Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 208 (2015) 157 – 166
3rd International Conference on Linguistics, Literature and Culture (ICLLIC 2014)
Exploring discourse competence elements in EAP class presentations through document and ethnographic analyses Junaidah Januina* and Jeannet Stephenb a
b
Centre for the Promotion of Knowledge & Language, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia Centre for the Promotion of Knowledge & Language, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia
Abstract Conducting class presentation at the tertiary level is an inherently complex endeavor for ESL learners taking EAP courses. They are confronted with tasks that require them to search for information; select relevant sources; read and write highly conventionalized academic genres; and present findings in an academic presentation. Presenting an essay assignment, for instance, requires learners to exercise a developed level of discourse competence in order to produce a well-organised essay. This study presents a qualitative document analysis of the essay marking schedule, course textbook, and course syllabus of a blended EAP course in Malaysia, in order to uncover the elements of discourse competence knowledge that relate to meeting the requirements of the essay assignment presentation for the course. The study also employs an ethnographic analysis of participant (teachers and students) interviews, pertaining to the process of the essay presentation. In addition to the interviews, the study also utilises class observations as part of the ethnographic analysis. The combination of both textual (document) and ethnographic (interview) methods utilised in this study is termed a textographic approach (see Swales, 1998; Paltridge, 2008). Both document and ethnographic data are analysed using template analysis (see King, 1998; 2004). The findings of the study suggest that there are three types of discourse competence knowledge underpinning the oral presentation of the essay assignment: public speaking, use of oral presentation structure, and linguistic knowledge. The implications of the study are threefold: first, students should develop the ability to exercise discourse competence to enable them to present their essay findings more accurately and appropriately; secondly, teachers should have a sound understanding of the discourse competence knowledge in order to help their students to develop and exercise discourse competence; and lastly, syllabus designers need to have a clear conceptualisation of the types of discourse competence knowledge that need to be integrated within the oral presentation section of a syllabus which takes into account all of the types of knowledge engaged in academic presentation. © Published by Elsevier Ltd. This ©2015 2015The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-reviewunder under responsibility of The English Language Studies of Humanities Sains Malaysia. Peer-review responsibility of The English Language Studies SectionSection School School of Humanities UniversitiUniversiti Sains Malaysia
* Corresponding author. Tel.:+6088-320000 ext 5334; fax:+6088-435708. E-mail address:
[email protected],
[email protected]
1877-0428 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of The English Language Studies Section School of Humanities Universiti Sains Malaysia doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.192
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Keywords: Discourse Competence; Academic Writing; Oral Presentation
1. Introduction The development of academic reading and writing skills is central to ESL students taking courses at the tertiary level in English for Academic Purposes (hereafter EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (hereafter ESP). The purpose of such courses is to equip students with the means to complete university course tasks, such as reading journal articles and books for examinations, and writing extended essays, assignments, and reports. Thus, students entering EAP/ESP courses are confronted with academic tasks that require them to read and write in new ways. For example, in this environment, they are expected to become familiar with academic genres, which differ from the types of written texts and associated literacy practices experienced during their primary and secondary level education, such as writing compositions, dialogues, and emails. Tertiary students have to deal with the types of social and cognitive genre (Bruce, 2006) and discourse norms that comprise academic English reading and writing. A working knowledge of these elements relates to discourse competence, the development of which is a fundamental issue for such students in order to read and write extended texts, required for completing university assignments. Very often, ESL students consider the development of discourse competence as challenging. This is a problem often attributed to the learners’ capacity to understand the differences between the ways in which extended texts (and their related discourses) are normally structured in their own languages and textual (and discoursal) patterns of the target language (Bruce, 2008a). In fact, academic or professional discourse is a specialist discourse with specific rules and organisational conventions, which varies across subjects and genres (Osman, 2004). In short, the new and complex environment can be ambiguous for these learners, as they have to cope with the high level of the language of the materials, that contain features which the students are not familiar with (Vance, 2005, 2007). Developing discourse competence in academic writing at tertiary level is inherently complicated, particularly among ESL learners who are also novice writers of extended written discourse. As mentioned previously, the situation has become more convoluted as many EAP courses also include listening and speaking skills, specifically an oral presentation component, thus intensifying the complexity of developing discourse competence among learners. In this research context, the course being investigated not only involves reading and writing tasks but also the oral presentations of the students’ essay map (or structure). This adds to the complexities of the existing required tasks of reading and writing requirements. In this EAP course, each student is required to produce an essay assignment. The essay assignment has three task components: preparing and writing an essay map for the essay assignment; presenting the essay map orally; and writing the final draft of the essay assignment. Consequently, the students of this course are not only confronted with academic writing prerequisites but also the academic presentation requirements, which compel them to have discourse competence knowledge not only in writing but also in academic presentation. 2.
What is discourse competence
This section provides a brief review of the concept of discourse competence. The notion of discourse competence derives from the theory of communicative competence; in fact the notion of discourse competence occurs in all of the models of communicative competence in a language. The view that communicative competence in a language includes a number of different dimensions was first proposed by Hymes (1972, p. 390), as a response to Chomsky’s concept of competence as distinct from performance (Chomsky, 1965). According to Hymes, Chomky’s view of competence in language seems to ignore the vital role of socio-cultural features inherent in human communication. To highlight the importance of such socio-cultural elements, Hymes (1972) proposes
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communicative competence as the state of having knowledge (grammar rules and ability), with this knowledge appropriately used in context. Hymes further classifies communicative competence into the following four subcategories: 1. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible; 2. Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available; 3. Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated; and 4. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed and what its doing entails (Hymes, 1972, p. 281) Taking this position, linguistic and socio-cultural elements can be seen as inseparable entities in a theory of communicative competence. Building on these previous notions of competence, Canale and Swain (1980) further develop their own theoretical framework of communicative competence which is categorised into three components: 1) 2) 3)
grammatical competence (concerns with mastery of the language code itself); sociolinguistic competence (addresses the extent to which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different sociolinguistic contexts depending contextual factors); and strategic competence (is composed of mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for two main reasons: (a) to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to limiting conditions in actual communication or to insufficient competence in one or more of the other areas of communicative competence; and (b) to enhance the effectiveness of communication) (Canale, 1983, p. 29)
In a development of the concept of communicative competence proposed in his previous work (Canale & Swain, 1980), Canale (1983, p. 9) further elaborates on sociolinguistic competence to include discourse competence, which he proposes as mastery of combining grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres. This development is particularly significant when considering the design of a syllabus that is centred on communication by means of spoken and written genres. Discourse competence, as a component element of communicative competence, therefore, is a crucial element of the competences required by students when engaged in academic reading and writing. Developing this competence has been considered as a particular challenge by ESL learners. In a communicative competence framework conceptualised for pedagogical purposes, Celce-Murcia, Dŏrnyei and Thurell (1995) also incorporate the notion of discourse competence, along with linguistic, strategic, sociolinguistic, and actional competences. However, this model varies from those of Canale (1983) and Canale and Swain (1980), as it positions discourse competence as a central element in the model, stressing the value of discourse competence in language teaching and learning. In the same year, Celce-Murcia (1995) proposed yet another model based on that of Celce-Murcia et al. (1995). Its fundamental aspect is still discourse competence, but includes language aspects such as formulaic language and paralinguistic features. Discourse competence generally means the ability to understand and produce extended speech and written features which assists connectedness and cohesion (Kaplan & Knutson, 1993, p. 167) in different spoken and written texts/genres. In the model of Celce-Murcia et al. (1995, p. 15), discourse competence includes the five components: “cohesion, deixis, coherence, generic structure and conversational structure inherent to the turn-taking system in conversation”. Parallel to Canale’s definition (1983), the model of Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) has been developed for pedagogical purposes. Similarly, the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for
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Languages (herafter CEFR) sub-classifies discourse competence under pragmatic competence. The Council of Europe suggests that discourse competence entails the following: “...the ability of a user/learner to arrange sentences in sequence so as to produce coherent stretches of language. It includes knowledge of and ability to control the ordering of sentences in terms of: • topic/focus; • given/new; • ‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. temporal; • cause/effect (invertible); • ability to structure and manage discourse in terms of: thematic organisation; coherence and cohesion; logical ordering; style and register; rhetorical effectiveness; the ‘co-operative principle’(Grice, 1975)” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 123) In an extension of the CEFR approach to discourse competence, Martinez-Flor and Uso-Juan (2006) developed a framework to achieve communicative competence for the skill of writing, which is greatly influenced by the work of Hymes (1972). Their proposed construct of communicative framework emphasises the role that discourse competence plays, particularly in the writing skill, in the overall achievement of communication, since it is through the exercise of discourse competence that the production of written discourse is evident (Halliday, 1978; Uso-Juan, Martinez-Flor, & Palmer-Silveira, 2006, p. 390). The framework further proposes that acquiring discourse competence will also mean one has to ‘stimulate’ one’s linguistic, pragmatic, strategic, and intercultural competences. The activation of all these sub-components of competence will help novice writers to use discourse features such cohesion, coherence, formal schemata or knowledge of written genre structures (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992) contextually and socially appropriately and effectively. In short, the development of discourse competence which is at the heart of this framework is integrally inseparable from linguistic, pragmatic, strategic, and intercultural competences. Further developing the concept of discourse competence and the areas of knowledge that it includes, Bhatia (2004) proposes the term discursive competence to cover various level of competence that relate to professional and general socio-cultural contexts. Discursive competence consists of the following levels of competence: x textual competence (the ability to master the linguistic code and textual, contextual and pragmatic knowledge to construct and interpret contextually appropriate texts; x generic competence (the ability to respond to recurrent and rhetorical situations by constructing, interpreting, using and often exploiting generic conventions embedded in specific disciplinary cultures and practices to achieve professional ends; x social competence (the ability to use language more widely to participate effectively in a variety of social and institutional contexts to give expression to one’s social identity, in the context of constraining social structures and processes) (Bhatia, 2004, p. 144). In the exercise of the various elements and skill that relate to discourse/discursive competence, Bhatia suggests that “[g]enres . . . are reflections of disciplinary practices and the acquisition of generic competence is a matter of acquiring specialist competence or expertise in the knowledge-producing and knowledge-consuming activities of disciplinary, professional and workplace cultures” (2004, p. 145). Characterising discourse competence not only engages knowledge relating to linguistic competence, but it also involves the appropriate use of linguistic knowledge within contextual, social and cultural contexts. This integrative principle links discourse competence to the concept of genre. Bruce (2008a) expounds discourse competence by defining the notion as “the ability to integrate a wide range of different types of knowledge in order to create extended written discourse that is both linguistically accurate and socially appropriate” (p. 1). Bruce’s concept of
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discourse competence which involves multiplicity or layers of knowledge inherent in meeting the complex demands of producing academic prose and tasks among students has catalysed the application of genre-based approach in deconstructing discourse competence. The deconstruction of discourse competence has brought about a framework which operationalises discourse competence as involving three knowledge constructs: social genre and cognitive genre, and linguistic knowledge. Social genre refers to socially recognised constructs according to which whole texts are classified in terms of their overall social purpose (Bruce, 2008b). While social genre is a socially motivated and recognized construct, cognitive genre is the knowledge of how the socialised construct is cognitively structured and represented in discourse (Bruce, 2008a). Unlike social and cognitive genre constructs which are epitomes of extra-linguistic knowledge (see Bruce, 2008a, p. 83), linguistic knowledge indicates the linguistic system that is realised whilst one is “engaged with the processes of creating a piece of discourse that draws upon social and cognitive genre knowledge”. Hitherto, Bruce’s theory of genre knowledge is employed in describing types of knowledge necessary to meet the demand of academic writing. Although Bruce’s theory, insofar, explains the multiplicity of knowledge required in academic writing, this theory may be applicable in understanding the types of knowledge demanded in other academic tasks such as academic oral presentations. This section briefly considers discourse competence as the ability to apply different types of knowledge required for understanding and producing extended texts. Thus, deconstructing and categorising the types of discourse competence knowledge is of utmost necessity in recognising the complexities that learners are confronted with while accomplishing academic tasks. 3.
Knowledge of Academic Oral Presentations
This section will briefly explore some past literature on the types of knowledge employed in academic oral presentations. Generally, when examining the term ‘academic oral presentation’, many researchers have referred to the word ‘skills’(see Andeweg, de Jong, & Hoeken, 1998; Bankowski, 2010; Collins, 2004; De Grez, Valcke, & Roozen, 2009a, 2009b; Hill & Storey, 2003; Kerby & Romine, 2009) to characterise the means of how academic oral presentations can be delivered effectively. Both these two studies by De Grez et al. (2009a) and Hill and Storey (2003) focus on the use of technology in developing oral presentation skills in classroom environments. De Grez et al. (2009a) specifically develops a theory-driven multimedia instruction that draws upon the social cognitive perspective on self-regulated learning (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 2001) to improve academic oral skill and concludes that the multimedia instructional method grounding social cognitive theory has increased students’ oral performance compared to its traditional counterpart. Nevertheless, the types of knowledge or skills are vaguely indicated in the study, except for a simple overview of nine evaluation criteria of oral presentations: five criteria about the nature of the delivery (eye-contact, vocal delivery, enthusiasm, interaction with the audience and body-language), three content-related criteria (quality of introduction, structure, and conclusion) and a general quality criterion. In another study, Hill and Storey (2003) examines the utilisation of an online course which consists of an interactive website to develop oral presentation skills. Similar to that of (De Grez et al., 2009a), there are no firm indications of the knowledge required for the task but this highlights the value of oral presentation skills, the planning of presentations, the organization of the content, visual aids, the delivery, and the assessment, which may be interpreted as the prerequisites in academic oral presentations. On the contrary to these cited studies which examine the non-linguistic or semi-linguistic elements that may improve oral academic presentations, the following studies report the types of knowledge or components present in academic oral presentations at discoursal (see Morell, 2015; Zareva, 2012, 2013) and linguistic (see Zareva, 2009, 2011) levels. For example, Zareva (2013) reports that the student presenters indicated their preference for conforming to the written academic genres to exhibit their scholarly selves in their academic presentations. This
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indicates students’ preference to adhere to the structure of their academic written genre with their oral presentations when it comes to identity roles. In other words, this indicates that students’ oral academic presentations mirror their knowledge and understanding of the written forms of academic genre, such as essays and research reports. At linguistic level, Zareva analyses the presence and significance of circumstance adverbials (2009) and linking adverbials (2011), based on L1 and L2 corpora of student academic presentations. These two studies testify to the weight of these linguistic items, not only as means of linking discoursal functions but also in assisting listeners to follow the coherent flow of a presentation and its line of thoughts expressed by speakers. This section offers a brief description and review of the possible types of knowledge required while accomplishing academic oral presentations. The description and review propose that the types of knowledge may comprise the delivery style, the content of the presentation, the discourse knowledge and the linguistic knowledge. 4.
Research Question
The present study attempts to answer the following research question: 1.
5.
What elements of discourse competence are required to meet the requirements of the oral presentation of the essay map?
Objective and method
The study is part of an ongoing research project which aims at investigating discourse competence among ESL learners in a blended EAP class in a public university in Sabah, Malaysia. In order to address the research question, the study utilised a qualitative document analysis of 1) the Tutor Review Form (TRF hereafter) of the oral presentation component; and 2) course textbook of the blended EAP course in order to uncover the elements of discourse competence knowledge that relate to meeting the requirements of the oral presentation component of the essay map of the essay assignment. Prior to the crafting of the final essay assignment, students in the course are required to produce an essay map and present their essay map orally. This means the essay assignment consists of three components: the essay map, oral presentation of the essay map, and final draft of the essay assignment. For the oral presentation component, each student is required to present their essay framework before his or her teacher and classmates for 15-20 minutes. Of the 32 oral presentations, only 12 presentations included a five to ten minute question and answer session. This paper investigates the elements of discourse competence required for the oral presentation of the essay map. The study also employed an ethnographic analysis of in-depth interviews pertaining to the crafting of the essay assignment. For this purpose, four teachers and 15 students were recruited, with the participants interviewed three times within six months duration of the data collection. All interviews were transcribed and analysed accordingly. Apart from the interview data, the study also relied on observation data resulting from the 32 video recorded essay map presentations of thirty-two student participants. Prior to the data collection, an ethical clearance was prepared in order to gain consent from the faculty dean to access the course documents and participants. The combination of both textual (document) and ethnographic (interviews and observations) methods utilised in this study is termed a textographic approach (see Paltridge, 2008; Swales, 2013). Both document and ethnographic data were analysed using template analysis (King, 1998, 2004). 6. Findings and Discussion The findings in this study are based on the research question to uncover the elements of discourse competence necessary to meet the requirements of the oral presentation of the essay map component. We examined the two course documents (the TRF) of the oral presentation component and the course textbook (of the blended EAP course); interview transcriptions; and observation notes (based on 32 students’ essay map presentations) to identify
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the highest order codes or themes of the analysis. Based on the findings, the discourse competence required in the oral presentation of the essay map involves an amalgam of knowledge, namely public speaking knowledge, the use of oral presentation organisational structure and linguistic knowledge. The public speaking knowledge encompasses three sub-elements of knowledge: applying paralinguistic strategies; using visual aids; and handling questions. The second category relates to the written structure of the oral presentation. Linguistic knowledge is another element of discourse competence in oral presentation, which involves the incorporation of cohesive devices as an attempt to produce coherent oral presentation of the essay map. As depicted in the TRF, Essay Map Marking Schedule, the textbook, the course syllabus, my observation notes, and the teacher participants’ interviews, these three multiplicities of discourse competence are crucial in producing an acceptable essay map presentation. The types of discourse competence in this study are fairly consistent with the literature. The following table (Table 1) summarises the elements of discourse competence that are essential to adhere to the requirements of the crafting of the essay assignment. Due to brevity, each of the main elements will be presented in a tabular form. Table 1: Summary of Findings Sub-category/ies Data types
Examples from data extracts/
Applying paralinguistic strategies (voice projection; eye contact; body gestures; facial expressions)
Teacher Interviews
This (using paralinguistic and paratextual strategies) helps me identify whether students have done their own work - in terms of writing, idea, reading. Meaning that it’s their own work and not from others. I also can know whether a student understands what he/she is doing in my class. This is also another way to check whether the students know what they are doing/ writing. (Wendy, Line 9, Extra interviews for further clarification)
(Bankowski, 2010); (Council of Europe, 2001); (De Grez et al., 2009a); (Morell, 2015)
Using Visual Aids
Teacher Interviews
(Collins, 2004)
Handling Questions
Observation Notes (Videorecording of thirty-two essay-map presentations)
Related findings from the literature review (Bankowski, 2010); (Council of Europe, 2001) (De Grez et al., 2009a); (Morell, 2015)
Bankowski (2010); (Bruce, 2008a); (Hill & Storey,
Higher-order codes emerging from the three data types Public Speaking Knowledge
Use of Written Structure into Oral Presentation Organisation Structure
Presentation Structure: Five types of segments and
My expectation on this (presenting with visual aids) is very high., If it wasn't up topar, they get lower marks than those whose Power Points were clearer and useful to the audience. Also, they would receive y a zero on their marking schedule if they presented without any visual aids. They've been informed it's a required material during presentation so no excuse if they didn't prepare one. (Nita, Line 18, Extra interviews for further clarification)
Class 2 (One of the four classes): During the nine students’ presentations, there were 65 questions posed by the teacher and seven questions posed by the students who were listening to the nine presentations. Most teacher questions range from contextual knowledge to attempts to ask for clarifications. All seven student questions are about clarifications about epistemological and contextual knowledge of the topics presented. From my observation summary notes of 32 Observation students’ essay map presentations, I have Notes (Videonoticed that there is only one format of recording of thirty-two essay- presentation organisation. The presentation format has five fragments: salutation, self-
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2003); (Zareva, 2012, 2013) (Bruce, 2008a); Celce-Murcia et.al (1995); Kaplan & Knutson (1993); (Zareva, 2009, 2011);
Linguistic Knowledge
metalanguage
map presentations)
introduction, title introduction, essay map, and questions and answer segments.
Exhibiting coherence through cohesive devices
Teacher Interviews
I think I was referring to the students’ ability to produce presentations that are easy to understand based on the use of discourse-- for example using good connecting devices like inter-sentential and inter-paragraph. Also structure: intro, body and concluding paragraphs. When they are able to do this in the presentations, they are also able to write good essays.
Document/ Text Analyses
The Final Essay Marking Schedule; The Tutor Review Form; and The Course Textbook (Tunceren & Cavusgil, 2006)
7. Conclusion The study identifies three categories of the discourse competence knowledge crucial to academic oral presentations: public speaking knowledge; the application of the essay written structure into oral presentation organisation structure; and linguistic knowledge. The deconstruction and categorisation of the types of discourse competence in academic oral presentations needs to be recognised in order to understand the complex demands inherent in academic presentations. The implications of the study are threefold: first, students should develop the ability to exercise discourse competence to enable them to present their essay findings more accurately and appropriately; secondly, teachers should have a sound understanding of the discourse competence knowledge that relates to academic oral presentations for their students to develop and exercise discourse competence; and lastly, syllabus designers need to have a clear conceptualisation of the types of discourse competence that need to be integrated into the oral presentation section of a syllabus, taking into account all types of knowledge engaged in academic presentations.
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