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Exploring Cultural Dimensions of Gender and Management in the Middle East Beverly Dawn Metcalfe

Executive Summary This study analyzes the experiences of female professionals working in three case study countries in the Middle East: Bahrain, Jordan, and Oman. Data were gleaned while conducting management and cultural training for female managers. Results highlight the importance of women to economic development and the complexity of the interrelations between gender, organization, and Islamic values. The study reveals that women have advanced in management in the Middle East but have career and development constraints due to strong gender roles in Islamic culture. The study suggests strategies for HR and for gender and development to support international business. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION Globalization has greatly stimulated international research that explores cultural similarity and variance in business practices and management philosophies. While there is an established knowledge base within economic studies that examines trade developments in the Middle East and Arab states (Wilson, 1995, 2001; World Bank, 2003a, 2003b), this is not the case in international management. The literature that addresses international and cross-cultural dynamics concentrates on Western managerial accounts. Advancing business knowledge in this area is important on account of economic change and growth in Middle Eastern and Arab states and their continuing contribution to world trade (Pfeifer & Posusney, 2003; Wilson, 1995, 2001; World Bank, 2003a). Dr. Beverly Dawn Metcalfe is Graduate Research Director at the Hull University Business School in UK and Research Associate at Centre for Diversity and Work Psychology at Manchester Business School, UK. Her research interests are in gender, diversity and management within a comparative and international context, especially how cultural values and Islamic philosophies shape management theory. She also has research and consultancy expertise in cross cultural management training and development and has worked in the USA, UK, Russia, Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Iran and Bahrain. She is on the Editorial Board of Human Resource Development International and her book co-authored with Dr. C. J. Rees (Manchester University) International HRD will be published by Palgrave in 2006 ([email protected]). Thunderbird International Business Review, Vol. 48(1) 93–107 • January–February 2006 Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. • DOI: 10.1002/tie.20087

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Beverly Dawn Metcalfe

Research examining Middle Eastern economic systems has highlighted family-oriented working relations and Islamic cultural values as markers of a distinct business environment (Ali, 1995, 1999; Rice, 1999; Weir, 2000). A key omission in these debates, however, has been the nature of gender dynamics in shaping management systems and organization practices. Yet gender issues are often implicit as part …women’s role of broader processes of globalization and development (Wilson, in society has 2001), and women’s role in society has contributed to tension in EastWest relations and the potential for market developments. Middle contributed to tension in East- Eastern states have consistently lagged behind in such globalization indices as foreign direct investment (FDI), competitiveness, market West relations and the potential growth, and integration into international markets (World Bank, 2003a). To respond to these business pressures, the majority of Midfor market dle Eastern states are pursuing strategies to diversify their economies developments. and encourage multinational corporation (MNC) investment (Noland & Pack, 2004). As part of this development reform, it is argued that giving women equal opportunities can contribute to economic growth prospects (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2003). Women’s increasing entry into the labor market underpins, for example, the state-led labor market policies of Bahrainization, Omanization, and Jordanization. The need to increase female labor is seen as a significant aspect of this development and reflects global business trends to promote female talent (Adler, 2004; Burke & Davidson, 2004; Wirth, 2001). Related to gender and business development issues is the growth in religiosity and the politicization of religion (see Ahmed, 1998; Ali, 1999; Pipes, 2004). These developments pose challenges for MNCs and organizations operating within the Middle East in terms of, among other things, the development of recruitment, employee development, and career planning systems. These developments may also contradict the requirements of transnational organizations to develop global management capabilities (Harris, 2002). An important contribution, therefore, to the international business literature would be to explore the experiences of female professionals working in Middle Eastern nations and assess how Islam shapes gender and management practices. In order to understand the dynamics of gender and business culture in the Middle East (specifically, Bahrain, Jordan, and Oman), I focus on the experiences of professional women from Arab states currently working in Bahrain. A focus on Bahrain is significant, since it is the world center for Islamic banking and has embraced an ambitious program of economic and political reform.1 This article reports on empirical data on gender and management in the Middle East. The structure of this article first considers globalization and economic 94

Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

Exploring Cultural Dimensions of Gender and Management in the Middle East

development issues in the Middle East region. A synthesis of research on gender management and Islam in the Middle East and a typology of gender and organization relations are presented. Next, the methodology section is detailed with an evaluation and discussion of the managerial implications for gender and business in the Middle East. Future research directions are also provided.

GLOBALIZATION, MANAGEMENT, AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST In the era of national liberalization and decolonization following World War II, Arab societies developed large public sectors providing generous social provisions and promoted economic activity based on natural oil, gas, and mineral reserves and supported these with a high level of expatriate employees (Wilson, 2001). The move away from reliance on oil- and mineral-related industries has posed gender employment concerns in respect of the increased labor supply associated with diversification. While economic research on Middle Eastern markets is substantial, management inquiry is scarce and fragmented (except Kavossi, 2000; Robertson, Al-Khatib, & Al-Habib, 2002). An important contribution to the management literature is the work of Rice (1999), who examined the ethical dimensions of Islamic management practice. She related the writings in the Koran on unity (tawhid), justice (adalah), and trusteeship (khilafah) as having a significant bearing on ethical behaviors in management and organization relations. Weir’s account (2000) provides an integrative model of management and organization relations in the Arab world. Describing Arab business culture as “moderately” masculine, Weir emphasizes the importance of masculine traits alongside feminine traits, or “high relation” attributes, in managing business. Weir’s model of Arab management is presented in Table 1 as a “fourth” paradigm, alongside dominant American and Japanese discourses. Table 1. Arab Management: A Fourth Paradigm Organization

Ownership

Management Discipline

Arab

Familial

Gender Implications

Gender roles segregation

Autocratic Consultative Gender power hierarchies

Ethics/interpersonal relations Gender roles— restraints on free mixing

Culture Universalistic/ networked Gender cultures

Adapted from Weir (2000, p. 23). Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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Underpinning this framework, Weir argues that management relations are guided by diwan, a style of decision making that represents a process of achieving balance and justice, and wasta, the recognition that working relations in the Arab world are facilitated by recognizing how to move within relevant power networks. I have mapped the gender dimension onto Weir’s model. A gender lens would thus have The percentage implications for business in terms of segregation in work tasks, and change in female for power dynamics in decision-making structures. This analysis is expanded upon by relating gender and management issues to broader labor participaprocesses of globalization in the Middle East. tion overall for the Middle East and North Africa regions between 1960 and 2000 was 47%.

GLOBALIZATION AND GENDER IN THE MIDDLE EAST Accounts by Middle Eastern scholars have examined the position and status of women in society but rarely examine managerial and business aspects. The work of Kian in Iran (1995), El-Azhary in Jordan (2003), Kandiyoti in Palestine (1996), and Mernissi in Morocco (1991) are examples here. Western management accounts likewise ignore the Middle East (Powell, 1999). Globalization has increased opportunities for women in Middle Eastern economies. The growth in female labor market participation is a significant aspect of this development. The percentage change in female labor participation overall for the Middle East and North Africa regions (MENA) between 1960 and 2000 was 47% (World Bank, 2003b, p. 49). This masks the dramatic increases in certain regions between 1960 and 2000: Bahrain has seen women’s labor participation increase by 668%, Kuwait 486%, and United Arab Emirates 548%, while Yemen’s female labor participation increased only 15% (World Bank, 2003b, p. 59). Total female labor participation for Bahrain was 25.8% in 2001 (Kingdom of Bahrain, 2002), and for Jordan 27.8% (World Bank, 2003b). While employment still remains strongly gender-segregated in all MENA regions (World Bank, 2003b), there is strong evidence of women entering the professional and management sphere, for example. The number of women in political, economic, and law professions in Bahrain between 1991 and 2001 increased by 50% (Kingdom of Bahrain, 2002). Bahrain, along with Jordan and Kuwait, has also seen a sizeable increase in entrepreneurial development and self-employment among women (Basra, 1999; Tzanntos & Kaur, 2003; UNDP, 2003). A review of international development reports (UNDP, 2003; World Bank, 2003a, 2003b) on gender and employment in the Middle East suggests that gender roles are shaped by four elements:

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1. The centrality of the family, rather than the individual as the main unit in society; 2. Recognition of the man as the sole breadwinner of the family; 3. A code of modesty that rests on family dignity and the reputation of the woman; and 4. An unequal balance of power in the private sphere that is anchored in family laws. The World Values Survey corroborates these findings. Arab nations strongly supported gender equality in education but not equality in employment. The culture supports “the development of human capabilities of women but not for their utilization” (UNDP, 2003, p. 19).

Arab nations strongly supported gender equality in education but not equality in employment.

This is revealed in cultural values regarding women’s work. In the majority of Middle Eastern societies, the interpretations of labor laws are guided by urf (custom), which reflects the need to protect women and create a moral work environment. This is related to the concept in shari’a (Islamic law) that a wife should obey her husband. An area that has received considerable attention is the right of women to move outside the home, and this is associated with a man’s role to protect and provide for his wife (qiwama) and preserve female modesty (see Koran 3;36 and 33;35 in Haleem, 2004). The emphasis on modesty requires a woman to veil her sexuality (Pipes, 2004). The sura “Light” states: And tell believing women that they should lower their gaze, and not flaunt their charms except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands’ fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers’ sons, their sisters’ sons, their womenfolk, their slaves, such men as attend them who have no sexual desire, or children who are not yet aware of women’s nakedness, they should not stamp their feet so as to draw attention to any hidden charms. (Sura 24:31).

These restrictions, alongside regulations relating to marriage and inheritance laws in Islamic states in the Middle East, construct expected roles for men and women. Drawing on the seminal work of Weir’s Arab management paradigm, Table 2 relates underlying principles in Islam that have a bearing on business practice and their potential gender implication.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The main focus of the study was to examine the experiences of women professionals in Bahraini organizations in order to aid underThunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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Table 2. Typology of Gender Organization and Islam Concept

Managerial Implications

Gender Implications

Adl (equilibrium)

Commitment to harmony and stability in organizational culture

Reluctance to challenge gender and social relations

Nasab (heritage)

Importance of familial ties in organizational and management relations

Support of traditional gender roles Masculine line and heritage followed Women’s relationships established through women not men

Wasta (connections or contact)

Vertical connections and informal relations important

Male connections and networks dominant Gender power hierarchies

Shura (consultation) (Sura 2:233)

Consultation and commitment to team decision making

Consultation and decision making through male networks

Diwan-i-kass

Consultative autocratic decision making

Qiwama (protection)

In charge of/responsibility for (economic and welfare) Protection and care of employees

Assumes patriarchal responsibilitya Protective attitude toward women and family Protective of femininity/sexuality Restrictions of wife’s movements Enforcement of segregated work environments Free gender mixing restricted

Hadith (learning, knowledge, and development)

Commitment to self-development and knowledge acquisition, spreading/sharing knowledge for those who need it

Encourage education of women but emphasize private role more. Education of children seen as key responsibility Gender segregation in professions emphasized through importance of education and health

Modesty (Surah 24:31; 33:32)

Humility and benevolence valued in work and managerial relations

Protect femininity Regulations regarding dress and attire and free mixing

aI have interpreted qiwama as creating inequalities between men and women. The meaning is a source of much debate among Middle Eastern and Islamic scholars. For example, many female Muslims view qiwama positively. They would associate it with the process of Shura, involving understanding and partnership in male-female relations (see Ahmed, 1998).

standings of Middle East management philosophy and practice. The author was invited by the Bahrain Management Society (BMS) and the Bahrain Ministry of Labor to provide management development and cultural training for women in the Middle East. Overall, a total of 102 women attended the workshop over a period of six days. A survey was administered to the female participants, and 53 were returned, representing a 51% response rate. The participants were primarily in managerial and executive roles and represented the public, private, and nongovernmental (NGO) sectors. A breakdown of characteristics is presented in Tables 3 and 4. Interviews were also carried 98



Table 3. Female Participants Nationality

Workshop (102)

Questionnaire Returns (51)

Interviews (27)

72 13 09 05 03

36 06 05 01 03

18 05 03 0– 01

Bahraini Jordanian Omani Pakistani English

Table 4. Management Level of Female Participants Occupation Level Owner/director Senior management Middle management Supervisor/team leader Operational

Questionnaire (Number)

Interviews (Number)

09 18 35 30 10

02 09 12 05 0–

out with 27 of the female participants and were intended to obtain sensitizing information relating to working in the Middle East and explore how Islam influenced women’s working experiences. A semistructured interview was seen as the most appropriate research tool. The interview respondents were between 24 and 58 years old, and 20 out of the 27 had children. The industry sector of interview participants included health (5), public finance (6), social services (3), petrochemical (6), NGOs (2), and banking (5). The survey asked respondents to complete details of education and qualifications and job roles and responsibilities. The education level of women participating in the workshop was extremely high. Twelve out of the 102 attendees had PhDs, and 20% of questionnaire respondents indicated that they had postgraduate qualifications. Thirtythree percent had professional-level qualifications. The high education participation rate of women is a common trend in Middle Eastern economies (World Bank, 2003b). The majority of respondents reported that their organization had no formal equal opportunity policy, including family-oriented and sexual harassment policies. The survey asked respondents to report on the social and cultural barriers to women’s employment. The results are shown in Table 5. It can be seen that respondents identified child care responsibilities, limited female role models, the business culture, and the limited support of organizations as key barriers to development. A significant number also reported limited opportunities for skills training. The nature of the Islamic business environment is more closely examined in the interview results. Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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Table 5. Barriers to Female Managers in the Middle East % Business culture Few female role models Family commitments (children) Limited training opportunities Family commitments (grandparents/other relatives) Stereotypical perceptions of women managers

76.5 72.5 62.7 56.9 37.3 60.8

INTERVIEW RESULTS Gender Segregation and Business Development

Labor market segregation is associated with stereotypically female and male traits and their appropriateness for certain occupations (Powell, 1999). An Islamic perspective of gender segregation in the work sphere is more complex. While segregation policies are not “official,” they place restrictions on the deployment and ultimately on training and promotion opportunities for women. One woman stated: I don’t know if anyone has told you but this is a man’s society and they control government, business, culture and religion. It is not Islam that is restricting for women but men’s interpretations. (Manager, Petrochemical)

Mernissi (1991) makes these points in her historical interpretations of women’s rights in society. She argues that polygamy was prevalent before Islam and so it cannot be always assumed that cultural practice is determined by Islam. Notwithstanding this analysis, however, social and economic reform is being guided by Islamic principles (for example, modesty and qiwama) and encouraging separate worlds for female and male employment. One women who was in charge of female banking in a leading Islamic bank exclaimed that the majority of her time was spent in business liaison with women and that while women’s entrepreneurship was highly valued and recognized by men, the separation of men’s and women’s business was seen as “appropriate” and “proper” business practice. The prevalence of wasta and naseeb places an emphasis on informality in working relations, as well as supporting strong family connections. However, business links are primarily established and con100



ducted through male relationships. Since the segregation between the sexes is positively encouraged, it is difficult (or haram, forbidden) for women to develop important male personal contacts. In the interviews, a significant number of women highlighted the importance of segregated business associations: “It is expected that men and women do business separately—it is what is culturally expected, but it is also proper” (Manager, Arab Bank). Another stated, “I prefer to develop Since the segrebusiness relations with women because I feel more comfortable and gation between rely on them to support women. Men will usually support their male the sexes is posbrothers and cousins” (Administration Officer, Education). itively encourWhile there was support of gender segregation, businesswomen’s response was to engage in business development activities of their own. There has been a surge in the development of professional women’s associations. The Arab Women’s Society is a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) organization dedicated to all aspects of women’s empowerment and development in the Middle East. It plays a key role in supporting women in the political sphere. The Business and Professional Women’s Club in Amman, Jordan, advises women on small business development and financial counseling. The Bahrain Businesswoman’s Society (BBS) has increased in numbers significantly over the last five years and supports women’s education opportunities (via seminar and workshop events), while also assisting informal networks that provide access to job openings, although it is important to acknowledge that these networks are often tied to male professional organizations. In 2003, the BBS secured money from the United Nations (UNIFEM) to develop and organize entrepreneurial training, and talks are ongoing to further develop women’s skills in finance and banking within the GCC. The growth in women’s financial banking services reflects this interest. There are, therefore, business opportunities available in the Middle East that are available only through women’s networks and contacts. This is significant for the development of new markets. Middle Eastern men will do business with men and women, whereas Middle Eastern women will tend to do business only with women. Knowledge of women’s networks is therefore important for those wishing to expand in Middle Eastern markets.

aged, it is difficult (or haram, forbidden) for women to develop important male personal contacts.

Training and Career Development

Women reported in the interviews that job appointments and training opportunities were often not based on personal qualification but on individual relations and family networks. Women reported that training was given to men before women, and support for professional academic qualifications was limited for women. Indeed, Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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women were not encouraged to apply for support since it was expected that women would leave employment and have children when they married. One manager in petrochemicals stated, “Training is reserved for men.” This was not always the case. The director of HR in a finance company explained that she had always been supported by her company and had even been supported financially for her PhD studies. Her husband, however, held a ministerial appointment in the Bahraini government. The application of hadith (learning) then in Middle East organizations has gender constraints.

Women who wore hijab expressed it to be an important Hijab aspect of their There has been much debate and critique about veiling practices and social and professional identity. whether they are oppressive or liberating to women (Kandiyoti,

1996; Mernissi, 1991; Pipes, 2004). Generally, the view in the West is that is represents a mechanism for sexual control. Muslim women appear to be divided on the subject (Ahmed, 1998). A positive view of veiling within Islam is associated with protecting female sexuality and of respecting modesty and qiwama. Of the women that I interviewed, 18 wore Islamic attire (hijab) and only three wore the veil. Women who wore hijab expressed it to be an important aspect of their social and professional identity. One woman stated, “My dress is important in terms of my faith. It gives me respect in the workplace and I know that men respect who I am” (Team Leader, Petrochemical). Another highlighted, “The business environment supports Islam. This is important—we should abide by Allah’s will” (Senior Manager, Finance). The feelings of the women were expressed in the following phrase: “A women who wears hijab is treated as a human being, not as a sexual subject” (Manager, Education). The view expressed is that those who wear hijab will be given more status and respect as well as career opportunities, and this is illustrated by the increasing number of women wearing hijab in the professional sphere. This was emphasized recently when Khadji Bin Gann, the anchorwoman for the Al-Jazeera news station, started wearing hijab. One of the women whom I interviewed, a vice president of an Islamic bank, had begun to wear hijab only one month before. She claimed, “I thought about it, and my husband said it was my decision. It feels right that I should now show my respect.” Interestingly, one of the male managers I was working with claimed that women were increasingly adorning the hijab but that was not due to pressure from men; rather, it was the importance of showing commitment to Islam. His wife has recently followed haj (pilgrimage, one of five pillars of Islam) to Makkah and on her return had chosen to wear 102



hijab. The wearing of hijab for women, therefore, was a mark of their professional status in organizations. Qiwama and modesty are thus aspects of business culture that are supported by both men and women. Gender, Work, and Family Conflict

Both the survey and interview responses confirmed the embedded nature of traditional gender roles in society. Women reported that Interviews confirmed survey they are expected to leave employment when they marry and only if their husband allowed would carry on working. One woman who responses that had four children and was in a senior HR position stated, “I am very the majority of lucky that my husband supports my career and my work. He is not organizations had like many men. We (women) are not expected to develop our public no official policy roles, but my husband’s position allows me to pursue my interests in relating to equal finance. He has made many contacts for me.” opportunities. The majority of women suggested that organization policy did not provide for child care, and maternity policy was not even considered, as it was expected women would naturally look after the children. Interviews confirmed survey responses that the majority of organizations had no official policy relating to equal opportunities. Business legislation in the Middle East provides limited institutional mechanisms for women to combine home and work (World Bank, 2003b). From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that there are similarities to female managers’ experience in the West in terms of limited training opportunities and child care programs. Yet Islamic values sketch a different picture of organization and management from that understood in the West—in particular, a business culture that will be increasingly marked by separation and difference. While in the West we would perceive this separation as marginalization and creating management hierarchies, in Islamic states this equal but different working philosophy underpins the heart of Islamic faith. The importance of qiwama, female modesty, and the achievement of balance and equilibrium (adl) in work and home life make it unlikely these gender roles will be challenged. What is significant, however, is that women are not challenging these Islamic values. They see it as part of the long-term development of a just and fair Islamic nation.

IMPLICATIONS FOR GENDER AND INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS IN THE MIDDLE EAST This study has explored the experiences of female managers working in the Middle East and highlighted the complexity of gender and Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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management relations. The issue of women’s liberation is one that has greatly influenced Western culture, and women’s economic and social rights are an accepted part of public discourse. This is not the case within the Middle East. It is only recently that Middle Eastern governments have addressed gender and employment as an important aspect of international trade and development (World Bank, The evidence 2003b). The evidence suggests that the growth in women’s suggests that entrepreneurial and professional development provides advantages for Western women working in the Middle East. Depending on the the growth in organization environment, it is likely that the relations of Western women’s males and females will need to be different with Middle East owners/ entrepreneurial and professional females. Gender and business issues are therefore an important aspect of understanding the broader processes of economic expansion in development provides advan- Middle Eastern markets. tages for Western women working in the Middle East.

The typology of gender organization and Islam and the values of qiwama, hadith, and wasta presented reveal that there are significant gender implications for management practice. The separate business and private worlds of men and women are not seen as oppressive and limiting for women, but as behaviors and relations that respect and value the feminine character, as part of a natural social order—Allah’s will (Ahmed, 1998). The preference for religious authorities, alongside what the West would perceive as less support for gender equality (Norris & Ingleheart, 2002), represents a challenging business culture for those wishing to expand or work in Middle East and Islamic regions. Yet MNCs and Western corporations can take a lead in the development of HR systems and diversity strategies that are sensitive to the values of Islam. They can play a role in promoting the importance of women’s employment to economic development. Specific corporate policies could include: 1. HRM Statistics. The measurement of women’s advances could be evaluated through the establishment of recruitment monitoring and training statistics and further promote the importance of management education and development for women. 2. Women’s Management Training. One area that would complement existing business culture is the development of sector-led management education and development programs for women. Training programs that target women have been introduced in a number of countries, reflecting the growing recognition of the importance of self-employment and entrepreneurship for women’s employment (World Bank, 2003b). These programs stress business planning, credit counseling, marketing, and management development.

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3. Cultural Training. Cultural orientation programs should introduce the philosophy of Islam and highlight the importance of the connections between work-related values and religion. This training should also introduce the complex nature of men and women’s different roles and highlight cultural variation in the societal construction of gender. 4. Mentor Programs. Develop mentor programs that include and Overall, for international manpromote positive role models of women. agers and orga-

Overall, it is important to realize that the globalization of HR pro- nizations in the cesses is intertwined with Islamization. This acknowledges that HR Middle East, it is practices, trade information, and knowledge networks should be important to shared across regional borders, from East to West and West to East appreciate the (Wilson, 2001). The key challenges for Western corporations and dominance of executives, however, will be when segregation policies are religion in the increased. The recent decision (December 2004) of Bahrain UniArab individual versity to promote sex-segregated education, for example, reprelife. sents the high-profile nature of the segregation issue. MNCs would find it difficult to advocate sex segregation in the workplace since it conflicts with the “think global, act local” philosophy of international HRM strategy. The way in which world trade development is moving, there are no options to ignore market opportunities in the Middle East. Organizations will be required to develop skills and knowledge of the cultural values and business practices of the region if they are to be successful. The use of female talent in Middle Eastern business activities should therefore become a priority for MNCs.

CONCLUSION As with any initial study, although the participants were all working from Arab states (Bahrain, Oman, and Jordan) working in Bahrain, it is important not to generalize from one study. Further research encompassing a wider range of organizations in both the private and public sectors would enable a more comprehensive understanding of cross-cultural aspects of management in the Middle East. A comparative analysis of public policy on gender and employment would also help discern the nuances of specific cultural and economic environments. Overall, for international managers and organizations in the Middle East, it is important to appreciate the dominance of religion in the Arab individual life. Islam is an all-embracing concept depicting humans’ relationship to God and represents a program of life (Ahmed, 1998). Thunderbird International Business Review • DOI: 10.1002/tie • January–February 2006

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NOTE 1. Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa succeeded the throne in March 1999, after the death of his father Shaikh Isa bin Hamad Al Khalifa, ruler since 1961. He devised the Bahrain National Action Charter, a strategy for the redevelopment of the economy away from a dependence on oil toward developing information and communication industries (Kingdom of Bahrain, 2001).

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