular use of the Internet is a reflection of how devoted a person is to her/his activity. It is a measure of the strength of adherence to an adopted activity that is a healthy part of the daily life of the individual. For committed people, satisfaction, enjoyment, and achievement derived from the selected activity are much valued incentives that motivate the maintenance of their behaviour (Chapman & De Castro, 1990). Sachs (1981), in the context of exercise, thought that commitment results from the intellectual analysis of the rewards, including social relationships, health, status, prestige, or monetary advantages, gained from the activity. Analogously, many activities on the Internet could be productive and enriching to the individual. Seeking new information (like reading the online newspapers), participating in online learning courses, interacting with friends and family and many other opportunities offered by the Internet could be enriching. Committed exercisers, in light of Sachs' (1981) description: 1) exercise for extrinsic rewards, 2) view their exercise as an important, but not the central part of their lives, and 3) likely do not experience withdrawal symptoms when they cannot exercise for any reason (Summers & Hinton, 1986). The same statements may hold true for committed Internet users, except that browsing the web seldom occurs for extrinsic rewards. Albeit participation in online forums, learning, reading the news, working etc. may qualify as extrinsic rewards there is wider grey area here than in the area of


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physical activity. A very significant point is that committed exercisers as well as committed Internet users control their activities (Johnson, 1995) rather than being control by the activity. In contrast to committed exercisers, addicted exercisers 1) are more likely to exercise for intrinsic rewards, 2) view exercise as the chief part of their lives, and 3) experience strong deprivation-feelings when they cannot exercise (Sachs, 1981; Summers & Hinton, 1986). The analogy to Internet addiction is evident again: 1) most unproductive activities on the Internet occur for intrinsic reasons (Griffiths, 1999), 2) often most waking hours may be spent in the front of the monitor (Griffiths, 1999), and 3) lack or even reduced Internet presence results in a withdrawal syndrome (Chen et al., 2004). The following quote illustrates the subjective state of an exercise addict: "I moved to a new town and decided to join a health club as a way of meeting people. Soon, exercise began to become a focal part of my life and I became more determined to keep fit and improve my physique. Gradually the three hours a day I was doing increased to six hours and I started to become totally obsessive about exercise. I wouldn't miss a day at the gym. I just lost sight of my body really - I just had to do my workout, come what may, and get my fix." (Source: Evening Standard, 2006). Further differences of addicted Internet users from committed (or average) users have been reported in the literature. For example, addicted Internet users: a) spend most of their work and leisure time online with stimulating but often purposeless activities (Shapira et al., 2003; Young, 1997), b) gradually spend less time with family and friends in exchange for solitary time spent online (Young, 1998), c) are unable to control their Internet use that leads to stress, feelings of guilt, and functional impairment in the everyday activities (Shapira et al., 2000), d) exhibit more psychiatric symptoms than healthy users, and e) may have distinctive personalities in contrast to health users (Yang et al., 2005). The quote below illustrates the loss of control of a person addicted to the Internet: “Hello. My name is __________________ and I am an Internet junkie. I don't like to leave my house because I'm afraid that I might miss some emails. If I have to go out I'll be on the net before I leave and as soon as I return again. When I'm away from my computer I start hearing the dial tones everywhere I go and nothing can stop them from invading my head!! (Takes deep, calming breath) My palms go all sweaty at the thought of the Internet, the lovely chat rooms and the mindless sites which contain nothing but useless information for me to read. I can't get away from it - it's everywhere. I want my life back! HELP ME SOMEBODY PLEASE HELP ME!!!! Thank you for listening.” (Source: British Broadcasting Corporation, 2002). From the above discussion, it is evident that the borderline between commitment and addiction is marked by control. While one controls the activity there may be little or no problem at all, but when the activity controls the individual the problem of addiction could be identified.


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Do Exercise and Internet Addictions Exist? The scholastic publications are flooded with articles about these two forms of addiction. While the literature seems to agree that certain form of exercise behaviours could be detrimental for a small percentage of the exercisers (Szabo, 2000), the existence of Internet addiction is more dubious. For example, Bishop (2005) believes that the claim that people could be addicted to the Internet is like claiming that they are addicted to the real world. The Internet is an environment like the social environment in the daily life and, therefore, individuals can only be addicted to some aspects of that environment (Griffiths, 1999). For example, it may be more appropriate to refer to sex, video game, or gambling addiction carried out on the Internet (Griffiths, 2001) because these problematic behaviours also exist in the real life situation. In light of this view exercise and Internet addiction are not comparable. They would be if exercise addiction would be paralleled with some sporting video games like racing, skiing, in the artificial environment of the Internet. Exercise Addiction The scholastic circles, although also using alternative terminologies to addiction (dependency, obsessive exercising), tend to agree that exercise abuse, leading to health problems, exists (Cockerill & Riddington, 1996; Furst & Germone, 1993; Morris, 1989; Sachs & Pargman, 1984; Szabo, 2000). Exercise addiction has been classified as primary and secondary addiction (De Coverley Veale (1987). Primary exercise addiction is defined as "addiction of a psychological and/or physiological nature, upon a regular regimen of running, characterized by withdrawal symptoms after 24 to 36 hours without participation" (Sachs, 1981; p.118). Secondary exercise addiction is more or less an accompanying feature of eating disorders like Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa (De Coverley Veale, 1987). In such eating disorders, excessive exercise is considered to be an auxiliary aspect used in caloric control and consequently weight loss. Therefore, exercise is a means to an objective rather than the objective itself. Secondary exercise addiction may occur in different doses in people affected by eating disorders. The prevalence of secondary exercise addiction among sufferers of eating disorders is much higher than primary exercise addiction in the general exercising population, which is very rare (Szabo, 2000). It was estimated that one third of anorectics might be affected by secondary exercise addiction (Crisp et al., 1980). Internet Addiction The consensus about Internet addiction is equivocal. The general concept of Internet addiction started about ten years ago, probably with the work of Young (1996) who conducted a telephone survey to study obsessive Internet usage based on modified criteria of Pathological Gambling defined in DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1995). The results showed that addicts used the Internet on the average 38 hours per week for non-educational and non-employment-related objectives that had significant negative effects on exam performance among students, conflict among couples, and also reduced performance among workers. In contrast non-addicts in Young‟s study used the Internet for an average of about eight hours per week with no deteriorating consequences reported (Young, 1997).


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However, Bishop (2005) may be right that it is incorrect to assume that people are addicted to the Internet because of the large content-variety of this technological medium. Indeed, addictions satisfied through the use of the virtual world need to be broken down into content-specific categories that match addictions which also exist in the real world (Kaltiala-Heino, Lintonen, & Rimpela, 2004). In light of such proposal, Soule et al. (2003) discuss six forms of addiction in context of the Internet: 1) sexual or relationship addiction, 2) communication / interaction (chat rooms, e-mail, newsgroups or messaging) addiction, 3) gambling addiction, 4) information overload manifested through compulsive browsing, 5) game-playing addiction, and 6) cross-addiction between the above and/or in conjunction with other forms of real world addictions. Investigating such Internet-recreated addictions may be more productive from a scholastic perspective than dumping all in one basket and over generalizing them under a single category of Internet addiction. Co-morbidities and Onset of Exercise and Internet Addiction The literature suggests that exercise and Internet addictions appear in conjunction with some other forms of psychiatric abnormalities. For example, in addition to the eating disorders discussed above in relation to secondary exercise addiction, obsessive exercise behaviour is also positively related to anxiety disorders (Morgan, 1979; Rudy & Estok, 1989) and is negatively related to self-esteem (Estok & Rudy, 1986; Rudy & Estok, 1989). Further, the length of experience with a particular physical activity may be positively associated with exercise addiction (Furst & Germone, 1993; Hailey & Bailey, 1982; Thaxton, 1982). Given that experience is related to exercise addiction, it is reasonable to speculate that a major life stress may trigger exercise addiction that emerges in a revolutionary rather than evolutionary fashion in the habituated individual. Therefore, the over-doing is a side effect of some other disorders associated with major life-stress. Yet the affected individual may see this form of coping as healthy in light of the media-spread information about the positive aspects of exercise. Internet addiction, on the other hand, has not been associated with experience or length of time spent online. In contrast, according to Grohol (1999) most people labelled as Internet addicts may be new users. These individuals are suddenly facing a new and stimulating environment to which they acclimate themselves by fully immersing into it. Since the environment is virtually endless some browsers get "stuck" in the encounter or acclimation phase for a long time. According to Grohol (1999) Internet addiction may be temporary or phasic, limited to the adoption or acclimation phase because users become soon disillusioned and balance their activities by focusing on the relevant and productive aspect of the Internet. Accordingly, to qualify as Internet addiction, the behaviour must persist until the individual needs to seek professional help to prevent damage or further damage to her or him and not dissipate with time due to disillusionment, boredom, or rationalization. Any reason for dissipation would, again, prevent the classification of the behaviour as addiction. Akin to exercise addiction, Internet addiction has been linked to other psychiatric disorders. Mitchell (2000) suggested that several scholars believe that Internet addiction per se could not be classified as a morbidity on its own because it is difficult to untangle from some other underlying psychological illnesses. Indeed, Internet addiction was shown


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to be accompanied by mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, substance abuse, eating disorders, paraphilias, and impulse control disorders (Black, Belsare, & Schlosser, 1999; Shapira et al., 2000). Overall the scholastic literature acknowledges some forms of exercise abuse that involve dependence and compulsiveness, and in accord with Goodman (1990) addiction, but Internet addiction as a form of psychiatric disorder is not recognised for at least two reasons. First, the Internet is a virtual parallel to the real word and hence it is an environment where activities take place. Addiction to some of these Internet-based activities may be more likely than addiction to the environment itself. Second, problematic Internet use has been associated with several other psychiatric/mental disorders which themselves may be underlying problem with Internet addiction being one of the symptoms. Indeed, symptoms may suggest addiction, but the underlying causes may be connected to other problems. As such, Internet addiction may only be the tip of the iceberg. Symptoms and Assessment of Exercise and Internet Addiction Withdrawal Symptoms Sachs (1981) based the definition of exercise addiction on withdrawal symptoms present after a relatively short period of time. However, the problem with this definition is that withdrawal symptoms are only one of the many characteristics of addictive behaviours (Brown, 1993; Griffiths, 1997). Further, many empirical studies have simply assessed the mere presence, rather than the type, frequency, and/or the intensity of withdrawal symptoms (Szabo, 1995; Szabo et al., 1997). This is incorrect because negative psychological symptoms are reported by all committed, not necessarily addicted, exercisers for the times when exercise is prevented for an involuntary reason (Szabo, 1997; Szabo, Frenkl, & Caputo, 1996). Even participants in physically undemanding physical activities, such as bowlers, have reported withdrawal symptoms when bowling was prevented for some reason. However, the intensity of symptoms reported by this group was less than that claimed by aerobic dancers, weighttrainers, cross-trainers, or fencers (Szabo et al., 1996). Comparably to exercise addiction, Internet addiction could not be merely diagnosed on the basis of withdrawal symptom and the seeking of access to the Internet over a period of time off. Bishop (2005) rightly states that the demolishing or the closing of a local pub may cause withdrawal symptoms to the “regulars” who used to spend hours there talking and socializing. Therefore, withdrawal symptoms of major severity and persistent duration are part of addictive behaviours, but their mere manifestation is by no means a definite criterion for the diagnosis. There must be more systematic ways in which the common symptoms of addiction could be used to diagnose the pathology. Common Symptoms in Behavioural Addictions Common symptoms of addiction were identified in light of theory in reference to behaviours such as exercise, sex, gambling, video games and also the Internet. Based on Brown‟s (1993) general components of addictions, Griffiths (1996, 1997, and 2002) has reiterated them into the following six components:


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Salience - This symptom is present when the particular activity becomes the most important activity in the person's life and dominates their thinking (preoccupations and cognitive distortions), feelings (cravings) and behaviour (deterioration of socialized behaviour). For instance, even if the person is not actually engaged in the behaviour they will be thinking about the next time they will be. Mood modification - This symptom refers to the subjective experiences that people report as a consequence of engaging in the particular activity and can be seen as a coping strategy (i.e., they experience an arousing "buzz" or a "high", or paradoxically tranquilizing feel of "escape" or "numbing"). Tolerance - Is the process whereby increasing amounts of the particular activity are required to achieve the former effects. For instance, a gambler may have to gradually have to increase the size of the bet to experience a euphoric effect that was initially obtained by a much smaller bet. The runner needs to run longer distances to experience the “runners high” (Stoll, 1997). Withdrawal symptoms - These symptoms are the unpleasant physical and psychological feeling states and also physical effects, which occur when the particular activity is discontinued or suddenly it is reduced, e.g., the shakes, moodiness, irritability etc. Conflict - This symptom represents the conflicts between the addict and those around them (interpersonal conflict), conflicts with other activities (job, social life, hobbies and interests) or from within the individual themselves (intra-psychic conflict) which are concerned with the particular activity. Relapse – Is the tendency for repeated reversions to earlier patterns of the particular activity to recur and for even the most extreme patterns typical of the height of the addiction to be quickly restored after many years of abstinence or control.

These six components are relatively common symptoms to most addictive behaviours and, therefore, they should be identifiable In case of both exercise and Internet addiction. Table 1 illustrates how these symptoms are present in parallel in both exercise and Internet addiction. Assessment of Exercise Addiction There are some limitations in the assessment of exercise addiction. The available instruments often contain, at least in part, questions pertaining to commitment rather than to addiction to exercise. Furthermore, like most Likert-scales, they were developed to measure the degree of addiction, rather than to clearly diagnose exercise addiction. There is confusion between the concepts of addiction and commitment. For example, Conboy (1994) adopted the Commitment to Running Scale (Carmack & Martens, 1979) to gauge addiction. Such an error interferes with the valid assessment of exercise addiction. Susceptibility may be identified via the use of questionnaires, but a positive diagnosis could only be made after interviews that are structured around the common symptoms of addiction (Table 1). These interviews should be conducted with the exercisers as well as their relatives or colleagues for positive identification of exercise addiction. To aid in screening – but not the diagnosis - and to facilitate the work of professionals, Terry, Szabo, and Griffiths, (2004) developed the Exercise Addiction Inventory based on six questions mirroring the six classical symptoms of behavioural addictions (Table


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2). Individuals scoring 24 or more on this instrument may be advised to seek professional help. It should be re-emphasized that this tool is for screening rather than for diagnosis. Assessment of Internet Addiction Initially the diagnosis of Internet addiction was based on another form of behavioural addiction. Of all the diagnoses referenced in the DSM-IV, pathological gambling was seen as most similar to Internet addiction. Consequently, by using the addiction to gambling as her model, Young (1996, 1999) has developed an eight-item questionnaire in which she has modified some of the criteria for pathological gambling to provide a screening tool for addictive Internet use (Table 3). In light of this instrument, people scoring five or more "yes" to five-eight questions could be considered addicted. The developer insisted that the cutoff score of five was consistent with the number of criteria used for screening pathological gambling behaviour and it is an adequate number of criteria to differentiate normal from addictive Internet use. This approach – the analogy to pathological gambling – was severely criticized for some issues that merit contemplation. Grohol (1999) states that: “I don't know of any other disorder currently being researched where the researchers, showing all the originality of a trash romance novel writer, simply "borrowed" the diagnostic symptom criteria for an unrelated disorder, made a few changes, and declared the existence of a new disorder. If this sounds absurd, it's because it is.” (http://psychcentral.com/netaddiction/) Indeed, relevance or adoption to Internet-gambling aspect of the Internet addiction (which as discussed earlier may be a too broad concept anyway) may be more appropriate than generalization to Internet addiction. Hansen (2002) claims that the understanding of Internet addiction is not productive via extrapolation from pathological gambling or even problem drug use in which conditions the term addiction itself has been discontinued. In further research Young (1998) expanded the 1996 version of the Internet addiction questionnaire to what is called the Internet Addiction Test. The test uses simple terminology and includes Young‟s original eight items along with 12 other items included to gauge the areas of an individual‟s life might be affected by their excessive Internet use. Psychometric evaluation of the test performed by Widyanto and McMurran (2004) yielded six factors, of which salience accounted for 35.8% of the variance whilst the remaining five factors each accounted for less than 10% of the variance ranging from 9% to as low as 5.2%. Although Widyanto and McMurran (2004) conclude that the test is a valid and reliable instrument, Grohol (2005) claims that the Internet Addiction Test is not a valid psychometric instrument. His criticism is based on Widyanto‟s and McMurran‟s (2004) finding that only salience factor accounted for the majority of the variance. Thus, factors are not equally weighed and therefore only the items comprising the salience factor may arbitrarily identify the person as an addict. In light of the current literature, therefore no sound psychometric tool that could be used in the diagnosis of Internet addiction. This problem is amplified by the fact that the Internet as an environment may not be addictive. Activities on the Internet, that also exist in the everyday life like gambling, sex, game playing, etc,, may be addictive aspects of the Internet. Then an important question arises “Is the Internet addictive or are addicts using


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the Internet”? Theory driven research that could answer this question is, unfortunately, is missing in this area.

Is There a Relationship Between Exercise and Internet Addiction? The extant literature often refers to an addictive personality. Should such personality type exist, some commonalities between exercise and Internet addiction may be disclosed. However, several reviews of the literature conclude that there is weak or no evidence for the existence of addictive personality (Carroll, 1978; Kerr, 1996; Rozin & Stoess, 1993). Indeed, the form of addictive behaviours may be a result of genetic makeup and environment where the material of addiction is present. In areas where is no Internet, it is forbidden to drink or to gamble because of severe judicial/religious regulations the relevant addictions may be absent. Also an alcohol intolerant person is unlikely to become addicted to alcohol. Similarly, those with low genetic aerobic capacity may be unlikely to become addicted to running. The point is that genetic, learned-environmental, and childhood experiences may be more important in the process of addiction than personality itself (Kerr, 1996). Therefore, a further comparison of exercise and Internet addiction based on personality may be speculative. Nevertheless, if the common symptoms of behavioural addiction are examined (Table 1), a parallel between exercise and Internet addiction may be disclosed. It is not surprising to observe such commonalities because these symptoms are common to most of the behavioural addictions. Apart from the six general components of addiction (Brown, 1993), exercise and Internet addiction appear to be relatively different. Table 4 compares some of the features of these forms of behavioural maladjustments. It is clear that many differences exist. Apart from the differences listed in Table 4, Internet addiction is often diagnosed as co-morbidity to some other forms of behavioural maladjustments (Shapira et al., 2003; Whang et al., 2003). While in exercise addiction, co-morbidity was also connected to anxiety and mainly eating disorders, in which exercise is used as a means to achieve weight loss (Szabo, 2000), the comorbidity in exercise addiction is not as widely reported as for Internet addiction. Cross over between the two forms of addictions is unlikely because of a wide range of motivational differences, cognitive characteristics, physical energy limitations, and accessibility. While exercise addiction has received credible acknowledgment in the literature, the mere existence of Internet addiction is still under scrutiny. Perhaps addictions in the everyday life that could be practiced on the Internet are the ones that need to be specifically examined rather than trying to find a “general” Internet addiction. Conclusion Based on Brown‟ (1993) components of addiction both exercise abuse / overuse and problematic Internet usage may be classified as addictions. However, the symptoms may only be the tip of the iceberg and thus the underlying causes resulting in the manifestations of these behaviours may be a result of other psychological dysfunctions. It is not surprising then that the DSM IV is currently not listing either exercise or Internet addiction as a psychiatric illness category. It should be noted that the term addiction has been altogether abandoned from DSM classification. It appears that the literature covering exercise and Internet addiction may be at


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least slightly more precise if the term “addictive symptoms” would be adopted instead of the addiction that tends to point to a disorder category on its own. Indeed, the literature suggests that many underlying psychiatric problems may lead to addictive symptoms. Further, on the Internet addictive symptoms may surface in the context of several different themes ranging from video game to pornography or from chatroom discussions to gambling. References 1. American Psychiatric Association. (1995). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 2. Biddle, S.J.H., Fox, K.R. Boutcher, S.H. (2000). Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. London: Routledge. 3. Bishop, J. (2005). Does Internet Addiction Exist? Retrieved September 06, 2006 from: http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Weblog/Display.aspx?Item=75 4. Black, D.W., Belsare, G., & Schlosser, S. (1999). Clinical features, psychiatric comorbidity, and health-related quality of life in person reporting compulsive computer use behavior. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 839-844. 5. Boicun, M. (2000). Juvenile action group. Paper presented at the Conference Reducing Criminality: Partnerships and Best Practice convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology, Perth 31 July and 1 August 2000, Retrieved August 31, 2006 from: http://www.aic.gov.au/conferences/criminality/bojcun.pdf#search=%22boredom% 20cause%20of%20criminality%22 6. Bouchard, C., Shephard, R.J., & Stephens, T. (Eds.) (1994). Physical activity, fitness, and health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 7. British Broadcasting Corporation (2002). Internet Addiction. Retrieved, October 03, 2006 from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A640108 8. Brown, R.I.F. (1993). Some contributions of the study of gambling to the study of other addictions. In W.R. Eadington & J.A. Cornelius (Eds.), Gambling behavior and problem gambling (pp. 241-272). Reno: University of Nevada Press. 9. Carmack, M.A., & Martens, R. (1979). Measuring commitment to running: A survey of runners' attitudes and mental states. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 25-42. 10. Carroll, J.F.X. (1978). Mental illness and addiction: Perspectives that overemphasise differences and undervalue commonalities. Contemporary Drug Problems, 7, 227231. 11. Chapman, C.L., & De Castro, J.M. (1990). Running addiction: Measurement and associated psychological characteristics. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 30, 283-290. 12. Chen, K., Tarn, M., & Han, B.T. (2004). Internet dependency: Its impact online behavioural patterns in E-commerce. Human Systems Management, 23, 49-58. 13. Cockerill, I.M., & Riddington, M.E. (1996). Exercise dependence and associated disorders: a review. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 9, 119-129. 14. Conboy, J.K. (1994). The effects of exercise withdrawal on mood states of runners. Journal of Sport Behavior, 17, 188-203. 15. Crisp, A.H., Hsu, L.K.G., Harding, B., & Hartshorn, J. (1980). Clinical features of anorexia nervosa: A study of a consecutive series of 102 female patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 24, 179-191.


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Table 1. Components of addiction with specific symptoms of exercise and internet addiction.

Components of addiction

Description

1) Salience (Brown, 1993; De Coverley Veale, 1987; Griffiths, 1997)

The physical activity or Internet browsing assumes a primary role in the person's life and there is an obsessive preoccupation with the activity many times, and even during other survival activities in the day of the affected person..

2) Mood modification (Brown, 1993; De Coverley Veale 1987; Griffiths, 1997)

Te affected person controls negative mood by engaging in exercise or browsing / chatting or in general socializing / gambling / game playing / watching pornography on the Internet.

3) Tolerance (Brown, 1993; De Coverley Veale 1987; Griffiths, 1997)

The "dose-dependent" aspect of exercise and Internet addiction. The affected person needs to progressively increase the frequency and duration of the activity to derive the same level of satisfaction as before.

4) Withdrawal Symptoms (Brown, 1993; De Coverley Veale 1987; Griffiths, 1997)

Severe negative physical or psychological feelings experienced when the activity (exercise or Internet browsing) cannot be performed for an involuntary reason (i.e., injury or other commitments).

5) Conflict (Brown, 1993; Griffiths, 1997)

Interpersonal problems arising from over exercising or too much time spent in front of the computer and intrapersonal (intra-psychic) conflict arising from feelings of guilt and dissatisfaction associated with the neglect of other life obligations.

6) Relapse (Brown, 1993; De Coverley Veale 1987; Griffiths, 1997)

A predisposition to re-establishment of the previously "unhealthy" pattern of exercise or Internet browsing after a period of abstinence or "normal" levels of activity. (Due to the effort involved in most physical activities, this component is argued to be weak in exercise addiction (Cockerill & Riddington, 1996)).

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Table 2. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (From Terry et al., 2004).

Exercise is the most important thing in my life (Salience)

1

2

3

4

5

I use exercise as a way of changing my mood (e.g. to get a buzz, to escape etc.) (Mood modification)

1

2

3

4

5

Over time I have increased the amount of exercise I do in a day. (Tolerance)

1

2

3

4

5

If I have to miss an exercise session I feel moody and irritable (Withdrawal symptoms)

1

2

3

4

5

Conflicts have arisen between me and my family and/or my partner about the amount of exercise I do (Conflict)

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

If I cut down the amount of exercise I do, and then start again, I always end up exercising as often as I did before (Relapse)

Rating: 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neither agree nor disagree 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree


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Table 3. The Internet Exercise Addiction Inventory (From Young, 1999).

1. Do you feel preoccupied with the Internet (think about previous on-line activity or anticipate next on-line session)? 2. Do you feel the need to use the Internet with increasing amounts of time in order to achieve satisfaction? 3. Have you repeatedly made unsuccessful efforts to control, cut back, or stop Internet use? 4. Do you feel restless, moody, depressed, or irritable when attempting to cut down or stop Internet use? 5. Do you stay on-line longer than originally intended? 6. Have you jeopardized or risked the loss of significant relationship, job, educational or career opportunity because of the Internet? 7. Have you lied to family members, therapist, or others to conceal the extent of involvement with the Internet? 8. Do you use the Internet as a way of escaping from problems or of relieving a dysphoric mood (e.g., feelings of helplessness, guilt, anxiety, or depression)?

Rating: Yes No

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Table 4. Comparison of Exercise and Internet Addictions Exercise Addiction Only few people in the general population are physically active and the incidence of exercise addiction is very low among them (Szabo, 2000).

Internet Addiction

Many people have easy access to the Internet and it is estimated that 6 to 30% may be addicted, but the figure appears to be only about 5%, between 12-18 year adolescents (Kaltiala-Heino et al., 2004) Requires good physical condition, strong Easy to use, physical condition most often is commitment, effort and self often inflicted irrelevant, requires no effort. pain to the point of masochism. It is revolutionary, or the onset is sudden It may be evolving in a quest for more probably due to some major life change or stimulation, more satisfaction or due to lesser stress. The tenancy that may be evolutionary real life socialization (Young, 1998) but it is also plausible, but most often the may also be "revolutionary" in light of underlying causes are unknown (Szabo, “hooking to it” in the adoption phase 2000). (Grohol, 1999) It is viewed - at least initially - by the It is known from the public media that it has exerciser that it is a healthy way of coping detrimental effects on the person‟s social life based on media-spread wonders about as well as professional life. Internet crime, physical activity. Therefore, denial of the divorce and layoffs due to internet use are problem is a serious component that delays frequently reported in the media. Denial of the self-recognition of the problem. the problem cannot be easily used as a defence mechanism. Needs preparation and after care (change into Often only requires the push of a button and sporting equipment, shower and change again could be performed to the point of sleep afterwards) and could be performed for a deprivation. limited duration only due to exhaustion. It lacks variety in cognitive stimulation or Provides substantial cognitive stimulation excitement. Rather, it is characterised by that is virtually endless. routine and repetitive execution of the same form of activity. The scholastic literature tends to accept the The scholastic literature is controversial existence of exercise addiction that. about the existence of Internet addiction, but the problematic use of it for various purposes has been recognised. It is not listed in the DSM IV. It is not listed in the DSM IV.