providing the learner with knowledge and skills that enable them to be more ... Every year, organisations invest a wide range of money into their employees for ...... 'feeling' styles were more likely associated with lower scores on the Wonderlic ...... knowledge that enables me to write a good essay, pass an exam or write a ...
Facilitating Learning: Mine, Yours and Others’ Gaining Insight into the Facilitation of Corporate Experiential Learning Programs through the Lenses of Personal Experience and the Learning Styles Analysis
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of:
Doctor of Philosophy from
University of Wollongong by
Tracey Joy Dickson B Com UNSW, G Dip Ed UoSA, M Ed UTS, M Com UoW
Faculty of Education 2003
Certification I, Tracey J Dickson, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution.
Tracey J Dickson 14th December, 2003
Certification
Acknowledgments A PhD is a combination of a range of experiences and interactions and the journey I have experienced could be referred to as an adventurous exploration involving many moments of ‘geographic embarrassment’. To have been able to continue this journey, without having to follow the many “Lonely Planet” type guides to PhDs has been achieved through the support, and at times, mere tolerance, of supervisors, colleagues and friends. Supervisors: Those that came and went Like any journey, not everyone is there at the end, some choose to leave and others were in the wrong place at that time. I have had a wide range of supervisors, each having contributed in their own unique way: Dr Stephen Linstead, Dr Mike Gass, Dr Lorraine Smith and Dr Will Rifkin, who saw me through the midst of this PhD. Supervisors: Those At the End Dr Tonia Gray and Dr Bruce Hayllar are friends first, colleagues second and supervisors last. They were the ones who supported me when the going got tough and encouraged me to explore the fringes of research methodologies and process. NRG NRG is a group that has provided much support and encouragement over a long road. It is a group where learning is possible due the sharing of the common experience of journeying through a PhD, but also the support of friends all of whom have been exploring very different research interests. Many thanks to Terri, Fran, Judy, Chris and to the late and very dear Cec, the first of us to succeed. Family and Friends While this has primarily been a personal journey it has also been one that has been at the cost of maintaining and growing relationships. I am forever thankful to many family members and friends (old and new) who have continued to be interested over such a long time, have helped me maintain perspective and have understood when I did not want them to visit!
Acknowledgments
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Abstract Writing and research on facilitation of experiential learning, including corporate programs, predominantly focuses upon what the facilitator is to do, with little or no consideration for where the facilitation occurs. Using a heuristic research process that involves an immersion in the dominant literature on experiential learning (with an emphasis upon North American literature), and through the use of the ‘lenses’ of personal experience and the use of the Learning Styles Analysis, this thesis follows a journey of exploration into the world of experiential learning. The journey includes forays into deconstruction of a popular article on facilitation as well as exploring literature from other areas such as urban planning, human geography and organisational aesthetics. Other places ‘visited’ along the way includes surveys of the learning styles of 73 post graduate students as well as the professional practice of 76 facilitators of experiential learning from diverse countries and cultures.
The
destination at the commencement of the journey while unknown, had a motive to enhance the effectiveness of the facilitation of corporate experiential learning programs. However, by continuing to honour the role of personal experience, as supported by many feminist writers, and by being willing to reflect upon the writings and practice of facilitation of experiential learning, the final destination ended up being a place called Place and Space. Prior to arriving at the final destination, a creative synthesis of the journey is expressed through a weaving of a photo essay with the words of a poem. The final destination of this journey, Place and Space, begins to raise questions about what the impact of the physical environment, natural/wilderness or built, may have upon the individual and/or the group’s learning experience. These questions form the beginnings for another journey.
Abstract
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Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................... 1 Abstract.......................................................................................................................... 2 List of Figures ............................................................................................................. 10 List of Tables ............................................................................................................... 11 Preface: I am different, this I know, because my reflection tells me so. .................. 13 Springs Within – Reflections on a Dam............................................................... 15 Chapter 1.
Introduction......................................................................................... 16
1.1.
Beginnings ................................................................................................... 16
1.2.
Lenses .......................................................................................................... 17
1.3.
Where to Now? ........................................................................................... 18
1.4.
A Personal Journey.................................................................................... 18
1.5.
What Are the Questions? .......................................................................... 20
1.6.
Where is this Research ‘Located’? ........................................................... 24
1.6.1.
Feminist, Who Me?, Surely Not!......................................................... 24
1.6.2.
Taking a Critical Perspective ............................................................... 26
1.6.3.
Managers and Organisations for the Future ......................................... 28
1.7.
Learning as an Adventure; Facilitation as Risk Management .............. 33
1.8.
Different Perspectives, Different Voices .................................................. 34
1.9.
Learning Styles: What’s that? .................................................................. 36
1.10.
There’s Nothing New in This!............................................................... 37
1.11.
A Journey of Exploration...................................................................... 38
1.11.1.
Steps Along the Way............................................................................ 38
1.11.2.
Preparing for the Journey..................................................................... 40
1.11.3.
Scenery Along the Journey.................................................................. 40
1.12.
If You Are Reading This, I Have Survived the Journey .................... 42
Table of Contents
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1.12.1.
Metaphors and Analogies: Peaks to Climb, Valleys to Descend ......... 42
1.12.2.
A Reconnaissance for Another Trip ..................................................... 43
Chapter 2.
Methods and Methodology: Journey to a Destination ...................... 44
2.1.
Introduction................................................................................................ 44
2.2.
The Research Process ................................................................................ 45
2.2.1.
Journeying into the Canyon of Research Methods .............................. 46
2.2.2.
Developing a Research Process ........................................................... 47
2.2.3.
Fitting the Pieces Together .................................................................. 50
2.3.
Methods ....................................................................................................... 51
2.3.1.
Literature Review, Chapters 3 and 6.................................................... 53
2.3.2.
Autoethnography: A Method, A Way of Life, Chapter 4 .................... 57
2.3.3.
Instrumentation, Chapters 4 and 5: ...................................................... 59
2.3.4.
Surveys and Interviews ........................................................................ 62
2.3.5.
Semiotics: Reflections on Images, Chapter 6 ...................................... 80
2.3.6.
Deconstruction, Chapter 6.................................................................... 81
2.4.
Methodology: Heuristic Research ............................................................ 82
2.4.1. 2.5.
Heuristic Research: Holding it all together.......................................... 83
Theoretical Perspective.............................................................................. 93
2.5.1.
Postmodernism..................................................................................... 94
2.6.
Epistemology............................................................................................... 95
2.7.
Reflections on the Journey........................................................................ 97
Chapter 3.
Immersing in the Literature ............................................................... 99
3.1.
Introduction................................................................................................ 99
3.2.
Experiential Learning: What Is It? ........................................................ 100
3.2.1.
Training, Development, Education and Learning: What’s the
difference?.......................................................................................................... 101 3.2.2.
How Do You Know When You Have Had An ‘Experience’? .......... 103
3.2.3.
Evolving Understanding of ‘the Experience’..................................... 105
3.2.4.
Involving the Whole Self, But What About Everyone Else?............. 107
3.2.5.
Reflection Upon the Experience ........................................................ 108
Table of Contents
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3.2.6.
Application of the Experience............................................................ 110
3.2.7.
Examples of Experiential Learning Though History......................... 111
3.2.8.
Conclusion ......................................................................................... 114
3.3.
Corporate Experiential Learning Programs ......................................... 115
3.3.1.
A Matter of Terminology................................................................... 115
3.3.2.
Location ............................................................................................. 119
3.3.3.
Activities ............................................................................................ 122
3.3.4.
Outcomes ........................................................................................... 126
3.3.5.
Conclusion ......................................................................................... 129
3.4.
Effectiveness of Corporate Experiential Le arning Programs ............. 130
3.4.1.
Evaluation of Effectiveness ............................................................... 130
3.4.2.
Organisational Influences .................................................................. 133
3.4.3.
Program Planning............................................................................... 136
3.4.4.
Program Delivery: Metaphors............................................................ 139
3.4.5.
Participant Selection and Motivation................................................. 143
3.4.6.
Facilitators and Facilitation................................................................ 146
3.4.7.
Processing, Reflection and Debriefing - more of the same?.............. 150
3.5.
Research on Corporate Experiential Learning Programs ................... 161
3.5.1.
Quantitative Research........................................................................ 162
3.5.2.
Qualitative Research.......................................................................... 167
3.5.3.
Future Research Needs....................................................................... 168
3.6.
Learning Styles......................................................................................... 168
3.6.1.
Introduction: What Does It Mean? ..................................................... 168
3.6.2.
Measuring ‘Learning Styles’.............................................................. 169
3.6.3.
Issues of Validity and Reliability....................................................... 171
3.6.4.
Personality, Cognitive and Learning Styles - similar but different?.. 172
3.6.5.
How Relevant are Learning Style Theories? ..................................... 174
3.6.6.
Models and Theories of Learning Styles ........................................... 174
3.7.
Conclusion ................................................................................................ 186
3.8.
The LSA, After the Fact .......................................................................... 187
Chapter 4.
Table of Contents
What?: The LSA and Me as Learner: A Room of One’s Own ....... 188
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4.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................. 188
Presenting My Voice.......................................................................................... 188 Research About Yourself? ................................................................................. 188 4.2.
The Story Begins ...................................................................................... 190
Attempts at Beginning ....................................................................................... 190 A Room of One’s Own ...................................................................................... 192 The LSA in my Own Life .................................................................................. 193 What Place Jindabyne? ...................................................................................... 193 Clearing the Head............................................................................................... 194 Noticing.............................................................................................................. 195 Jindabyne Settlement Day.................................................................................. 196 Colour and Space, Movement and Magnificence .............................................. 198 Not Now!............................................................................................................ 199 Making Connections in The Big Apple ............................................................. 201 Losing Contact in Order to Make Connections ................................................. 205 “It’s Not the Destination that Counts, but the Journey” .................................... 206 Place, Space, Peers and Mutuality ..................................................................... 208 My Head’s Full!: Stuck in the Mire of Reflecting Upon Reflection ................. 211 Reflecting Upon Facilitation of Reflection........................................................ 213 Too Busy ‘Doing’ to Think and Learn .............................................................. 213 Feedback and The Big Picture ........................................................................... 215 Why Is Your View Important?........................................................................... 216 What is Knowledge and Learning? .................................................................... 217 A Sense of Being................................................................................................ 218 Supervisors, What Supervisors? ........................................................................ 219 Slowing Things Down to Create the Space ....................................................... 220 “Remember, if it is Jazz it only happens once!”................................................ 221 Seeing What I Need to See ................................................................................ 222 Like Climbing a Mountain................................................................................. 223 More of the Same? ............................................................................................. 225 Creating That Space For Me .............................................................................. 226 Who Stole the Time?.......................................................................................... 227 4.3.
Conclusion: And the Point is … ?........................................................... 228
Table of Contents
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Chapter 5.
So What?: Insights from Others....................................................... 229
5.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................. 229
5.2.
Pilot Studies .............................................................................................. 230
5.2.1.
Pilot Study 1: MGMT 908, 1999 ....................................................... 230
5.2.2.
Pilot Study 2: NRG, 1999 .................................................................. 232
5.2.3.
Conclusion ......................................................................................... 233
5.3.
Gaining Insight through the ‘Lens’ of the LSA .................................... 233
5.3.1.
Introduction........................................................................................ 233
5.3.2.
MGMT 908, 2001 .............................................................................. 233
5.3.3.
MGMT 946: Personal Learning: The Reflective Manager, 2002 ...... 237
5.3.4.
EDGP 912/3: Facilitation Techniques in Outdoor Education............ 238
5.3.5.
Insights from the Learning Style Analysis......................................... 241
5.4.
NRG Interviews, 2002.............................................................................. 250
5.4.1.
‘Lane’ ................................................................................................. 250
5.4.2.
‘Anne’ ................................................................................................ 250
5.4.3.
Discussion.......................................................................................... 251
5.5.
Survey of Workshop Participants .......................................................... 252
5.5.1.
Introduction........................................................................................ 252
5.5.2.
Results ................................................................................................ 252
5.5.3.
Discussion.......................................................................................... 258
5.6.
Moving Forward ...................................................................................... 259
Chapter 6.
What Else?: Exploring Other Perspectives...................................... 260
6.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................. 260
6.2.
Dominant Themes in the Literature: A Journey to Explore the
Development of Thought on Facilitation ........................................................... 261 6.2.1.
Recommended Readings: A Request to ‘outres’ ............................... 262
6.2.2.
Images in the Literature ..................................................................... 267
6.3.
Deconstructing The Five Generations of Facilitated Learning from
Adventure Experiences........................................................................................ 272 6.3.1.
Table of Contents
Deconstruction: A Lay Perspective .................................................... 272
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6.3.2.
Deconstruction: Another Perspective ................................................. 272
6.3.3.
Priest, S. and Gass, M. (1993) ........................................................... 275
6.3.4.
Attempts at Deconstruction................................................................ 276
6.3.5.
Deconstructing the Deconstruction.................................................... 284
6.3.6.
Concluding the Deconstruction and Moving Forward....................... 286
6.4.
Literature from Other Traditions .......................................................... 287
6.4.1.
Solo and Solitude: Social Groupings ................................................. 288
6.4.2.
Creativity and Innovation: Creating Space ........................................ 291
6.4.3.
‘Place’: Human Geography and Urban Planing................................. 292
6.4.4.
Aesthetics: Environment .................................................................... 295
6.4.5.
Experiential Knowing: Tacit and Intuitive ......................................... 297
6.5.
Where to Now? ......................................................................................... 299
Chapter 7.
Now What?: A Creative Synthesis.................................................... 300
7.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................. 300
7.2.
Facilitating Learning: Insights from Personal Experience and LSA.. 300
7.2.1.
Themes and foci of the current literature ........................................... 301
7.2.2.
Insights from reflecting upon my experience of learning and
connections with the LSA.................................................................................. 302 7.2.3.
Insights from the LSAs of 73 Adults ................................................. 303
7.2.4.
Facilitators’ Practice .......................................................................... 305
7.2.5.
Alternative Directions from Other Perspectives ................................ 305
7.2.6.
Recommendations .............................................................................. 306
7.3.
Weaving Together a Photo Essay and Poem......................................... 308
7.4.
The End of One Journey; The Beginning of Another.......................... 313
Appendices................................................................................................................. 315 Appendix 1: Pilot Study Questionnaire ............................................................. 315 Appendix 2: MGMT 908, 2001 Surveys............................................................. 317 Appendix 3: 2002 Workshop Learning Style Assessment ................................ 319 Appendix 4: 2002 Workshop Overheads ........................................................... 321
Table of Contents
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Appendix 5: 2002 Workshop Survey.................................................................. 325 Appendix 6: Learning Style Analysis Questionnaire ........................................ 328 Bibliography.............................................................................................................. 336
Table of Contents
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List of Figures Figure 1-1 Karpin Report: Task Force’s Vision..................................................................29 Figure 1-2 Karpin Report: Management Development System............................................30 Figure 2-1 Thesis Time Frame..........................................................................................50 Figure 2-2 MGMT 908 1999 Proposed Pilot Process..........................................................66 Figure 2-3 Cottesloe Beach Hotel.....................................................................................92 Figure 3-1 Dimensions of Experiential Education ............................................................104 Figure 3-2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle ................................................................110 Figure 3-3 The Outdoor Development Matrix ..................................................................128 Figure 3-4 HRD Process Model......................................................................................132 Figure 3-5 Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting, 1880’s ......................................................139 Figure 3-6 The Funnel....................................................................................................155 Figure 3-7 A Typology of Debriefing Modes...................................................................158 Figure 3-8 Onion Model.................................................................................................173 Figure 3-9 Integrating Models ........................................................................................173 Figure 3-10 4MAT System Model ..................................................................................177 Figure 3-11 Kolb’s Learning Style Grid ..........................................................................182 Figure 3-12 Rotated LSQ placed on LSI..........................................................................184 Figure 3-13 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Cycle .........................................................185 Figure 4-1 View from a Room, Jindabyne .......................................................................194 Figure 4-2 The Persistence of Memory ............................................................................202 Figure 4-3 Rind .............................................................................................................203 Figure 4-4 Relativity ......................................................................................................203 Figure 4-5 Searching for a Methodology .........................................................................205 Figure 4-6 Larson Cartoon .............................................................................................209 Figure 4-7 Full of ‘Stuff’................................................................................................228 Figure 4-8 Room for More .............................................................................................228 Figure 6-1 ‘Best’ Facilitation Articles .............................................................................262 Figure 6-2 Schoel, Prouty and Radcliffe, 1988:162 ..........................................................269 Figure 6-3 Luckner and Nadler, 1997:98 .........................................................................270 Figure 6-4 Luckner and Nadler, 1997:102 .......................................................................270 Figure 6-5 Luckner and Nadler, 1997:109 .......................................................................271 Figure 6-6 Priest and Gass, 1997:189 ..............................................................................271 Figure 6-7 Production Line Facilitation ......................................................................281
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List of Tables Table 1-1 Thesis Questions ..............................................................................................23 Table 1-2 Developmental Model of Positive Feminist Identity ............................................25 Table 2-1 Representative Sample of Elements of Research Process.....................................48 Table 2-2 Research Paradigms ..........................................................................................49 Table 2-3 Data Sources, Sample Sizes and Methods...........................................................53 Table 2-4 Degree Enrolments of Students..........................................................................65 Table 2-5 Gender and Nationality Distribution ..................................................................65 Table 2-6 MGMT 908, 1999 Interview Questions ..............................................................67 Table 2-7 Profile of MGMT 908, 2001 Participants ...........................................................73 Table 2-8 Profile of MGMT 946, 2002 Participants ...........................................................74 Table 2-9 Profile of EDGP 912/3, 2002 Participants ..........................................................75 Table 2-10 Workshop Survey Demographic Data ..............................................................78 Table 2-11 Workshop Survey Nationalities .......................................................................79 Table 2-12 Conventional Disciplined Inquiry Methods That Closely Match Four Major Types of Research Questions..............................................................................................86 Table 2-13 Links with the Phases of the Heuristic Research Process ...................................93 Table 3-1 Activities Used in Outdoor Programs ...............................................................126 Table 3-2 Skill Areas to be Developed ............................................................................128 Table 3-3 Heron’s Facilitator Styles................................................................................147 Table 3-4 Personal Development Media ..........................................................................156 Table 3-5 Learning Styles Inventories .............................................................................170 Table 5-1 MGMT 908, 1999: LSA Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities.............231 Table 5-2 MGMT 908, 1999 Summary of Sensory Modality Preferences ..........................232 Table 5-3 Comparison of MGMT 908 Groups .................................................................234 Table 5-4 MGMT 908 Wollongong, 2001: LSA Group Results: Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities.....................................................................................................235 Table 5-5 MGMT 908 Sydney, 2001: LSA Group Results: Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities ...........................................................................................................236 Table 5-6 MGMT 946, 2002 Preferences, Flexibilities, Non-Preferences...........................239 Table 5-7 EDGP 912/3, 2002 LSA Group Results: Preferences, Flexibilities, Non-Preferences .............................................................................................................................240 Table 5-8 Learning Styles Analysis Participants ..............................................................241 Table 5-9 Notable Differences in Learning Style Preferences............................................242 Table 5-10 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Preferences............................................243 Table 5-11 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Non-Preferences ....................................244 Table 5-12 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Flexibilities ...........................................245
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Table 5-13 Client Groups ...............................................................................................253 Table 5-14 Working Environment...................................................................................253 Table 5-15 Average Program Length ..............................................................................254 Table 5-16 Average Group Size ......................................................................................255 Table 5-17 Previous Study of Learning Styles .................................................................255 Table 5-18 Preferred Learning Styles ..............................................................................256 Table 5-19 Activities Participated In...............................................................................256 Table 5-20 Reflective Activities Used.............................................................................258 Table 6-1 Demographic Information About Recommended Authors .................................264 Table 6-2 References in Articles on Facilitation...............................................................266 Table 6-3 Difference Between East and West..................................................................277 Table 6-4 Banking Concept of Education ........................................................................283 Table 6-5 Educational Dialectics ....................................................................................284
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Preface: I am different, this I know, because my reflection tells me so. I am left- handed. All my life I have been left-handed. My mother related a story to me about when, as a child, colouring in I would use my right hand (possibly mimicking the rest of my family) but when I needed to colour- in near the lines I would ask if I could use my left-hand (no postmodern colouring in for me, got to keep within the lines!). Left- handedness is not new in my family; I have a Grandfather, a Great-aunt and cousin who are also left-handed. Even though I am left-handed I believe I see the world much as anyone else does: I see people demonstrating skills in a right-handed way, eating in a right-handed way, living a right-handed way. I even learnt to crochet with my right-hand because my sister could only sho w me how do it with her right hand. When I look into the mirror when cleaning my teeth it looks like I am right-handed, even though I use my lefthand. The reflection is not true of my experience. It is merely my reflection, it is not necessarily my reality. What we think we see may not be what we experience, nor may it be our reality. What we don’t see may be more real. This is well expressed by J. K. Rowling describing Harry Potter looking into the Mirror of Erised: There he was, reflected in it, white and scared-looking, and there, reflected behind him, were at least ten others. Harry looked over his shoulder – but still, no one was there. Or were they all invisible, too? Was he in fact in a room full of invisible people and this mirror’s trick was that it reflected them, invisible or not? (Rowling, 1997: 208)
In looking for answers about the Mirror, Harry consults Professor Dumbledore: Harry thought. Then he said slowly, ‘It shows us what we want … whatever we want…’ ‘Yes and no’ said Dumbledore quietly. ‘It shows us nothing more or less than the deepest, most desperate desire of our hearts. … However, this mirror will give us neither knowledge or truth. Men have wasted away before it, entranced by what they have seen, or driven mad, not knowing if what it shows is real or even possible. It does not do to dwell on dreams and forget to live, remember that (Rowling, 1997:2134)
Dumbledore’s advice could well apply to doing a PhD!
Preface: I am different, this I know, because my reflection tells me so
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“The left-hander finds his way with difficulty in the forest of righthanded technology” (Serres, 1991:14) As a left- handed person I experience the world differently. The photocopier button is always on my right side, so as I stand and photocopy pages from a book I place the book with my right-hand and press the button with my left. Why don’t I change? You try and do it with your other hand! Turning on a tap can be a risky business as I use my dominant hand, my left hand, and reach for the tap – which usually is the lefthand tap, the hot tap.
Computer mice are designed for right- handed people, the
numeric pad on the keyboard is on the right, scissors and knives are for right-handed people. There seems to be a right-handed conspiracy against me and my minority left- handed brethren, even to the extent that they could be limiting our learning by simply having desks in lecture theatres designed for right- handed people. We are not encouraged to question the correctness of this right- handed world. Technology is produced for the masses, not for individual need. Historically left-handedness has been derided and as Edwards (1979:33) notes: Throughout human history, terms with connotations of good for right-handed/left hemisphere and connotations of bad for left-handed/right hemisphere appear in most languages around the world. The Latin word for left is sinister …The French word for ‘left’ … is gauche … for right is droit … in English, ‘left’ comes from the AngloSaxon lyft, meaning ‘weak’ or worthless’ … the Anglo-Saxon word for ‘right’, reht … meant ‘straight’ or ‘just’.
Derogatory terms such as cacky-handed and goofy- footed convey the image that we are evil or not normal, a position that has existed for centuries; we are the original ‘others’ as acknowledged by Edwards (1979). Teachers have tried to ‘correct’ our ways by tying left-hands behind backs, or hitting students over the knuckles. Even as a student in 3rd class my sewing teacher told me that if I had been at school when she was a student I would not have been allowed to remain left-handed. But why? That is how I was born. No one made me that way, so why should I change? Yet, as we look at the world of learning, and of particular focus in this context, experiential learning, it would seem that the dominant forces are trying to cont rol the less powerful minority. The ones with the loudest voices, the ones with the most political, academic and/or publishing muscle are telling us how to learn. But maybe I and others were born to learn differently from their way. Maybe, by just being me I won’t fit into their models.
Preface: I am different, this I know, because my reflection tells me so
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What follows is my journey of exploration of how I learn and a consideration of the implications for facilitating experiential learning programs for those of us who don’t fit the dominant models (e.g. Gass and Gillis, 1995; Kolb, 1984; Priest, Gass and Gillis, 2000; Priest and Naismith, 1993). This is a chance for the ‘others’ to rise and be the ‘ones’, the dominant voices. But even as I seek to raise the voice of the ‘others’, it is in the knowledge that the context within which I write and operate may not be interested in listening to those voices, for as Edwards notes when recalling Archimedes’ moment of insight in his bath: This, then, is the right-hemisphere mode: the intuitive, subjective, relational, holistic , time-free mode. This is also the disdained, weak, left-handed mode which in our culture has been generally ignored. For example, most of our educational system has been designed to cultivate the verbal, rational, on-time left hemisphere, while half of the brain of every student is virtually neglected (Edwards, 1979:36).
Springs Within – Reflections on a Dam The mighty Snowy River has been dammed for years; dammed by a wall of good intentions and scientific models. The good intentions have created much success and wealth with the substantial hydro-electric scheme, but the scientific models forgot to look at the others who do not fit the model - those who do not want their life source dammed and redirected. The beauty of Lake Jindabyne that I see before me as I sit in my study is a result of that damn dam. The structure was built to make some lives better, but at the expense of others. It is too late to remove the dam, but if we acknowledge the impact of the dam and begin to see what negative effects occur down stream with decreased water flows impacting upon the environment, farmers and communities, we can begin to change. Models of learning can also be well- intentioned structures that may stop the flow of creativity and limit the way people see the world. The models need to be seen for what they are, but they must also be seen for what they are not. Within each of us lies a deep spring. Fresh, clean water full of ideas, creativity and new life. Into that spring is thrown the refuse of good intentions and bright ideas. Models and pseudoscience applied to a source unbound by theories. To let the spring flow, to allow the creativity and new ideas to emerge into the light, the refuse and wastes of past lives, bad experiences and imposed models need to be removed, the dam needs to be broken to let the spring flow. Preface: I am different, this I know, because my reflection tells me so
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Chapter 1. Introduction In my own opinion, women think and write differently than men because they have different experiences, different myths, different needs and desires and dreams and memories. As feminist scholars have pointed out, we exist as a separate culture within the dominant culture. A culture distinct from men’s, no matter how intimately we may live with or love them, Kathleen Betsko, 1987, playwright and editor (Partnow, 1993:470)
1.1. Beginnings This is the story of a journey. The story was motivated by and begins with my own experience.
It proceeds as I immerse myself in the literature related to my
experiences and as I explore new areas as I become aware of them. This is not necessarily a linear, clearly logical story. At times I have felt as though I have been lost, ‘geographically embarrassed’. At other times I have felt as if I was racing down a stream, ‘going with the flow’. There have also been many times when I have wanted to leave the journey to pursue something else. To communicate this journey I frequently delve into the use of metaphor and analogy to help tell my story. The metaphors and analogies reflect who I am and draw upon the language of photography (through the use of ‘lenses’) and of journeys and travel as well as my background in outdoor and experiential learning. As I set out on this journey I did not necessarily know where it would lead, nor were the research questions clear. The questions were not fully revealed until the journey ended, and even then, they remain a little obscured. But in commencing this journey what I have chosen to be true to is my own experience. It is my individual experience that is unique. It is the expression of my individual experience that is new. Will the story of my journey be generalisable to a larger population? Maybe, but probably not. That is not what I was trying to achieve. What is important in this process, the heuristic research process, is an increase in self- understanding and self- growth (Moustakas, 1990). For me, understanding alone is not enough, there needs to be an impact upon my practice as well. My desire is similar to the concept of ‘praxis’ as suggested by Freire (1972) who said that reflection without action is verbalism, and action without reflection is activism, while action with reflection, that seeks to transform the world, is praxis. In my world, I seek first to change myself. What I Chapter 1: Introduction
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have added, what I offer to the field is not more answers or models, but rather observations and questions about the dominant paradigms that emerge from my research and experience, that may assist others as they explore their professional practice and development. What I offer is one person’s critical perspective that has led to an increased awareness of the where of programs, not just the what and how. The increase in my understanding and growth is bounded by my focus on facilitation of experiential learning programs, particularly with corporate groups. As I reflect upon the beginning of this journey I take note of Moustakas’ (1990) words when he says that “In such an odyssey, I know little of the territory through which I must travel. But one thing is certain, the mystery summons me and lures me ‘to let go of the known and swim in an unknown current’” (Moustakas, 1990:10). As I travelled this journey I have seen different things, each impacted by the ‘lens’ that I applied at that time.
1.2. Lenses From my experience with photography, lenses are a major factor in ‘making’ or creating photographs. Whether you use a zoom lens, a wide angle or a close up lens will significantly affect the final product. A lens can be used to increase the emphasis of something and to exclude other things. Additionally, the same lens can be used with a range of filters such as polarising filters or UVA which will influence what is seen in the final photograph. Even the choice of film and paper has an impact. As with photography, so with research. The choice of ‘lenses’ or ‘filters’ used to look at a topic, or an experience, will influence what is seen. The lenses of my personal experience and the Learning Style Analysis heighten awareness of particular aspects of learning, while excluding many others. But then they are choices that are made in a research process. If you wanted to see it all then you would have to be there yourself, as any method of recording (whether in photography, writing or audio recording) is always going to limit what is seen or heard by the listener or viewer (Grbich, 1999).
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1.3. Where to Now? The remainder of this chapter seeks to outline the context from within which I write. It sets out the broader boundaries of the research, including consideration of the needs of management and organisations for the future, human resource development and learning styles. The key topics to be considered are: §
What Are the Questions?
§
Where is this Research ‘Located’?
§
Learning as an Adventure; Facilitation as Risk Management
§
Different Perspectives, Different Voices
§
Learning Styles: What’s that?
§
There’s Nothing New in This!
§
A Journey of Exploration
But first a note about this personal journey.
1.4. A Personal Journey No learning can avoid the voyage (Serres, 1991:8) My journey of exploration and discovery in areas related to experiential learning and learning styles has continued over a number of wandering, intersecting and sometimes parallel paths. These paths have occurred over many years, in formal and informal settings, in groups, in class, by myself, through many cultures and in various countries.
In many ways, this journey has reflected my own individual learning
needs. My preferred way of learning is self directed, problem-based, involves peers, authorities and individual effort, and requires practical experience as well as theoretical underpinnings.
At other times my journey has been erratic and
uncontrolled, leading to often- unintended outcomes. When first exposed to experiential learning techniques (particularly of the adventurebased variety), I had no appreciation of the process; in fact I was resistant and totally
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lacking in understanding of the process. I would say to my supervisor: “Why?, Why do I have to get a group to fill a bucket with water when the bucket has holes?; Why am I playing all these silly games when the session is about leadership or communication?” I did not understand. I was not a good ‘player’. I thought I was an individual, rational, analytical learner who had just been ‘saved’ from the world of investments, foreign currency transactions and computers.
As I explored more,
played more and observed individuals and groups grow more through these ‘silly games’ I began to appreciate their impact. What I thought would be best was to go and study with one of the ‘guru’s’ of experiential learning. This led to my enrolment in a Masters of Education where I was able to study experiential learning at greater depth that enabled me to gain a better theoretical understanding of these methods, but I wanted more. I was not satisfied with the way I saw these activities ‘debriefed’. Typically, we would sit in a circle and talk about what happened.
Even though I was fairly comfortable and
confident speaking in front of a group, I knew that this mode of ‘debriefing’ did not work that well for me. I preferred smaller groups, preferably with people with whom I connected, and more time and distance from the experience. At times my most significant learning from these experiences occurred well away from that place, in situations such as driving, swimming or even waking in the middle of the night. I wondered what it was like for others who may not have the same level of verbal skills or confidence in front of a group. I was beginning to struggle with the apparent contradiction of asking people to talk openly about their experiences in front of a group of 15 or more, when we also knew that the greatest fear people tend to have is speaking in front of a group (Baskerville, 1994). And what about those people who prefer learning more like I do? Was this learning process the most effective way for them?
What also of the challenges faced in a multicultural society where
communication in mixed groups may not flow as freely and openly (Yin, 1999)? I had questions and I wanted answers … if they existed! This focus on experiential learning began to raise questions in my mind about the connection with individual learning styles. My efforts to pursue study around the topics of facilitation, experiential learning and learning styles was rejected by a prominent author on experiential learning and reflective practice on the basis that it Chapter 1: Introduction
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was an irrelevant topic to be researched. My personal experience said otherwise. I was not satisfied that this rejection of my ideas was to be the end. Being true to my experience (not bad for a reforming logical, rational, analytical learner!), I chose to continue in my journey, knocking on doors, asking questions, trying new ideas, asking for feedback from colleagues through conference workshops, staff trainings and articles. Increasingly the response was positive. People could see the connections. Intuitively it made sense to them, as it did to me. If people learned in different ways, then we should be looking for different ways to help them learn from their individual experiences. A question that could arise from my experience thus far would be: “What would experiential learning look like if the theoretical basis and the dominant writings had originated from other voices such as poor women from the Asian sub-continent or rich youth from traditional African cultures?” From my experience, an added pressure exists when using experiential learning techniques in corporate training. That pressure is to ensure the efficiency of the use of training resources: human, time and money. Organisations do not want to spend more time and money than is necessary to achieve their organisational objectives (Smith, 1998). In the face of rapid and continuous change, the ability for an “organisation’s most expensive and flexible resource” (Rylatt and Lohan, 1995:32), that is people or employees, to adapt and to learn quickly, is possibly one of the greatest assets for individuals, groups and organisations alike. If the learning process could be improved through consideration of learning styles, then this may assist the organisation to achieve its objectives and the individual to be able to learn in their own way.
1.5. What Are the Questions? The ultimate aim of this study is to contribute to the development of effectively facilitated corporate experiential learning programs. In working towards this end the questions that I have explored have been interrelated and interconnected.
The
following list of seven questions provides a broad framework of the research, a framework that was constructed after the fact to help communicate what happened rather than at the beginning of the research to explain where I intended to go:
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1.
What are the themes and foci of the current literature on the facilitation of
experiential learning? The central themes and foci considered include:
2.
§
What constitutes an experience?;
§
Reflecting upon the experience;
§
The variety of locations of the experience;
§
The activities within the experience;
§
Outcomes and application of the learning, and
§
Evaluation of effectiveness of the programs
What insights do I gain from reflecting upon my own experience of learning?
This question has highlighted not just the issue of location as considered within the literature, but more significantly the impact of the location upon the experience and the learning 3.
What connections are there between my experience and my Learning Style
Analysis™ (LSA)? Throughout the autoethnography numerous connections related to aspects of my preferred learning style, such as sensory modalities, time of day, structure and formality of the study environment, are made between reflections upon my own learning and the LSA Questionnaire (Dunn and Prashnig, 1999) I completed and processed in 2000 (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000). This highlights the link between the LSA with my individual experience of learning. 4.
What insights are gained from looking at the LSAs of a range of adults?
The LSAs of 73 postgraduate students provide a broader picture of the preferences of adults who may be similar to those people who participate in corporate experiential learning programs. The data from the LSAs, while providing some support for the need to more carefully consider the needs of individuals when facilitating corporate
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experiential learning styles, was not a sufficient sample size to make firm recommendations relevant to all programs – but then that is not what I set out to do. 5.
What are facilitators of experiential learning doing in their practice?
Through surveying 76 facilitators at two international conferences it is clear that my ‘gut’ instinct about the use dominant use of whole group discussions was confirmed. What also came to light was the substantial lack of knowledge and understanding by facilitators as to how people learn. This lack of understanding may well provide an answer as to why facilitators of experiential learning continue to prefer verbal ‘debriefs’, as indicated by the survey, over other non-verbal reflective activities. 6.
What other theories or perspectives may provide alternative directions and/or
reflections upon the practice of experiential learning? Evolving from the combination of the literature review in Chapter 3, the autoethnography in Chapter 4 and the LSAs and Workshop Surveys in Chapter 5, the alternative literature considered from organisational aesthetics, human geography and urban planning, heightened the emphasis placed upon the impact of the location upon the experience and the need to create effective ‘spaces’ within which people could learn. 7.
What recommendations could be made about professional practice in the
facilitation of corporate experiential learning? The recommendations that emerge from this study place more emphasis upon what further research may need to be done, rather than providing specific changes to practice. With the emerging themes of this study being about ‘place’ and ‘space’, further research needs to be conducted into the role ‘place’ and ‘space’ has upon the experience. This would include, not just the physical ‘place’ and ‘space’ in which the program occurs, but also the emotional, social and psychological ‘place’ and ‘space’ of the individuals, the group and the organisation. With these questions at the centre, the primary focus of the research became the ‘inputs’ into the corporate experiential learning program, which includes the participants and the context, with a secondary focus being upon the process (e.g.
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activities and approache s) with no consideration of the outcomes (e.g. benefits and results) (Allison, 2000a). This contrasts with Bunting’s (2003) suggestion, quoted at the beginning of Chapter 2, that the only important research focus for experiential education is scientific research outcomes. Table 1-1 provides an overview of where each of the key research questions was primarily considered in the journey. But as suggested previously, this has not been a linear, logical process of exploration, it has been iterative, random and at times repetitive process that reflects how I learned as opposed to how one might like traditional research to be presented. The heuristic research process that I have used has enabled me to adopt a process that has been a bit like using a zoom lens that goes from the 28mm wide-angle lens to the 400mm zoom lens, with the literature being viewed with the wide-angle lens providing a very broad perspective. I then zoom in for a close-up in the autoethnography and then gradually the lens is zoomed out again as a bigger picture is explored through the LSAs and surveys and then wide again through literature from other traditions. The final phase, the creative synthesis, is like a 50mm lens where what you see through the viewfinder is similar to what you would see with the naked eye. Table 1-1 Thesis Questions Chapter 2 Methods
Question 1: Themes and foci of the literature 2: Insights gained from my own experience 3: Connections between my experience and my LSA 4: Insights gained from the LSAs 5: What are Facilitators Doing? 6: Other theories or perspectives 7: Recommendations about practice in the facilitation of CELP
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 3 Literature Review
Chapter 4 What? Autoethnography
Chapter 5 So What? LSAs and Surveys
ü ü
Chapter 6 Other Literature
Chapter 7 Now What? Recommendations
ü ü
ü ü ü ü ü
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1.6. Where is this Research ‘Located’? This next section is an outline of where my thoughts and perspectives are ‘located’ which includes influences from education and management, as well as diversions to other places. My journey through the lands of learning and experience is a journey in a broader context of influences of feminism, a critical perspective, and views on management and human resource development. As a personal journey it has been a process of listening to myself, my experience and the experiences of others and then feeding that back into what I am doing and thinking. The research process has been disjointed, eclectic, diverse and at times, seemingly, unconnected, but is held together by a common thread. The thread of continuity woven throughout has remained my own experience of learning and facilitating the learning of others.
1.6.1. Feminist, Who Me?, Surely Not! I am a reluctant feminist. Feminist is not a label that sits comfortably with me; for most of my life I would not have identified myself as a feminist or with feminism. I would be more likely to have said that I believe in equality and that mostly I did not believe I had been discriminated against because I am female. In many ways I have probably fought against being considered a feminist. I perceived this as especially necessary in the ten years I worked for the Anglican Church as well as two years in a theological college training to be an Anglican minister in a Diocese that was vocal in its opposition to women being in charge. I even continued to try and convince myself that I wasn’t a feminist while working in a place where I perceived that discrimination, on the basis of gender, was rampant. But as I have entered into this process of writing a PhD and having to reflect upon my assumptions, beliefs and perspectives on ‘truth’ and theory, I have begun to understand that what I consider critical thinking is actually what others called feminism (no wonder people have given me that label in the past!). Moreover, to be called a feminist is not a derogatory term, it is in fact a reflection of my ability and desire to question, to explore, to listen and to appreciate other views, and to realise that my perspective, as a feminist, “is a radically different way” (Henderson-King and Stewart, 1997:416).
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My experience of avoiding or not acknowledging my ‘feminist identity’ or even rejecting the label feminist, despite identifying with the values and beliefs, is a common tendency of many women, and particularly young women (Henderson-King and Stewart, 1997). As Henderson-King and Stewart suggest, each person has a different experience of feminism that may be expressed through a developmental model of five stages of feminism (Henderson, 1996). Table 1-2 provides a summary of the stages discussed by Henderson-King and Stewart. Table 1-2 Developmental Model of Positive Feminist Identity Stage Key Characteristics 1. Passive Acceptance A woman is either unaware of or denies the individual, institutional, and cultural prejudice and discrimination 2. Revelation First Stage of Positive Feminist Identity: Dualistic thinking; women are seen as superior, men are generally viewed as negative; feelings of guilt and anger pervade 3. Embeddedness and Phase 1: a woman withdraws from the larger society and embeds herself in a Emanation female subculture Phase 2: experiences an openness to alternate viewpoints and to a more relativistic perspective 4. Synthesis Transcend stereotypes and take an individualistic view 5. Active Commitment Realistic and active commitment to change Source: Donna Henderson-King and Abigail J. Stewart (1997) 'Feminist Consciousness: Perspectives on Women's Experience', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23 (4)
Based upon this model I may have missed a few stages, or at least may not have been aware of them, or I may not fit at all. If I am a feminist, what ‘type’ of feminist am I? Is there a category or a box within which I may begin to more clearly identify? Feminism, in its various forms, has diverse labels, histories and inferences. Henderson (1996), in addressing questions of feminism and outdoor leadership, notes the following differences between some key feminist perspectives: … liberal feminists would suggest that women ought to have equal rights in outdoor participation and that their leadership opportunities ought to be similar to those of men. Cultural feminist philosophy focuses on seeing and celebrating the uniqueness of women’s outdoor experiences and leadership styles; radical feminists provide a basis for how women ought to choose their own models of outdoor leadership that may not resemble male models at all (Henderson, 1996:108).
Is linking to a type really important, or am I just succumbing to a masculine view of the world where labels and categories are important?
Murfin and Ray (1997)
comment that many French feminists see feminine language as being semiotic, by which it is meant that it is “rhythmic and unifying; it does not rigidly oppose and rank
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qualities of reality” as seen in the male-dominated ‘canon’ (Murfin and Ray, 1997:122). There is a great temptation to fall into this trap and to subvert what is good about feminism and succumb to the dominant paradigm of types, labels and categorisation. In light of Murfin and Ray’s comment, I did not try to oppose and rank my experience, but rather I risk letting my writing, from a male perspective, seem “fluid to the point of chaotic” (Murfin and Ray, 1997:122). If that is the case, then Murfin and Ray suggest that that is a fault of the male perspective, not the writing. In this process I take a critical standpoint, one that supports the questioning of the status quo, exploring other options and perspectives and which, at times, may seem lacking in order and structure. And yes, I do not categorise what ‘type’ of feminism I may or may not be.
1.6.2. Taking a Critical Perspective Any feminist analysis begins with a critique of the existing structures (Henderson, 1996:108) A dominant theme throughout this dissertation is that of questioning. Questioning me, questioning meanings, questioning assumptions, questioning conclusions and questioning the hegemony. This is not to undermine the status quo, but to carefully consider the validity of the status quo and to investigate what other statuses may exist. As suggested by Brookfield: … the ideas and practices of hegemony are part and parcel of everyday life – the stock opinions, conventional wisdom, and commonsense ways of seeing and ordering the world that many of us take for granted. If there is a conspiracy here, it is the conspiracy of the normal (Brookfield, 1995:15).
Questioning the position or presupposition of the dominant voice, if not the dominant paradigm, and its universal application to all people may reflect the perspective of Critical Theorists.
Giroux suggests that Critical Theorists “rejected all forms of
rationality that subordinated human consciousness and action to the imperatives of universal laws” (Giroux, 1983:8) and thus may highlight the mechanisms of “ideological control that permeate(s) the consciousness and practices of advanced capitalist societ(ies)” (Giroux, 1983:13). I do not fully subscribe to the concept that there is a conscious control in action. However the possibility that we are being Chapter 1: Introduction
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controlled by barriers such as pragmatism, limited time and insufficient resources to look elsewhere, or even our lack of knowledge of other ways of being or doing, provides an impetus to help break down those barriers and pursue new and different journeys. It is these unconscious controls in action that I place specific focus upon through a process of critical reflection. a. A Critical Perspective, Learning from Teaching and Management Brookfield (1995), who writes from the perspective of adult education, is an advocate of critical reflection who sought to explain the differences between reflection and critical reflection and its significance for teachers. To this end, he said that: … reflection becomes critical when it has two distinctive purposes. The first is to understand how considerations of power undergird, frame, and distort educational processes and interactions. The second is to question assumptions and practices that seem to make our teaching lives easier but actually work against our own best interests (Brookfield, 1995:8).
This latter point correlates with Fulop and Linstead (1999) as they present an argument for pursuing a critical perspective on management by suggesting that: … learning about management requires a critic al perspective that is guided by three key processes of inquiry: identifying and challenging assumptions; developing an awareness of the context in which management ideas have evolved; always seeking alternative ways of seeing situations, interpreting what is going on, understanding why an organisation is configured the way it is, and speculating about the way the organisation could be managed differently (Fulop and Linstead, 1999:3).
Within the context of this study, these same three processes are applied to the fields to be explored. As such the three processes suggested by Fulop and Linstead may become: §
identifying and challenging assumptions about topics such as experiential learning, facilitation, reflection, learning and learning styles (Chapter 6);
§
developing an awareness of the context in which experiential learning ideas have evolved by exploring some of the origins of the dominant writings and to
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‘peel back’ some of the layers to see what may lie beneath the apparent orthodoxy (Chapter 3); §
always seeking alternative ways of seeing situations, interpreting what is going on, understanding why experiential learning situations are configured the way they are, and speculating about how they could be structured differently through questioning and exploring and trying to see things through the eyes of people from other life experiences ( Chapters 4, 5 and 6).
This exploration of experiential learning has been triggered by a desire to facilitate more effective corporate experiential learning programs, and thus to benefit the participant (often a ma nager) and the organisation for the future.
1.6.3. Managers and Organisations for the Future Organisations aren’t the visible, tangible, obvious places which they used to be. No longer ... do you have everyone in the same place at the same time in order to get things done. Place and time are now independent of one another (Handy, 1997:378) Meeting the goals of the organisation, which is investing in corporate experiential learning programs (CELP), requires some appreciation of the context within which they operate and the demands faced for the future. Increasingly organisations in the twenty-first century are warned of the ever-present challenges faced by rapid rates of change and the need for adaptability (e.g. Hesselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard, 1997; Sofo, 1999). This demand needs to be reflected in the learning and development opportunities provided for employees to ensure that training is delivered efficiently, effectively and relevantly. With change reputed to be faster now than at any other time in history it may no longer be possible to take extended periods out of the workforce to pursue fulltime stud y or extended blocks of training (Rylatt and Lohan, 1995).
Courses developed in the past may not be relevant for the future.
An
increasing emphasis on short courses, on and off the job, that have demonstrated outcomes that align with the organisation’s objectives may be far more cost effective and relevant than an MBA achieved at a prestigious graduate school. As Sofo (1999) notes:
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The demands on organisations now require learning to be delivered faster, more cheaply and more effectively to a fluid workplace and mobile workforce dramatically affected by daily changes in the marketplace (Sofo, 1999:322).
One way that may enhance the speed, cost and effectiveness of learning is to place more focus on the individual and their own preferences and abilities to learn. By providing the learner with knowledge and skills that enable them to be more effective self-directed learners, the speed, cost and effectiveness of the learning program may be enhanced. b. Australian Managers and Organisations in 2010 In Australia, an Industry Task Force on Leadership and Management Skills was set up to investigate ways to strengthen management development and business leadership. The resulting ‘Karpin Report’ identified their vision for Australian enterprises and managers in the year 2010 as presented in Figure 1-1. Figure 1-1 Karpin Report: Task Force’s Vision Is that by 2010 the following will be true of Australian enterprises and their managers: 1. Knowledge, the ability to learn, to change and to innovate in this new marketplace, will be accepted as the more relevant criteria for selecting managers than gender, ethnicity or even prior experience. 2. The ‘learning organisation’ will be the standard philosophy for many Australian enterprises and a major way they cope with change and turbulence. 3. Managers will create conditions conducive to learning for both individuals and the enterprise as a whole, within and between groups, across individual business units and between enterprises and their external environments. Employees will be more motivated and skilled. 4. Quality will act as a guiding light within all organisations with a customer first mentality being allpervasive. This focus will help improve productivity and profitability in enterprises through a concerted commitment to continual improvement ... 5. Most Australian enterprises will earn higher rates of return on investment than in 1995 and successfully defend and expand their position in the global marketplace. 6. Many Australian enterprises will be benchmarked as achieving world best practice in their operations, some will be acknowledged as setting world best practice standards. Source: David S. Karpin, (1995) Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century, Executive Summary, AGPS, Canberra, p. 12.
The Karpin Report highlights five challenges and recommendations that are central to the vision, with two of the challenges focusing on the need for high quality human resource development (HRD) mechanisms, and thus are of significance to this study. In summary the five challenges are: 1. Developing a positive enterprise through education and training;
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2. Upgrading the capability of the vocational education and training system; 3. Capitalising on the talents of diversity; 4. Achieving best practice management development; 5. Reforming management education (Karpin, 1995). The fourth and fifth challenges are of particular interest in the context of corporate experiential learning where the emphasis is on ensuring learning opportunities of the highest quality, with outcomes that reflect the future organisational needs. Karpin’s (1995) representation of the management development system is presented in Figure 1-2. Figure 1-2 Karpin Report: Management Development System
General Education (Primary, Secondary and Tertiary levels)
Work Experience
Management Education and Training
(jobs assignments, mentors, relationships)
(in-house, award, Non-award, local, Overseas)
The Australian Manager Source: David S. Karpin, (1995) Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia's Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century, Executive Summary, AGPS, Canberra, p. 32.
Figure 1-1, and challenges four and five of the Karpin Report noted previously, acknowledge the interconnection of a variety of HRD programs such as the on-thejob, short courses and industry visits, working alongside the formal vocational and award-based management education programs in achieving the task force’s vision for organisations and their managers. However, little note is taken of the individuals within the model nor the broader context (e.g. social, political, economic) of the model.
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To achieve the desired ‘Australian Manager’ for 2010 identified in the Karpin Report, a key mechanism is human resource development which encompasses three aspects: training and development, career development and organisational development (Delahaye, 2000; Marquardt and Engle, 1993; Sofo, 1999). c. Human Resource Development Human resource development (HRD) programs will be a significant strategy for any organisation wishing to work towards Karpin’s vision for 2010. HRD has variously been defined as: … integrated use of training and development, organization development and career development to improve individual, group and organizational effectiveness (Marquardt and Engle, 1993:8) ,Role of encouraging, arranging & promoting individuals’ development, particularly in an organisational and employment context (Tight, 1996:29).
Every year, organisations invest a wide range of money into their employees for the provision of training and development, for some organisations this is quite significant amounts of money (Rylatt and Lohan, 1995). This investment may be based upon the belief that increases in productivity, decreases in wastage and improved motivation may result in greater ‘bottom line’ results as well as increased returns for shareholders. Over time, the manner in which training is delivered may be strongly influenced by various social, economic and educational trends.
In the past two
decades one particular mode of training that has experienced a varied degree of popularity is the role of experiential management development programs (Holman, Pavlica and Thorpe, 1997). This growth can partly be attributed to the belief that the use of experiential methods provides a more memorable and potentially exhilarating experience. The impact of these moments may be much more significant than more traditional classroom experiences (Rylatt and Lohan, 1995). Experiential programs differ from traditional modes of instruction in that there is a determined aim to interact with the cognitive, the physical and the emotional realms of the individual (Rylatt and Lohan, 1995). One might conclude that it is training for the mind, body and soul. This form of training draws upon a wide range of theories and philosophies. The diversity of these theories presents both the potential for a large overlap of many aspects of the theories, but also for significant gaps. This may occur where the theories have been developed in isolation or without cons ideration of their application
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to the specific needs of experiential or adventure based programs. These potential gaps may be the cause or the result of poorly facilitated experiential learning sessions. d. Experiential Learning in HRD In its broader sense, experiential learning programs in organisations may include onthe-job training, computer-based learning and apprenticeships.
The variety of
definitions and views of experiential learning will be explored at greater depth in Chapter 3, but for now Proudma n’s suggestion will be of initial help: … good experiential learning combines direct experience that is meaningful to the student with guided reflection and analysis. It is a challenging, active, studentcentred process that impels students towards opportunities for taking initiative, responsibility, and decision making (italics added) (cited in Chapman, McPhee and Proudman, 1995:241).
This definition, with the combination of the key elements of: experience, meaningfulness, reflection and analysis, may exclude some of the previously mentioned methods. Proudman’s definition concurs with Dewey, who in 1938 wrote “Experience and education cannot be directly equated to each other. For some experiences are mis-educative” (Dewey, 1938/1976:25). To move ‘the experience’ towards being experiential learning, Proudman’s earlier suggestion argues that there be “guided reflection and analysis” of the experience (Chapman et al., 1995:241). There are diverse words, meanings and methods relating to this process that will be explored in Chapter 3. However it may be suggested that the skills developed in the reflection and analysis of experiences may transfer to the ‘reflection in action’ recommended by Schön (1983) and also supported by Senge whereby individuals are able to “reflect on one’s thinking while acting” (Senge, 1990/1992:192).
With Karpin’s vision for 2010 including the adoption of the
philosophies of the learning organisation, there may be synergies that result from not just learning from the experience but also learning from the process of learning from the experience. When viewed in this light experiential learning techniques may be skills that are central to the learning organisation.
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1.7. Learning
as
an
Adventure;
Facilitation
as
Risk
Management Nothing seems to work out as it should (Brookfield, 1995:1) It is probably unusual to view learning as an ‘adventure’ and thus subject to the same rigorous demands of risk management that one may see in many outdoor or adventure programs. In these programs the concepts of risk and risk management are part and parcel of the process and in some instances are considered to also play a pivotal role in experiential education (Liddle, 1998:6). Risk may be considered the potential to lose something of value, while risk management is about organising the event or the process to manage the risks to acceptable levels (Haddock, 1993). If an adventure exists where there are uncertain outcomes (Crowther, 1995) and risk is the possibility to lose something of value, then where the re is risk there must also be the potential for adventure. In the context of risk and risk taking, the possibility, and not the certainty, of losing something of value means the outcome is uncertain, and thus an adventure! For many facilitators, instructors and/or leaders 1 it may also be possible to define learning as an adventure. In learning, the outcomes are often uncertain (one need only speak to a teacher or lecturer about the consistency of learning outcomes of their students), the potential to lose something of value is constant and the process of assisting the learning process may be as much about managing risks as it is about being a good educator. The risks in learning may include the risk of losing social standing or acceptance by being seen as a poor learner, an intellect or merely an average student. There are many stories I have heard, from friends and family, about people not wanting to be seen as the smart one in the class, or maybe they would not try too hard for fear of failure. The risks in learning may also include the willingness to take intellectual risks, to take the risk of exploring the realms of ‘not knowing’, to tempt fate by questioning the basis of our understanding, beliefs and/or values. Experts from other fields may not agree with this view of learning involving risk, as
1
The terms are used interchangeably. While each term may have a slightly different nuance or
program emphasis, it is accepted that many readers and practitioners may use these terms without differentiation or discrimination.
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risk in areas such as environmental management and insurance is more closely aligned with the expected annual mortality rates (Sandman, 1990; Slovic, 1990). Bernstein notes that the “word ‘risk’ derives from the early Italian risicare, which means to dare. In this sense, risk is a choice rather than a fate” (Bernstein, 1996:8). With risk researchers focusing on mortality rates, is it necessary that people have to die in order for a risk to exist? If risk is about the potential to lose something of value then maybe the death of one’s passion for learning, or the missed opportunity to learn may be as significant a loss as the loss of an individual’s life. If to risk is to dare, then surely learning is a potential risk. If the loss of passion for learning or the missed opportunities to learn are risks, then facilitation, instruction and/or teaching is about risk management, that is, managing risks to acceptable levels, levels that may be determined by people, place and/or program. To best manage those risks it may be necessary, for those responsible, to equip themselves with the most appropriate resources that enable to them to be the most effective risk managers.
For the facilitator, knowledge and experience of
learning styles may be just one of the many items within their ‘bag of tricks’ that will enable them to be effective risk managers in learning environments. Other items that could also be in the bag of tricks are their skills and knowledge in the specific area, interpersonal skills, instructional design and delivery skills and a desire to motivate and enthuse students and participants.
1.8. Different Perspectives, Different Voices The experience of males in the outdoors has been a dominant paradigm, but not necessarily universal for all males (Henderson, 1996:113) Experiential learning and facilitation of, and reflection upon, those experiences, has been broadly examined, published, researched and discussed in many places and at many conferences, as Chapter 3 will demonstrate. An ‘orthodoxy’ seems almost to have arisen as to the right or best way to facilitate experiences. The dominant voices in the writing, talking and presenting has been that of males and predominantly white North American males (e.g. Dewey, 1938/1976; James, 1980; Knapp, 1993; Priest and Gass, 1997; Priest et al., 2000) with other notable writers being from the United
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Kingdom (U.K.) but with substantial involvement in the North American educational system (e.g. Brookfield, 1995). Another shared characteristic is that they can be further categorised by including that they are predominantly well educated. Not that this is a problem for readers who are white North American well educated males, but I wonder about those readers who aren’t white, who do not originate from North America and for those with lesser education (or no education) and who are not males. In reflecting upon over ten years of letters and stories on the original In a Different Voice, Carol Gilligan wrote that “by restricting their voices, many women are wittingly or unwittingly perpetuating a male-voiced civilization and an order of living that is founded on disconnection from women” (Gilligan, 1993:xi). Further, Bell suggests that “the subject, or author, of Western definitions of rationality was always those with access to the texts and their transmission: masculine, Caucasion (sic), welleducated and heterosexual” (Bell, 1993:21). In the context of experiential learning, and the facilitation and reflection upon those experiences, the same may be said, not just of women, but of any others who are not white, North American and/or males, who are the majority of the world’s population. The experience of this majority is often subordinated to the elite minority. Do the women and men outside of the dominant paradigm have the same or similar experiences of learning, of facilitation and of processing of experiences the same as for the dominant voices? In writing to a Malaysian readership, Ho Ha Yin suggested that “cultural sensitivity is an important factor in experiential learning in the Malaysian context. Not taking heed of cultural differences would be tantamount to a disastrous training career” (Yin, 1999:7). While acknowledging that the participants may come from very different social, economic, cultural and educational backgrounds than the writers in the dominant paradigms of experiential learning may be beneficial, to focus just upon the differences of individuals in the experience may not be enough.
Individuals in
corporate experiential learning programs generally work for organisations; organisations want their objectives achieved and the ability to do so is threatened by constantly changing organisational, social and economic environments. Another issue that may be pertinent, but outside the scope of this dissertation, is the impact upon the experience from areas such as: §
the organisational culture;
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§
economic and social environments;
§
climates of change, and
§
innovation.
To facilitate the process of considering the differences between participants, one ‘lens’ that is used in this thesis is that of learning styles.
1.9. Learning Styles: What’s that? Central to this thesis is the concept of learning styles.
Chapter 3 addresses the
question at greater depth by looking at the wide variety of learning style models and theories (some of which have been developed for children, others for adults) as well as the distinction between learning style, cognitive style and personality and the origins of the Learning Styles Analysis as used in this study. At its most basic a learning style is your preferred way of learning. Depending upon which learning style model you use, this could include categories such as: §
activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists (e.g. Honey, 1991);
§
multiple- intelligences such as visual-spatial, logical-sequential and musical (e.g. Gardner, 1993a; Gardner, 1993b);
§
concrete experimentation and abstract conceptualisation (e.g. Kolb, 1984);
§
sensory modalities: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and tactile (e.g. Bandler and Grinder, 1979; O'Connor and Seymour, 1994; Rose, 1985); and
§
left brain/right brain (e.g. Caine and Caine, 1991; 1987; Edwards, 1979).
The Learning Style Analysis, as used here, goes beyond most of these categories by including not just ways of receiving information and processing information such as communication styles or cognitive processing styles, but also taking into consideration the physical environment, the time of day, needs for light, sound and food, social contexts and more. Learning styles as an area of study is not new, nor is referring to learning styles in the context of experiential learning (Holman et al., 1997;
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Oosterheert and Vermunt, 2001; Rainey and Kolb, 1995; Yuen and Lee, 1994). What is new about this study is the intent to go beyond these narrowly defined models of learning styles and adopt a broader, more holistic, model of learning as presented by Dunn and Prashnig’s model (Prashnig, 1996). This model provides opportunity for people to create more effective learning spaces for themselves, thus taking greater control over their learning and, ultimately, become more effective learners.
1.10. There’s Nothing New in This! “Far from reasoning about experience, we listen to it. As musicians might listen to voices joined with them in producing a symphony” (Crotty, 1998) While addressing learning styles within the context of experiential learning is not new it is interesting that one response to my interest, as alluded to before, has been that the focus of this study is not relevant, and of no importance. There is a risk of trying to wave a flag that bears the standard of learning styles and being told that the topic is dead. Yet as I look at my own experience in work (both in training and development and as a University lecturer), and as I participate in a variety of learning experiences, I continue to notice a push for achievement of outcomes at lower cost, with higher ratios, in less time and yet, somehow, achieve more. This had been my experience of higher education, of corporate training and of delivering internal training programs. Personally this suggests that the decision makers are out of touch with the needs of learning, of the learner and of the facilitator. In my experience, learning takes time. Not just surface or superficial learning, but real learning that involves changes is aspects such as behaviour, attitudes and perspectives (Delahaye, 2000). I wonder what learning programs would look like if they were structured to meet the needs of the learner?
Needs that could include the categories such as: sensory
modalities, social context, formality, structure, time of day and mobility. What would a model of learning look like? What would the timeframe be? How could we ever budget for it? More of that later. First to the journey …
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1.11. A Journey of Exploration Exploration, whether of jungles or minds, is considered unfeminine, Anne Tucker, editor, photographic critic and historian, 1973
Wanted: Someone who wishes to embark upon a journey of exploration. Essential: sense of purpose, the support of mentors, the willingness to take a risk, the time to make errors, the ability to gather resources and a spirit of adventure. Destination: unknown. Length of time: unknown
Imagine if you saw this advertisement: would you want to join the journey? This thesis, for me, is a journey of exploration. I have had a sense of the direction, but until I actually arrived, I did not necessarily know where I was going until I get there. Along the way I have spent time exploring paths that have turned out to be irrelevant, and at times I have become geographically embarrassed. Nevertheless, mostly I trusted my instinct to continue, to learn from those diversions, to reflect upon my experience and continue to move on.
1.11.1.
Steps Along the Way
As part of a PhD it is often suggested that your question should be clearly defined. Progress reports include the titles of the thesis, friends and family want to know what you are spending all your time and energy doing. Yet this thesis passed through many variations on the one theme. The variations were influenced by my experience, my knowledge, my supervisors, what I was reading and at times, I think, it seems, the way the wind was blowing or what season it was!
Thus the thesis had a range of
incarnations and ‘faces’. An example of the variations iterations and changes of direction is reflected in the range of titles that have been used:
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June 1996: An Investigation of the Connections Between the Effectiveness of Experiential education and Individual Learning Styles (PhD Offer Documents) October 1996: An Investigation of the Relationship Between Processing Strategies and Individual Preferred Learning Styles with an Experiential Management Development Program (Progress Report, 1996) October 1997: Life, the Universe and Everything: Learning Styles, Gender and Culture in the Processing of Experiential Management Development Activities (Postgraduate Research Day, 1997) September 1999: The use of the “Learning Styles Analysis” to aid insight into Individual Responses to and Learning from an Experiential Learning Program (Ethics Committee Application) October 1999: How Does Knowledge and Experience of Learning Styles Change the Way We Facilitate Learning Experiences?: Tailoring learning experiences to optimise organisational effectiveness (Postgraduate Research Day) July, 2001:Facilitating Learning: Mine, Yours and Others: Gaining Insight into the Facilitation of Experiential Learning through the Lenses of Personal Experience and the Learning Styles Analysis August 2001, Supervisor’s Suggestion: Understanding experience: a phenomenological approach.
What is the title? What is the focus? At the completion of the journey it was clear. But until then I took the maps of research designs, learning experiences and other’s experiences of doctoral study, the compass of supervisors and colleagues (I did not have a Global Positioning System (GPS) as there were no satellites flying over where I went!), the timeframes of PhD enrolments, personal energy levels and opportunity. In my ‘backpack’ I carried with me my acquired experiences of researching, writing, learning, facilitating, questioning and walking in untracked areas. At times along the journey I needed to ‘pitch my tent’, sometimes by the river, other times on mountain tops and all too frequently, deep in a valley surrounded by thick growth, unable to clearly see the path. Other times I ploughed through that foliage, scaling the mountain and seeing the views for miles and float along that river, knowing full well that where I was and where I was going is totally on track. The weather along the way also changed, storms of emotion, work stress, health and travel slowed my progress. Tail winds of support groups and feedback from conference participants moved me on and head winds of administrators, research committees and playing political games as a result of studying experiential learning in a department focusing on management, slowed me down. I was comforted by the fact that I could stop, pitch that tent, boil the billy, refocus, reorient, recharge and then move on. Chapter 1: Introduction
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1.11.2.
Preparing for the Journey
In approaching this thesis I came with a range of experiences of experiential learning, as participant, facilitator, program manager and trainer of facilitators. I also had a questioning spirit, a mind that pursued answers and a desire that this be more than an epic academic adventure, but that it resulted in new learning, insights and questions for any who read this thesis, learning, insights and questions that the reader would be able to apply in their professional practice.
1.11.3.
Scenery Along the Journey
As an exploratory journey some choices had to be made about what was seen and what was left for future journeys, much as when you make a photo, your choices determine what is inside and outside the frame. If a different person was to make the photo, they may choose to include and exclude different things from me.
With
interests that include the diverse topics of learning, facilitation, experiential learning, adventure based learning and others, it was not possible to explore each and every aspect at a significant depth. The structure, as discussed below, of the thesis is loosely connected (and maybe facetiously given my efforts at ‘subverting the dominant paradigm’) to a commonly used ‘debriefing’ structure: What?, So What?, Now What? (Schoel, Prouty and Radcliffe, 1988). a. Starting Out Chapter 2 outlines the diverse methods investigated and applied in this journey of exploration, including autoethnography, surveys and interviews as well as reflection and deconstruction of dominant texts. These methods, as with the whole dissertation, are held together with a heuristic research process. Chapter 3 focuses on the existing literature on experiential learning, reviewing where it has come from and questioning its ‘orthodoxy’. Chapter 4, the ‘What?’, tells my story as a learner over a period of more than a year. It raises the questions of motivation, place and space and creating time for learning. Connections are made between my experience of learning and my Learning Styles Analysis.
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b. Not Always the Right Path This journey, this process of writing and reflecting upon my writing has not always been a straightforward process as one might want from a PhD. Ideally, you might think, the research process would be clearly defined at the beginning and that the research process would be closely followed through out.
This has not been my
experience. If there were time I could relate the many paths that I have followed, that seemed to be right at the time, but stopped at dead-ends. These have included seeking to use situations such as some conference workshops I ran in 2000 and 2001 as well as a range of postgraduate classes, which were just not the right group, at the right time for this research. c. Back on Track As part of the heuristic research process Chapter 5, the So What?, evolved into something different due to the different paths I have followed as I have gathered new and different information. In the end it has become a combination of three sources of information: §
an analysis of LSAs I have gathered from over 70 people, mostly postgraduate students
§
insights from two unstructured interviews with NRG members about their experiences of learning, including experiential learning
§
an analysis of the practice of facilitators who have attended workshops I have conducted at two conferences in 2002: one in South East Asia and one in North America. d. Broadening the Scope
As with Chapter 5, Chapter 6 also evolved from what I initially intended, to what it has become as the beginning of opening-up my journey of exploration after narrowing the focus down to myself in Chapter 4, and the slightly broader scope of Chapter 5. In Chapter 6, the scope was broadened by looking at some of the traditional literature through different lenses such as deconstruction. I actively sought other literature
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normally unconnected to experiential learning but which, I believe, may present a new light on my emerging themes of place and space through literature in areas such as human geography and organisational aesthetics. Having shifted from the micro (Chapter 4) towards the macro (Chapters 5 and 6), Chapter 7 is the creative synthesis of this journey. It is an effort to pull all the elements together in the ‘Now What?’ of this thesis. Chapter 7 presents a creative synthesis of the journey and where it ends, a location called Place and Space. It is a weaving together of photos of places that have ‘spoken’ to me, interwoven with the words of Dorothy Mackellar’s poem, My Country.
1.12. If You Are Reading This, I Have Survived the Journey 1.12.1.
Metaphors and Analogies: Peaks to Climb, Valleys to
Descend On a trip I led with Year 11 girls from a private school we spent a day and a half walking along a valley floor following various waterways. The only things we could see were the trees, rocks and the rising valley walls either side of us. On day three we ascended a long climb up a dry creek bed to reach a small gap in the cliff line. Before us lay miles and miles of another valley with large areas of cleared land. We could sit on the edge of ‘the world’ and look forward to where we were about to go. For this group the was a real connection to current experiences as they trudged though the valley of Year 11, knowing at some stage in the future, after a long slog through the Higher School Certificate, they would arrive at a point where their whole lives lay spread out before them. There were choices to be made, opportunities to be explored. They set their course and then moved off with a spring in their step.
As they
continued to walk during the next two days they could look back at the cliff line through which we had come and see the small notch in the cliffs, only just discernable, and at times they would wonder how the y ever made it through. We reached our destination.
We sat and shared their stories, celebrated and
commiserated. They thanked God they survived and, often, determined not to do it again. But all the while, they were happy with their achievements.
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I recalled this experience many times as I work through my PhD. The experience of being in that ‘valley’, where I believe I was on the right track but I could not find a point where I can take my bearings. It was not until I climbed that creek bed that I could find a place where things became clear. Here the path before me was easy to see and I knew that I was in a place where I believed I could achieve the task. Throughout the thesis I have used many metaphors and analogies to help express myself.
This is part of presenting my ‘voice’.
Not everyone who reads these
metaphors and analogies will like them, some may wish that I ‘just get to the point’, however, for me, they are part of who I am and how I best express my views. This use of metaphor and analogy may also connect with my more right brain and visual preferences of my preferred learning style.
1.12.2.
A Reconnaissance for Another Trip
As a mixture of autoethnography and exploratory studies, this may be best viewed as a reconnaissance for future adventures. I did not set out to have all the answers, but I was setting out to find key points that would require future exploration. These key points may act as ‘navigation markers’ for others who may wish to follow a similar journey. By no means is this Thesis the ‘Lonely Planet Guide to Facilitation’. For future adventurers there will still be much territory to be explored, new paths and monuments to discover and there will still be many significant decisions to be made along their journey.
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Chapter 2. Methods
and
Methodology:
Journey
to
a
Destination 2.1. Introduction Scientific observation and inquiry, followed by its reporting and publication, is the future of our profession. Whether the methodology is quantitative or qualitative, the necessity of scientific documentation is paramount … and the expectation is to document results that can be communicated and compared (Bunting, 2003:356). Despite what may be considered a sensible way to go, I did not do what Bunting suggested. In the beginning, Bunting’s perspective may have been of interest, but as my journey progressed I moved further and further from this position. In my ideal world this PhD would have involved presenting the material using a style that was provocative, challenging and potentially unsettling to the reader. This would have involved suspending with a strict plot as may be commonly expected in a PhD thesis. However earlier drafts of this chapter seemed to be too challenging and unsettling (to me and the reader!) and so I have reverted to a style that is more “exact, precise, pragmatic, and [perhaps] rigorous” (Rosenau, 1992:7), but not clearly representative of the true ‘path’ I followed. This chapter only focuses upon what I eventually did, rather than the long and winding road I have taken, with many experiences of being lost. The journey has revealed to me that while, in theory, it may be okay to have a voice, the difficulty arises as to whether anyone is interested in listening to your ‘true voice’. Thus, ultimately, I write to be ‘heard’ by my limited readership. As a researcher I open myself up to the criticism directed at the qualitative researcher that they are “journalists, or soft scientists, [whose] work is termed unscientific, or exploratory, or subjective” (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000b:7). If at the end of this research my work is termed exploratory or subjective and I am labelled a journalist or soft-scientist, then I will wear those labels with pride. I did not seek to ‘prove’ anything, nor did I expect my work to be compared with anyone else’s. I did seek to look at what is held up as ‘truth’ and scientific through different lenses. These lenses included my own individual, subjective experience, and thus to provide some level of critique of that ‘truth’ that may encourage others to question, to reflect upon their own
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experience and to bring about whatever change they may deem necessary to their practice.
Questions related to the ‘research trinity’ of validity, reliability and
generalisability emerge from a psychometric paradigm where a single correct interpretation may be sought that can be generalised to a wider population (Janesick, 2000). Questions of validity and credibility in the context of this thesis “has to do with description and explanation and whether or not the explanation fits the description. In other words, is the explanation credible?” (Janesick, 2000:393). No single explanation or interpretation is sought here, nor a grand theory proposed, rather this thesis recognises and emphasises that there are many ways of viewing the world and what is presented here is one person’s view of that world seen through an array of lenses. What has emerged is potentially a blurring of genres and an interweaving of viewpoints that may, from one perspective, appear contradictory (Lincoln and Guba, 2000) but ultimately has provided a multifaceted and rich description of one person’s views and experiences. The purpose, then, of this chapter is to note the highlights of the journey I have taken which has resulted in arriving at a heuristic research methodology, influenced by postmodernism and constructionism. This methodology has incorporated a range of methods including autoethnography, semiotics, surveys and interviews.
The
following begins with a description of the methods and then to an exploration of the influencing factors and contexts of the broader methodology (heuristic research), theoretical perspective (postmodernism) and finally to epistemology (leaning towards constructionism). But first to a reflection and an analogy about the research process.
2.2. The Research Process As I re-read this section today, 29th May, 2003, it is the 50th Anniversary of the ascent of Mt Everest by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay. Hillary reflects upon the difference between his experience with Norgay and the experience of climbers today who benefit from the wisdom of those that have gone before them when he says: We had to meet all the challenges that arose. That’s not true largely nowadays. Nowadays most of the people who climb are not experienced but are led up by experienced guides and they are most of the time following in the footsteps of other
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people. We had to create our own footsteps and overcome problems, so for us it was very special (Hillary quoted in Harvey, 2003:11).
His words have some resonance for me in my PhD journey where, at times, I have followed in the footsteps of others with the guidance of supervisors, but at other times, I have had to face the challenges myself.
2.2.1. Journeying into the Canyon of Research Methods Canyons are deeply carved narrow valleys explored by people engaged in activities such as walking, li- loing, abseiling and swimming. They are places of rare beauty, where seemingly there may be but one path. However it is possible for the canyon to have several entry and exit points allowing the canyoner to explore that aspect of the canyon that most interests them and to leave the remainder to those before and those that follow. There are risks in exploring only a part of the canyon. One risk is that you may miss the best parts of the canyon, the most beautiful, the most challenging, and/or the most spectacular. Another risk is that by trying to shorten the trip it may be necessary to follow a path that is often more difficult. Some people will choose to make the journey with little or no prior knowledge, and that is the experience of the early explorers of canyons. They have had to feel their way, take the risks and deal with whatever they find. For those that come later there are guidebooks, journal articles and the tall-tales and true from those who have gone before. These may help make the journey simpler and more pleasurable, but in the end it is still necessary for you as the individual to walk that path, to make your own decisions and to experience the place for yourself. There may be times that the journey is simple as you follow the well- worded guide-book, but at other times the guide book may not tell you what you want to know. The journey of the writer may have been different to yours, their objectives may not compare, the weather conditions or group may vary greatly, thus in the end you need to take hold of the journey and begin to explore your own options. To some extent this is similar to the process of exploring research methods that I have experienced. This journey began sometime in 1999 and did not finish until 2003. Along the way there were many sidetracks, dead ends, geographical embarrassments (i.e. getting lost) and at times, much frustration. While I would have preferred to have everything
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‘mapped’ out in the beginning, what happened was a drawn out process with much learning, unlearning and relearning. What follows is a discussion of what I ended up doing, but behind the scenes there are many more stories and reflections on the journey that tell a much richer story – but that may be for another time.
2.2.2. Developing a Research Process In developing a research process the researcher needs to address a series of questions that help frame and locate the research. These questions help articulate what we understand about knowledge and truth. The key questions focus upon: methods, methodology, theoretical perspectives and epistemology. Crotty’s (1998) description of these four aspects is presented in the following section. Methods: the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyse data related to some research question or hypothesis. Methodology: the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to the desired outcomes. Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria. Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology (Crotty, 1998:3).
Crotty (1998) presents a sample of those four categories as displayed in Table 2-1. Two examples of the flow that may occur between the four elements from epistemology, to theoretical perspective to methodology and finally to method are: Constructionism
è symbolic interactionism
è ethnography
è participant observation
Objectivism
è positivism
è survey research
è statistical analysis
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Table 2-1 Representative Sample of Elements of Research Process Epistemology Theoretical Perspective Methodology Objectivism Positivism (and postExperimental research Constructionism positivism) Survey research Subjectivism Interpretivism Ethnography (and their variants) Symbolic Phenomenological interactionism research Phenomenology Grounded theory Hermeneutics Heuristic inquiry Critical inquiry Action research Feminism Discourse analysis Postmodernism Feminist standpoint Etc. research Etc.
Methods Sampling Measurement and scaling Questionnaire Observation Participant Non-participant Interview Focus group Case study Life history Narrative Visual ethnographic methods Statistical analysis Data reduction Theme identification Comparative analysis Cognitive mapping Interpretative methods Document analysis Content analysis Conversation analysis Etc. Source: Michael Crotty (1998), The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and perspective in the research process, Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, NSW, p. 5.
While the ideal may be to begin with our epistemological position and then proceed to the theoretical perspective, in reality what tends to happen is that we begin with a problem or a question, as occurred with this study. As Crotty (1998) suggests we then tend to proceed through a range of questions that include the aims and objectives of the research, the strategies (e.g. methodology and methods) to achieve our aims/objectives and then a justification of those strategies (e.g. theoretical perspective and epistemology).
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Table 2-2 Research Paradigms Issue Positivism Inquiry Aim Explanation, prediction and control
Ontology (Nature of Reality)
Post-Positivism Explanation, prediction and control
Critical Theory Critique and transformation, restitution and emancipation
Naïve realism – there is a reality that we are able to apprehend: aims to determine what is there
Constructivism Understanding the subjective meaning of the individual in its various constructions and reconstructions Relativism – reality is multiple and will be constructed differently by people depending on the meaning they make of their world Transactional / subjectivist; created findings. Findings are read as significant when individuals’ accounts of their reality converge. Hermeneutic: information fed back to participants for confirmation of correct interpretations.
Critical realism – Historical realism there is a reality – virtual reality but it is only shaped by social, imperfectly political, cultural, apprehendable economic, ethnic and therefore and gender predictable only values; in terms of crystallised over probability time Epistemology Dualist / Modified dualist Subjective, value(Nature of objectivist; / objectivist; mediated findings Knowledge) findings are Findings which account for ‘true’. Verified probably true. cultural and hypotheses are Non-falsified historical established as hypotheses are insights. facts or laws probable facts or laws. Methodology Experimental / Modified Methods seen as manipulative; experimental / involving verification by manipulative; dialogue with hypotheses, falsification of participants as chiefly hypotheses, may sources of quantitative include information methods qualitative methods Example: Pre-test, postPre-test, postEthnographic, Group interviews Self-concept test, intervention test, intervention interview and and focus groups and Outdoor group and group and biographies Programmes control group. control group Source: Adapted from Table 1, Pete Allison (2000) Research from the Ground Up: Post-expedition adjustment, Brathay Hall Trust, Ambleside, UK., p. 18.
My journey has seen an epistemological and ontological shift (or realignment or even identification) that has seen me move from a more positivist perspective to one that would more appropriately fall within the realms of the critical position as outlined in Allison’s (2000b) adaptation of Lincoln and Guba (2000) in Table 2-2. Perhaps this was a result with my dissatisfaction with attempts at grand narratives and metatheories; perhaps it was a result of a process where I began to validate my own voice more as I have progressed through this study.
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While Table 2-1 and Table 2-2 do not easily meld, each has assisted me in seeing the bigger picture, as well as putting some of the smaller pieces together – somewhat like doing a jigsaw puzzle.
2.2.3. Fitting the Pieces Together With a journey that has ranged widely and has also continued over an extended period of time, it may be helpful to present the key aspects of the thesis and the time at which they occurred. Figure 2-1 provides an overview of the time frame of the research process and key events from my initial enrolment in an EdD in 1995 (I also completed a Master of Commerce (Human Resource Management) parallel to my enrolment from 19951999).
1-Jan-03
1-Oct-02
1-Jul-02
1-Apr-02
1-Jan-02
1-Oct-01
1-Jul-01
1-Apr-01
1-Jan-01
1-Oct-00
1-Jul-00
1-Apr-00
1-Jan-00
1-Oct-99
1-Jul-99
1-Apr-99
Key Events Enrolment (EdD) 7/95 M Com (HRM) 7/95 Literature Review Methodology Pilot Study 1: MGMT 908, 1999 Pilot Study 2: NRG MGMT 908 2001 Autoethnography Literature Review, Part 2 MGMT 946, 2002 EDGP 912/3, 2002 NRG Interviews Conferences
1-Jan-99
1995-98
Figure 2-1 Thesis Time Frame
Oct/Nov
The emphasis upon the period of 1999 onwards is due to the increased rate of progress that occurred during that period, this period also links to a change in job and career direction that was initiated late in 1998 and occurred in the period of May-June, 1999. It was in May 1999 that I left a job I had been in from February 1995 (just prior to my enrolment) and in July 1999 I commenced fulltime work at the University of Wollongong.
The significance of this change and the impact it has had on the
progress of my thesis mirrors some of the key insights and themes that have emerged from my thesis, such as space and place, as articulated in Chapter 4. While, at times, the pieces did not seem to fit together to form a coherent whole, along the journey I have been ‘places’, done things and had conversations that have
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provided me with a mixture of both useful and distracting moments. What may have made the whole so difficult to see at the beginning was because I was looking at the situation through the wrong ‘lens’. As I changed lenses and began to look at things differently, what was central and what was peripheral changed. Some things seemed essential at the time, but in hindsight, such as the Pilot Study, are less important. Others that seemed unimportant in the beginning became central to the whole, such as my own story. This change of ‘lens’ reflects my paradigm shift from the positivist to the critical. The structure of the remainder of this chapter will follow the four elements of the research process as suggested by Crotty (1998): §
Methods
§
Methodology
§
Theoretical Perspective
§
Epistemology
2.3. Methods The methods are the specific techniques or procedures used (Crotty, 1998). While some texts may focus upon a divide between qualitative and quantitative research (e.g. Braud and Anderson, 1998; Bunting, 2003; Denzin and Lincoln, 2000a; Glesne and Peshkin, 1992; Grbich, 1999), Crotty (1998) suggests that “our research can be qualitative or quantitative, or both qualitative or quantitative, without this being any way problematic. What would seem to be problematic is any attempt to be at once objectivist and constructionist (or subjectivist)” (Crotty, 1998:15). The distinction happens at the methods level (as can be seen in Table 2-1 and Table 2-2), not at the ‘higher’ levels of theoretical perspectives or epistemology as may be inferred from Table 2-12 (page 86). In the following quote Denzin and Lincoln (2000) provide a broad definition of qualitative research: Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations,
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including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000b:3).
The methods used within this thesis are quite diverse and are predominantly qualitative with some use of quantitative techniques in Chapter 5. Even though there is an array of data sources there is no intention to triangulate the data, but rather, as discussed further in 2.3.5, these methods reflect the heuristic research endeavour to acknowledge that whatever “presents itself in the consciousness of the investigator as perception, sense, intuition, or knowledge represented an invitation for further elucidation” (Moustakas, 1990:10). The methods used, drawing upon Crotty (1998) in Table 2-1, include: §
Literature Review (Chapters 3 and 6)
§
Autoethnography (Chapter 4)
§
Instrumentation (Chapter 5)
§
Surveys and Interviews (Chapter 5)
§
Semiotics: Reflections on Images (Chapter 6)
§
Deconstruction (Chapter 6)
A summary of the methods used, the sources from which the data have been gathered, an indication of where they have been used in conjunction and their location in the thesis structure is presented in Table 2-3. Each aspect is discussed in greater depth in the following sections.
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Table 2-3 Data Sources, Sample Sizes and Methods
Data Source Literature Self MGMT 908, 1999 MGMT 908, 2001 MGMT 946, 2002 EDGP 912/3, 2002 NRG Conferences 2002
Literature Review Chs 3 & 6
Autoethnography Ch 4
Instrumentation Ch 5
Questionnaire & Survey Ch 5
Interview Ch 5
ü
Visual Images Ch 6
Deconstruction Ch 6
ü
ü
1 25
25
25
25
25
5
11 9 3 Shorter Version
9 2 76
2.3.1. Literature Review, Chapters 3 and 6 a. Two Approaches In the context of a traditional thesis, the literature review aims to establish the context, the theoretical rationale for the research and to demonstrate that you are aware of the current state of the literature (e.g. Phillips and Pugh, 1994). However, in this thesis, the two literature reviews form an essential part of the research methodology whereby I seek to immerse myself in the topic. As indicated in Table 2-13 (page 93), the literature reviews in Chapters 3 and 6 as well as the autoethnography in Chapter 4, formed part of the immersion process. While the progress from Chapter 3 to 4 sees a narrowing of the focus to a single subject matter, by the time the research has reached Chapter 6 the process has broadened and evolved to draw on a much wider view of the world as reflected in the literature considered, for example urban planning, human geography and organisational aesthetics. b. A Side Track – The literature on facilitation As the literature review in Chapter 3 developed I realised that there was an avenue I would like to explore, that of the origins of the writing on facilitation. As discussed in Chapter 6, this process of exploration began with a question to the online outdoor research discussion list (outres) on 8th February, 2000, a discussion group of researchers from around the world. The question was about what the list members considered the best three articles or books on facilitation. Additionally I asked them
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what their nationality was as well as for them to explain why they thought these to be the best facilitation articles/books. The intent of these questions was firstly to gain a broader list of articles/books than I was aware of, but secondly I was interested in the influence of North American writings and whether particular countries or regions are more influenced than others. From the responses gathered I then went to those articles and bega n to look for the development of the ideas and to begin to trace the history of the thought. From this process one significant writer seemed to come to the fore: Stephen Bacon. So I went to some of his work (Bacon, 1983; Bacon, 1987) as well as back to outres. To outres I asked whether people knew of any works that critiqued the work of Bacon, to which there was a resounding silence (13th April, 2000). I was intrigued. Here was a significant influence to the shape of facilitation writing today and yet there appeared to be no critique of his work. This was made even more significant for me due to Bacon himself acknowledging that his book was “designed as an instructor’s manual for Outward Bound staff members … however this information may have something to offer a wider audience than the Outward Bound community” (Bacon, 1983:vii). Bacon implied that his book was academically written (Bacon, 1983:ix), however there is scant evidence of its development, theoretical basis, nor the existence of supporting research (this is a somewhat ironical critique given my use of autoethnography). Bacon even admits that his book is “as much a synthetic effort (of the work of Jung, Erickson, Bandler, Grinder and Gordon) as an original one” (Bacon, 1983:ix). Yet the work appears to be very influential, maybe even seminal. In an email to Lee Gillis (Gillis Jr., 2000) I asked if he knew more of the origins of Bacon’s work and from Lee’s reply I was directed, again, to the work of Milton Erickson, a hypnotherapist. This ‘signpost’ to Erickson was confirmed by further conversations about neuro- linguistic programming (NLP). Concurrent to the sidetrack on facilitation was a series of conversations with a friend who was studying NLP. NLP has some common ground with the learning styles model I was using in the areas of sensory modalities, as well as the influences upon the work of Stephen Bacon through authors such as Erickson (Sparks, 2000) and Bandler and Grinder (e.g. Bandler and Grinder, 1979). I was interested in discussing with her what the background to NLP was and to begin to understand the underlying Chapter 2: Methods and Methodology: Journey to a Destination
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theories (there’s that question again).
In brief conversations I began to hear a
common name, that of Erickson. It was obvious that I needed to plan a more significant journey along the ‘Erickson Track’. What have Erickson’s writings got to offer my understanding? In beginning to consider this track a question arises about the appropriateness of the influence of writers such as Erickson, who is drawing on a therapeutic background where people are there because of the ‘dysfunction’, versus the use of such theories in the context of corporate experiential learning where it is about developing and building on existing ‘functional’ behaviours. This is a theme explored further by authors such as Moon (1999) and Henry (1999). While this sidetrack would have been interesting to explore it will have to wait for another journey. This sidetrack also influenced my efforts at deconstruction as discussed in 2.3.5. c. Ethical Considerations of Internet Research My request to outres may raise questions in some people’s minds about the ethics of such an action and whether consent is required to use and report the information gathered as I have done with other data sources in Chapter 6. Answers to these questions may rest upon whether postings to outres “are ‘private’ or ‘public’ communications” (Eysenbach and Till, 2001:1104). If outres is a ‘private room’ then specific consent would be required. However if outres is seen as a ‘public space’ or a ‘social domain’ where information posted has similarities to the publication of a letter in a newspaper, then no consent may be required (Bassett and O'Riordan, 2002; DeLorme, Zinkhan and French, 2001; Eysenbach and Till, 2001) or that in the act of willingly contributing material to the discussion group the individual gives implied consent. This may be different where the replies are communicated directly to the person asking the question, rather than via the public forum of the listserve. Another aspect may be the intent, in the first place, of the person asking the question of a discussion group that is primarily about promoting and supporting research. What is the difference if a question was asked without the prior intent of using the information as data within a research project? Do we have the right or the expectation to go back to the contributors to obtain consent? Are we the n raising issues of breaching of privacy? What is the difference between an online discussion and a
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discussion over a coffee with a group of friends whose questions and comments may help us better form and direct our research? How do we reference and obtain consent for these casual conversations? As well as intent, there are also the questions related to the nature of the inquiry. If the inquiry was a focus group or an in-depth interview is the question of ethics and consent different (DeLorme et al., 2001)? How do I view outres? For me it has been a place where I can ask questions, throw around ideas and challenge mine and others’ thinking.
In exploring these questions I find myself reflecting upon my own
participation on outres, a place I have found to be useful in exploring and challenging mine and others’ thinking. Where I wished communications to be private I took them out of the outres forum and directed communication to the individual in question. If I was happy for the broader public to view my responses, then I posted them to outres. This is one filter I have used, and I have experienced others using who have communicated with me directly, to help determine my own perception on whether outres is a public space or private room. The position I have taken on this in the context of my request to outres is that outres is a public space where information gathered is available for use without consent. If people wish their communication to remain private then that should not be communicated via discussion groups such as outres. This position is influenced by the following factors: •
My understanding is that outres is a discussion group that is focused upon the support, development and advancement of outdoor and adventure education research.
From my perspective the participation in and/or observation of
discussions would appear to be substantially motivated by this focus and that people are posting questions and comments with the intent of developing their ideas and the ideas of others •
Participation in outres, while requiring an initial registration, is voluntary and any individual may choose to participate in a line of discussion or not. The level of participation, visibility and disclosure is determined by the individual contributor, not the person making the request. In fact most people on outres do not actively
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participate and may in fact be ‘lurking’ and ‘eavesdropping’ on the ‘conversations’ of others who are more actively involved (DeLorme et al., 2001) •
All communications contributed to outres are electronically recorded and are publicly available, including the names and email addresses of contributors, through
the
archives
(http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/lists/outres.html).
The
information is not kept private •
No pseudonyms or fake names appear to be used. Participants on outres freely provide their names and at times include their positions, institutions/organisations, fax and phone numbers. Additionally people will often address other list members in a familiar and friendly way due to previous knowledge, friendships and working relationships between list members
•
Contributor’s names and contact details have been removed in this thesis, only information on gender and nationality has been included
•
The information I gathered, on the articles, from my initial request was summarised and reposted to outres for the information of the whole discussion group.
2.3.2. Autoethnography: A Method, A Way of Life, Chapter 4 I have used autoethnography to tell my story, but I was not writing and reflecting beginning with a ‘tabula rasa’. Rather the tablet already had many notes jotted down over which I placed my experience and then I sought to order what I saw. I was moving my experience forward and moving the literature back, but still having the description of my experience as transparent as possible to allow the literature to be seen.
The research, in part, is the life story; the life story is the research.
By
investigating learning, primarily through the eyes of one, me, I was the subject of that story and I was the narrator/researcher of that story. It is my journey that is being told, complete with sidetracks, bumpy roads, highways, intersections, dead-ends and many experiences of feeling lost. In looking at learning in experiential learning, I do so through a range of learning experiences. Autoethnography is just one.
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a. Autoethnographies An autoethnography is a mixture of the auto (self), the enthno (culture) and the graphy (research/writing), any autoethnography will vary as to the degree of emphasis given to each of these aspects (Banks and Banks, 2000; Ellis and Brochner, 2000). Ellis and Bochner (2000) describe the autoethnography as “an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural” (Ellis and Brochner, 2000:739), while Banks and Banks (2000) recall Richardson’s definition that it is a “highly personalized, revealing text in which an author tells stories about his or her own lived experience” (Banks and Banks, 2000:234). The great value of autoethnography is the focus of the researcher as the subject, however a criticism of autoethnography is the subjective nature of the researcher as subject with a very real risk that it be called a “narcissistic display of self- absorption” (Banks and Banks, 2000:234) by those who may see truth, validity and generalisability from a different research paradigm. Crotty (1998) refers to the autoethnography in a not too flattering light when he says: Instead, a rampant subjectivism seems to be abroad. It can be detected in the turning of phenomenology from a study of phenomena as the immediate objects of experience into a study of experiencing individuals. It is equally detectable in the move taking place in some quarters today to supplant ethnography with an ‘autoethnography’ (Crotty, 1998:48).
In contrast to Crotty, Grbich (1999) reflects that: In auto-ethnographies, the self is both the subject of the study and the narrator. The self is connected to others within the contexts of culture and societal structures in an overlapping and interconnecting fashion. Stories are presented in a creative manner utilising fiction, drama or poetry, and the aim is to engage and involve the reader in the writer’s experiences. The focus of the subjective view is the emotion: the physical and the cognitive within contexts (Grbich, 1999:237).
In as much as the autoethnography is about the self and the self is as narrator, in the context of this thesis the topic is primarily ‘learning’. At the same time the self, the researcher, the narrator, is learning about a range of topics such as: learning, autoethnographies, research methods, PhDs and, to a certain extent, learning about ways to combine research with ‘having a life’. This story of self is a situated, contextualised story, but as Banks and Banks (2000) suggest, for the writer to clearly
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define the context may be limiting the reader.
I have provided some level of
contextualisation in the introduction and methods chapters, but, as Banks and Banks suggest the “contexts for interpreting and applying an autoethnographic text should be – perhaps can only be – supplied by the readers” (Banks and Banks, 2000:233). The autoethnography is presented as a journal of my thoughts, written as they occur. Each entry is dated, and usually time and place is included. Reflective comments are added, primarily, from my Learning Style Analysis (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000) and at times from other readings and are presented using a different layout to differentiate between my thoughts as they occurred and the reflections and analysis as they have occurred, which could be up to two years later. These reflections provide a lens of interpretation of my experiences, but this interpretation could just as easily be added through a lens of personality styles, behavioural styles, power relations, social context, time of day, aesthetics, space and place – but more of this later in Chapter 6. While the autoethnography is presented in Chapter 4 and the results of various instrument and surveys are presented primarily in Chapter 5, the reality is that the decision to use the LSA preceded my decision to write an autoethnography. In the end, the LSA has become a lens or a filter through which I have been able to reflect upon my experience as well as a mechanism to gain further insight from a number of other people in classes I have taught and workshops I have presented.
2.3.3. Instrumentation, Chapters 4 and 5: Instrumentation, while common within a positivist framework, can also be used within research that lies within other frameworks.
Spindler and Spindler (1992)
suggest that “Instrumentation and quantification are simply procedures employed to extend and reinforce certain kinds of data, interpretations and test hypotheses across samples. Both must be kept in their place. One must avoid their premature or overly extensive use as a security mechanism” (cited in: Denzin and Lincoln, 1998:9). The instrumentation used here, the Learning Style Analysis, was ultimately administered to 73 participants all of whom were postgraduate students (including myself) and was used in conjunction with my autoethnography as well as questionnaires and interviews with different groups.
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a. A New Zealand Side Track to the Learning Styles Analysis Initially I did not have a clear learning style theory or model in mind as I began this journey, it was only a chance encounter at a conference in New Zealand that led me to the Learning Style Analysis (LSA), a model that seemed to fit some of my emerging areas of concern. The choice to use a previously designed learning style instrument has been important in influencing the shape and direction of this research process. In choosing a learning style instrument, or any predetermined instrument at all, raises questions such as: §
Why focus on learning styles at all?
§
Why or why not analyse learning styles?
§
What benefit is gained or lost as a result of using an instrument such as the LSA?
§
What are the perceived benefits gained?
§
Is there the potential to head down a track that is irrelevant as a result of focusing on learning styles, and/or by analysing those learning styles using a particular instrument at the exclusion of some other instrument?
Here lies a dilemma! b. Why ‘Learning Styles’ and the Learning Styles Analysis?
i.
Learning Styles
It has been suggested that in focusing upon learning styles the process of seeking to classify them “may be convenient at times, (but) more is often lost than is gained by ignoring the uniqueness of each person’s history and ways of experiencing the world” (Boud, Cohen and Walker, 1993:11). The perception of the value of learning styles is limited by the depth and breadth of the learning model adopted. In this case, by using Dunn and Prashnig’s LSA (Appendix 6), the effort was made to use a much broader model of learning styles that took into account a wide variety of perspectives and influences on the individual’s learning experience. While there still exists a risk by
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placing focus on one learning style model this may be merely a perceived risk, but risk is part of what adventure is about, so on I went. In this research situation the risk is a managed risk, and, as with any advent ure or outdoor program, risks need to be managed to acceptable levels. The risk, in this instance, is managed by not taking the concept of learning styles, nor the Learning Styles Analysis as prescriptive, descriptive or normative but rather they are used to open up dialogue based upon common language, to explore other possibilities and to potentially see things through new or different ‘lenses’. The intent was not to place people in boxes, or to classify them, but to introduce a subject for discussion and exploration that may be new or different for the participants. For some participants, it was envisaged, they may never have considered that there may be another way of learning, they may never have reflected upon their own experience as a learner or trainer to see that there may be other possibilities. However as adult learners, their own experience of learning may demonstrate that there is a gap between their lived experience of learning and their lived experience of training.
ii.
The Learning Styles Analysis (LSA)
The use of any instrument, including the Learning Style Analysis, is open to challenge as to its reliability, validity and also its appropriateness for the participant group and for the research question. In this instance, as stated above, the LSA is used, not as a way of categorising, but rather as a means of opening the possibility that there may be other ways to learn that are different from the individual experiences and/or knowledge of the participants. As discussed in Chapter 3, Dunn and Dunn’s original form of this learning style model has quite strong validity and reliability (Curry, 1990). c. Why or why not analyse learning styles?
i.
What is the perceived benefit?
In a thesis that incorporates a substantial aspect of honouring my own knowledge and tacit knowing through the autoethnography, it may seem contradictory to choose to use an instrument to analyse other people’s learning styles.
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consistent to ask people how they believe they learn? Probably or possibly, yet my experience with interviewing students in Pilot Study 1 might suggest that people do not necessarily have the conscious knowledge of learning that is necessary to articulate what is going on for them. The LSA gave me a means of comparing a number of people across a range of criteria. In addition, I was able to explore individuals and groups (e.g. females, males, young, old etc.) from different perspectives and to compare individual responses in surveys and assignments to their LSAs. It also helped to raise questions about learning and to challenge commonly held views on how we might facilitate or teach.
ii.
What may be lost as a result?
On the down side of using one particular model is that there may be the potential to suppress the tacit knowledge, intuitive insights and unconscious knowing that people may hold about their learning and the learning of others. By upholding one particular model, the more intuitive types may defer to the ‘proven’ model rather than acknowledging and honouring their own personal experiences and perceptions. One avenue for accounting for this limitation is in my autoethnography, as discussed in 2.3.2, where I write my own thoughts and feelings and then read back over it to see what, if any connections, may exist with my LSA (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000). While I do not approach the experience of learning with a tabula rasa, I am aware that my LSA is in my mind as I have been writing and reflecting upon my own learning experience.
2.3.4. Surveys and Interviews Surveys, particularly via questionnaires, provide a means by which “the researcher can collect large amounts of data quickly and efficiently … [while an] an interviewer can explain, probe more deeply, and facilitate the uncovering of information that would not be accessible through more superficial methods” (Braud and Anderson, 1998:281).
The limitations of the questionnaire is that the ‘sample’ used may be
limited, and the richness sought in a research process such as this may be lost. Questionnaires and interviews were used in conjunction with the LSA in two Pilot
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Studies in 1999, and then questionnaires were used in conjunction with the conference workshops in 2002. It may seem contradictory for someone who is seeking to argue from a critical, nonpositivist perspective to seemingly succumb to a more typical positivist method. However, as highlighted by Crotty (1998), what is important is the theoretical perspective and epistemological position I am coming from. The methods can be used effectively across a variety of theoretical perspectives and epistemologies. What may also be of value to consider is the weight given to the ‘evidence’ gathered via the different methods. In the end, in this thesis, what is given substantial weight is my experience, not the data gather from questionnaires and LSAs. Following is a detailed description of the Pilot Studies, the postgraduate subjects in 2001 and 2002 as well as the conference presentations in 2002. These descriptions include demographic details of each group as well as the relevant research designs. The key sections are: §
Trying to Fit Into Those Boxes: Two Pilot Studies;
§
Pilot Study 1: MGMT 908, 1999;
§
Pilot Study 2: ‘NRG’, 1999;
§
Making Progress: Subjects and Workshops, 2001 and 2002, and
§
NRG Interviews, 2002 a. Trying to Fit Into Those Boxes: Two Pilot Studies
The following two descriptions of Pilot Studies that I sought to implement are a reflection of my attempt at meeting that call for finding the ‘gap in the literature’. It reflects my perceived, and maybe misguided, desire for validity and reliability, for making things provable and generalisable within this research. As I look back, it is no wonder I had been bogged down and making little progress. Lots of my energy had been expended trying to prove something in a way that I was not passionate about. I had been trying to fit into someone else’s little box or paradigm, and I did n’t want to
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fit! And I didn’t like their box! The insights gained and the ‘results’ obtained from these studies are included in Chapter 5. While the Pilot Studies may have seemed like a distraction at the time they have ultimately influenced the direction of the research by providing feedback on areas that I did not want go and also giving me some direction as to where I should be putting my efforts. These insights have particularly impacted upon the shape of research with respect to the data gathered from the subjects I taught in 2001 and 2002 and the conference workshops in 2002. b. Pilot Study 1: MGMT 908, 1999 For there is no learning without exposure, often dangerous, to the other. I will never again know what I am, where I am, from where I’m from, where I’m going, through where to pass (Serres, 1991:8) As a new lecturer (appointed in July, 1999), I had the opportunity to use one of my classes as a Pilot Study.
This was an opportunity to trial interview questions, to
design questionnaires and to conduct follow up interviews. The Pilot Study was conducted parallel to Lecturing in a postgraduate class in the Faculty of Commerce at the University of Wollongong. The subject was entitled: MGMT 908 Human Resource Development and the Learning Organisation and as such provided a significant degree of latitude to explore issues relevant to and related to this research area.
i.
Participant Selection
In terms of the selection of this class, the selection process was a pragmatic, or opportunistic, decision based upon who was in the class. As an exploratory Pilot Study the opportunity to work with participants who were able to give feedback on the research process as well as potentially gain from the research process was perceived as being mutually beneficial. Each student was given the information about the research and then given a choice as to their willingness to participate through their signing a form expressing their interest in participation as required by the University Ethics Committee.
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ii.
Class and Student Profiles
The breakdown of course enrolments of the 25 students is displayed in Table 2-4. Table 2-4 Degree Enrolments of Students Number (%) Degrees Being Studied 16 (64) Master of Commerce 5 (20) Master of Business Administration 2 (8) Master of Quality Management 1 (4) Doctor of Philosophy (Public Health) 1 (4) Not indicated
The gender split is fairly even with 54% females and 46% males with a wide variety of nationalities as presented in Table 2-5: Table 2-5 Gender and Nationality Distribution Nationality Female Male Number (%) Number (%) Australian 4 (16) 7 (28) Chinese 2 (8) Fijian 1 (4) Indonesian 1 (4) Korean 1 (4) Pakistani 1 (4) PNG 1 (4) Taiwanese 1 (4) Thai 2 (8) Not indicated 2 (8) 2 (8) TOTAL 13 (52) 12 (48)
Total Number (%) 11 (44) 2 (8) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 2 (8) 4 (16) 25 (100)
The age range was 21 to 53 years, with a mean of 30.26 and a standard deviation of 10.38.
iii.
Subject Purpose
MGMT 908 is a postgraduate subject offered in Semester 2 within the Department of Management and is a compulsory subject for Human Resource Management majors providing an advanced perspective on the use of Human Resource Development in organisations. (University of Wollongong, 1999)
iv.
Process Overview
The research process was chosen both as a result of the subject matter, but also influenced by the shape of the subject. The relationship between the subject matter
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and the research area was quite close and thus afforded a unique opportunistic and pragmatic scenario. The process began and was designed to evolve as I moved from a position of not knowing what I did not know, to a more informed position of knowing what I did not know with the ultimate hope being, knowing more than when I started! At the early stages the process was represented in Figure 2-2, with the solid arrows representing the ‘direction of travel’, while the dashed arrows represent the forces or influences that one section may have upon future components of the research. Figure 2-2 MGMT 908 1999 Proposed Pilot Process Wk 1 Complete Learning Styles Analysis
Wks 3 & 4 Present on a Positive Learning Experience Wks 5 & 6 Interview Re: Espoused Theory
2-3 Months Later Interview on any Changes Made Wks 11 -14 Presentation and Individual Reflection
Wk 7 Learning Styles, Adventure & Experiential Learning
The process reflects the positivist mindset that I was emerging from and thus a tendency towards a: pre-test, experiment, post-test model. The steps in the process and the rationale for each step is as follows: Completion of the Learning Styles Analysis (Wk 1) The Learning Style Analysis was distributed in class during week 1 with the indication that feedback would be available during the weekend workshop between weeks 7 and 8. This was to provide a common basis of feedback and understanding about learning and for the individuals to ga in greater insight into how they learned. Individual Presentations (Wks 3 and 4) Each student in the class had to give a 5 minute presentation on a positive or significant learning experience they have had in the workplace. This may be a formal,
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informal, or serendipitous learning. The main aim was to consider the context in which the learning occurred to provide a variety of examples of learning. Participate in a One-on-One Interview (Wks 5 and 6) The interviews were scheduled so they fell between the Individual Presentation and the feedback on learning styles to gain insight into how the individual saw or understood learning, both their own and that of others. The initial questions were designed with the intention to elicit information about the participants espoused theory of learning and to contrast that to the theory in action as evidenced by the content of their presentations (Delahaye, 2000). The interviews were to be recorded for later transcribing and for follow- up and feedback from the participants. The participants were informed prior to the commencement of the interview that they would have the opportunity to view the transcripts to provide comment and/or make changes as they considered necessary to ensure the integrity of the content. All but one of the interviews was conducted in the office of the researcher and focused upon the questions in Table 2-6. Table 2-6 MGMT 908, 1999 Interview Questions Interview 1: Proposed Interview Questions Intent of Question 1.What & how have you been taught about how 1. Who / What has been the influences upon their you should learn? understanding of learning? 1a. Where have gained this knowledge from? 1a.Have they learned: thru’ experience, formal etc: link to LSA? 2. From your own knowledge and experience, 2. What is the “espoused” theory? what do you think is the “best” way for people to learn in organisations? 3. In your presentation you described a learning 3. Recap for the record experience, can you please briefly recap that experience? 3a. What influenced your choice over any other learning experience? 4. Please describe 2 other learning experiences 4. Is there consistency in their stories? Do their you have had at work stories begin to explain what their preferred learning etc is as revealed in LSA? 5. If you had your choice how would you create 5. From their stories (theory in action) are they a learning environment? becoming aware of different ways of learning? Do they see/hear the other possibilities? Will/Is this reflected in their presentations in Wks 1114?
It quickly became clear that the information being gleaned from the interviews did not align with the desired outcomes of the question design.
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manifold, however one in particular seemed to prevail, i.e. that of the participants not having been in a situation before where they had to think about how people learned. Participate in Sessions (Wk 7) These sessions were designed to: §
give feedback on their individual learning styles as well as an overview of Learning Styles Theory
§
present information and experience on the use of adventure and experiential learning techniques as well as facilitation and processing skills
The sessions were conducted over a weekend to maximise the opportunity to build on potential learning and to build upon the participant’s exposure to Learning Styles Theory as presented in the first session. The sessions covered: §
Learning Styles Theory as presented with the Learning Styles Analysis
§
Experience of Adventure-Based Team Development
§
The Theory of Experiential and Adventure-Based Learning
§
Presentation and Facilitation Skills
§
Peer Feedback
Present, with a small group, and reflect upon the effectiveness of a Training Session To provide a small group environment where issues of learning could be explored at greater depth and to provide a situation where the learning theory could be put into practice. Participate in up to 2 further interviews following the completion of the Subject requirements (Up to 2 months later) This was to follow-up on any leads generated by the previous process and to explore questions of the possible transfer of learning to work, home or some other environment.
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v.
Observations following the Initial Interviews
At an early stage in the Pilot Study it was becoming evident that the data being gathered was not of a quantity and quality that was desired, especially from the initial interviews. It was proposed that this could be for a range of reasons such as: §
The questions were not clear
§
The location (my office is still a little Spartan to say the least) may have been an inhibiting factor to open and honest conversation
§
The participants may not have had the level of knowledge and experience of the subject matter to provide the information sought
§
The
great
possibility
of
me
having
ineffective
and/or
inadequate
communication and/or interview skills In addition to problems identified in the data being gathered, there was the inevitable technological problem with the tape recording of the interviews being of poor quality making the transcribing almost impossible and the value and integrity of the transcripts questionable. To further add to the learning opportunities from this Pilot Study there was a range of information about the individuals which was considered to be of potential value in terms of understanding participant responses and to aid in further research design phases.
This information was related to a range of
demographic data including age, country of origin, country/ies of education, undergraduate majors etcetera. As a consequence of the above, a deviation from the initial research design was planned whereby location and recording issues would be addressed and to also provide opportunity to increase the demographic data collected on each individual. To this end a questionnaire was designed (Appendix 1). Broadly, the demographic questions were based upon questions from the Employee Survey of The Illawarra Workplace Industrial Relations Survey 1996 (University of Wollongong, 1996), while the remaining questions were developments from the initial Interview Questions. This questionnaire was to be administered via email in the full knowledge of the possible disadvantages related to being dependent upon a specific technology but also knowing that in resorting to an electronic interview there may a consequent decrease in the Chapter 2: Methods and Methodology: Journey to a Destination
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quality and richness of data gathered. In the context of this Pilot Study the limitations of administering the questionnaire in an electronic format were deemed acceptable as the motivation, in part, for the revised research process was a result of the inadequate data gathered in the initial one-on-one interviews from whence more rich data could have been expected.
vi.
Results and Insights
The results and insights from this process are presented in Chapter 5, the results highlight that this was probably the wrong group, being asked the wrong questions by a researcher who was heading down, not necessarily a dead end, but a side track that may indicate a case of ‘geographic embarrassment’ (i.e. I was in the wrong place, possibly using the wrong ‘map’ and I was lost). But they are still an experience from which I could learn. My desire to quantify, analyse, ‘box- ise’ fell flat on its face, but I did have some interesting data from the individuals’ LSAs and insights into what I wouldn’t do next time. What I really needed was people who knew what I was talking about in the first place, or at least understood some basics about learning. My hope was that NRG would provide such a group. c. Pilot Study 2: ‘NRG’, 1999 A second Pilot Study was planned to commence before the end of 1999 that would focus on issues and questions raised through the initial Pilot Study. The participants of this group were NRG. NRG is a small group of fellow PhD students mostly from the Faculty of Commerce at the University of Wollongong (The initials, N.R.G. don’t necessarily stand for anything). We have been meeting together for several years providing support, direction and provocation as we individually and collectively travelled our PhD pathways. It was envisaged that this study would focus on two elements: §
The participant selection and their prior knowledge of learning, training and potentially experiential learning
§
The interview questions and the depth and quality of answers being elicited
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These two elements are obviously closely related. This second Pilot Study never occurred. While I did survey NRG with the LSA it was a case of square pegs and round holes. There was no clear sense of how they fitted into the research picture. They were not the right people for doing this research, they did not have the practical and theoretical understanding to enable me to gain the relevant feedback I was after. This may seem ironic, but this group, while students and lecturers and/or tutors, were not involved in considering, at a deep level, what is learning? There is a sense that I need people to understand the concepts of learning and different ways people learn in order to gain effective feedback on the questions I want to ask. NRG remains a more useful research feedback mechanism than research subjects, however some of its members will return as participants in interviews nearly three years later. d. Making Progress: Subjects and Workshops, 2001 and 2002 Progress was made as I was able to build and develop my research direction through a range of subjects I taught in 2001 and 2002 as well as a range of conference workshops I conducted in 2002: MGMT 908, 946 and EDGP 912/3 are postgraduate subjects offered at the University of Wollongong. They are: §
MGMT 908: Human Resource Development
§
MGMT 946: Personal Learning and Development: The Reflective Manager
§
EDGP 912/3: Facilitation Techniques in Outdoor Education
The conference workshops were at a South East Asian conference (SEA) with a repeat workshop, and a North American conference (NA), with just one workshop. Each of these was to an audience that predominantly involved experiential learning facilitators.
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i.
The Subjects
MGMT 908 and MGMT 946 involved me facilitating the learning of others, where I was interested in exploring the students’ responses to the learning experiences. EDGP 912/3, on the other hand, was more focused upon them as facilitators of the learning of others. With these students I was interested in looking at whether they had changes their practice as a result of the LSA and their own learning experiences in this subject. The choice and opportunity to work with these three postgraduate classes as part of my PhD was totally opportunistic (Grbich, 1999). As the research developed and I was presented with these classes to teach, in formats that suited my research agenda, I was more able to effectively weave the subjects into the research and to weave the research around the subjects. Any further follow up of these students would most likely be through the use of convenience sampling (Grbich, 1999) given that the students are all post graduates, some from overseas and interstate. In addition, for most of these courses the students may only be at university for a year or two, so that by the time I may wish to follow them up they may have already graduated and are not easily recontacted. If this study was seeking to establish generalisations regarding the facilitation of learning, then the use of opportunistic and convenience sampling would be problematic, but as an exploration of learning from individual experiences, these techniques provide the most timely, effective and straight forward approach to reaching appropriate co-researchers. I had initially planned to use MGMT 908: Human Resource Development in 2002 as my ‘spare’ research opportunity. However, with enrolments in post graduate subjects being variable, the administration decided in early March 2002 to cancel the subject, 6 weeks before it was due to start. This put extra emphasis on using the existing sources as effectively as possible to gather the information I needed.
ii.
MGMT 908 2001
Two years after my initial Pilot Study with MGMT 908 2001 it looked like this subject may play a more significant component of my research than the 1999 Pilot Study. As with the earlier Pilot Study conducted in 1999 this subject is part of the Master of Commerce program at the University of Wollongong which was offered both in Wollongong or Sydney with two intensives of three days and two days.
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Participant Profile The participants as summarised in Table 2-7 had an age range of 21 years to 49 years, with a mean of 30.60 and a standard deviation of 8.59. Table 2-7 Profile of MGMT 908, 2001 Participants Female Male Number (%) Number (%) NationalityAustralian 9 (36) 4 (16) Indonesian 1 (4) Thai 3 (12) Korean 1 (4) Taiwanese 1 (4) Chinese 1 (4) Serbian 1 (4) Maldivian 1 (4) Macedonian 1 (4) British 1 (4) Turkish 1 (4) Total 15 (60) 10 (40)
Total Number (%) 13 (52) 1 (4) 3 (12) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 25 (100)
Research Design In addition to the LSA and their assignments, the students also completed 3 surveys: one at the beginning of Intensive #1 looking at their experience of completing the LSA, Survey 2 was completed at the end of Intensive #1 asking questions about the learning experience and any changes they may make as a result of the intensive and Survey 3 was completed at the end of Intensive #2 asking questions about changes they may have made in the previous four weeks as well as anything significant about their learning experiences of Intensive #2 (Appendix 2). It was hoped the results of these surveys would be presented in Chapter 5, but as with the 1999 Pilot Study, the lack of depth of understanding about learning has limited the insight gained and thus they have not been used further.
iii.
MGMT 946 2002
As with MGMT 908, MGMT 946: Personal Learning and Development, The Reflective Manager is part of the Master of Strategic Human Resource Management program in the Department of Management at the University of Wollongong. This subject was also delivered over two intensives, the first is three days at the end of
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Week 3 and the second is two days at the end of Week 7. There were pre-course readings to do and an assignment due in Week 3. Participant Profile The participants as summarised in Table 2-8 had an age range of 24 years to 46 years, with a mean of 32.64 and a standard deviation of 9.36. Table 2-8 Profile of MGMT 946, 2002 Participants Female Male Number (%) Number (%) Nationality Australian 3 (27.3) Taiwanese 1 (9.1) Chinese 2 (18.2) British 1 (9.1) Argentinean 1 (9.1) Indian 1 (9.1) Laotian 1 (9.1) Austrian 1 (9.1) Total 9 (81.8) 2 (18.2)
Total Number (%) 3 (27.3) 1 (9.1) 2 (18.2) 1 (9.1) 1 (9.1) 1 (9.1) 1 (9.1) 1 (9.1) 11 (100)
Research Design As with MGMT 908, 2001 the students in MGMT 946 completed the LSA as part of the class.
iv.
EDGP 912/3 2002
EDGP 912/3: Facilitation in Outdoor Education is one of three subjects in the Graduate Certificate of Outdoor Education offered by the Faculty of Education at the University of Wollongong as well as an a subject with the Masters and Doctorate of Education programs. It is offered every two years and draws people from education and non-education backgrounds. Participant Profile The participants, as summarised in Table 2-9, had an age range of 23 years to 47 years, with a mean of 32.00 and a standard deviation of 7.66.
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Table 2-9 Profile of EDGP 912/3, 2002 Participants Female Male Number (%) Number (%) Nationality Australian 4 (44.4) 4 (44.4) Canadian 1 (11.2) Total 4 (44.4) 5 (55.6)
Total Number (%) 8 (88.8) 1 (11.2) 9 (100.0)
The Research Design As with the other, MGMT 908 and MGMT 946 subjects, the research design was woven into the subject. As such, the students had to complete a pre-workshop survey addressing questions about their current practice, the LSA (to be sent in prior to Intensive #1 for processing and distribution during the intensive) and a critical reflection on their current practice in light of the readings suggested. For EDGP 912/3 two surveys were conducted, Part A prior to the commencement of the program and Part B after the second weekend intensive. At the South East Asian Conference (SEA) and the North American Conference (NA) the questionnaire (Appendix 5) was presented as a single form. The rationale for each question is at the end of Appendix 5. As with the best intentions of MGMT 908, the data gathered from participants in EDGP 912/3, as presented in Chapter 5, was not as significant as I had hoped due to the relatively limited level of experience in facilitating experiential learning of the participants.
v.
Workshop Questionnaire
As a result of being disappointed with quality of data that I was gathering through the surveys in MGMT 908, I sought another avenue for gathering information about professional practice of facilitators of experiential learning. To find these people and to investigate their practice I surveyed participants in the EDGP 912/3 subject as well as in 3 workshops I presented during 2002: one in South East Asia (SEA) where I presented twice and one in North America (NA). The workshops were conducted the same way at the two conferences, using the same activities, overheads, learning style assessment, structure and timing, however the group sizes varied greatly. In SEA I conducted two workshops back to back, the first
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had approximately 30 participants the second 90 participants. In NA there were 42 participants. EDGP 912/3 had essentially the same material, however instead of using a brief learning style assessment (Appendix 3) I used the full LSA (Appendix 6). The decision to use a learning style assessment that only covered the three sensory modalities of visual, auditory and kinaesthetic, was a pragmatic decision that was based upon the limited time available (the workshops were only 90 minutes, the full LSA takes about 45 minutes to administer plus processing and printing time) and the lack of pre-enrolments which meant that administering a full LSA beforehand was not possible. The learning style assessment used in the workshops could be completed in approximately 15 minutes and used language that was generally accessible to those speaking English as a second or third language and was used with the permission of the author (Connor, 2002). The questionnaire (Appendix 5) asked questions related to: demographic questions, reflective activities they used, client groups, working environment, average program length, group size, previous study of learning styles, their preferred learning style and their interest/preference in activities in which they participated in during the workshop. The rationale for the questions is presented at the end of Appendix 5.
vi.
Workshop Design
An ‘Experience’: Reflective Activities The first 20-25 minutes of the workshop involved an ‘experience’ where the participants chose to sit in a group for which there was an allocated activity. When they were settled I revealed a question they were to answer using that activity (as indicated above). After four minutes they would move to another activity before another question was revealed. The questions, in some senses, were irrelevant, it was the experience of participating in a range of diverse reflective activities that was the emphasis. The questions were: What are your goals for this conference? §
How would you describe the feel/culture of your current work environment?
§
How effective is your current professional practice?
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§
What are your dreams for the future?
§
What are your concerns about the future?
It was not intended to provide sufficient time to complete all activities, but rather to offer an opportunity for participants to ‘graze’ or ‘try before you buy’.
The
participants were then asked, via the survey, to rank how interesting or engaging they found each activity. The activities used at SEA and NA were: §
Avant cards are free postcards available in many coffee shops and the like that are used for advertising.
They often have powerful and creative images.
Participants were asked to select one card that represented their response to the question §
Newspaper Headlines involved the group creating a mock-up of a front page of a newspaper using flip chart paper and coloured pens. The participants can use words, pictures, colour and creativity.
§
Group Journalling consisted of the group creating one journal that combined the experiences of the individual group members. The hope was to provide a space for people to share their views but in a less confronting way than if one was writing a personal journal.
§
Feelings Market Place is a commercially available activity that has ‘feeling’ words presented in creative formats on cards. Participants were asked to choose two or three words which they would use in sentence, paragraph or poem to answer the question (Dickson, 2001b). By emphasising the use of short responses was both to help focus those who wish to speak plentifully and also to limit the concerns of others who may not want to express very much.
§
Colour My Feelings is an activity I devised as most of the others involved some form of written or spoken words. In this activity the participants used crayons to express their emotions, but without the use of words. Others in the group were then asked to interpret the picture.
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Learning Styles Assessment A short learning styles assessment was then presented that took about 10-12 minutes to complete as discussed in v. The information given to the participants included that: This is a simplified version. This assessment only looks at sensory modalities: §
visual,
§
auditory,
§
tactile/kinaesthetic
What is your preferred modes of receiving information? Overheads Following the ‘experience’ and the Learning Styles Assessment, I then moved into a overhead presentation that outlined the Learning Styles Analysis (summarised in Appendix 4) as well as beginning to direct people’s thinking about how they facilitated.
vii.
Participant Profiles
The responses analysed below totalled 76, which included eight responses from EDGP 912/3, 28 from SEA and 40 from NA with 30 (39.5%) being from females and 46 (60.5%) from males. Table 2-10 Workshop Survey Demographic Data Total Mean Std Min Responses Years Dev Age 70 33.69 11.54 15 Years in 64 7.01 6.80 0 Experiential Education
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The 64 people who indicated their years of experience represent a total of 449 years of experience.
The 19 different nationalities, as indicated by 73 of the workshop
participants from the three different situations, are presented in Table 2-11. The participants indicating their nationalities as ‘Native American’ and ‘Mohawk’ used those specific descriptions themselves and I chose to respect their choices. Table 2-11 Workshop Survey Nationalities Nationality Total % Australian 8 11.0 Sri Lankan 1 0.73 Canadian 3 4.1 Japanese 1 0.73 British 2 2.7 South African 1 0.73 Malay 4 5.5 Indonesian 2 2.7 American 32 43.8 Singaporean 8 11.0 Hong Kong 1 0.73 German 1 0.73 Korean 1 0.73 Chinese 1 0.73 Swiss 1 0.73 Belgian 1 0.73 Mohawk 1 0.73 Mexican 2 2.7 Native American 2 2.7 Total 73
e. NRG Interviews, 2002 While members of NRG had formed part of the initial design of my research process, it was only in the latter stages that a series of ‘interviews’ occurred with two members of NRG that focused on issues pertinent to my research. Neither ‘interview’ was deliberately sought, both emerged serendipitously from general conversations about what Lane and Anne where doing in their work or study (names have been changed). As such the interviews were informal and unstructured (Grbich, 1999). The first series of ‘conversations’ occurred with Lane after I had assisted with a postgraduate class she was teaching, where I conducted a few experiential teambuilding activities during a three-hour period. Lane chose to be a participant during these activities, including while I ‘debriefed’ the activities. These activities and the following reflective processes raised a range of questions for Lane, questions that could not be answered in the time allocated for the class, nor in the ‘place’ in which Chapter 2: Methods and Methodology: Journey to a Destination
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we were. Initially the issues emerged over a quick conversation talking about the class.
I wanted to explore them further and to tape the conversation, but the
opportunity did not arise, so I followed up Lane via email, seeking insights from her perspective about her needs for time and space. The second series of conversations occurred with Anne. Anne was in town enjoying the snow as well as taking advantage of my place so she could continue working on her thesis during the week she was around. As with Lane, the intent was not to talk about issues relevant to my thesis, yet as we sat in my lounge talking about what Anne was doing with her thesis, themes began to emerge that seemed connected to my areas of interest. As we talked I audiotaped our conversation.
2.3.5. Semiotics: Reflections on Images, Chapter 6 Within the context of the second literature review in Chapter 6 I also endeavoured to look not just at words, but also images, visual images that stood out to me from the texts that I had been reading on facilitation.
Strati (2000b:50), writing from the
perspective of organisational theory, notes that semiotics “seeks to construe the ‘signs that convey discourse’, from architecture to modes of dress, from visible signs to hidden messages which communicates values”.
In this context, the discourse I
‘observed, that I sought to understand more deeply, is the one conveyed via the photographs used in three books related to the facilitation of experiential learning (Luckner and Nadler, 1997; Priest and Gass, 1997; Schoel et al., 1988). As noted in Chapter 6, what is in the image is as important as what is not in the image (Grbich, 1999). Any image as displayed in a publication is a result of how the photographer has made that image as well as the impact of the author and /or editor regarding how the image is used within the publication. This use will include colours, cropping and location with respect to particular explicit narratives and/or themes. Another aspect of the use of visual images is the interpretation by the viewer/reader whereby “people tend to read the photograph with reference to their own biographies” (Grbich, 1999:146). In selecting the images I have focused upon images from within sections that discuss how to facilitate experiential learning. The reflections upon these images are my own interpretations, which reflect some of my own story and
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range of experiences, my biography, as an Australian woman. My frame of reference influences what I ‘see’ and ‘hear’ via these images (Delahaye, 2000).
2.3.6. Deconstruction, Chapter 6 Deconstruction as a method seeks to “disprivilege all received texts and established discourses on behalf of an all-encompassing critical scepticism about knowledge” (Vidich and Lyman, 1998:78). It may also be viewed as a “process that is universally and radically critical, anti-essentialist, and fiercely committed to breaking down traditional antimonies such as reason/emotion, beautiful/ugly, self/other, and the conventional boundaries between established disciplines” (Crotty, 1998:168).
In
addition, Grbich (1999) describes deconstruction as a “method of analysis that pulls the text apart to reveal and critique its assumptions” (Grbich, 1999:48). Deconstruction, as such, compliments the aim of semiotics of seeking meaning in ‘signs’ and thus, together, providing a richer interpretation and understanding of the dominant discourse. The direction I took in using deconstruction was to seek out an article that was influential in the development of the theory of facilitation of experiential learning, as I had considered in Chapter 3.
As raised in 2.3.1 I requested information from
participants of the online outdoor research discussion list (outres) and used their feedback as a mechanism to look at influential articles and authors. By turning to outres I was hoping that I would be able to be directed to a much wider range of material as a result of speaking to facilitators and researchers from around the world, than I would if I had conducted a more traditional literature review from my desk. This led to a range of articles and in particular the work of Priest and Gass and ultimately the choice to focus upon their 1993 article: Five Generations of Facilitated Learning from Adventure Experiences (Priest and Gass, 1993). The choice of article was in part due to the predominance of the work of Priest and Gass within the recommendations from outres (both as author and as references within recommended articles/books) as well as a pragmatic reason – it was only three pages long, which was, as a first time ‘deconstructor’, a length that was ‘digestible’ as well as containing sufficient ‘meaty’ material to get my teeth into. A longer article or even a book would be an interesting project, but may be a thesis in itself. As discussed in Chapter 6, I did
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not approach the task lightly, nor with a morbid enthusiasm for pulling something apart. My approach was reasoned and considered and at the completion I sought also to deconstruct my own deconstruction.
A criticism that may be levelled at
deconstruction is the inability to question something that has its own unstated and alternative logic which, as part of postmodernism, does not seek to reconstruct itself into an alternative view promoting another hegemony (Rosenau, 1992). However, in light of this Rosenau (1992) suggest a series of guidelines for deconstruction which areas follows. As you read this it is possible to ask whether Rosenau was writing this as a serious set of guidelines or whether she was writing this with tongue- in-cheek – you be the judge!: §
Find an exception to a generalization in the text and push it to the limit so that this generalization appears absurd … use the exception to undermine the principle
§
Interpret the arguments in a text being deconstructed in their most extreme form.
§
Avoid absolute statements in deconstructing a text, but cultivate a sense of intellectual excitement by making statements that are both startling and sensational.
§
Deny the legitimacy of all dichotomies because there are always a few exceptions to any generalization based on bipolar terms …
§
Nothing it to be accepted; nothing is to be rejected. It is extremely difficult to criticize a deconstructive argument if no clear viewpoint is expressed.
§
Write so as to permit the greatest number of interpretations possible; ambiguity and ambivalence are not to be shunned but rather cultivated …
§
Employ new and unusua l terminology (Rosenau, 1992:121).
2.4. Methodology: Heuristic Research The methodology is the strategy or plan of action that shapes the choice and use of particular methods and links them to the desired outcomes (Crotty, 1998).
In
explaining the methodology I have used, I return first to a discussion of qualitative research where Denzin and Lincoln (2000), provide metaphors that seem to connect with the process that evolved for me, they see the researcher as a bricoleur (or quilt maker) or the user of montage or pentimento (both methods of improvisation). I like these metaphors as they connect with the language and images from the LSA of the
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visual, the tactile, the kinaesthetic and the auditory, and more specifically my learning style that emphasises the visual and the kinaesthetic.
There is the sense of the
creative, the new, and the possibility of weaving together materials not normally seen in the one place, of contrast, colour and texture and sound; all very visceral language. The qualitative researcher as bricoleur or maker of quilts uses the aesthetic and material tools of his or her craft, deploying whatever strategies, methods, or empirical materials are at hand. … Montage and pentimento, like jazz, which is improvisation, create the sense that images, sounds, and understandings are blending together, overlapping, forming a composite, a new creation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000b:4).
I felt like my intuition was validated by these lines. I liked the idea of an eclectic array of methods, with multiple perspectives and with the potential to conflict and/or cause a strange confluence. But what will hold it together? What will provide the ‘backing’ that the quilter uses to help hold together the finished design? Crotty (1998) comments on the image of the bricoleur and suggests that: … the image of researcher –as- bricoleur highlights the researcher’s need to pay sustained attention to the objects of research … Research in constructivist vein, research in the mode of the bricoleur, requires that we not remain straitjacketed by the conventional meanings we have been taught to associate with the object. Instead, such research invited us to approach the object in a radical spirit of openness to it s potential for new or richer meaning. It is an invitation to reinterpretation (Crotty, 1998:51).
Heuristic research, something that I had never heard of as I began this research, looked as if it could provide the ‘backing’ to the diverse range of methods used by me, as the bricoleur, as presented in the previous section.
2.4.1. Heuristic Research: Holding it all together It is of interest to me that as I continued along this journey I constantly have been looking for ‘the one’. The right way, the correct way, the best way; it is if I had this perception that there will be one way that will be perfect, yet, cognitively I acknowledge that there could be many paths to the same end. So why is my instinct to be chasing the one correct way? Is this about learning style or is it more about personality? As this journey has continued I have arrived at a place I did not even know existed, a place called Heuristic Research. As a bricoleur I ask the questions: “what will hold it together? What will provide the ‘backing’ that the quilter uses to help hold together the finished design?”. At this point heuristic research seemed to
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provide that basis of connection, to be that backing. The word heuristic comes from the Greek word ευρισκειν (heuriskein) meaning to discover or to find. This word is also the origin of the word eureka (Moustakas, 1990). The book on heuristic research (Moustakas, 1990) was sitting around for sometime before I started to read it. I trawled through a bit of a chapter or two several months before, but the connections were not there. I nearly tripped over the book as I left it in my path so many times, hoping that at some stage I would pick it up and read it. Finally, the ducks must have aligned, or the wind was blowing in the right direction, or I ate the right thing, for eventua lly, I picked up a book on heuristic research and started reading, and it made sense!
It took some time, but I think I found a
methodology that, intuitively, I have been doing for the past, too many, years. Up until this point, I felt as if I have been trying to force square pegs into round holes. Nothing seemed to fit. But heuristic methodology appeared to provide the right ‘shape’ for what I have been doing and what I still needed to do. As discussed in Chapter 4, the concept of being in a time and place to ‘receive’ the learning has been important to me throughout. Just because the learning is on offer does not mean the learner will take it. a. What is Heuristic Research? Heuristic research is a methodology that refers to a process “of internal search through which ones discovers the nature and meaning of experience and develops methods and procedures for further investigation and analysis. The self of the researcher is present throughout the process” (Moustakas, 1990:9). Moustakas further describes heuristic research as: … a way of being informed, a way of knowing. Whatever presents it self in the consciousness of the investigator as perception, sense, intuition, or knowledge represents an invitation for further elucidation … self-search, self-dialogue, and selfdiscovery; the research question and the methodology flow out of inner awareness, meaning, and inspiration (Moustakas, 1990:10-11).
In contrast to phenomenology, heuristic research requires that the researcher have “had a direct, personal encounter with the phenomenon being investigated” (Moustakas, 1990:14). For Braud (1998), heuristic research fits into a category of research that is seeking answers to questions related to understanding of the
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experience. Within this group, as summarised in Table 2-12, would also include narrative, case studies and organic approaches (Braud, 1998:38). While the reader may infer from the table that certain methods only apply for particular research questions, Braud says that “many of the methods can be used in multiple ways and can be tailored to suit more than one type of question or concern” (Braud, 1998:36) which supports Crotty’s (1998) concern over the quantitative/qualitative divide. Crotty (1998) says: Our research can be qualitative or quantitative, or both qualitative or quantitative, without this being any way problematic. What would seem to be problematic is any attempt to be at once objectivist and constructionist (or subjectivist). … To avoid such discomfort, we will need to be consistently objectivist and consistently constructionist (or subjectivist) (Crotty, 1998:15).
For Braud (1998), within the context of transpersonal research, the cluster under ‘Experience’ enables the researcher to “gain the greatest appreciation of experiences themselves and of the ways in which the actual ‘experiencers’ perceive and interpret their experiences and the events in their lives” (Braud, 1998:41). These methods enable the researcher to study limited experiences at great depth gaining ‘thick’, rich and deep descriptions – this is central to the form of this thesis. The heuristic research process is not limited to the ‘real experiences’ as the research “may also be entranced by visions, images, and dreams” (Moustakas, 1990:11). A perceived limit of the heuristic research process is that there are no universal answers, no understandings of interrelationships nor specific outcomes, no grand narratives, only a deeper understanding of the personal experience, that may, in the end, provide a new perspective for others to explore by valuing their own individual experie nce. Through the search for deeper levels of understanding, heuristic research enables many voices to be heard whether that be the researcher, previous researchers or coresearchers/participants. Braud (1998) also suggests that other ‘voices’ may be heard through the use of “different modes of knowing and of expressing one’s knowing” (Braud, 1998:47). Almost anything goes in terms of seeking perspectives on the experience. In the context of this research the different modes have included the use of autoethnography, deconstruction, the use of visual images as well as the more mainstream: surveys, interviews and LSAs. The role of ‘tacit’ knowledge is also
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honoured and acknowledged: the “intuitive and body-based knowings that are difficult to put into words” (Braud, 1998:47).
While acknowledging the depth of
understanding and description that is achieved through the Heuristic research method, Braud identifies some limitations of the heuristic research that would be enhanced through the use of action research to look at consequence as well as the application of feminist methods that may lead to some levels of social change. Table 2-12 Conventional Disciplined Inquiry Methods That Closely Match Four Major Types of Research Questions Continuum Qualitative ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Quantitative Idiographic Nomothetic (Understand) (Explain) (Predict) (Control) EXPERIENCE CONCEPTUALIZATION PROCESS FRUITS What is the experience How can we How does x unfold as What are the of x? conceptualize x? a process? What are outcomes, How is x perceived by What are the useful the concomitants of consequences, the participant? explanations or x? “fruits” of x? interpretations of x? What sets the stage for the occurrence of x? What facilitates x? What inhibits x? Phenomenological Theoretical Correlational Experimental Heuristic Historical Causal-comparative Quasi-experimental Narrative Grounded theory Field studies Single subject Life stories Textual analysis Action research Case studies Discourse analysis Feminist approaches Hermeneutic Organic approach Interview Questionnaires Surveys Source: William Braud (1998) 'Integral Inquiry: Complementary Ways of Knowing, Being and Expression', In Transpersonal Research Methods for the Social Sciences: Honoring Human Experience, (Eds, Braud, W. and Anderson, R.), SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, p. 38.
b. Strengths and Weaknesses of Heuristic Research Braud and Anderson (1998) suggest that the strengths of heuristic research rest with its acknowledgement of both the personal and tacit knowledge of the researcher as well as providing opportunity for exploring the experience through other research methods, creative sources and persona l experience of others.
By providing an
unlimited opportunity to explore the experience in an in-depth way, the process can be time consuming and potentially lead ‘no where’, if new theories or conceptualisation is where you want to get to. The lack of specific outcomes around social change or
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political action are further limitations of the heuristic research process cited by Braud and Anderson. c. Phases of Heuristic Research Moustakas (1990) outlines the six phases or stages of heuristic research which have similarities with the stages of creative expression (Braud, 1998). There is no time frame applied to this process, with each phase taking as long as it needs to take. Of interest is the parallels that exist between the heuristic research process and various forms of the experiential learning cycle as discussed in the literature review in Chapter 3. While I can see the connection, my process has not been tightly structured around the heuristic research process, but rather the heuristic research process explains that iterative intuitive journey that I have been following. The six phases expanded by Moustakas are: §
Initial engagement
§
Immersion
§
Incubation
§
Illumination
§
Explication
§
Creative Synthesis
i.
Initial Engagement
Moustakas (1990) suggests that the heuristic journey begins “with something that has called .. from within … life experience” (Moustakas, 1990:13).
The initial
engagement is the process of the researcher discovering the “intense interest, a passionate concern that calls out to the researcher, one that holds important social meanings and personal, and compelling implication” (Moustakas, 1990:27). This process is outlined in the Preface and Introduction where I explain my interest in this topic, an interest triggered by my own dissatisfaction with what I experienced as a participant in experiential learning, in what I read and through various experiences as
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a facilitator of experiential learning. This passion continued to be fed as I presented my ideas and thoughts to colleagues and workshop participants in various conferences and trainings from 1995 onwards. But always I faced the challenge of knowing that I was not published, I was a very small voice in a medium pond, questioning the big fish in the large oceans. I had to take it further. The discovering of the specific question, for me, has been a long process, however, I have been able to spend time defining the key terms relevant to the question and the area that I was exploring. This process of definition and deep question and exploration of theories is pursued through the literature review in Chapter 3.
ii.
Immersion
As I read wha t immersion, the second stage, was about I realised that, essentially, the combination of the extensive literature review in Chapter 3 and my autoethnography relating my experience as a learner in Chapter 4, connected with Moustakas’s definition of immersion: Once the question is discovered and its terms defined and clarified, the researcher lives the question in waking, sleeping and even dream states … Virtually anything connected with the question becomes raw material for immersion … spontaneous self-dia logues and self-searching, pursuing intuitive clues or hunches, and drawing from the mystery and sources of energy and knowledge within the tacit dimension (Moustakas, 1990:28).
The literature review, in Chapter 3, began as a fairly traditional process – looking for that ‘gap’ in the literature in order to locate my research. But as I got further and further into the literature the more and more I wanted to immerse myself in it and to follow a wide range of diversions and leads. The literature review in Chapter 3 follows the dominant paradigms of North American experiential learning literature as well as exploring literature related to learning and learning styles. This literature review was always intended to be an extended ‘immersion’ into the literature and, as it has evolved, has become an iterative process of delving in, going away (to intuitively allow some incubation and illumination) and a returning to the literature again and again. In Chapter 6, as my interests have developed and evolved, I have taken the literature review further with an effort at deconstruction of the material both in terms of addressing the images in the literature as well as deconstructing the very words and ideas conveyed in an article by two of the more dominant North American
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writers: Priest and Gass. This latter literature review in Chapter 6 also takes the themes, such as space and place, that have evolved in Chapters 4 and 5 and seeks to extend the literature considered into areas not normally considered within the context of experiential learning.
These areas include human geography, organisational
aesthetics, and also other perspectives on learning and the embodiment of knowledge including a discussion on tacit knowledge. My autoethnography in Chapter 4 includes comments, ‘ramblings’ and inspiration from nature, art, life, experience and reading. My thoughts are recorded for a period of a little more than 12 months, taking no specific form, other than to record my thoughts and feelings in a diary format that generally indicates the date, time and place that the reflections occur. At times, throughout this process, I have gone back and looked at the emerging themes and sought to make connections with the Learning Styles Analysis, as a key ‘lens’ in this research and other literature and experiences that may come to mind and across my desk.
iii.
Incubation
Following immersion, the heuristic process allows for the third stage, a period of incubation, where the tacit dimension, intuition and the insights from the immersion are allowed to ‘percolate’ (like brewing good coffee), and the creative process are allowed to grow (Moustakas, 1990). To date I have not always been as effective in consciously creating time and space for this to occur. Drives to and from work (a trip of about 4.5 hours each way) has, opportunistically, created some sense of space, but more may be needed. Seeking and finding that time just ‘to be’ is important, but as I have immersed myself in the literature and eventually in the experience of learning and facilitating learning, I have intuitively sought those times where the ideas and insights could percolate within me. Ironically, the themes of time and space also emerge from my own experiences and the experiences of fellow NRG members as we reflect upon our needs for learning. My natural tendency to not want to force the learning, but to give it space to occur, aligns with the sense of incubation.
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iv.
Illumination
The fourth stage, the illumination is like the light turning on! With immersion and incubation, new insights and reflections may lead to new understandings. This follows the period of incubation, when the connections are made and the insights occur. For me, the process of illumination has occurred at times I have not had control over. Moments of insight have occurred while driving, skiing, walking and other activities that have had nothing to do with the research. They have been times where I have not been totally focused on the current task and may even be times where I am thinking about things, but then suddenly a thought will emerge, a statement, an idea and whole streams of ideas may suddenly come together, as I have indicated in my notes on this chapter on 11/2/01 and 14/1/02. The process or phases of heuristic research have not been as linear as this outline suggests. The process seems to reflect a series of jumps, trips, falls backward, steps sideways and leaps of faith. At times it has been linear, but at others it seems to have included spirals (up and down), zigzags and u-turns.
v.
Explication
Moustakas (1990) suggests that the fifth stage, the explication process, involves “focusing, indwelling, self-searching, and self-disclosure” (Moustakas, 1990:31) where the researcher takes and continues the process of focusing on their own judgements, feelings, and insights. Of interest in Moustakas’ work is the emphasis placed upon creating an ‘inward space’, a place of reflection and indwelling. Further understanding is gained through conversations with others about the insights and illuminations. In the context of this research, this has occurred through a range of forums including co- facilitating the subject EDGP 912/3: Facilitation Techniques in Outdoor Education (Feb-Jun, 2002, Australia), and presentations at the conferences in Europe, South East Asia (SEA) and North America (NA). These four forums provide opportunity for me to practice what I research, to share my insights, to receive feedback, to rework my thoughts and understandings and to share them again. There is an advantage in being able to present in each of these forums as it gives me access to audiences from at least four continents, with people coming from a range of traditions and cultures, thus enabling a pseudo process of validation and further enquiry. In three of these forums (EDGP 912/3, SEA and NA) I also used the
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Workshop Survey, as presented previously, to gather data on people’s current practice. It was not possible to use the survey in Europe as the context of presenting a paper and allowing for discussion in a 20 minute time frame did not lend itself to indepth conversation, while for other two conferences I conducted 90 minute workshops. A change was made to the final question of the survey for these workshops as a result of the data gathered from EDGP 912/3 as well as the question put to the listserve about the people’s favourite articles. The new question related to the three most influential books or articles that have impacted the people’s professional practice. This was intended to gather a further sense of the influence of North American, positivist and pragmatic writings through out the world – it was interesting that there was a limited response to this question.
vi.
Creative Synthesis
As I read the material on the final stage, the creative synthesis I am both inspired and fearful. Moustakas says that: The creative synthesis can only be achieved through tacit and intuitive powers … This usually takes the form of a narrative depiction utilizing verbatim material and examples, but it may be expressed as a poem, story, drawing, painting, or by some other creative form. (Moustakas, 1990,31-2).
It is the final aspect of the research, the pulling together of the quilt, the final stage for the bricoleur. The creative synthesis reflects the “researcher’s personal knowledge, tacit awareness, intuition, and understanding of meanings and essences of the experience” (Braud and Anderson, 1998:198). This provides great possibility to ‘walk my research’ and to implement activities and generate products that touch different learning styles and emphasise the use of right-hand side of the brain, the creative side. This is inspiring, but I also feel fearful as I consider putting, what I consider, my lack of creative side on the line.
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Chapter 7 is the revelation and the result
of
the
creative
Figure 2-3 Cottesloe Beach Hotel
synthesis.
Continuing with the theme of the What?, So What?, Now What?, the creative synthesis draws together the insights I have gained as well as incorporating the more traditional recommendations one may expect from a dissertation and is triggered by the stepping stone of the broader consideration of literature in Chapter 6 and the explication process, particularly at SEA and NA. It is the signpost for the future, the suggestions for future research, ideas for enhancing mine and others’ learning and questions that may continue to be asked, but left unanswered. To encourage this process I deliberately sought to create same space for myself by having a few days away in the Cottesloe Beach Hotel (Figure 2-3) overlooking the Indian Ocean. I think I need more!
vii.
Validation
As heuristic research is a personal journey involving diverse methods, the process of validation, in its simplest form, is for the researcher to return to the data and confirm their own findings.
Where there have been co-researchers or others who have
participated in the research, the validation may involve sending material to those people for their comments and amendments to the observations or conclusions. This process does not endeavour to make grand claims about universal truth, rather “themes and essences of experience” (Moustakas, 1990:32), in this case, primarily personal experience, has been explored. Table 2-13 cross-references the phases of the heuristic research process with the chapters in this thesis.
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Table 2-13 Links with the Phases of the Heuristic Research Process Initial ImmerIncubaIlluminaEngagesion tion tion ment P Ch 1 Introduction P P Ch 3 Literature Review P P Ch 4 Autoethnography Ch 5 Pilot Studies P Ch 5 MGMT 908, 2001 P Ch 5 MGMT 946, 2002 Ch 5 EDGP 912/3, 2002 Ch 5 NRG Interviews Ch 5 Conferences: 2002 P Ch 6 Literature Rev. Pt 2 Ch 7 Now What?
Explication
Creative Synthesis
P P P P P
2.5. Theoretical Perspective The theoretical perspective is the philosophical stance behind the methodology chosen and is an attempt to explain the context for the process and the grounds of its logic and criteria (Crotty, 1998). The theoretical perspective helps us state more clearly what the assumptions are that we bring to the methodology.
Moustakas (1990)
suggests that the development of heuristic research was influenced by writers such as Maslow on self-actualising, Jourard on self-disclosure, Polanyi on personal knowledge and Buber on dialogue.
Further, Moustakas notes that the heuristic
research process is indelibly linked to the internal frame of reference of the researcher, a situation that may leave some observers in a quandry: Heuristic processes relate back to the internal frame of reference. Whether the knowledge derived is attained through tacit, intuitive, or observed phenomena – whether the knowledge is deepened and extended through indwelling, focusing, selfsearching, or dialogue with others – its medium or base is the internal frame of reference … Our behaviour will sometimes appear to be irrational when viewed from outside, when observed from an external frame of reference (Moustakas, 1990:26).
As I am the medium or base of this thesis, as researcher, and at times subject, the theoretical perspectives that influence the methodology and methods are also the theoretical perspectives that influence who I am. Heuristic research, as implemented in this thesis, is influenced, as I am influenced, primarily, but not exclusively, by the theoretical perspectives of postmodernism.
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2.5.1. Postmodernism Postmodernity may be distinguished as a particular historical stage, with postmodernism being: … a thoroughgoing rejection of what modernism stands for and an overturning of the foundations on which it rests … Where modernism purports to base itself on generalised, indubitable truths about the things really are, postmodernism abandons the entire epistemological basis for any such claims to truth. Instead espousing clarity, ambiguity, relativity, fragmentation, particularity and discontinuity (Crotty, 1998:185).
Further, Denzin and Lincoln (1998) suggest that “Postmodern, cultural studies feminists merge their work with the postmodern, ethnographic turn in anthropology .. while exploring autoethnography and other new forms of writings … This tradition draws on the critical and constructivist paradigms, especially in commitment to relativism” (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998:188-89). While the postmodernists reject what modernism stands for, Rosenau (1992) criticises the postmodernists’ lack of selfcriticism and ‘self-deconstruction’ when she suggests that “post-modernism devalues any pretensions to theory building. But an anti-theory position is itself a theoretical position” (Rosenau, 1992:176). Postmodernism is not one single approach, rather there are multiple ‘postmodernisms’ and extremes of postmodernism that would include sceptical postmodernism, inspired by Heidegger and Nietzsche, which is the ‘dark-side’ of postmodernism with its focus on “fragmentation, disintegration, malaise, meaninglessness, a vagueness or even absence of moral parameters and societal chaos” (Rosenau, 1992:15). On the other hand is the affirmative postmodernists who “have a more hopeful, optimistic view of the post- modern age” (Rosenau, 1992:15).
Just as there are variations of
postmodernism along the lines of the sceptics versus the affirmatives, there are also variations within the sceptics and affirmatives that would range from extreme to moderate. What is adopted here is not what may be considered a radical postmodernism, such as within the sceptical postmodernists, but rather a constructivist or revisionary postmodernism which, as Griffin (1988) explains, seeks to contribute to a new worldview. This view of postmodernism
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… seeks to overcome the modern worldview not by eliminating the possibility of worldviews as such, but by constructing a postmodern worldview through a revision of modern premises and traditional concepts. This constructive or revisionary postmodernism involves a new unity of scientific, ethical, aesthetic, and religious intuitions. It rejects not science as such but only that scientism in which data of the modern natural sciences are alone allowed to contribute to the construction of our worldview (cited in: Braud and Anderson, 1998:252)
The attempt primarily seems to be about ensuring that we do not throw the proverbial baby out with the bathwater. Some may still criticise this form of postmodernism, however this approach may address Rosenau’s (1992) concerns that postmodernism may be overwhelmed by its own excesses. Methods such as autoethnography and deconstruction are significantly influenced by the theoretical perspective of postmodernism (which include the affirmatives and some sceptical post-modernists who agree with a constructivist theory of reality (Rosenau, 1992)) and as such by the epistemology of the critical and constructivist paradigms.
2.6. Epistemology The researcher as bricoleur operates with a world-view that is defined by a paradigm that establishes a basic set of beliefs that guide a person’s actions. Denzin and Lincoln (1998) suggest that a paradigm “encompasses three elements: epistemology, ontology, and methodology” (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998:185). The focus here is upon the epistemological context of this research. Epistemology, comes from the Greek word επισταµη (episteme) meaning knowledge and “is a way of understanding and explaining how we know what we know” (Crotty, 1998:3) or as Wolfe (1982) suggests, “epistemology has traditionally been defined as the study of the possibility and nature of knowledge.
Additionally, knowledge was seen to have intimate
connections with notions such as belief (knowledge was regarded as a kind of belief), justification and truth” (Wolfe, 1982:14). In Table 2-1 three key epistemological positions were suggested, they were objectivism, constructionism and subjectivism.
In contrasting three main
epistemologies, Crotty suggests that: Objectivist epistemology holds that meaning, and therefore meaningful reality, exists as such apart from the operation of any consciousness… Constructionism – rejects this view of human knowledge. There is no objective truth waiting for us to discover it. Truth, or meaning, comes into existence in and out of our engagement with the
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realities in our world. There is not meaning without a mind. Meaning is not discovered, but constructed. In this understanding of knowledge, it is clear that different people may construct meaning in different ways, even in relation to the same phenomenon. (Crotty, 1998:8-9)
Crotty (1998) suggests that constructionism and constructivism are often used interchangeably and seeks to distinguish between the two when he says: Constructivism describes the individual human subject engaging with objects in the world and making sense of them. Constructionism, to the contrary, denies that this is what actually happens, at least in the first instance. Instead, each of us is introduced directly to a whole world of meaning. The melange of cultures and sub-cultures into which we are born provides us with meanings. These meanings we are taught and we learn in a complex and subtle process of enculturation (Crotty, 1998:79).
Epistemologically I struggle between almost wanting on one hand an objective truth, but when presented with statements that suggest that there are single objective truths, I question, argue and explore the underlying assumptions and influences of the creation of those ‘truths’. Thus, practically, I believe I tend towards the critical/subjective end of an epistemological spectrum, at the very least, and a constructivist at the most, while ideally I would be at the positivist end of the spectrum (I think because I perceive the positivist’s life to be so much more simple, when objective truths surround you, rather than a continuous process of questioning and re-evaluating). This epistemological confusion may in itself be very postmodern in that I do not sit well within any particular category of epistemology, but seem to have a more situated or contextual epistemology. This may be helpful to avoid Crotty’s (1998) concerns about consistently being a constructionist: If we seek to be consistently constructionist, we will put all understandings, scientific and non-scientific alike, on the very same footing. They are all constructions. None is objective or absolute or truly generalisable. Scientific knowledge is just a particular form of constructed knowledge designed to serve particular purposes …Constructionists may indeed make use of quantitative methods, but their constructionism makes a difference … what a piece of quantitative research looks like when it is informed by a constructionist epistemology … makes a big difference to the truth claims proffered … all the more so as one moves towards subjectivism rather than constructionism. No longer is there talk of objectivity, or validity, or generalisability (Crotty, 1998:16).
As suggested, I do not situate myself within any one epistemological category, rather I have tendencies towards some categories more so depending upon the content and/or situation. When considering the theory and practice of facilitation, as within this thesis,
my
epistemological
position
is
more
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aligned
to
the
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subjectivist/constructionist end of the spectrum, but when it comes to other areas of my life, my faith, my belief I would not locate myself at such an extreme end of the spectrum.
2.7. Reflections on the Journey The distance is nothing, it is only the first step that is difficult, Marie Anne du Deffand, 1763 It would seem to make sense to know what the methods and methodology are before one sets out. It’s a bit like setting out on an expedition without a destination in mind, maybe it is more like the early explorers who had no specific detail of their destination, just ideas, dreams and gut instinct. Yet when I say that I will not know the question until I finish, the methodology has also been a journey of exploration. I began with thoughts of surveys, questionnaires and control groups which would enable me to crunch a few numbers I wandered around the various paths of qualitative research, I journeyed through the deep valleys of phenomenology, searching for direction and an appreciation of the big picture, but parts of it do not resonate with my thoughts and feelings.
I have dipped my toe into the cool, refreshing waters of
autoethnography finding some refreshment and focus in what it helps me to achieve. I have
toyed
with
ideas
of
my
methodology
being
a
phenomenological
autoethnography, but I delved into another valley named heuristic research. Heuristic research was not what I was looking for, it came up as I was looking for something else. But as I began to read it was beginning to make some sense and to resonate with my intuitive processes to date. As I began this chapter, I began with an analogy of descending into a canyon, the thoughts and feelings that come to mind at this end of the chapter are of climbing out of a heavily forested valley where we have been immersed in the experience of walking, nature, navigation and working together. As we climb out of the valley we reach the edge of an escarpment at the end of the day from where the future journey is normally laid out before us, but today the cloud inhibits our view. As day ends we take some time alone, to reflect, and let our thoughts and feelings incubate and percolate wondering where the journey goes. Our thoughts are not obscured by what we see, but dwell in where we have come from. As we prepare dinner, the clouds lift
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to reveal a full moon rising.
The illumination is like that full moon over the
escarpme nt, lighting the way, but with a muted light, that will reveal only some things, but not all. The explication is the journey in the morning, in bright sunshine. The road is clear, the direction known. We will have time to look back over where we have come, to recall our journey through the valley and that night, to celebrate through songs, poems and plays, what our experiences have been and what they mean to us in our own creative synthesis. This experience ends, but the journey continues.
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Chapter 3. Immersing in the Literature 3.1. Introduction In reviewing the literature relevant to this topic, the intent is to cover a wide range of sources from several perspectives. These perspectives include education (e.g. Dewey, 1938/1976; Giroux, 1983; Sims and Sims, 1995), psychology (e.g. Bokoros, Goldstein and Sweeney, 1992; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Henry, 1999; Heron, 1992), therapy (e.g. Gass, 1991; Handley, 1990; Itin, 2000; Schoel et al., 1988), experiential learning (e.g. Bacon, 1987; Bell, 1993; Boud, 1989; Hahn, 1957) and philosophy (e.g. Giroux, 1983; Serres, 1991; Warren, 2000). As a component of the second stage of the heuristic research process, this literature review is possibly more extensive than ma y be considered the norm for a thesis due to the desire and the need to not just review the literature but to ‘immerse’ myself in the topic, both at the theoretical level and, later through the autoethnography in Chapter 4, at the personal level. The review of literature is organised in two sections. The first section is a more traditional literature review that covers some of the history and terms used in the experiential literature with a particular focus on literature related to facilitation and reflection. The breadth of literature is further bounded by the intent to focus more upon literature from North America particularly in the period from the mid 1980s to more contemporary material.
The main reason for focusing upon this period is
because it is this literature that has sparked my research interests and thus my experiences as acknowledged in the autoethnography. To ensure that the context of the literature connects with corporate training and human resource development, reference is also made to relevant sources in the fields. The four broad topics covered in this literature review are: §
Experiential Learning: What Is It?
§
Corporate Experiential Learning Programs
§
Effectiveness of Corporate Experiential Learning Programs
§
Learning Styles
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These order of these topics seek to define the broad terms used within the research and then to narrow the focus to corporate programs, and then in particular learning styles as distinct from any other instrumentation or model. The second literature review, in Chapter 6, in line with a postmodern theoretical perspective, draws upon more eclectic approaches and builds upon the heuristic research process’s endeavours to draw knowledge from a wide range of sources. In this case the literature will include human geography and organisational aesthetics. Popular images conveyed in the experiential literature and a deconstruction of a popular model of facilitation, that of the five generations of facilitation (Priest and Gass, 1993) aim to explore assumptions that may exist and to build upon the emerging themes of my autoethnography.
3.2. Experiential Learning: What Is It? One of the long-standing challenges facing writers, readers and researchers in experiential learning is the need to clearly define the field. Moon (1999) and Beard and Wilson (2002) both discuss the lack of consistency of meaning of ‘experiential learning’ that exists within the literature of professional development. The need for definition is also highlighted by the many instances where issues raised by Dewey in the 1930’s, the first educational philosopher to write on experience based learning, remain unresolved over sixty years later (e.g. Bell, 1993; Michelson, 1996; Wilson and Burket, 1989). A choice exists whether to maintain a broad definition, or to clearly establish the boundaries in which experiential learning operates in what may be a distinct and unique way. A loose definition may lead to loss of distinctiveness. Clear boundaries may exclude current stakeholders who may disagree with the boundaries. The definitions proffered reflect the plethora of perspectives, assumptions and beliefs that are held by experiential practitioners and theorists. An assumption is made here that for clarity of purpose it is important to carefully define experiential learning in order to establish a clear focus for the task ahead. Weil and McGill (1989), in an effort to make sense of experiential learning, identified at least four ‘villages’ or interpretations where the role of experiential learning is emphasised.
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The four villages are: §
The assessment and accreditation of learning from life and work experience;
§
A means of bringing about changes in the structures, purposes and curricula of post-school education;
§
A basis for group consciousness raising, community action and social change;
§
A means for increasing self awareness and group effectiveness (Weil and McGill, 1989).
Within these villages and beyond the available definitions of experiential learning range from the simple, with emphasis upon the activity or experience, to the more complex, where it is suggested that experiential learning is more than the activity. In the latter end of the spectrum an integral component of any experiential learning event is the processing of, or reflection upon, the experience to draw out the meaning and the significance of the learning opportunity. To address the question of what is experiential learning the following topics will be considered: §
Training, Development, Education and Learning: What’s the difference?
§
How Do You Know When You Have Had An ‘Experience’?
§
Evolving Understanding of ‘the Experience
§
Involving the Whole Self, But What About Everyone Else?
§
Reflection Upon the Experience
§
Application of the Experience
3.2.1. Training, Development, Education and Learning: What’s the difference? Prior to examining the meaning of experiential learning within the context of corporate training and development it is worthwhile to briefly consider the meanings
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and differences, where they exist, between key terms such as training, development, education and learning. a. Training, Development, Education and Learning Garavan, looking from within a human resource development or management context (HRD or HRM), considers this question and reaches the conclusion that “training, development and education are essentially concerned with learning” (Garavan, 1997:41). With respect to training and development, Garavan (1997) concurs with Smith who says that: … training is most commonly associated with the development of job-related skills; education suggests a much broader activity based on the ‘holistic’ development of individuals; and development implies growth in a non-organisational context as well as in the workplace (Smith, 1998,1)
This places the emphasis of training upon the achievement, in the short term of specific skills and abilities that are relevant to the current work situation, while development is often focused upon future job needs. In comparison to training and development, education is a much broader term and usually relates to more general skills and knowledge rather than specific vocational outcomes as may be expected in training and development (Garavan, 1997), while for Michelson, experience is the input and learning is the outcome (Michelson, 1996). b. Experiential Education and Experiential Learning An initial challenge that presents itself before a definition can be sought is to address the meanings of two terms that are often used interchangeably: experiential education and experiential learning. Throughout this thesis I deliberately refer to experiential learning as distinct from experiential education. From a personal perspective, placing the emphasis upon learning can highlight the role of the learner and the applicability of the learning, where-as education may place more emphasis on the educator and the broader outcome of education for life. At the less complex end of the definition continuum are Galagan and Bacon who variously define experiential learning as "to learn by doing" (Galagan, 1987a:40), or as Bacon proposes that “(e)xperiential education differs from traditional education in Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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that the student learns material by actually practicing it instead of simply talking or reading about it. This alone is not especially revolutionary” (Bacon, 1983:1). What then constitutes experiential learning? To determine if an event is experiential learning it is important to consider the essence of the experience.
3.2.2. How Do You Know When You Have Had An ‘Experience’? The origins of modern day experiential theory has been strongly influenced by the progressive educationalist John Dewey (1938) who, in seeking to define a distinctive field of education that involved experience, identified that in its broadest sense experiential learning may include anything that involves some form of experience. This experience may include sitting in a classroom or reading a book in the library (Dewey, 1938/1976:25). For the dedicated outdoor or adventure-based facilitator the concept of reading a book as an example of experiential learning may be an anathema. However, for Dewey the experience itself is not enough, it is the quality of the experience and its contribution and connection to future learning experiences that determines its value: “education based upon experience is to select the kind of present experiences that live fruitfully in subsequent experiences” (Dewey, 1938/1976:28). Experiences that do not contribute to future learning are considered mis-educative. The notion of one experience leading to future experiences has some resonance with Hahn, a Jewish man who escaped the crimes of Nazi Germany, who presented the following as underlying his convictions for schools such as Gordonstoun and Outward Bound: It is the sin of the soul to force young people into opinions – indoctrination is of the devil – but it is culpable neglect not to impel young people into experiences (Hahn, 1965:2)
Priest (1995) seeks to distinguish between experiential versus classroom based organisational team building, by grouping initiatives and outdoor pursuits under the experiential banner and lectures and simulations under the classroom banner (Priest, 1995c). This contrasts with Caine and Caine’s perspective, and with Dewey’s view expressed above, that “we are all immersed in complex, global experiences every moment of our lives” (Caine and Caine, 1994:112). All living and learning may be
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considered experiential, what is important is how each of these experiences are used if it is to lead to learning within education. Boud (1989) also focuses upon the actual experience, but from a more complex perspective when recalling work with Pascoe in 1978 when they proposed a theoretical three-dimensional model which may be used to “measure” the extent to which a program may be considered experiential (Figure 3-1). The dimensions are: §
degree of learner involvement
§
degree of learner control
§
degree of correspondence of the learning environment to the real environment
The model theorises that significant characteristics of any of these dimensions would legitimise the program being entitled experiential (Boud, 1989:38). This model may help to address Dewey’s dilemma, discussed previously, that everything may be considered experiential, however in Boud and Pascoe’s model (1978) what is considered ‘significant’ is not clearly explored. Figure 3-1 Dimensions of Experiential Education
High
Degree of involvement of self
High
Degree of learner control
Low
Low
Degree of correspondence of learning environment to real environment
High
Source: David Boud, (1989) 'Some Competing Traditions in Experiential Learning', In Making Sense of Experiential Learning, (Eds, Weil, S. W. and McGill, I.), Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, Buckingham, UK, p. 39.
In contrast to Figure 3-1, where there appears to be an underlying assumption that a group of people may have similar experiences, Bell (1993), from a feminist
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perspective, raises questions about the generalisability of taken- for-granted definitions and theories as presented in much of the literature, as discussed so far. Two areas that Bell suggests have not been adequately addressed in the accepted theories are “the embodied location of experience and the social organization of the process” (Bell, 1993:19).
In critiquing the dominant theories Bell questions the concept of the
concrete experience, emphasising the individuality of experiences, the reality that no two people will experience the same situation in the same way given that each person has a different mix of history, life, education and relationships.
For Bell, the
embodied nature of experience is denied by the privileging of abstract thinking, logical thinking and memory work as evidenced in models such as Kolb’s experiential learning cycle. This is explored further by Michelson when discussing the masculine narratives that traditionally promote the dualisms of: authority and experience; abstract and concrete; universal and partial, which all may be classified under the classic dualism: men and women (Michelson, 1996).
3.2.3. Evolving Understanding of ‘the Experience’ An ‘experience’, as explored above, may occur in various places, whether that be the wilderness, the outdoors and even indoors.
As discussed later in 3.2.7, Outward
Bound programs have been identified as a key step along the way in the development of experiential learning programs. In 1941 the first Outward Bound School was established in Aberdovey, Wales building upon the work of Kurt Hahn and with the funding of the Blue Funnel Line, a merchant shipping company (Hogan, 1968). This was, in part, in response to the high level of deaths of young mercha nt seamen following the sinking of their ships during World War II, but also due to the success of previous programs, developed following the philosophy of Hahn, such as the Moray and Country Badge schemes (Hahn, 1957; Hogan, 1968; James, 1990). In the merchant shipping industry, contrary to popular expectation, it was the older, and possibly less fit, seamen who were surviving when their ships were sunk, not the young and fit seamen. This was put down to the benefit of a lifetime of experience in giving the seamen the inner strength and resources to live. The basic purpose of the Outward Bound course, which involved small and large boat sailing, athletics training and an expedition (Hogan, 1968) was to "encourage the individual to discover his or her inner resources" (Cole, 1987:281). From the United Kingdom, Outward Bound Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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grew internationally and was established in Australia in 1956 and in North America in 1962 (Smolowe, Butler, Murray and Smolowe, 1999; Zelinski and Shaeffer, 1991). While Outward Bound today may be synonymous with the wilderness, the actual origins of ‘the model’ was in fact a centre-based program where the program was delivered primarily from a built centre that may include buildings for accommodation, meals and activities. a. From Wilderness to Adventure The Outward Bound ‘model’ has been adopted and adapted
by a number of
organisations, for example Project Ad venture which was established in Hamilton, Massachusetts, U.S.A. in 1971 with the objective of working within the confines of a school (as Kurt Hahn had with Schloss Salem in Germany and Gordonstoun and the Badge schemes in the United Kingdom). Project Ad venture (PA) sought to achieve Outward Bound-type outcomes that drew on wilderness experiences, through a program within a normal school curriculum. This was to be achieved through drawing together the use of challenge ropes courses, initiative exercises and non-competitive games, but without the Outward Bound wilderness component (Schoel et al., 1988; Smolowe et al., 1999). The activities used in PA were not necessarily new, but rather, the way in which they were brought together and used within a total school curriculum is what gave these activities new meaning. Many of today’s corporate experiential learning programs have their philosophical origins in the Outward Bound-style but have since followed diverse paths (Smolowe et al., 1999). The programs may have, initially, tended towards a wilderness program, with its strong similarities to Outward Bound, but today is more likely to be a program in an Outdoor Centre or Conference Centre that draws upon aspects of the Outward Bound model and/or the insights of the PA model, or even the use of adventure-based activities in more traditional training environments. b. Outdoor Learnings, Indoor Environments The value of wilderness, and even the less ‘wild’ outdoors, as places for personal and group development has support from historical writings dating back to Plato (Richards, 1987) and the Bible and also from research (e.g. Brand, 2001; Gass, 1993;
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Handley, 1990; Handley, 1992), yet in the corporate world the opportunity to spend extended periods ‘in the bush’ may not be readily accepted nor achievable due to restrictions of time, money and opportunity.
What is offered through models
developed by organisations such as PA is the potential to achieve similar outcomes, as may be achieved through a prolonged wilderness or outdoor program, but with a significantly limited demand upon physical, financial and human resources. The PA model uses what is referred to as ‘adventure-based’ learning in contexts that include classrooms, conference rooms, and outdoor settings. What becomes the focus is not the location, but the adventure component within the activity where adventure is a perception, a perception of uncertainty of outcomes, a perception of risk. Such adventure-based programs, as with outdoor programs, can be seen to form just one part of a bigger category referred to as experiential learning. Any adventure-based program includes some level of risk. A participant’s perception of the risk may differ from the real level of risk as assessed by the facilitator or in terms of accidents, incidents and even mortality (Dickson, Chapman and Hurrell, 2000; Sandman, 1990; Slovic, 1997). This higher level of perceived risk is very real for the participant and may be significant in how the individual ‘experiences’ the program or activity. The role of ‘risk’ is considered in more detail in a discussion of activity choice in Section 3.3.3.b.
3.2.4. Involving the Whole Self, But What About Everyone Else? As discussed above, experiential learning involves participation in an ‘experience’, whether that be indoors or outdoors.
Another facet of the experience is the
relationship of the individual with the experience. Writers commonly refer to the engagement of the who le self in the experience as being core to experiential learning such as in Thompson’s (1991) definition of experiential learning which focuses on Boud and Pascoe’s first dimension: the degree of learner involvement.
For
Thompson, experiential learning is learning that "combines the behavioral (sic), affective and cognitive dimensions" (Thompson, 1991:46). In reinforcing the holistic nature of experiential learning, Thompson notes that experiential learning need not take place in the outdoors, but it must involve the whole self. This is consistent with
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Miles’ reference to the va lue of high adventure risk recreation. For Miles the major benefit gained from such an adventure is that "one person confronts existentially the decision as to whether or not to venture forth into the unknown. Choice is exercised, the mind and the body committed, and the consequences accepted" (Miles, 1987:7). Hopkins and Putnam (1993:78) build upon the concept of involvement of the whole self when they propose that experiential learning: … offers a view of learning that prizes the individual’s response to and reflection on concrete experience. It encompasses our emotions, imagination, physical being as well as our intellect. Experiential learning is holistic in the true sense of the word
While these definitions consider the involvement of ‘self’, they do not go the further step of considering the socially situated nature of learning and especially the socially situated nature of experiential learning where the individual primarily operates within the context of a group or team (Bell, 1993; Michelson, 1996; Wagner, Baldwin and Roland, 1991).
3.2.5. Reflection Upon the Experience Hopkins and Putnam’s (1993) definition noted previously brings into consideration another aspect in experiential learning that of reflecting upon the experience, thus suggesting that the experience alone is insufficient. This concept was also proposed by Dewey in 1938 who suggested that “observation [of experiences] alone is not enough ... unless we reflect upon them [the experiences] ... go on to form a judgment of what may be expected.” (Dewey, 1938/1976:68). This debate continued through the 1960s through to the 1980s as organisations such as Outward Bound struggled with the move from allowing the ‘mountains to speak for themselves’, where the structure of the program and the experience is allowed to speak for itself without an instructor facilitating any form of reflection (James, 1980), through phases of instructor’s speaking for the experience and beyond (Bacon, 1983; Gass and Dobkin, 1993; James, 1980; Kalisch, 1979). This debate has continued into the 1990’s with further writing on potential ‘generations’ of facilitation that proposed an ever changing role of the instruc tor in managing the learning experience of the individual (Dunlop, 2000; Itin, 2000; Priest and Gass, 1993; Priest, Gass and Fitzpatrick, 1999). The model suggesting the existence of generations of facilitation is discussed in
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Chapter 6 with an endeavour to deconstruct Priest and Gass’s article (1993) and to explore the underlying assumptions. Boud and Pascoe’s (1978) dimension of learner involvement ha s similarities with Priest’s definition of experiential programming however Priest also adds to the learner’s ‘lived experience’ the need for a reflective process (Priest, 1996). Weil and McGill (1989), with their definition of experiential learning, emphasise the importance of moving beyond the experience with the making of meaning from the situation: … a process whereby people, individually and in association with others, engage in direct encounter and then purposefully reflect upon, validate, transform, give personal meaning to and seek to integrate their different ways of knowing (Weil and McGill, 1989:248).
The consideration that an individual may have some level of power-over or even the ability to create their own meaning from a direct experience is paralleled by the Association of Experiential Education (AEE) which defines experiential education as “a process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences” (Luckman, 1996:6-7).
The AEE definitions raise several issues
including: §
firstly, what, if any, methods of assessment and evaluation may be applied given that the learner constructs the knowledge
§
secondly the struggle between individuals creating their own meaning and theory from their own experience and the need that may exist to infuse personal experience with a common stream of theory
§
thirdly the challenge to the teacher/facilitator to provide a meaningful experience for all participants in the learning environment (Jansen and Wildermeersch, 1992; Wurdinger, 1996).
Dewey raised this latter issue earlier in 1938 as a crucial aspect to implementing an experiential curriculum. In light of Bell (1993) and Michelson’s (1996) comments, one may question whether it is truly possible to assume that any experiential learning program could be assessed for targeted outcomes that are achieved by all participants.
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What is meaningful may not just relate to the experience itself, but the applicability of that experience in the broader life of each of the individual participants.
3.2.6. Application of the Experience a. Reflection and Action Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, with its origins in the work of Lewin (Beard and Wilson, 2002), is an often quoted, and dominant, model of experiential learning but usually with little critique (e.g. Kolb, 1984; Luckner and Nadler, 1997; Moon, 1999; Priest and Gass, 1997).
Both Bell (1993) and Michelson (1996) present some
particular concerns that reflect their feminist perspectives. For them the limitations of the model are due to its lack of acknowledgement of the individual nature of experience as well as the socially situated nature of experience. For Michelson there is also the critique of the causally unidirectional nature of the model that “neither acknowledges the mutual determination of experience and knowledge nor encourages an examination of experience as ideologically or psychologically overdetermined” (Michelson, 1996:634). Critique of Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory is explored in Section 3.6.6.d Figure 3-2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle 1. Concrete Experience
4. Testing Implications of Concept in New Situation
2. Observation & Reflection
3. Formation of Abstract Concepts & Generalisations
Source: David Kolb (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
b. Applying the Meaning Luckner and Nadler (1997) add an additional layer that goes beyond the experience and reflection, that of meaning, where the meaning is applied in real life. For Luckner
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and Nadler the reflection must lead onto the participants being able to “derive some useful insight from the analysis, and incorporate the result through a change in understanding and/or behavior (sic)”, (Luckner and Nadler, 1997:3). This has some parallels with Dewey’s suggestion that current experiences should “live fruitfully in subsequent experiences” (Dewey, 1938/1976:28) and to connect with Kolb’s fourth stage of the experiential learning cycle (Figure 3-2).
3.2.7. Examples of Experiential Learning Though History Experiential learning as discussed above is not necessarily a new concept. There is evidence that it may have originated many thousands of years ago with individuals and groups growing and learning through their experiences in the wilderness such as the tales retold in the Bible. Overtime, as wildernesses have been explored, as society has changed and technology improved, the opportunities and the necessity for prolonged wilderness experiences has changed, resulting in a form of experiential learning that focuses on ‘bringing the adventure home’ and even indoors. Experiential learning is widely used in other professions as a key component of professional development, these include teaching, nursing, occupational health and safety and emergency management (Gilmartin, 2001; Nembhard and Uzumeri, 2000; Oekerman, 1997; Oosterheert and Vermunt, 2001).
Within the corporate world the use of
experiential learning programs, using adventure-based activities that can be delivered in training rooms and conference centres, resonates with a desire for a more efficient and effective use of the training dollar.
These programs have their origins in
wilderness journeys with organisations such as Outward Bound and as well as organisations such as Project Adventure that seek to achieve ‘wilderness outcomes’ in an urban or indoor environment. a. Wandering Through the Wilderness I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and to see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not when I came to die, discover that I had not lived (Thoreau, 1854/1986:135) Within the context of journey based and wilderness programs, the wilderness forms part of the central ethos and appeal. The wilderness may be one of those things that is
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in the ‘eye of the beholder’.
One person’s area of ‘wilderness’ may be another
person’s sanctuary and spiritual source. The Oxford Dictionary defines wilderness as: 1 an area that is not cultivated or settled; a desert … 2 ~ (of sth) an area where grass and other plants grow without any control (Crowther, 1995:1364).
‘Wild’ is defined as: adj … living free in natural conditions …n. a natural state or environment (Crowther, 1995:1364)..
Yet, the use of the terms wild and wilderness, such as ‘that person is wild’ or ‘in the wilderness’ suggests situations or places that are undesirable and objectionable. However for thousands of years the wilderness, and the outdoors more generally, has provided a powerful backdrop for learning and experiential growth in areas including spiritual and personal development. John Muir, a renowned conservationist in the United States, recalls his love for wild places and the impact of his early life in Scotland: When I was a boy in Scotland, I was fond of everything that was wild, and all my life I’ve been growing fonder and fonder of wild places and wild creatures. Fortunately, around my native town of Dunbar, by the stormy North Sea, there was no lack of wildness (cited in: White, 1999:14).
While Fine (1992) recalls that wilderness “is often defined as a tonic for modernity” (Fine, 1992:166). There are many tales that have been told that remind us of the power of the outdoors, nature and wilderness for growth and for change, this is not a new phenomenon. For the Australian Aborigines much of their Dreamtime over the past 40,000 years, and their sense of self is intrinsically linked to nature (Sandercock, 1998). The role of the outdoors and the wilderness environments is also significant in spiritual development in the Christian tradition such as with Moses and, later, Jesus. The Bible recounts the journeys of Moses and the Israelites, thousands of years ago, as they wandered through the desert for forty years coming to terms with their new role in the world, Jesus was tempted in the wilderness for forty days as preparation for his ministry. In other religions such as Buddhism, enlightenment is sought, in part, through nature (both wilderness and domesticated) under trees, outdoors and even prolonged periods in caves (Mackenzie, 1998). In 375 BC Plato promoted the use of physical activity as
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a key component in the education of the guardians of the new society in The Republic when he recounts Socrates talking to Glaucon: And so we may venture to assert that anyone who can produce the perfect blend of the physical and intellectual sides of education and apply them to the training of character, is producing music and harmony of far more importance than any mere musician tuning strings (Plato, 375BC/1987:117)
And more recently, Thoreau, as quoted previously, wrote about his experiences at Walden Pond, Massachusetts in 1854. b. Wilderness In the Twentieth Century and Beyond Kurt Hahn, the founder of Outward Bound, understood the strength of learning in the wilderness when he established the Schloss Salem near Lake Constance in Germany. The mission was to "foster extraordinarily well- rounded young men and women, distinguished from other students of their age by, among other things, 'the gleam in their eyes’" (Zelinski and Shaeffer, 1991:6). This philosophy flowed on to his work in England, after fleeing Nazi Germany, when he established the Gordonstoun School as well as the Moray Badge Scheme, the Country Badge experiment and then Outward Bound (Hahn, 1957; Hogan, 1968; Zelinski and Shaeffer, 1991). Wilderness journeys in the twenty-first century may be less about spiritual and personal enlightenment, but there is still a significant element in society who continue to seek adventure and pursue their wildernesses as can be seen in Australian magazines such as Wild, Rock, Xtreme Magazine and Outdoors Australia. These magazines also have their parallels in ma ny other countries. Mountains have been climbed and oceans crossed by many who were entering the unknown, an unknown in which their true selves may be so clearly reflected (Brown, 1999; Hillary, 1999). Some climbed those mountains just because they were there, but in doing so they may have had the opportunity to learn about themselves, about others and about the natural world. They went to climb a mountain and found themselves (Hayhurst, 1997). Today people continue to ‘go bush’ to find themselves and to energise themselves (Scherl, 1986). Scherl (1987) talks about our need for wilderness, the wilderness which can be a means to facilitate peak experiences, acquire new skills and to explore the inner self. How is this of relevance to organisations? What has this to do with
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training in organisations? Maybe it is more appropriate to do as Zemke suggests "that the most productive management training brings together real management teams and has them work on real business problems in real time" (Zemke, 1988:8).
Not
everyone accepts this view. Bank (1985) suggests that outdoor development programs can provide real problems for real people in real time. In beginning to consider this question one may look to a quote from Hahn twenty years before Bank: I was interviewed by a journalist in Wales. He asked me: ‘How can methods you believe in do justice to the Indoor-type’. He was horrified when I said, ‘by chasing him outside’. Then there was another journalist, a very distinguished one, who said: ‘How can Gordonstoun do justice to the Introvert?’ … I answered: ‘By providing circumstances which turn him inside out.’ A third one wondered how we deal with the extrovert. My answer shocked him: ‘By turning him outside in.’ (Hahn, 1965:2)
The period of 1987 to 1992 saw a significant increase in the use of outdoor training in Australia from 5% of Australian private and public sector employers in 1987 to 23% in 1992 (Boylen, 1992).
This shift in usage aligns with a word-wide popularity
(Wagner et al., 1991; Wagner and Roland, 1992) and adoption of outdoor programs as a training medium which may suggest that the effectiveness of such training should be assessed.
3.2.8. Conclusion Experiential learning in its broadest definition may involve a variety of strategies ranging from books to classrooms to games and activities to outdoor programs and onto simulations and multimedia presentations, but for many writers, the experience does not make it ‘experiential learning’. Experiential learning has two components: the experience and the learning. The connection between the two is the process of reflection or ‘meaning- making’ that moves beyond the experience into learning that results in changes in thinking, understanding and/or behaving. For the purposes of this review, focus will be upon programs that require: A holistic involvement (i.e. cognitive, affective and behavioural) in a range of activities where significant emphasis is placed upon a reflective process (before, during and/or after) as a crucial component of the experience. Thus the experience may be prior to, concurrent with or even in the future with respect to the reflective process. The intent of the reflective process is to weave the current Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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experience into the web of prior experiences to bring about change in an individual’s life. To this end, programs may include indoor and outdoor programs involving a range of simulations, games, and initiatives through to a broad range of outdoor activities that involve traditional outdoor pursuits as well as non-traditional adventure activities, but may exclude lectures, case studies and small group discussions.
3.3. Corporate Experiential Learning Programs As with the broader area of experiential learning, the application of experiential learning in a corporate setting may also be plagued by the lack of consensus regarding a definition (Hayllar, 1997; Irvine and Wilson, 1994; Thompson, 1991). Despite the lack of consensus there does appear to be a high level of consistency as to the origins of what may be included under these various titles such as the impact of writings of Plato (or more correctly Socrates), Hahn and the Outward Bound schools. With some clarity of meaning it may be possible to move onto the key components of corporate experiential learning program (CELP) and the contributing factors to the possible success of such programs. One way that may be applied to assist in defining what is a CELP is to approach the potential program from four different perspectives to determine whether there may be some consistency across the literature. The four perspectives are: §
the label or terminology given to the style of program to be implemented
§
the location of the program
§
the activities to be conducted, and
§
the proposed outcomes of the program
3.3.1. A Matter of Terminology The lack of clarity as to the meaning of what may be considered a CELP is evident as one moves through the literature and observes the way in which authors use various terms interchangeably as if they are synonymous. This flexibility may overshadow the nuances that may be embedded in each term. While it is important to ensure that we are clear as to what we are talking about, the pressure for definition should not be Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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purely as an outcome of a desire to ensure that people are clear as to which ‘box’ CELP bests fit. It may be that CELP does not fit any particular box cleanly, but rather that it straddles several boxes that reflect its diverse origins, influences and outcomes. Even suggesting the notion of a ‘box’ can be problematic and limiting. One of the major difficulties is the use of terms such as ‘outdoor’ to explain programs that may or may not have a significant outdoor component. Richards (1987) lists over thirty terms used for different aspects of outdoor programs. This list includes adventure, camps, environmental, experiential, field, initiative, leisure, life, mountain, outdoor, recreational, risk, survival, Outward Bound and wilderness. Each term may indicate a slightly different nuance within, or location of, the program, or alternatively different terms may simply be used to describe the same program. Many programs have been referred to as 'Outward Bound type' program (Abbott, 1989; Kalisch, 1979), however this terminology has seemingly declined in the writings of the 1980s and 1990s, possibly in line with the increase of many other providers of similar programs. CELPs may connect with some or all of these outdoorrelated terms. The use by the current media of the term ‘outward bound’ as a generic label for any outdoor program as distinct from its use as the identifier of a particular organisation, is a bit like calling the all of the products known as ‘tissues’ by the brand name Kleenexes! Thompson defined experiential learning as combining “the behavioral (sic), affective and cognitive dimensions" (Thompson, 1991:46) but then goes on to equate outdoor experiential learning with experiential learning, adventure learning and outdoor challenge training. Miller and Rooke (1991) also move through a range of terms in reference to the one program, the terms include: outdoor management development, experiential management development, outdoor experiential learning and experiential learning. The term Outdoor Management Development (OMD) is frequently used by writers appearing in UK, European and South Pacific journals (e.g. Badger, Sadler-Smith and Michie, 1997; Burletson and Grint, 1996; Easterby-Smith and Thorpe, 1997; Hayllar, 1997; Irvine and Wilson, 1994; Jones and Oswick, 1993; McEvoy and Buller, 1997; McGraw, 1992)
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Jones and Oswick in reviewing the literature sought to establish some criteria for inclusion within OMD.
These criteria are based on the three terms: outdoor,
management and development. It was suggested that for a program to be included as OMD it should have the following characteristics: §
the outdoors should be used as the training medium, as a means to the end of developing managerial skills, not outdoor skills
§
management, in this context, refers to the role people are expected to play within their organisations
§
development relates to an increase in effectiveness of the participants to do their jobs (Jones and Oswick, 1993:12).
Rather than defining OMD, Irvine and Wilson (1994) seek to identify the basis of effective OMD as being six essential elements, these elements do not even make reference to the need for the program to be conducted outdoors.
The essential
elements include: §
the novelty of the program and/or activities
§
psychological risk
§
potential to increase complexity
§
replication of the difficulties faced in organisations
§
involving little prior skills and
§
that the experience can be reviewed.
They suggest that to exclude any element is to risk that the activity “is likely to be little better than knitting in the woods, or a fun fair ride” (Irvine and Wilson, 1994:36). As mooted above, other programs or activities may fulfil these criteria without ever being in the outdoors. Other terms that have been used to cover this broad area include: §
adventure-based experiential training (Ibbetson and Newell, 1996),
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§
adventure- learning (Petrini, 1990)
§
adventure-style (Dapin, 1996)
§
adventure training programs (Bramwell, Forrester, Houle, Larocque, Villeneuve and Priest, 1997; James, 1996),
§
experience-based training (Snow, 1992)
§
experience-based training and development (Luckman, 1996),
§
experiential education (McGraw, 1993)
§
experiential-based training and development (Miner, 1990)
§
outdoor development courses (MacErlean, 1993),
§
outdoor development programs (Bank, 1985; Burnett, 1994),
§
outdoor Machiavellian development (Burletson and Grint, 1996)
§
outdoor management development (Irvine and Wilson, 1994)
§
outdoor management education (McEvoy and Buller, 1997)
§
outdoor training program (Arkin, 1991; Welch, 1997)
§
outdoor-based development (Jones and Oswick, 1993)
§
wilderness lab (Long, 1987).
From the broad evidence provided it appears that there are a three key words that need to be considered: outdoor, adventure and experiential, the latter has been addressed in detail above. With respect to ‘outdoor’, the word may provide more evidence of location than a broad term for this style of program given the elements of a successful OMD provided by Irvine and Wilson (1994). The concept of location is discussed further below. The term ‘adventure’ brings with it its own difficulties when applying it to a program where there are defined outcomes, as may be expected in a CELP. A dictionary definition of adventure is:
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… an unusual, exciting or dangerous experience; excitement associated with danger, taking risks etc (Crowther, 1995:18).
Excitement may well enhance the learning experience by involving the emotions, but the inclusion of risk and danger may raise ethical questions of the value of the adventure-based program for corporate clients.
One may well ask whether it is
possible to achieve the same outcomes in a manner that involves less risk. There are further questions that need consideration with respect to risk such as: Who sets the accepted level of risk? Is it the perceived or real level of risk? Can someone voluntarily accept the level of risk if they have no prior experience in the activity? The role of risk is discussed further below in the context of activity selection.
3.3.2. Location Given the definition of experiential learning above as being “programs that require a holistic involvement (i.e. cognitive, affective and behavioural) in a range of activities where significant emphasis is placed upon a reflective process as a crucial component of the experience” it may be possible to initially categorise corporate experiential learning programs by their physical location then to further categorise the outdoors by reference to the extent of the use of the natural environment (Killop, 1992; Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991).
This may then give rise to the following location
categories: §
Indoors, e.g. Conference rooms
§
Outdoors, e.g. Wilderness programs and Centre-based programs a. Indoors
Indoor programs may be offered in a wide range of locations from the work site and training rooms through to conference centres and educational institutions. The vast array of activity books, especially by authors such as Rohnke (Rohnke, 1984; Rohnke, 1989; Rohnke and Butler, 1995), has given rise to many activities that may be used indoors. This has been an extension of Project Adventure’s aim of being able to achieve wilderness-type outcomes in a more traditional classroom or school setting (Little, 1980; Schoel et al., 1988; Webster, 1980). By adopting the definition of
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experiential learning above, indoor programs that do not draw upon the cognitive, affective and behavioural will not be considered in this context. b. Outdoors Outdoor programs, as indicated above, may be conducted in wilderness and nonwilderness settings. In a study conducted in the U.S.A. of outdoor training programs it was discovered that 23% of programs were wilderness programs with an average cost of USD 1,500-4,000 per participant. The companies sent between one and 75 employees, averaging at 15. This compared to the 77% of programs using outdoor centres with an emphasis on the use of ropes courses with an average cost of USD 300 with an attendance range of 20 - 5,000 averaging 250 (Wagner et al., 1991:54).
i.
Wilderness Programs
The wilderness program may involve an extended period in the wilderness involving strenuous and exciting outdoor pursuits - such as you expect in any ‘adventure’ (Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991).
Abbott (1989) defines the 'wilderness
experience' as a "trip in a relatively remote area for an extended time" (Abbott, 1989:11). Wilderness courses have a strong heritage with the Outward Bound style of course where it is mobile and involves a variety of outdoor pursuits (e.g. abseiling, rafting, bushwalking, rock climbing). The wilderness program usually has as the goal of improving personal skills such as leadership and decision making in the context of a supportive and co-operative group, however group development is usually not a key objective (Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991). Due to the time, cost, physical demands and logistics, wilderness programs are not necessarily a key strategy in many corporate experiential programs (Bolt, 1990; Boylen, 1992) and as a result are not considered further in this review.
However various authors have suggested that
wilderness is something that has a significant role for the quality of life and thus is something that may be needed to be researched further (e.g. Abbott, 1989; Andrews, 1999; Haluza-DeLay, 1999; Handley, 1990; Johnson and Fredrickson, 2000; Scherl, 1986; Scherl, 1987; Thoreau, 1854/1986).
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ii.
Outdoor Centre Programs
Outdoor centre programs are significantly more popular in CELP in part due to their time and cost benefits, but also as a result of their potential program variety and accessibility to a range of skill and fitness levels. Outdoor centre programs have strong links with the activities made popular by organisations such as Project Adventure. This then reduces the need, as in a modern Outward Bound program, to be in the wilderness for a prolonged period with all its associated costs, logistical problems and risks.
Project Adventure has brought
together a range of games, initiatives and challenge ropes course elements that may be used as individual events or linked together to form a program that extends over several days, weeks or months. There has been a widening of the use of their ‘model’ in areas ranging from prisons, mental institutions, and to corporate training. Outdoor centre programs that use this style of activity may be further categorised according to the activity type that may be mixed and matched as indicated by the following list of activities: §
initiatives
§
low ropes courses
§
high ropes courses
§
outdoor pursuits.
The latter two have higher degrees of perceived risk, while the former have lower perceived levels of perceived risk. In the context of CELP all have the group as their focus (Wagner et al., 1991:55). Even though these programs have been included under the outdoor category it is possible to build and conduct a complete challenge ropes program totally indoors with the possibility of achieving similar outcomes to an out-of-doors program. The literature, as discussed in 3.3.3, suggests that the location of a CELP may be diverse and can include games in a hallway or a classroom through to days, and even weeks of struggling through the wilderness. At the heart of the issue continues to be the involvement of: mind, body and spirit and thus is not cognitive learning alone, and
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where reflection is a key component of the total experience. As such, the location of the program indoors or out-of-doors is not the most relevant aspect, rather that the programs involved use experiential learning strategies that are holistic and include reflection with the aim of aiding the transference of learning. This literature while considering location, does not consider the impact of that location upon the experience – a theme taken up in Chapter 6.
3.3.3. Activities The choice of activity used as part of ‘the experience’ in a CELP will be influenced by factors such as: the activities available, the level of impact or risk and the emphasis placed upon the individual or the group within the activity as discussed in the following section. a. Activity Options and Selection The diversity of terms and applications applied to CELP is mirrored in the range of activities.
Activities applied include a range of outdoor pursuits as well as non-
traditional activities. Outdoor Pursuits §
abseiling (Arkin, 1991; Boylen, 1992; Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988; Dapin, 1996)
§
canoeing (Badger et al., 1997; Dainty and Lucas, 1992; Thompson, 1991)
§
caving (Badger et al., 1997)
§
hiking (Beeby and Rathborn, 1982)
§
orienteering (Badger et al., 1997; Beeby and Rathborn, 1982)
§
rock climbing (Badger et al., 1997; Boylen, 1992; Van Zweiten, 1984; Wagner et al., 1991)
§
sailing (Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991)
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§
white water rafting (Badger et al., 1997; Schrank, 1994; Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991)
Non-traditional Activities §
board games (Bolt, 1990)
§
challenge ropes courses (Broderick, 1989; Garvey, 1989; Snow, 1992; Wagner et al., 1991)
§
initiatives (Beeby and Rathborn, 1982; Bramwell et al., 1997; Buller, Cragun and McEvoy, 1991)
Over the past two decades there has been an increase in the use of ‘artificial’ activities or non-traditional activities such as Challenge Ropes Courses and Indoor Climbing (Attarian, 2001), even to the extent of artificial white water experiences for rafting and canoeing. This shift to more controlled environments may be a result of a range of influences such as access, accessibility by people with different physical needs, increase in both demand and supply for adventure-based activities, a greater sense of control over the levels of real and perceived risk and even a possible change in consumer expectations and experiences as people seek to ‘taste’ or ‘graze’ over a range of activities. The specific choice of activities for a CELP may well benefit from referring back to Zemke’s comments (1988) about taking managers to the board room and the problem of the level of distraction from workplace-relevant learning when there is a significant emphasis upon learning outdoor or specific technical skills to participate in the experience. Drawing upon Boud’s work, the question may also be asked as to the degree of correspondence of the learning environment to the real environment (Boud, 1989), or in this case, the degree of correspondence of the learning experience to the real work experience. This is consistent with Hahn’s work with merchant seamen in Outward Bound (Hogan, 1968). Irvine and Wilson (1994) (who refer to these corporate programs as outdoor management development) suggests that the choice of activities for OMD courses is important. In supporting their argument they refer to Dainty and Lucas (1992) who claim that climbing, canoeing, abseiling and sailing may be inappropriate in that the Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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prescribed nature of the technical skills may take away from the more important interpersonal aspects of the experience and ultimately the potential learning outcomes. Irvine and Wilson give preference to tasks that reflect the workplace environment, rather than activity-specific skills. This view is taken to the extreme by Zemke when criticising the role of experiential management development program by professing “that the most productive management training brings together real management teams and has them work on real business problems in real time. No, it’s the only productive way to train managers” (Zemke, 1988:8). For Dainty and Lucas (1992) preference is not given to a particular activity, but rather it is the combination with a higher intensity of processing that impacts upon their activity preference. The value, or otherwise, of the use of non- management activities is considered further in the section on metaphors in Section 3.4.4. Other research has made suggestion that the level of novelty or fun is important (Cain and Jolliff, 1998; Hayllar, 1997; Priest et al., 2000; Rohnke and Butler, 1995). This is not specifically considered by Zemke (1988) nor by other writers such as Kurt Hahn (e.g. Hahn, 1957; Hahn, 1965)or Boud and Pascoe (e.g. Boud, 1989). b. Impact and Risk Cacioppe and Adamson (1988) as well as Wagner and Roland (1992) offer a further distinction between programs based on the level of impact and perceived risk of activities, rather than the specific activity itself. The two programs types offered are: §
low- impact: where initiatives with limited physical risk are the primary activity and where the group usually consists of an intact work group; and
§
high- impact programs that use initiatives with a higher level of perceived risk (as distinct from real risk) with individuals being the focus of the program (Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988; Wagner and Roland, 1992).
This distinction would locate wilderness programs as a high impact program, with many outdoor centre programs as low- impact programs.
A difficulty with a
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involved who may hold different risk perceptions include: the participants, the facilitator, the facility owner and the sponsoring organisation. Cacioppe and Adamson as well as Wagner and Roland’s types also introduce the distinction between the organisation, group and individual outcomes as discussed below. For the purposes of this study the focus will be upon experiential learning strategies that primarily involve activities such as initiative tasks and problem solving, however the broader understanding of ‘experiential’ will be considered given the use of autoethnography as well as the experiences of post graduate students. Consistent with the definition of experiential learning above, it is not the activity that is of primary concern it is the achievement of the outcomes that is of major importance, an achievement that may be aided by the process of reflection upon the experience as well as the acknowledgment of learning through other avenues apart from that constructed by the facilitator. c. Individual versus Group Cacioppe and Adamson (1988), in their review of outdoor development programs, categorise activities depending upon whether they have an individual focus or a group focus. Table 3-1 provides a summary of those groupings for a range of activities. While Cacioppe and Adamson (1988) have placed most challenge ropes course activities under the individual list, some facilitators will use these activities as group activities by providing specific roles for other group members such as belaying and spotting.
While the orienteering course is included as a group activity, in some
contexts this may be used as an individual activity with rogaining being a group variation. No matter whether an activity is chosen for its individual focus or its group focus, there is the potential for group outcomes to be achieved through individual activities, just as individual outcomes may be achieved through group activities.
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Table 3-1 Activities Used in Outdoor Programs Individual Group Abseiling/Rock Climbing Build ropes course across ravine Attack course Canoeing High Ropes Courses Creativity exercises (nuclear lamp) Low ropes course Getting over 12ft wall within time limit Single rope techniques Hypothetical alligator crossing Sleeping in Self-constructed shelter Orienteering course Trapeze pole jump Problem solving exercises (clover leaf, Zip Wire (flying fox) square rope etc.) Raft building Survey and explore cave Trek (find way in and out of cabin location) Source: Adapted from Ron Cacioppe and Peter Adamson (1988) 'Stepping Over the Edge: Outdoor development programs for management and staff', Human Resource Management Australia, Nov, p. 83
d. Experiential Instead of Activity-based A problem that relates to this discussion to date is the apparent expectation that an experiential program is about scheduling activities whether they be indoor, outdoor, individual or group.
Hovelynck (2001) suugests that experiential learning is
“understood in terms of three processes, which may occur simultaneously or in separate stage, i.e. recognising, acknowledging and reconnoitring” (Hovelynck, 2001:54). This understanding does not relate to activity selection nor about debriefing or experiential learning cycles. These understand ings focus upon ‘process’ rather than activity, learning is viewed as a “process of developing assumptions that people embody in their behaviour” (Hovelynck, 2001:54). This behaviour or enactment is explored further is the discussion on the role of metaphors in 3.4.4.
3.3.4. Outcomes The range of corporate experiential learning programs that incorporate the various activities listed above are purported to be able to achieve a wide variety of training outcomes that extend from the individual, to the group and beyond. Some of the outcomes that programs have been said to be able to achieve range from having a small to a large impact such as the following: §
change someone’s whole perspective on life (Gall, 1987)
§
develop problem solving skills (Arkin, 1991)
§
discover inner resources (Cole, 1987)
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§
enhance leadership (Badger et al., 1997; Beeby and Rathborn, 1982)
§
increased self confidence and self awareness (Beeby and Rathborn, 1982; Burnett, 1994; Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988)
§
jolt participants out of their complacency (Broderick, 1989)
§
speed up the learning and change process (Bolt, 1990)
§
teach teamwork skills (Badger et al., 1997; Boylen, 1992; Buller et al., 1991).
Knakauer even suggests that "(o)nce they (the participants) learn how to conquer the wilderness, the business world is a pushover" (quoted in: Gahin and Chesteen, 1988:36). With such a wide range of claims it is understandable that there would be questions about how effective these courses are in achieving what they set out to achieve. The major categorisation of outcomes suggested by Cacioppe and Adamson (1988), as indicated by their categorisation of activities, is similar to Wagner and Roland (1992) above: §
individual/personal development
§
group development.
Dainty and Lucas (1992) categorise outcomes on the basis of the interaction between the ‘tightness’ of the activity and the intensity of the processing. This gives rise to four potential categories of outcomes represented by the Outdoor Development Matrix in Figure 3-3.
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Figure 3-3 The Outdoor Development Matrix TIGHT QUADRANT 2
QUADRANT 3
T NARROW SKILLS
BROAD SKILLS
A S
QUADRANT 1
QUADRANT 4
FUN / ENJOYMENT
SELF AND OTHER AWARENESS
K LOOSE Low Intensity
Process
High Intensity
Source: Paul Dainty and Donna Lucas (1992) 'Clarifying Confusion: A practical framework for evaluating outdoor development programmes for managers', Management Education and Development, 23 (2), p. 113
This method of categorisation suggests that Quadrant 1 and 2 Outcomes risk being focused only upon outdoor skills, even the narrow skills of Quadrant 2 may be relevant where there is limited processing to enhance the transfer to the work context. Quadrants 3 and 4 have the greatest potential for specific outcomes relevant to management learning, primarily because of the high intensity of processing that enhances the transfer. The concepts of transfer and processing of experiences will be explored in greater depth below. Badger et. al (1997) in a survey of 100 firms in the south west of England identified the key skills areas that were hoped to be developed through the outdoor management development programs they used (Table 3-2). Table 3-2 Skill Areas to be Developed Skill Area % Personal development 79 Team development 74 Leadership 53 Communication 53 Management of Uncertainty 5 Stress Management 0 Assertiveness 11 Problem Solving 16 Source: Beryl Badger et al. (1997) 'Outdoor Management Development: Use and evaluation', Journal of European Industrial Training, 21 (9), p. 322.
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spectrum from encouraging lifestyle changes to engendering fun and enjoyment” (Dainty and Lucas, 1992:111). For the purposes of this study, the focus will be upon organisational-relevant outcomes, including individuals, groups and the organisation as a whole. Thus outcomes may, for one organisation, be fun and enjoyment, while for another, self and other awareness in a group context will be required. While the intent would be to negotiate outcomes prior to a program and that programs will be designed, facilitated and delivered with those outcomes in mind, the use of autoethnography and university subjects limits the possibility of achieving this. Even though there may be an emphasis upon specific outcomes, as will be discussed, the actual outcomes achieved may be different, more, less or the same as the prescribed outcomes.
3.3.5. Conclusion Given the variety of terms available, the difficulties of applying words such as ‘outdoors’ when some or most of a program may be indoors, as well as the elements of risk and danger implied by the term ‘adventure’ the term: Corporate Experiential Learning Programs will continue to be used in this thesis for those experiential learning programs conducted for corporate clients, with the emphasis being upon outcomes (individual, group and/or organisational) that contribute to the achievement of the organisation’s goals. The participants in such programs would not be limited to managers or the development of future managers as the purpose of team building programs may be to work with intact work groups including individuals from all levels of an organisation. Having clarified the meaning of ‘Corporate Experiential Learning Programs’ a further consideration relates to the effectiveness of those programs. With such a diverse range of programs that have the potential to push the comfort zones and understanding levels of those with strong preferences for more traditional modes of learning the possible outcomes and measures of effectiveness may also be broad.
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3.4. Effectiveness
of
Corporate
Experiential
Learning
Programs A major issue facing providers of CELPs is whether or not it actually works. Various influencing factors have been proposed that are suggested will influence the effectiveness of CELP’s, these factors will be addressed under the following categories: §
organisational influences
§
program planning
§
program delivery: metaphors
§
participant selection and motivation
§
facilitator skills, and
§
individual learner.
Prior to focusing upon these categories the questions of the “What is effectiveness?” and “For whom are we being effective?” are first considered.
3.4.1. Evaluation of Effectiveness a. What is Effectiveness? The process of evaluation of any training program is necessary both in terms of assessing the effectiveness of the training, but also to ensure the continued growth and development of appropriate and effective training. Evaluation seeks to achieve not only assessment of the effectiveness of the training, but also to receive feedback about the training. Evaluation of a training event can occur at seve ral levels. Kirkpatrick (cited in Delahaye, 2000:351-53) identified four levels of evaluation which are: Level 1
Reaction of the participants to the learning process
Level 2
Learning gained
Level 3
Behaviour change evidenced on the job
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Level 4
Results of the organisation that have been influenced by the training
Hamblin (cited in Miner, 1990:24), expanded upon these to develop five levels of evaluation: Level T
Training
Level 1
Reactions: how trainees react to training
Level 2
Learning: acquire ability to behave in new ways
Level 3
Job behaviour: application of learning to job
Level 4
Organisation: effects of behaviour on organisation
Level 5
Ultimate value: cost efficiency of training
A survey conducted in the United States of America (USA) of outdoor training programs revealed that 45% did no evaluations at all, while fewer than 2% used any form of empirical data to evaluate their programs (Wagner et al., 1991), with the assumption here being that empirical data is of the highest value. One of the main deterrents of conducting an accurate evaluation process is the cost (Buller et al., 1991). The use of the ‘smile’ or ‘happiness’ sheet may only provide a superficial evaluation of a course that is subject to a large degree of bias and influence (Smith, 1990). Another method of ‘evaluating’ the effectiveness of a program that is used (possibly more often than is admitted) is based upon the anecdotal evidence of the participants (Thompson, 1991; Wagner et al., 1991) and the conclusion that if the companies keep coming back then the programs must be effective (Ayers cited in Fishman, Unknown). These two methods of evaluation are only at level one of both Kirkpatrick and Hamlin's models. Drawing from the insights of human resource development, a more appropriate process of evaluation would begin in the planning stage, with evaluation strategies being established that are consistent with the program objectives and that extend to the work situation of the participant as suggested by the Human Resource Development Process Model (Figure 3-4).
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Figure 3-4 HRD Process Model
Assessment
Design/Implementation
Evaluation
Define program objectives
Select Evaluation Criteria
Assess Needs Prioritize Needs
Select trainer
Create Evaluation Design
Develop lesson plan Select program methods & techniques Prepare materials Schedule program Implement program
Implement Evaluation Design Interpret Results
Source: Randy L. DeSimone and David M. Harris (1998) Human Resource Development, 2nd Edition, The Dryden Press, Fort Worth, TX, p. 97.
Evaluation that does not address the issue of transfer to the workplace, that is to Level three and four of Hamblin and Kirkpatrick's models, via a process of follow-up and assessment of changes in work-related skills should give rise to questions about its professionalism and long-term effectiveness. Assessment of Level five of Hamblin's model, while desirable, may be practically impossible due to the influence of other factors upon the profitability of a company.
Other means to assess at this level
include the use of measures as discussed within Total Quality Management principles (McGraw, 1992:9). While a significant component of any experiential learning program is the processing of the experiences, other contributing factors that may influence the effectiveness of a program include: program planning, participant selection, facilitator role and the use of metaphors, all of which may be designed to complement the formal processing strategies. Effectiveness in this context is taken to mean that there is an observable change in the participants within the workplace following the training program consistent with the objectives of the program. That is, there is a transference of the learning from the training program to the workplace, and that this transference is apparent over an extended period of time such as six months, this would also lead to looking at the role of follow-ups to support the longevity of transference (Priest and Lesperance, 1994).
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b. For whom are we being effective? When asking the question about effectiveness, consideration may need to be given to who is the actual client of the program. Schein (1997) suggests that in any helping or change process it is necessary to determine who is the client. In the model proffered by Schein there are at least six potential clients from any one change process. This model may also be applied to the training and development role where training consultants are brought in to provide training programs, including CELP’s. The model of the basic types of clients offered by Schein is as follows (Schein, 1997:2023): Contact clients - the individual(s) who first contact the consultant with a request, question or issue. Intermediate clients - the individuals or groups who or which get involved in various interviews, meetings, and other activities as the project evolves. Primary clients - the individual(s) who ultimately “own” the problem or issue being worked on; they are typically also the ones who pay the consulting bills or whose budget covers the consultation project. Unwitting clients – members of the organization or client system above, below and laterally related to the primary clients who will be affected by interventions but who are not aware that they will be impacted Indirect clients – members of the organization who are aware that they will be affected by the interventions but who are unknown to the consultant and who may feel either positive or negative about these effects … Ultimate clients – the community, the total organization, an occupational group, or any other group that the consultant cares about and whose welfare must be considered in any intervention that the consultant makes
To this end, the ‘client’ of a training program may go beyond the recipient of the actual experience and could include others who may be impacted by changes in behaviour, attitudes and skills such as: supervisors, co-workers, customers, family members and shareholders.
3.4.2. Organisational Influences a. Organisational Culture If effectiveness is deemed to be related to the transfer of learning to the workplace, one important aspect that will influence the transfer will be the culture of learning Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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within the organisation such as with the learning organisation (Senge, 1990/1992). What mechanisms exist to encourage or support transfer? What systems are in place to review and apply the learning? What resistance may there be to people who are perceived to be trying to get ahead or improve themselves? What is the level of support from upper management for the employee to implement their skills? (Delahaye, 2000). Rusaw (2000) suggests that resistance to changes as a result of training “appears as irrationally-based and protective of the status-quo … those in power may reveal resistance subtly by controlling the format of discussion, imposing definitions of needs, approving training content, and selecting individuals who attend training events.” (Rusaw, 2000:257-8). b. Upper Management Commitment and Involvement Even though negative organisational cultures exist, it is still suggested that upper management support and encouragement are critical to the success of an outdoor training program (Crawford, 1988; Galagan, 1987b; Gall, 1987). Mol and Vermeulen (1988) suggest that the major influence upon the success of any management development program is dependent upon the commitment of upper management (Mol and Vermeulen, 1988). Where there is commitment from above, then there will begin to exist an organisational sub-culture that is conducive to new skills and learning being implemented, and thus transferred.
The symptoms of lack of upper
management support include splitting up work teams that have attended training together, lack of follow-up of participants by upper management which may translate into unsustainable outcomes (Bramwell et al., 1997; Gall, 1987). The problem of lack of management commitment is also noted by Rusaw (2000) who writes from a critical theory perspective. Rusaw suggests that “trained employees may have the skills, but lack the power to change poor work conditions. In addition, managers may fail to give employees opportunities and resources for making changes” (Rusaw, 2000:249). Galagan (1987b) cites a method of overcoming the problems of lack of upper management commitment that involves delivering the experiential learning exercises at the top of the organisation first and working down. The objectives of the training need to be linked to the objectives of the organisation, a process that begins in the preplanning stage (see discussion below). The result of working through all levels of the
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organisation with a program that aims to coincide with the direction of the organisation is that the culture of the organisation can change.
There is also an
understanding throughout the organisation about the objectives of the training. In addition there is also the increased possibility for the necessary support from upper management to be provided for individuals to experiment with their new learning and to implement change in their own work practices and the work practices of their subordinates (Galagan, 1987b). Priest (1995a) discusses the impact of an outdoor management development program (also referred to as a corporate adventure training program - CAT) on the culture of an Australian Public Service organisation. Over 4,000 employees, including all levels of management, participated in the program involving group initiatives and high ropes courses (Priest, 1995a). The study focused upon the perceptions of 100 managers before, during and after the program. The results suggested that the CAT program assisted the culture change, however the study was not able to take into account the influence of the significantly changing environment at the time.
The nature of
causality is unclear, some of the possibilities are: §
the influence of the CAT program;
§
the influence of the changing climate (from monopoly to competition) that could include a shift in culture from public sector to private enterprise;
§
a Hawthorn effect;
§
the result of previous organisational issues that “came to a head” at that time; and
§
any combination of the above.
As suggested by Priest (1995a), without a control company, identifying the actual cause of the change may be difficult, however the fact that the upper management were satisfied with the program and the changes to the organisation’s culture may be sufficient evidence of effectiveness for that organisation.
As a public sector
organisation, other ‘clients’ that may be considered include both the government and the public as the de facto shareholders as well as being the organisation’s customers.
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The above issues, and those that follow, are explored further by McGraw (1992, 1993) who identifies six problems that will impact upon the transfer of learning from an outdoor ma nagement development program to the workplace. The problems are: §
inadequate organisational analysis prior to the program;
§
problems related to corporate culture;
§
lack of senior management support;
§
unmotivated participants;
§
development of skills in the program that do not mirror real workplace problems;
§
inadequate reinforcement in the workplace (McGraw, 1992; McGraw, 1993).
3.4.3. Program Planning In discussing activity selection previously, reference was made to the work of Hovelynck (e.g. Hovelynck, 1998; Hovelynck, 2001) and his observations regarding program design in Outward Bound Belgium. The following discussion takes a more traditional line regarding program planning that has strong influences from the writings of human resource development. a. Pre-Planning As with all training it is necessary to clearly establish the objectives of the training program (Delahaye, 2000; DeSimone and Harris, 1998; Rylatt and Lohan, 1995; Sofo, 1999). A needs analysis that highlights the corporate, as well as the individual needs, will provide a strong basis for a well developed course. Mol and Vermeulen (1988) suggest that the planning stage of any management development program should be carried out at three levels. The three levels are: §
the organisational analysis of future management needs;
§
an operational analysis to determine specific management skills; and
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§
a personal analysis to determine the development needs of the individual.
The needs analysis may also assist in identifying the level of support for, and followup, of learning within the organisation and thus influence the potential effectiveness of the program. In the process of the needs analysis where techniques such as interviews and group discussions are held with potential participants there may also be the possibility to begin to enhance the learning of the individual as they are able to start the process of asking themselves questions such as: “What is it that I need/want out of this program?”. The simple process of beginning to ask these questions may enhance the learning experience as they are beginning to “process” or reflect upon what it is that may happen on the program (Boud, 1997). Where there is an outdoor component of the course that is provided by a separate organisation it may be advisable tha t the outdoor provider be part of the negotiations of the course structure, rather than seemingly ‘tacking’ the outdoor component on as an extra piece (Garvey, 1989). As discussed later, the establishment within the planning stage of evaluation strategies will also aid in the effectiveness of the program. Where the planning stage involves all possible participants, this stage may further assist in enhancing the effectiveness of the CELP by introducing the participants to the basic concepts of the program, such as the use of metaphors and processing and reflection activities (Buller et al., 1991), or to offer a time for participants to ‘contract’ to commit themselves to change and to write down their goals and objectives for the course (Gass, 1985). This latter aspect assists in placing more emphasis upon the participant to be responsible for their own learning. b. Activity Selection As discussed in 3.3.3 there is a substantial number of potential activities that may be selected as part of any corporate experiential learning program.
Wagner and
Campbell, in discussing the challenges faced by providers of outdoor-based experiential training, cite a program that used an additional step in the program to assist in the program transfer. Their additional step is ‘virtual reality’, not of the Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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computer kind, but where participants were asked to facilitate a group of school students in a mock community consultation. It is suggested that the virtual reality training “presents a unique opportunity for the participants to: §
Experience the entire life cycle of an organization, from creation to termination;
§
Experience penalties and payoffs, which are real and inescapable, since they are controlled by someone outside of the development environment;
§
Experience real feedback on their performance from real customers;
§
Confront their actual behaviours and attitudes about a number of work-related areas” (Wagner and Campbell, 1994:6-7).
From the perspective of adult education or vocational education, what is suggested as a “new and potentially vital link in the OBET training process” (Wagner and Campbell, 1994:6), would appear to have significant similarities to the use role pla ys, on-the-job experience, use of simulators and case studies. The choice of activities must jump the hurdle of Zemke’s (1988) comments, but also the value of metaphors as discussed below. In assisting the transfer of learning, and thus the effectiveness of the program, other writers look to additional, follow-up, experiences, upon the participants’ return to work. c. Follow-up The follow-up experience is one of ten strategies suggested by Gass (Gass, 1985; Gass, 1987) in order to assist in the transfer of learning. The follow-up involves extending the program into the "home" environment. This may involve additional activities in areas such as communications, processes, choices and dealing with blockages to achieving goals. The rationale for this and many others strategies for assisting transference of learning is that "unless we assist our students in providing their own linkages, bridges, and connections to their learning, the utility of much of the education we care about and work so hard to bring about is put away in the equipment room with the ropes and backpacks" (Gass, 1987:257). The essential nature of the follow- up process is supported by Doherty in finding that “the data also
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reveal that most of the initial learning had been lost 30 days after the ropes course experience, a clear indication that follow-up procedures are absolutely essential if benefits are to be preserved”. Doherty further cites Priest and Lesperance (1994) who concluded that “six months after corporate adventure training (CAT), any benefits gained may be lost without follow- up procedures” (Doherty, 1995:17). The impact of planning and follow-up procedures on the transference and retention of learning may suggest that the planning process was inadequate and/or that the experience alone does not achieve long term learning, but that a process of preparation and revision is needed.
This is not a new concept.
Circa 1880, Ebbinghaus
(Frischknecht and Capelli, 1995) first referred to the problems of forgetting following a learning experience in his Curve of Forgetting. The suggestion from Ebbinghaus is that regular review or follow-up is necessary if the learning is to last beyond one day (Figure 3-5). Figure 3-5 Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting, 1880’s 120%
Percent Recall
100% 80% 60%
40
... fter st a lo % lost 60%
40%
lost 71%
lost 76%
20% 0% 0 min
80%
lost
lost 90%
20 min
1 hour
8 hours
1 day
2 days
31 days
Time Since Learning (Not to Scale)
Source: Adapted from Jacqueline Frischknecht and Glenn Capelli (1995) Maximizing Your Learning Potential: A handbook for lifelong learners, Kendall/Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, IO.
3.4.4. Program Delivery: Metaphors Metaphors ma y be considered an integral component of many programs (Bacon, 1983; Gass and Dobkin, 1993; Gass and Priest, 1993; Long, 1987; Priest and Gass, 1993). Long (1987) suggests that the challenges faced in the ‘woods’ “are designed as metaphors for professional challenges in the organization” (Long, 1987:32). As a
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form of speech a metaphor may be considered as “a figure of speech … that associates two unlike things; the representation of one thing by another” (Murfin and Ray, 1997:210). In outdoor and experiential learning a metaphor may be viewed as “an idea, object, or description used in place of a different idea, object, or description, in order to denote comparative similarity between the two” (Priest and Gass, 1997:175). What may be referred to in an outdoor environment as a metaphor may more closely align to an allegory which is “the presentation of an abstract idea through more concrete means. The typical allegory is a narrative … that has at least two levels of meaning” (Murfin and Ray, 1997:8). Part of the rationale offered for training business people in the outdoors is the use and power of the metaphors experienced in the outdoors. Bacon (1983) discussed the conscious use of metaphors in the context of Outward Bound programs where metaphors are said to provide the link between the outdoor or adventure experience with the home environment. Bacon (1987) suggests that learning and transference occurs through the experiential metaphors.
The learning occurs when the literal
experience of the outdoor activity becomes metaphoric, that is an example or similar to another experience. The strength of the metaphor is based upon the isomorphism of the experience - that is the one to one correspondence between the components of the outdoor exercise and real life (Bacon, 1987). Bacon goes on that the isomorphic metaphors result in the participant living two realities at once: the literal and the psychological. The transderivational search which involves making the connection between the two realities, is what ties these two realities together, however the emphasis is upon the instructor “providing appropriate course experiences” (Bacon, 1983:10) to facilitate this process. Other writers have also drawn on the use of metaphors for the justification of outdoor training. Broderick says that "each of the outdoor events is supposed to represent a metaphor ...
For some workplace or life situation" (Broderick, 1989:80), while
Handley, when exploring the wilderness experience, says that metaphor "challenges our thinking. It creates a question ... the metaphor is not an expression it is an experience" (Handley, 1992:6). Drawing on the works of Gass and Bacon, it is suggested that metaphors are said to exist where the adventure experience is “similar,
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parallel or analogous to occurrences in the clients’ daily life at work, home or play” (Priest and Dixon, 1990:104). Detractors of the use of metaphor, as discussed above include Zemke (1988) and Kolb (1991).
Zemke, as discussed earlier, believes that the issue of metaphor is
inappropriate and that real training for managers should only take place with real work teams, real problems and real time - not playing in the "woods". Kolb attacks the emphasis on metaphors from a different perspective. He questions the transferability of Bacon's work, which has a psychological basis, to a professional and analytical situation such as the business world. Kolb does not believe that there is a strong correlation between defining one's self- image and relationships, as emphasised in Bacon's work, and the business world which involves strategic planning with many other people and perspectives. Kolb believes that rather than metaphoric change occurring in the adventure training context, that it could be “metamorphic change, i.e. change under pressure” (Kolb, 1991:54). As Kolb suggests that, "metaphors between business and the outdoors should be applied gently and gracefully" (Kolb, 1991:54). Kolb also raises the problematic nature of ‘programming’ change or learning as any change is a personal thing that occurs on personal timelines, not the timelines of programs or organisations. Kolb (1991) does raise one very poignant issue, similar to Zemke (1988) with regard to the use and abuse of metaphors - "Kurt Hahn took sailors to sea. Perhaps he would have taken executives to the office!"(Kolb, 1991:53-54). When using metaphors we must be careful and clear. The activities must be clearly introduced, as suggested by Bacon (1987), but probably even more importantly, they need to be clearly debriefed, processed or reflected upon as demonstrated in Doherty’s study where specific scripts were written for three facilitation styles in an empirical study of a one day ropes course program for residential assistants (RA). The three styles were: Mountains Speaks for Themselves (MST), the Outward Bound Process (OBP) and the Metaphoric Model (MM). In MST the participants are left to interpret the experience themselves, OBP involves a facilitate ‘debrief’ after the activity and MM involves a ‘frame’ or frontloading of the experience (Doherty, 1995). Doherty commented that: The Metaphoric Model script also emphasized similarities between ropes course and RA experiences, but with this method, a facilitated discussion concerning specific
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themes took place before each experience instead of after it. Through these introductions, the instructors structured the ropes course activity to be similar in structure to the job of the resident assistant (Doherty, 1995:13).
While Doherty’s (1995) study focused upon formal facilitation styles, it did not have any focus upon the informal or self- facilitation that may occur without the intervention of the facilitator. Moreover there was no consideration of what other metaphors the participants may have brought to the experience or taken away from the experience given that people come to the program already will a wide range of experiences and understandings (Freire, 1972). Another critique of the use of metaphors centres on the emphasis placed upon the facilitator to construct or impose metaphors upon the experience. Gass suggests that the facilitator, in addition to their roles as educators, safety officer and group coordinator, “must also provide appropriate framing and structuring of the experience for the client” (Gass, 1993). When considering the role of metaphors for the learning of women, Collins (2000) and Mack (1996) suggest that the imposition of metaphors may be derived from Gilligan’s observation “that men speaking of themselves and their lives … often speak as if they were not living in connection with women” (Gilligan, 1993:xiii). This is related to the predominance of writing on metaphors originating from male writers (Bacon, 1983; Gass, 1993; Gass and Dobkin, 1993; Gass and Priest, 1993; Kolb, 1991; Luckner and Nadler, 1997; Priest and Gass, 1993; Priest and Gass, 1997; Priest et al., 2000). In contrast to work by Priest and Gass, Luckner and Nadler highlight the use of the metaphors generated by the participants as “using participants’ metaphors will help them know they have been heard …metaphors and stories … are your window into how people perceive their world” (Luckner and Nadler, 1997:139).
When adopting participants’ metaphors the
facilitator is honouring the self-directed nature of the individual’s learning and shifting a degree of power into the hands of the participant. Individual metaphors may, in part, be generated as a result of the participant’s self reflection and informal learning as considered later. Hovelynck (1998) provides a further criticism of the dominant model of metaphor development, as presented above, discusses the difference between metaphors created by facilitators and those enacted by participants. Facilitator-developed metaphors, as proposed by authors such as Gass (Gass, 1993), raises two concerns for Hovelynck Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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about, firstly, “who’s the agent of learning, the developer of the metaphor, and the second one whether metaphors are primarily looked at as figures of speech or figures of thought” (Hovelynck, 1998:6). Hovelynck discusses the need to create a ‘learning space’ whereby participants are able to enact their own metaphors, i.e. ‘metaphorising’, rather than implementing the contents of the facilitator’s metaphors. This learning space draws on the work of Weick (1995) who suggests there is a need to create a place that is sufficiently open and safe that the participants are able to enact their own metaphors, metaphors they bring to the program and which they realise within the program (Hovelynck, 1998). These criticisms raise questions as to the role of metaphor in programs and the roles of the facilitator and participants in being agents of and having control over the learning process. These roles of the participant and the facilitator are considered further in 3.4.5 and 3.4.6.
3.4.5. Participant Selection and Motivation There are possibly two major distinctions that may be made regarding participant selection. The first relates to who made the choice about which participants were to attend and the second relates to the relationship of the participants to one another. A third aspect that is worthy of consideration, and which has links to the previous two points, is the level of motivation of the participations to attend and/or learn. a. Who Makes the Selection Participants who attend CELP’s may be there for a variety of reasons and may have different levels of motivation as a result of the level of choice afforded them in determining whether they should attend or not. Many resistant participants can exist due to being told to be at a training, rather than being given the choice. Choice does not necessarily determine motivation or learning potential as an individual who chose to attend may have done so as much to escape a day or more work, as to learn about themselves, their team or the organisation. However, a positive attitude towards attendance may reduce any early barriers to learning in the program (Delahaye, 2000).
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Selection is also connected to process and level of participation in the needs analysis. If not all potential participants are interviewed or if the do not self- identify that they are in need of training, then they may be hesitant to attend an ‘imposed’ program. b. Relationship of the Participants to One Another CELPs may be conducted for a variety of target groups. These cover: §
layers within the organisational structure e.g. senior managers
§
individuals targeted for individual professional development, this may form part of a succession planning program e.g. future Deputy-Store Managers for a retail chain
§
intact work teams e.g. the newly formed marketing team
§
individuals attending an externally conducted program, or public enrolment course, with participants from other organisations.
In research conducted by Smith and Priest (1995) addressing the issue of the barriers to transference of a group initiative and team building program the conclusion was that training employees from intact work teams would provide more effective and long- lasting outcomes in the workplace than would occur through a randomly selected group of participants who may face resistance upon their return to the workforce. This may be due to the informal or incidental learning that may occur as a result of the team discussing and recalling the experience upon their return to work (Dickson, 1997; Marsick and Watkins, 1997). In considering the relevance of this research to other programs and organisations the generalisability may be limited due to the size of the sample (n=60) and the length of the program (a one day Corporate Adventure Training program) (Smith and Priest, 1995). c. Adult Learners and Preparation/Motivation While participants may vary according to their level of control over their enrolment in the training, there are some aspects of adult learning that may influence what, how, when and why a CELP is conducted. Some of the key insights of adult learning are the belief that adults tend to be self-directed, pragmatic in the learning outcomes and Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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that they come with a wide range of experiences that, in themselves, are invaluable learning resources (Brookfield, 1988). Smith (1998) cites the work of Knowles who highlights key aspects of the distinctions between pedagogy (the way children learn) and andragogy (the way adults learn). Two of Knowles’ six key assumptions are that: … adults come ready to learn those things they need to know are able to do to cope effectively with their real-life situations … the most potent motivators are internal pressures (the desire for increased job satisfaction, self esteem, the quality of life and the like) (Smith, 1998:59).
Kalisch (1979), in discussing the Outward Bound Process, suggests that the process involves “motivated learners … placed in a uniquely structured environment … and are given a set of problem-solving tasks” (Kalisch, 1979:19). Kalisch expands upon the need for the learner to be motivated: This condition must be met to initiate any sort of educational process. The participant must be behaviourally and attitudinally exhibit a willingness to involve himself by interactin g in a generally positive way towards his environment. He must believe that something can be gained as a result of his efforts. Without that bottom-line motivation little or nothing will be accomplished in the way of growth (Kalisch, 1979:19-20).
What is not considered in the insights of Brookfield and Knowles above is the role that ethnicity, gender, prior experience and connection (e.g. emotional, cognitive etc.) to the current experience may have upon the learning outcomes. Facilitators do not always have the opportunity to influence, assist or direct the learner’s motivation prior to the program; contract or freelance facilitators may first meet the group on the day of the training, or else they may have the opportunity to speak with a training coordinator or manager. The problem of participant motivation is acknowledged further by Boud, Cohen and Walker (1993) who write: The meaning of experience is not given, it is subject to interpretation, It may not be what at first sight it appears to be. When different learners are involved in the same event, their experience of it will vary and they will construct (and reconstruct) it differently. One person’s stimulating explanation will be another’s dreary lecture. What learner’s bring to an event – their expectations, knowledge, attitudes and emotions – will influence their interpretation of it and their own construction of what they experience. In general, if an event is not related in some fashion to what the learner brings to it, whether or not they are conscious of what this is, then it is not likely to be a productive opportunity. Much of what we label as ‘poor motivation’ is a mismatch between students’ construction of the event, and our own as teachers (Boud et al., 1993:11).
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3.4.6. Facilitators and Facilitation Facilitators play many roles and can have a significant impact upon the CELP, especially given the expected role of facilitators in the control over the design and delivery of programs (e.g.:Brookfield, 1988; Doherty, 1995; Gass and Gillis, 1995; Heron, 1999). The facilitator can be the authoritarian, teacher, power broker, clown, entertainer, disciplinarian, politician, friend, mother, father or counsellor. As with many terms associated with CELP, the terms facilitator or facilitation has many interpretations as does the skills required of a facilitator. a. Defining Facilitation To ensure that appropriate decisions are made about the use of facilitation it is important to be precise about what facilitation is and what it isn’t. Facilitation, as with many terms associated with experiential programs, may be perceived as being used somewhat indiscriminately, and possibly inconsistently, to cover a range of aspects of an experiential program. Conversely, several terms may be used to label the same thing. Beginning at the dictionary level, at the core of facilitation is the central intent of making things easier or helping move things forward (Crowther, 1995).
Heron
supports this position in saying that “What I mean by a facilitator in this book is a person who has the role of helping participants to learn in an experiential group.” (Heron, 1989:11). Gass and Priest when defining facilitation say that: “Sometimes referred to by other names, such as processing and debriefing, we can define facilitation as ‘those techniques that are used to augment the qualities of the advent ure experience based on an accurate assessment of the client’s needs’” (Priest and Gass, 1997:174). These techniques at a basic level are considered to include discussion, debriefing, reflection and frontloading.
At the advanced level the techniques are suggested to include
metaphoric transfer and isomorphic framing (Priest and Gass, 1993). Four years earlier in an article on adventure therapy the same definition was used by Gass to define processing: “processing can be defined as those techniques that are used to augment the therapeutic qualities of the adventure experience based on an accurate
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assessment of the client’s needs” (Gass, 1993). A limitation of this definition may be that the facilitator appears to only choose processing or reflective activities for a given program of adventure activities, however the definitions of facilitator and/or facilitation would appear to imply that the facilitator’s role should also include the choice of adventure activities “based on an accurate assessment of the client’s needs” (Gass, 1993), a proposition that locates substantial power with the facilitator, a position consider by Heron (1999) in his model of facilitator styles (Table 3-3) that provides a range of modes across six different dimensions within a program. Table 3-3 Heron’s Facilitator Styles Planning Meaning Dimension Dimension Hierarchy Plan for You make Mode the group; sense of what direct is going on group’s for group; learning; you give unilateral meaning to decisions events Cooperation Mode
Plan program with group; negotiate timetable
Invite group members to participate with you in generation of understanding
Confronting Dimension You interrupt rigid behaviour; point to what is being avoided
Work with group to raise consciousness about avoided issues
Feeling Dimension You take full charge of emotional dynamic of group for the group Work with group; elicit, prompt, encourage views; collaborate in mgmt Give group space for managing emotional dynamic
Structuring Dimension You structure learning activities for group, design exercises
Valuing Dimension You take initiative to care for group members
Structure You create learning a experiences community with group; of value collaborate and mutual in respect designing activities Autonomy Delegate Delegate Hand over all Delegate to Choose to Mode planning interpretation consciousnessgroup delegate to group to the group rasing about control affirmation defensive, over of selfavoiding learning worth to behaviour to process; group group self and members peer directed in design of exercises Source: Adapted from John Heron. (1999) The Complete Facilitator's Handbook, Kogan Page, London, UK, pp.15-17.
In earlier writings highlighting the use of several of the facilitation techniques discussed by Priest and Gass above (including debriefing/reflection and metaphors) Bacon makes reference to three distinct ‘curriculum models’. The curriculum models were entitled: Mountain Speaks for Themselves (MST), Outward Bound Plus (OBP) and the Metaphoric Model (MM) (Bacon, 1983). These models cover a range of strategies or techniques that include instruction, activity selection, program design and
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group and individual reflection. In referring to Bacon’s article, Doherty labels these same models as “teaching methods” or “teaching styles” (Doherty, 1995:12) which promote the authority and power of the ‘teacher’, as per Heron’s Hierarchy Mode, in contrast to the role of facilitator as helper which may more effectively rest within the Co-operation or Autonomy Modes. Thus in several writings the same techniques have been referred to as processing, facilitation, debriefing, curriculum models and teaching models/styles. Kalisch (1979) may well have foreseen this definitional dilemma when writing about the multiple roles of the Instructor in the Outward Bound Process. The instructor’s roles were considered to include: skill trainer, program designer, translator, group facilitator and counsellor. In this context the Group facilitator conducted facilitation which was about “making interventions as needed to stimulate and encourage the development of positive relationships among group members” (Kalisch, 1979:83). Facilitation in this case is holistic in the sense that it includes: observing the group process, guiding individuals and group discussions, selecting activities and offering instruction. In Kalish’s model there seems to be a shift between the Hierarchy and Co-operation Modes of Heron’s model, depending upon circumstances. This could raise the question, is an instructor a facilitator?, or is a facilitator an instructor? Or when is an instructor a facilitator?, or vice versa? Using the analogy of the medical doctor, the doctor is trained and employed as a medical practitioner, but in fulfilling her or his duties the doctor may use skills and/or techniques of scientific analysis, research, counselling, inductive reasoning and plain old guess work, but they are still a doctor. To this end the facilitator of an experiential group may also apply a range of skills and techniques that traditionally may be associated with other professions or vocations and may include, but may not be limited to: instruction, programming, counselling, teaching, entertaining and guiding. Thus facilitation would involve a broader set of skills that cover not only processing of the activities but also the programming, communication, leadership and instruction. To this may also be added the technical skills required for the experiential, adventure and/or outdoor activities. This would broaden the definition of Priest and Gass above and incorporate some of the observations made by Kalisch (1979) acknowledging the multiple roles that the instructor (of the 1970s) and the facilitator (in the 1990s and Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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beyond) in the helping role suggested by Heron (1999). Thus facilitation becomes the selection, delivery and continuous evaluation of experiences, locations and processing techniques based on an accurate assessment of the client’s needs, which require substantial skills of one individual. b. Skills of the Facilitator The term 'facilitator' is used here in place of 'instructor' when referring to facilitating the process including the processing or debriefing of the activity as the facilitator is to be "a guide on the side, not a sage on the stage" (Stremba, 1989:9). The facilitator is there to help explore the meanings for the participant, not to interpret the experience for them (Heron, 1989). Pearson and Smith (1985) seek to highlight the range of skills that are needed by the facilitator of a debriefing or processing session.
These skills are: structuring,
organising, group process, communication, conflict resolution and counselling skills. These skills parallel those of a professional counsellor or therapist with training as a group leader (Smith, 1986). The range of skills suggested gives support to the view that the debriefing should involve both the thoughts and the feelings, to concentrate on one or the other is to limit the learning. Horwood says that to limit reflection to just the intellect or cognition is to cheat the students, and to emphasise the emotions is just as limiting (Horwood, 1989). Priest and Dixon (1990) consider the question of qualifications of staff at the servicelevel of a training organisation and divide these qualifications into three skill categories: hard skills, soft skills and meta skills. Hard skills are the technical skills such as abseiling, rafting and climbing. These skills are considered easy to train and assess.
Soft skills are those more related to working with people, including
organisation and instruction, these skills are considered more difficult to train and assess. The third category, meta-skills, is what joins the hard and soft skills together. They are the interpersonal skills, the judgement and decision- making, they are considered the higher- level competencies that are quite difficult to assess, and require experience to obtain (Priest and Dixon, 1990). Priest and Dixon suggest that the facilitator especially needs these latter skills.
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c. Facilitator Teams While the total set of skills required by a facilitator is quite extensive, one approach to meet this need is to ‘pool’ skills by using facilitator teams. In research conducted by Priest (1995b) of a four day CAT program with 71 participants from four intact work groups, three different facilitator teams were established and one control group which did not receive the CAT program.
The three facilitator teams where: adventure
facilitators, corporate trainers and a joint team of an adventure facilitator and a corporate trainer. It was found that the most effective teaming involved the joint team with the other two teams achieving similar outcomes up to 6 months later in the team development measures. What was not investigated in this research was the potential impact of the skills and personalities of the facilitators and any correlation these may have with the participants. This would contrast with the focus of Priest’s study on the facilitators’ work origins.
3.4.7. Processing, Reflection and Debriefing - more of the same? As mentioned above, ‘processing’ is one of the components considered integral to experiential learning that may be used inconsistently and/or indiscriminately, however there may be value in ensuring that the terms that are used are well defined and consistently applied. The risk with all definitions is that a definition that is too narrow may become limiting, while an ill-defined term may cause confusion. What follows is an exploration of the dominant paradigm of processing presented in the literature. Questions that will be explored include: §
What is processing or debriefing?
§
Why process?
§
How do we process?
§
Where Do We Process?
§
When Do We Process?
§
Length of Time for Processing
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§
Do we need to process?
§
Is there a place for Self-directed Reflection?
Dewey sees experiential learning as not just experience but "reflection on experience" (cited in Bacon, 1987:20). The reflection is conducted in order to explore the relationship of the experience, or program of activities, to the normal environment of the participant.
There are several terms that are used to refer to the process of
reflecting on the experience or the program of activities the most common of these terms are: debriefing, processing and reflection.
Horwood says that the goal of
reflection is for "students to construct meaning out of their experiences ... (and the) discovery of new connections" (Horwood, 1989:5). Examples of the diverse and potentially misleading usage of the term ‘processing’ includes: Sometimes referred to by other names, such as processing and debriefing, we can define facilitation as ‘those techniques that are used to augment the qualities of the adventure experience based on an accurate assessment of the client’s needs’ (Priest and Gass, 1997:174). Processing is an activity which is employed for the purpose of encouraging the learner to reflect, describe, analyze, and communicate in some way that which was recently experienced (Quinsland and Van Ginkel, 1984). Active processing ... is the consolidation and internalization of information, by the learner, in a way that is both personally meaningful and conceptually coherent (Caine and Caine, 1991:147). Most Debriefings, however, operate on the group process model, using the activity as the central focus of the discussion ... The discussion or processing of the activity can lead to related counseling (sic) issues (Schoel et al., 1988:32).
a. What is processing or debriefing? The Oxford English dictionary suggests that the chief current usage for the word ‘process’ is “A continuous and regular action or succession of actions, taking place or carried on in a definite manner, and leading to the accomplishment of some result; a continuous operation or series of operations” (Crowther, 1995:546). This series of actions may be natural, involuntary, artificial or voluntary and may relate more to the activities/events that aid in the achievement of learning / understanding from the
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experience than the experience itself. It may also focus more on what the learner is doing rather than the facilitator. Debriefing, a term also used extensively, is often considered an integral component of the experiential process. Within the context of the adventure-based counselling model Schoel et. al (1988) refer to the debrief as a “group discussion period” and suggest that “to debrief is to evaluate” (Schoel et al., 1988:32). Debriefing, or processing, may also be considered a sharing or a reflection. Processing may be seen as a series of activities that aids in the transfer of learning.
In contrast Bacon (1983) when
discussing isomorphism and successful experiences in Outward Bound programs, says that: Instructors can afford to be less concerned with discussion and more focused on providing appropriate course experiences …this does not mean that debriefings are useless or ineffective … but it must be recalled that a debriefing is itself a course experience … a powerful debriefing can contribute to generalization, but not – as is normally thought – by helping students ‘understand’ what they have learned earlier. Rather, the debriefing itself is an experiential change process (Bacon, 1983:10-11).
Throughout many of the writings on CELP there is a cry for effective debriefing. Miller (1988) cites ‘debriefing’ as the key process in learning from educational simulations and games (1988:23), while Bank (1985) says that without debriefing a program could become a purely personal adventure (1985:5). Knapp quotes Rhoades who says that "(t)o merely provide an experience, albeit a powerful one, and to expect the student to return home and to sort it out for himself (sic) is, if we are to believe those who are doing research in related fields of education, to invite failure" (Knapp, 1985:14). Despite all of this support for debriefing in one form or another, there is still evidence that courses continue to be conducted without any debriefing process, nor the recognition of debriefing as an important aspect of the training experience (Fields, Naffziger and Dobson, 1992). While much of the literature uses the term ‘debriefing’, the intent from here-on is to use the word ‘processing’ to describe that effort, conscious or unconscious, by the participant to make sense of the experience and to draw out their learning, whether before, during or after the experience, or at a time and in a place unconnected to the experience
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b. Why process? Brackenreg et. al. (1994) suggest that processing “is widely advocated as an essential component of adventure-based programming” (Brackenreg, Luckner and Pinch, 1994:45) primarily as an activity to aid the transference of the learnings gained from the activity or experience to the more usual environment.
This is reasonably
consistent in all areas of the experiential learning whether it be for business, schools or adventure therapy. Through processing there is the opportunity to extract the invaluable data that is generated from an adventure or experiential activity from which the participants are able to learn and to bring about change in their lives. The processing helps to begin to make sense of what has been done, to seek to integrate the new experience into our existing databank of life experiences and understandings. The processing may also provide skills that participants can apply at home to continue reflecting upon the experience well after the program has ended (Priest et al., 1999). c. How do we process?
i.
Common Practice
The most common form of processing revealed in the literature, as discussed in Chapter 6, is the large circle group discussion. This is consistent with the results of Workshop Surveys as discussed in Chapter 5 as well as the dominant images in articles and texts on ‘debriefing’ as discussed further in Chapter 6. Questions used in this model may focus upon the triune structure of “What?”, “So what?”, “Now what?” (Schoel et al., 1988). The primary modality used is the external auditory (Prashnig, 1996) with little attempt to draw upon other modalities. Henry (1999) criticises the validity of self- report and cites work by Nisbett and Wilson (1977) that “showed that people are unable to provide accurate reasons for certain decision, which casts doubt on the ability of people to recognize their own motivation” (Henry, 1999:593). Henry goes on to note that there has been recent interest in approaches that acknowledge the more intuitive and embodied nature of knowledge and experience as distinct from emphasising the rational and cognitive perspectives seen in the existing dominant paradigm.
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Another question about the large group ‘debrief’ is the emphasis this form of processing places on the role of the facilitator to ensure the learning happens. It conveys an image of control over learning as distinct from facilitation of learning. Titles of some books and articles, particularly from North America, convey an image of the facilitating being central to the learning process, thus potentially limiting the role and power of the individual to construct and control their own learning. Examples of particularly mechanistic models and titles that emphasise the power and control of the facilitator are: Gass, M. A. (1987) 'Programming the Transfer of Learning in Adventure Education' Nadler, R. and Luckner, J. (1998) 'Facilitating Defining Moments for Others' Priest, S., Gass, M. A. and Gillis, L. (2000) The Essential Elements of Facilitation
To move away from this facilitator-centric view of the world may require looking at other modes and methods of processing, ones that incorporate both hemispheres of the brain, are multi-sensory and have the potential to engage people beyond the cognitive level, just as experiential learning itself is meant to go beyond the privileging of the cognitive, rational and verbal. This may connect with Bacon’s (1983) suggestion that ‘debriefing’ is not necessary if the activities/experiences are sufficiently isomorphic or James (1980) that there is potential for the mountains (or the experience) to speak for itself.
ii.
Alternative Methodologies
… use review methods which match the fullness of the experience (Greenaway, 1993:12) Typically practitioners and writers have viewed the ‘debrief’ as sitting in a circle and having a three stage discussion. This discussion firstly addresses what happened in the game/initiative etc, the next stage looks at how people felt about what happened and finally how does that relate to other situations. Schoel et. al. (1988) refer to Terry Borton's three tiered approach to this: The "What?", the "So What?", and the "Now What?".
This form of debriefing, while possibly effective, does not reflect the
diversity of ways that debriefing, processing or reflection can occur. These three phases have also been connected with the last three stages of Kolb’s experiential
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learning cycle (Figure 3-2) as well as Priest and Naismith’s ‘funnelling’ (Figure 3-6), both of which present a linear perspective of learning, albeit a circular model for Kolb. Figure 3-6 The Funnel
Experiences Filter #0 Review Filter #1 Recall & Remember
Filter #5 Commit ment
Filter #2 Affect & Effect Filter #3 Summation Filter #4 Application
WHAT? SO WHAT?
NOW WHAT?
Change Source: Simon Priest and Mindee Naismith (1993) 'A Model for Debriefing Experiences', The Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 10 (3).
To take into account the variety of needs of the participants in terms of: comfort zones when sharing in a group, their ability to clearly express yourself in words, and their individual learning styles, it is helpful to have a range of methods of debriefing available for use. Smith (1986) draws on the human potential movement and the humanistic education movement to bring together a range of possibilities. These include relaxation and centring, special places, solos, guided fantasy, journalling, dyads and triads, structured feeling exercises and non- verbal group exercises. Stremba (1989) also suggests trip fantasies and journaling and, in addition suggests the use of discovery interviews. The aim is to use many alternatives and to be creative in their use - the more variety available, then the more opportunities will exist for individuals to process their thoughts and feelings and to integrate their learning into their daily lives.
Additional methods suggested by other authors are as follows
(Boyle, 1997; Dickson, 1996; Dickson, 2001a; Marshall and Reason, 1997; Nadler and Luckner, 1992; Smith, 1986): §
art
§
avant cards
§
drama
§
dyads, triads
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§
feelings market. place
§
journals (personal and/or group)
§
guided visualisation
§
large group discussions
§
letter writing
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§
one word “whip arounds”
§
photos
§
photo language
§
sculpture
§
storytelling
§
small group discussions
§
symbols
§
thumbs up/down
§
solo time
§ video replays Henry (1999) provides further examples of the range of personal development media, available to the practitioner, that has some correlation with the list above and with the sensory modality categories (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile) in the Learning Styles Analysis as discussed below. Table 3-4 makes connections between the media, the modalities in play and the primary realms of application. From Henry’s work, the emphasis upon verbal techniques, as in large group debriefs, reflects a counselling or therapeutic perspective that may not have a place in CELP which may be more about personal development. Table 3-4 Personal Development Media Verbal discussion Reflection Share, Relive, Challenge, Reconstrue Pair Work Psychotherapy, Counselling, Co-counselling Small group Group therapy, Family Therapy, Co-dependency Large group EST, Insight, Life training Reflective writing Narrative Autobiography, Journal, Story-telling, Myth Reporting Activity log, Mood rating, Mapping Imaginative Metaphor, Unsent letter, Epitaph Expressing emotion Drama Psychodrama, Role play Art Art therapy Music Music therapy Imaging concerns Rehearsal Mental rehearsal, Good resource Visualizing Guided fantasy, Active imagination Contemplative Meditation, Contemplation Body based Massage Bioenergetics, Biodynamics Movement Tai Chi, Dance Invasive Drugs, ECT Relaxation Biofeedback, Breathing Source: Jane Henry (1999) 'Changing conscious experience - comparing clinical approaches, practice and outcomes', British Journal of Psychology, 90, p.593.
d. Where Do We Process? The setting or environment for processing is not normally discussed. The images considered in Chapter 6 show a range of outdoor environments, but with little comment on the role or significance of that environment. This is considered further in Chapter 6 with reference to material from areas such as human geography and organisational aesthetics. However, given that there is substantial literature around about the impact of nature and the wilderness on people as well as the work of Dunn and Dunn (e.g. Dunn, 1990; Dunn, Griggs, Olson, Beasley and Gorman, 1995; Murray-Harvey, 1994) on the impact of preferred environments, it is notable that there Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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is an absence of information in relationship to the processing experience. Dunn and Dunn’s work considers aspects such as formality of setting, temperature, light and the need for mobility and intake when learning something new or difficult (Prashnig, 1996). Aspects that may be explored further would be to address the question: What is the impact of space, place and nature on the experience, the emotions, thoughts and learning? This question raises its head regularly throughout Chapter 4 as I explore my own learning experience. e. When Do We Process? Popular recommendations regarding the timing of the processing is that it should occur after the particular event or activity (Kolb, 1984; Luckner and Nadler, 1997; Schoel et al., 1988). The timing within the program tends to correlate with two models: the first is the military, brief, attack, debrief model which locates the debrief after the particular experience. The second model is the experiential learning cycle that sequences the events in the following order: experience, reflection, processing, application (Figure 3-2). Heron (1992) strongly critiques Kolb’s experiential learning cycle that he suggests is “derived from scientific inquiry: we reflect on experience, generalize from these reflections, then test the implications of these generalizations through further experience” (Heron, 1992:193). In a scathing summary of his criticisms of Kolb’s experiential learning model Heron says: Whereas Jung contaminates his four basic functions of feeling, intuition, thinking and sensation by imposing arbitrarily narrow limits on their definitions, Kolb takes his four modes of feeling, perceiving, thinking and behaving as basic, does not define them or augment them, but boxes them into a superstructure of inappropriate epistemology, in order to make them underpin his preferred paradigm of scientific enquiry. He then has to tack other modes such as intuition and imagination, in an unsatisfactory way, onto this structure to make up for its limitations (Heron, 1992:197).
An additional criticism by Heron, of this model is the unquestioned assumption by Kolb that all knowledge is propositional knowledge, and that other forms of knowledge such as experiential, presentational, practical or tacit knowledge are not recognised.
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The emphasis of processing occurring after the activity is upon the formal, facilitator directed, processing and ignores the informal and incidental that can occur naturally and at a time and place of choice by the participant. The other aspect that is not given due regard is the impact of power in a group. Heron’s model of facilitation (Table 3-3, page 147) highlights the differences that can occur when aspects such as who has the power and authority in a group process and how that can shift between participants and facilitator enabling co-creation and interdependence of learning. The impact of power and control is also considered by Miller (1988) who refers to two decisions that ‘debriefers’ can make with regard to any ‘debriefing. The questions relate to the level of structure that can be applied and the degree to which a teachercentred or student-centred approach is used. These two questions give rise to a typology with four modes of debriefing as demonstrated in Figure 3-7. Figure 3-7 A Typology of Debriefing Modes
Controller (directive)
Mode A
Mode B
Unstructured
Structured Mode C
Mode D
Facilitator (non-directive) Source: Andy Miller, (1988) 'Who Would like to Share Their Experiences?: Debriefing and experiential learning', In Learning from Experience through Games and Simulations: Perspectives in gaming and simulation 13, (Eds, Saunders, D., Coote, A. and Crookall, D.), SAGSET, Leicestershire, p. 27
In this typology, Mode A is controlled but unstructured with little concern for feelings, Mode B is controlled and structured aiming to draw out key learning points, Mode C is non-directed and unstructured, with the participants having greater levels of power and control, while Mode D is non-directed, but structured, primarily by having pre-set questions. These modes, while suggesting that the facilitator/teacher is nondirective, still is based upon the facilitator setting up, monitoring and overseeing the situation, that is, they still retain the power over the participants, and there is no
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consideration for participant directed or controlled debriefing or facilitation as may occur in a informal session. The model of debriefing or facilitating promoted by authors such as Priest, Gass, Gillis, Nadler, Luckner and Kolb, as discus sed above, typically would fall into Mode B with a high level of structure and facilitator control. f. Length of Time for Processing Debriefing can be seen as an add-on to the activity, or it can be viewed as an integral part of the experience. As an integral part, the amount of time allocated to the process may in fact be equivalent to the total time of the activity. Hayllar (1991) suggests that a guide for a minimum time allocation for debriefing is to allow at least one hour of debriefing for every half day of activities. The actual time used will depend not only upon the length of the activity, but also the issues raised in the activity, the willingness of the participants to discuss the issues (this is related to group trust, group dynamics, self confidence, and tiredness) and the physical environment in which the discussion is occurring (Hayllar, 1991). If processing of experiences includes the formal, facilitated activities and the informal, self-directed and incidental process, may impact upon Hayllar’s suggested length of time. g. Do we need to process? Many writings about processing or debriefing strongly suggest that they are essential (Luckner and Nadler, 1997; Priest and Gass, 1997; Priest et al., 2000; Schoel et al., 1988). Yet, if we reflect upon significant learning events in our own lives we may realise that we can and do learn without any particular formal processing activity facilitated by an external force (Dickson, 1997). What we may see from our life- long learning is that some of our more significant learning, or the moment when we make major connections in our mind, may occur at the most inappropriate or obscure times: in the middle of the night, driving along the highway or in the pool swimming laps. These moments of insight may well involve ‘processing’ of information but it is usually in the context of our own parallel processor, the brain, with no external facilitation. Csikszentmihalyi acknowledges the ability for the brain to operate without an external facilitator when he says:
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For many people, driving a car gives the most consistent sense of freedom and control; they call it their ‘thinking machines’ because while driving they can concentrate on their problems without interruptions, and resolve emotional conflicts in the protective cocoon of their personal vehicle (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997:44).
In the context of school-based learning, Caine and Caine (1994) suggest that “as we become more aware of the experiential nature of learning, it will become more important for students to reflect on their experiences to adequately grasp the implications” (Caine and Caine, 1994:159). For Caine and Caine “reflection is a critical aspect of all sophisticated and higher-order thinking and learning” (Caine and Caine, 1994:158). How can we restructure our programs to offer a broader range of processing methods that reflect the variety of styles, backgrounds and needs within our groups? How can we, or the participants, create the space, the ‘protective cocoon’ so they can reflect in their time and at their own pace? One of the great risks of conducting any program is the temptation to fall back on previously used program designs. While this is often a very pragmatic decision, it may also be a client requirement where consistency of product or program is required (such as in a multi-program corporate event). However, how well does this reflect the needs of the individual within the program? While activity sequence or location is one thing, the processing strategies may well be something else. Research and writing from many fields has contributed to the knowledge base that suggests that mass-produced training or educational programs do not reflect the many and varied needs of the individuals in the program (e.g. Anderson, 1995; Atkin, 1996; Chou and Wang, 2000; Curry, 1990; Jonassen and Grabowski, 1993; Prashnig, 1996; Tennant, 1988; Yuen and Lee, 1994). Is it possible to run individualised programs that take into account everybody’s needs? Probably not, however we can be much more intentional in the design and delivery of the program - including the processing methods - to ensure that what we do offer provides the greatest opportunity for individuals to achieve their goals for the program.
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h. Is there a place for Self-directed Reflection? As suggested previously, we can and do learn without the input of an external facilitator, however the facilitator, as the meaning of the word suggests, may make it easier. The stimulus may be an experience, a song, a smell, a sensation. Connections may occur at times when there is less conscious effort being placed upon the problem or the question. The answer may come when we are not looking in that direction as is considered in Chapter 6 with the works of people such as Asimov (1977) and Buchholz (1998).
i. Conclusion Extracting some insights or learning from an experience is considered essential for inclusion in experiential learning.
For some this is called debriefing, for others
processing, and for others reflection. The dominant paradigm privileges the cognitive, rational and verbal spheres (typically left brain thinking) while, often, ignoring other realms of knowledge and experience such as tacit, intuitive and embodied. The dominant paradigm also privileges the role of facilitator as the one with power over the experience and the power to generate the learning for the participant, thus decreasing the role and responsibility of the learning. Discussions that follow identify the key questions asked by researchers, the gaps that may exist and the role that addressing experiential learning through the ‘lens’ of learning styles may begin to address the concerns raised in this literature review to-date.
3.5. Research on Corporate Experiential Learning Programs As discussed earlier, the level of evaluation experiential learning programs is limited and mostly dependent upon anecdotal evidence or small scale quantitative research. This lack of evaluation flows onto the degree of research that is conducted into the area of CELPs. To continue to ignore the need for evaluation and research into the effectiveness of a training method that takes business people into a totally foreign and non-business environment may be deemed almost negligent or at least mana gement malpractice. It is not as if the question of evaluation of training has been ignored in the HRD literature. As considered above in the section on effectiveness, there is a
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range of models of evaluation that seek to connect the training needs analysis to the training outcomes at several levels. The lack of research into the effectiveness of CELPs is raised as one of the major flaws to outdoor training being accepted as an appropriate training tool (Buller et al., 1991; Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988; Kolb, 1988).
Easterby-Smith and Thorpe
(1997), with respect to evaluation of outdoor management development programs, note that “not only is there a shortage of evaluation, but also the application of traditional scientific research” (Easterby-Smith and Thorpe, 1997:49). Research of any kind seems scarce, a situation that seems little changed from 1981 when it was written that "research on the transfer of outdoor managerial training programs is even more limited. Thus there is a need to investigate the impact and transfer of an outdoor training program to the workplace." (Roland, 1981:7). In searching for research on training outcomes, consideration may also need to be given to the reluctance that some organisations may have in making public their results. While the literature may not show extensive research being conducted, there may be a wide range of unpublished research that is being kept confidential in HRD, researchers’ and consultants’ filing cabinets.
3.5.1. Quantitative Research The quantitative research that has been conducted ranges from one day team building programs to multi-day and/or short to medium term programs and with a variety of participants. Participants, as with the time frame, can range from small, such as one person, through intact teams and to whole organisations. The activities can be purely outdoor activities and/or with additional indoor sessions. Some programs are stand alone, while others have structured follow- up processes. In order to counteract the abundance of anecdotal reports that exist in a range of professional and popular journals (e.g. Arkin, 1991; Bolt, 1990; Boylen, 1992; Collard and Thompson, 1992; Dapin, 1996; Fields et al., 1992; Gahin and Chesteen, 1988; Galagan, 1987a; James, 1996; Prouty, 1991; Schrank, 1994), some call for 'good, solid empirical data' for a basis from which some conclusions can be reached (Buller et al., 1991; Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988; Thompson, 1991). This would seem to suggest
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that the only research that is valid in assessing the effectiveness of CELPs is a quantitative, scientific research method. This is an exceptionally limited view of research and potentially demonstrates a lack of insight into the processes involved in experiential learning. As considered in Chapter 6 with the deconstruction of Priest and Gass (1993), the call for empirical research methodologies may reflect a ‘production-line’ view of experiential learning programs. Roland (1981) did seek to address the absence of research by surveying participants, superiors and subordinates of an outdoor training program, and sought to assess the effect and transfer of three outdoor managerial training programs. The results from the questionnaires, field notes and interviews indicated a positive change as a result of the outdoor training program in nine of the managerial constructs. A problem with this study is that all of the participants in the 3 training programs studied were involved in follow-up supervisory training institutes of lengths between 3 and 6 months: Two training programs ... were sponsored by one of the organizations that provided its participants with three months of follow-up training. The remaining training program ... also provided its participants with a follow-up training period though the time was six months (Roland, 1981:67)
The impact of this additional training was not taken into account in the research design, nor in the analysis of the results in this research which was designed to “investigate the impact and transfer of an outdoor training program to the workplace” (Roland, 1981:7). The research design was a pre-test, treatment and post-test model, where the post-test administration of the questionnaires occurred on average 71 days after the treatment. As noted by Roland: This design does not control for history (other change-producing events may have occurred in addition to the training), maturation (the biological and psychological processes which can vary with the passage of time), and testing (the effect of the pretest on the post-test (Roland, 1981:9)
A question would remain as to whether it was the outdoor training that caused the changes, or the supervisory institute, or, more likely, some combination of the two. The call for empirical research is also supported by a study by David C. Kolb (1988) who conducted an empirical study on an outdoor education course in a high school. The purpose for conducting this study was to "fill the gaps left by previous research
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(i.e. qualitative research), and to obtain the same results in order to give further credence to past work and a valid base for future research" (Kolb, 1988:31). The need for such a study was based upon the suggestion that qualitative research "could not be evaluated using a computer nor can adventure based education take place in a lab" (Kolb, 1988:36).
Again, Kolb's research, when looking at a broader category of
adventure training, suggests that only empirical research is valid and that anything that may be interpretive needs to be validated by quantitative methods.
Even if the
quantitative research finds exactly the same results as the interpretive, it is the former which is viewed as the most reliable. This assumption may have been exacerbated by the lack of quality research into outdoor training that goes beyond relating participant anecdotes.
Had there been a strong tradition of research in both paradigms the
situation may not exist where one research paradigm ‘needs’ to validate the other. Cacioppe and Adamson (1988), in reviewing the use of outdoor development programs for managers, agree that the validity of outdoor training programs has not been rigorously validated, but that there is evidence that would indicate that they can contribute to teamwork, and thus to the organisation. What is suggested is that there is a need for more research to "establish the specific benefits of these programs and how long lasting they are" (Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988:92), such as was investigated by Galpin (1989) and who reached similar conclusions about the need for empirical research. Galpin (1989) sought to investigate the impact of a three day outdoor development course on selected self-perceptions of the participants. The course was conducted by Outward Bound for 64 mid level managers from a hospital. The data collection process was as follows: T1
1 month before
T2
Course start
X
Treatment
T3
Course end
T4
1 month after
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Tests indicated that there was an immediate positive change (as measured at T3) in the areas of self-concept and ‘hardiness’ and that this change continued over a four week period. As the research only looked at the 4 weeks after the program there is no indication of the longer term changes nor the actual influences upon the change. The immediate change could be a result of a Hawthorne effect or even the influence of the phenomena identified by Marsh, Richards and Barnes (1986) as post-group euphoria (cited in Miner, 1990:29). Post-group euphoria is represented by feelings of elation and can be a result of participants wanting to make the program look good, the instructor look good, or even to justify the time and money spent on the course. Galpin concludes his study by suggesting that more organisations would use outdoor development courses for their managers if there was "sound investigation which presents results other than testimonial statements from participants" (Galpin, 1989:52). Miner (1990) also emphasises the need for empirical research to validate the effectiveness of outdoor training. Miner suggests that without "research no foundation of tested and proven facts and hypothesized models anchor the field" (Miner, 1990:2). Without research Miner implies that outdoor (or experiential-based) training would simply turn up its proverbial heels and die, a lost and forgotten technique. Empirical evidence is deemed crucial by Miner because: … a) ... it can provide strong evidence as to the value of the method, b) ... it can provide practitioners with the tools to improve and... c) ... research can elevate the field to a respectable level of ‘seriousness’ in the eyes of the academic community, making it a topic for further study by the business, education, management, and social science disciplines (Miner, 1990:3).
Ibbetson and Newell (1996) assessed one provider delivering a two and a half-day ‘open’ program (i.e. participants are from a range of locations and do not represent work groups that will be together upon their return) to 157 post- graduate students with various lengths of previous work experience. The 157 were randomly divided into cohorts of roughly 30 people which were then divided into smaller teams of 7-8 people who participated in a series of micro (20-30 minutes) and macro (45 minutes to two hours) activities. This research focused upon perceptions of team effectiveness and personal beliefs which did not address any behavioural change upon return which were assessed via a questionnaire and the Team Development Indicator.
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Consideration was given to el arning styles and team roles, neither of which were considered significant in this study, in part due to the size of the sample (Ibbetson and Newell, 1996). McEvoy (1997) continues the call for sound empirical evidence to support the view that outdoor management education programs (OME) are effective. McEvoy suggests that the purpose of his paper is to “fill the void by examining the effects of one OME program” (McEvoy, 1997:235). This was to be achieved by providing “statistical assurance that any changes measured were indeed caused by the training rather than some other unknown factor.” (McEvoy, 1997:239). The research design involved a group experimental design combined with some qualitative research methods but the research design was limited to a posttest model due to financial and administrative difficulties. The research concluded that there was a positive influence on participant knowledge, organisational commitment and intentions to implement learning, with ongoing effect for up to three years. In seeking to isolate the training program the research did not take into account the possible Hawthorne effect of the supplementary interviews (two mo nths and three years post), nor the impact of the team organisational days that continued for nine months after the training intervention. The desire for ‘statistical assurance’ is undermined by the weakness of the research design and the lack of statistical significance given the sample size of one case study. As discussed to date there is a strong and clear call for more ‘hard’ evidence of the effectiveness of CELPs, particularly outdoor training. Too many stories of being in the bush seem to have made people wary of the real impact of such courses. In the move to validate and to develop CELPs the emphasis should not be only on quantifiable evidence, rather the research effort should be seeking to develop strong methods of evaluation from both the quant itative and the qualitative paradigms. To emphasise one at the expense of the other is no better than the teaching process that emphasises the cognitive at the expense of the affective, or the processing that emphasises the intellectual development at the expense of the emotive. Experiential learning, and in particular, CELPs, are holistic processes that seek to develop all aspects of the person, and thus must be assessed by a means that reflects that holistic approach. This does not mean throwing out the dominant positivist paradigm as suggested by the preceding researchers, but it does mean that that “more studies that
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use the interpretive paradigm or combine quantitative and qualitative methods within a positivist view will be useful for a comprehensive and critical understanding of experiential learning in the future” (Henderson, 1993:53).
3.5.2. Qualitative Research While the above suggests there is a strong need for quantitative research, on the other side, there is a lack of qualitative research. This may reflect a maturation issue of the profession and the researchers. Maybe in reaching a position of maturity a profession seeks quantitative assurance before having the self-assurance to look to other realms of knowledge and experience as may be found in an interpretive paradigm. Rowley (1987) provides the contrast between the dominant quantitative paradigm and the emerging qualitative (or naturalistic as he refers to it) paradigm. The areas of contrast discussed include the nature of reality, the relationship between the inquirer and the subject, the nature of truth, the explanation of action and the role of values in inquiry. Rowley suggests that there will continue to be situations where quantitative research is appropriate, but where the area of interest involves "leadership, group dynamics, aesthetic appreciation, environmental ethics, participant expectations" (Rowley, 1987:10) then in these situations qualitative methods may result in more meaningful data. In contrast to Kolb (1988) above where quantitative research was being used to validate qualitative data, Rowley suggests that "qualitative research offers ... another important way to substantiate and bring legitimacy to traditional claims, some of which could not be confirmed employing quantitative approaches" (Rowley, 1987:11).
This view is supported by Henderson who says that “if
experiential education is only to address the dominant world of primarily white, middle-class, heterosexual, educate males, then the positivist paradigm will do” (Henderson, 1993:53). To achieve other ways of knowing, Henderson suggests that researchers need to see things from different perspectives, such as within an interpretive paradigm. This choice of research paradigm need not be either/or, but can be both/and, with the choice being driven by the question, the researcher, the situation and the ‘subjects’.
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3.5.3. Future Research Needs The evidence suggests that there may be a lack in the amount of research surrounding the evaluation of the effectiveness and transfer of CELPs, or for that matter, any outdoor experiential learning programs (e.g. Buller et al., 1991; Cacioppe and Adamson, 1988). Yet the studies do demonstrate that experiential programs can and do have an impact (e.g. Galpin, 1989; Ibbetson and Newell, 1996; Priest, 1995a; Priest, 1995c; Roland, 1981).
There still exist areas that would require further
exploration including considering the ‘bridge’ between the program and the home environment, as there is a concern about the ongoing impact of programs (e.g. Roland, 1981; Smith and Priest, 1995). Without a concerted effort to bridge this gap, the appropriateness of CELPs may continue to be called into question. The fireside chats and the experiences of a lifetime will continue to warm the hearts of past participants, they may not sway the pens of funding agencies and human resource managers. Without the support of both quantitative and qualitative research that this form of training is an effective and appropriate means by which to train people (as is indicated by those very fireside chats) these experiences will continue to be no more than a good experience in the outdoors from some individuals.
On the flip-side, what the
corporate world may also have to do is to have a mind shift away from a purely positivist paradigm to a position that acknowledges that knowledge can be achieved and demonstrated in a range of ways, and not all of them require doing statistical analysis of white males’ experiences! Indicators of what other ways of knowing exist may be gleaned from the discussion of research methods, methodologies and epistemologies in Chapter 2 as well as discussions of educational dialectics referred to in Table 6-5 and experiential knowing considered in Section 6.4.5.
3.6. Learning Styles 3.6.1. Introduction: What Does It Mean? As with the term ‘experiential learning’, ‘learning styles’ has also suffered from a lack of consistent definition and usage. Claxton and Murrell (1987) highlight this concern over the definition of ‘learning style’ when acknowledging that learning style is used in a variety of ways. These include: to mean something more than cognitive style that
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takes into account responses to stimuli in different contexts, certain behaviours that may be indicators of a learner’s response to their environment. This concurs with the first of three problems identified by Curry in her critique of the research on learning styles: (1) the confusion in definitions, (2) weaknesses in reliability and validity of measurements, and (3) identification of relevant characteristics in learners and instructional settings (Curry, 1990:50).
Some of the problem with definitions may lie in the diverse usage of the term such as an individual’s personal awareness of their preferred style, its use in curriculum design and also in a diagnostic approach to match the two (Guild, 1990). This issue is discussed below in reference to how learning styles are measured.
3.6.2. Measuring ‘Learning Styles’ In the educational literature there are numerous measures of learning styles for children and adults that involve self- report instruments, some short, some long, with a range of validity and reliability levels.
Hickcox (1995) provides an overview of
Curry’s research (Curry, 1983) into the many inventories and summarises the levels of reliability and validity, Table 3-5 has been adapted from Hickcox’s review. Curry (1983) in seeking to present a model that combines the three layers using the analogy of an onion, where cognitive personality style forms the inner core, information processing style is the next layer and instructional format preference indicator is the outer layer.
Curry suggests that by using such as organisation
“learning behaviour is fundamentally controlled by the central personality dimensions, translated through middle strata information processing dimensions and given a final twist by interaction with environmental factors encountered in the outer layer” (Curry, 1983:10).
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Table 3-5 Learning Styles Inventories Level of Author(s) Inventory Titles Curry’s Model
1. Instructional and Environmental Preference
Canfield & Laffert
Learning Styles Inventory
No. of Inventory Items 120
Dunn, Dunn & Price Friedman & Stritter
Learning Styles Inventory
100
Good
Good
Instructional Preference Questionnaire Oregon Instructional Preference Inventory Student Learning Interest Scales
40
Fair
Fair
82
Fair
Fair
N/Av
Fair
Fair
Cognitive Style Interest Inventory Learning Style Inventory Learning Preference Inventory Study Process Questionnaire Approaches Studying
216
N/Av
N/Av
65 15 42 64
Poor Good Good Good
Fair Fair Fair Good
Paragraph Completion Method Learning Style Inventory Edmonds Learning Style Identification Exercise Inventory of Learning Process
6 12 50
Fair Strong Poor
Fair Fair Nil
62
Strong
Strong
Paragraph Completion Test Matching Familiar Figures Test
5 12
Good Fair
Fair Fair
Goldberg Grasha & Riechmann Hill
2. Information Processing Preference
3. Personality Related Preference
Renzulli & Smithh Rezler & Rezmovic Biggs Entwistle & Ramsden Hunt Kolb Reinert Schmeck, Ribich & Ramanaih Schroeder Kagan
Relia bility
Validity
Poor
Poor
Myers Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 143 Good Strong Witkin Embedded Figures Test 18 Strong Good Source: Adapted fro m Leslie Hickcox (1995) 'Learning Styles: A Survey of Adult Learning Style Inventory Models', In The Importance of Learning Styles: understanding the implications for learning, course design, and education, (Eds, Sims, R. R. and Sims, R. R.), Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, p. 30
Tennant (1988), in approaching learning styles from a psychological perspective, suggests that “’cognitive style’, ‘learning style’ and conceptual style’ are related terms which refer to an individual’s characteristic and consistent approach to organising and processing information” (Tennant, 1988:89).
A task force of the USA National
Association of Secondary School Principals defined learning style as: … the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological factors that serve as a relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Keefe and Ferrell, 1990:59).
Kolb defines learning styles as: … generalized differences in learning orientations based on the degree to which people emphasize the four modes of learning processes as measured by a self report test (Kolb, 1984:67).
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The Learning Styles Analysis (LSA) used in this thesis is based upon Dunn, Dunn and Price’s Learning Style Inventory which, while designed for children, has been adapted by Prashnig and Kenneth Dunn for use with adults and has been issued under the titles of the Working Style Analysis and the Learning Styles Analysis, Corporate (Prashnig, 1996). Curry (1983) suggests that Dunn, Dunn and Price’s inventory has a good level of reliability and validity. The information contained in Table 3-5 highlights the distinctions
between
instruments
assessing
preferences
for
instruction
and
environment, information processing and personality. Another distinction made in the literature is between styles of personality, cognition and learning.
3.6.3. Issues of Validity and Reliability Validity and reliability in experimental research designs are of major importance (Cohen and Manion, 1994), however in a research design that involves multiple perspectives and methods, a heuristic methodology and an emphasis upon a postmodern theoretical perspective the concept of validity and reliability is of less concern. In fact, as Moustakas (1990) notes that in heuristic research: The question of validity is one of meaning: Does the ultimate depiction of the experience derived from one’s own rigorous, exhaustive self-searching and from the explications of others present comprehensively, vividly, and accurately the meanings and essences of the experience? This judgment is made by the primary researcher (Moustakas, 1990:32)
This contrasts with Grbich (1999) who notes that in the context of a qualitative research design that: Validity in qualitative research lies in the reader being convinced that the researcher has accessed and accurately represented the social world under study. Reliability is also assessed by the reader and lies in the capacity of the researcher to present a coherent, complete and meticulously checked exploration of all aspects of the topic under investigation (Grbich, 1999:59)
In addition to this distinction, as indicated in Chapter 2, the LSA is not used here as prescriptive or normative, rather it is used as a means of opening a dialogue which can draw upon common language. Grbich (1999) further notes that the terms ‘validity’ and ‘reliability’ have come under question: Should multiple data sources and a tight design be valued above the intensive exploration of one person’s expert opinion? Does a study become more ‘reliable’ if
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the views of 200 or 2000 people are collected, rather than of two? What is ‘validity’? Whose version of ‘truth’ is being represented and how? The postmodern rejection of the grand theory as a singular explanation of ‘reality’, in favour of multiple perspectives and the development of small-scale contextual explanations, adds greater complexity to this debate (Grbich, 1999:9)
Further, if this thesis were seeking to generate grand theories about facilitation of corporate experiential learning programs based upon the LSA, then validity and reliability of the LSA would be a central debate. However, as this thesis is not seeking to achieve grand theories, but rather is exploring the topic from multiple perspectives using the ‘lenses’ of personal experience and the LSA, then further discussion of validity and reliability is not important in this context.
3.6.4. Personality, Cognitive and Learning Styles - similar but different? Jonassen et. al. (1993) define personality as “how an individual interacts with his or her environment and especially with other people” (Jonassen and Grabowski, 1993:5) while cognitive controls and styles is defined as “how an individual interacts with his or her environment, extracts information from it, constructs and organizes personal knowledge, and then applies that knowledge” (Jonassen and Grabowski, 1993:5). Sadler-Smith (2001) adopts a definition of cognitive styles as “consistent individual differences in preferred ways of organising and processing information” (SadlerSmith, 2001:610).
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Furhnam et. al. (1999), in reflecting on previous studies, note that learning styles
Figure 3-8 Onion Model Instructional Format Preference Indicator
has previously been considered a sub-set of
personality,
components
and
of
also
as
personality
learnt
Information Processing Style
while
Jonassen et. al. defines learning styles as
Cognitive Personality Style
“learner preferences for different types of learning
and
(Jonassen
instructional
and
activities”
Grabowski,
1993:5).
Table 3-5 lists a diverse range of learning
Source: Lynn Curry (1983) 'An Organization of Learning Styles Theory and Constructs', ED 235 185, p. 19 Figure 3-9 Integrating Models
styles inventories, but also highlights that there are differences between personality
Learning Environments and Instructional Preferences
related preferences, instructional and
Social Interaction Model
environmental preferences as well as information
processing
preferences.
While these differences do exist, Curry (1983)
has
suggested
there
is
Personality
an
interaction between the three distinct layers as presented in the Onion Model (Figure 3-8) in the learning process.
Information Processing Model
Source: J. Miller (1997) Learning Styles, http://www.daap.uc.edu/SOD/faculty/jmiller/mls96/learning-styles.html
This model is similar to Miller’s (1997)
adaptation of Claxton and Murrell’s work as presented in Figure 3-9. Miller suggests that “as the levels proceed outward, the traits are less stable and more susceptible to changes, and the vola tility of the tools for measuring these traits increases farther from the core” (Miller, 1997:1). Sadler-Smith also notes that the work of Curry (e.g. 1983), which may at first appear overly simplistic, is “one of the most significant taxonomic developments in the field” (Sadler-Smith, 2001:609). The distinction between cognitive styles and learning styles, as presented in Figure 3-8 is supported by a study by Sadler-Smith (2001) which also highlighted the independence of cognitive style and personality.
Thus, personality, cognitive style and learning style are in fact
different.
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3.6.5. How Relevant are Learning Style Theories? From a simplistic perspective, learning style theories tells us what we mostly already know intuitively: we all tend to have our own preferred way of learning. This is not scientific by any means, but an intuitive feeling as one observes children in a classroom, a football team at practice or a management group learning new problem solving techniques. Learning style instruments help us to identify those differences, to label the strengths, offer remediation to those who suffer some deficie ncy and to adapt instructional methodologies to reflect the diverse needs. However, in the context of management education Reynolds suggests that the use of learning style models is problematic as “learning style theory is highly individualizing , and its psychological perspective, whether orthodox or humanist, ignores or downgrades the role of social context … [and] takes little or no account of the meaning of difference in terms of social or political process” (Reynolds, 1997:128).
3.6.6. Models and Theories of Learning Styles The following discusses five commonly referred to models of learning styles. Dunn and Dunn’s Preferred Environment (Dunn, 1990) and McCarthy’s 4MAT (Scott, 1994) draw on research with children, Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1993a) broadens the concept of learning and intelligence to encapsulate a wide variety of intelligences or strengths.
Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1984) and
Honey and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire (Honey, 1991) focus particularly on the learning styles of adults. Particular emphasis is given to Kolb’s work through consideration of criticisms of Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory due to his influence on the field of experiential learning through the experient ial learning cycle. Prashnig and Dunn’s (Prashnig, 1996) Learning Style Analysis is discussed in detail in the following section. In the cases of Dunn and Dunn, Kolb and Honey and Mumford, their models include self- report instruments, while for Gardner and McCarthy their theories do not come with prepared instruments, but depend largely upon observation and reflection upon experiences.
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a. Dunn and Dunn’s Preferred Environment Dunn (1990) reflects upon the number of learning styles models that exist and suggests that they are an example of many people recognising the diversity of learning styles that exists between different students and then naming them in ways that make sense to them.
The similarities between the models exist because of the
acknowledgment of those individual differences, however not all models arrive at the same conclusions.
Dunn’s work has been applied in many school contexts,
particularly in the USA. Integral to Dunn’s work is the assessment of individual learning styles and then matching of instructional strategies to those learning styles. The Dunn and Dunn model (Dunn et al., 1995) has been broadly applied in many settings from elementary schools through to college level throughout the USA. This model focuses upon individual preferences for instructional environments, methods and resources. The breadth of this model incorporates many aspects not considered in other models such as those of Kolb, McCarthy and Honey and Mumford which offer a much narrower perspective of learning. Dunn and Dunn’s model purports to identify factors that affect a learner including: §
the environment (e.g. sound, light, temperature and layout)
§
individual emotionality (e.g. motivation, need for structure)
§
sociological preference in learning (e.g. independent, pairs, groups, with authority)
§
physiological preferences (e.g. perceptual strengths, time of day, need for food/liquids and mobility)
§
processing desires (including right/left brain, global/analytic) (O'Neely and Alm, 1992:109).
Some of the theoretical postulates for this model are: §
that learning style is an individual characteristic based upon the biological make-up and developmental process;
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§
these characteristics can vary in intensity; learning preferences matched with instructional preferences may lead to improved academic performance;
§
concentrating on learning style preferences when addressing new materials may enhance learning;
§
the greater the learning difficulties the greater the need to focus upon learning preferences (Dunn et al., 1995:354).
The work of Dunn and Dunn may be supported by neurophysiology such that the preferences for sound, movement, light and intake may reflect signals from the central nervous system indicating low levels of arousal. The adoption of strategies that reflect learner preferences in areas such as environment, sociological and physiological preferences may act in a similar way as an amphetamine which may otherwise be prescribed for students deemed hyperactive or disruptive (Garger, 1990:64). Thus, there is a suggestion that by adjusting the learning environment to the needs of the learner may result in improved behaviour and increased learning propensity. A study in 1990 by Curry that ranked the reliability and validity of various learning style models cited by Hickcox (1995) rated the Dunn and Dunn model as having a good level of reliability and validity (Hickcox, 1995). The results of a meta-analysis of forty-two studies of the Dunn and Dunn model indicated that people with strong learning style preferences gained most from congruent instructional strategies, with college and adult age groups gained more than school learners. The impact was greatest for participants classified as middle socio-economic status and where intervention occurred for greater than twelve months, with maths gaining most from learning-style accommodation (Dunn et al., 1995:358). A study in 1994 of the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey with 423 adult students with 251 retesting a year later found that the model is not conceptually well defined and that the test-retest reliability over 12 months was poor, but for the short term of 8 weeks was fair, this contrasts with the findings reported by Hickcox (1995). In terms of its utility (e.g. administration, interpretation, ‘understandability’ by participants) it was considered to be quite positive. This study raises the question of
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the stability of learning styles, a notion not challenged by this writer (Murray-Harvey, 1994). b. McCarthy’s 4MAT McCarthy’s work (1990) is based upon Kolb and includes right brain/left brain theories. This work contrasts with Dunn in that McCarthy does not necessarily need to use a diagnostic tool, but rather seeks to look at the curriculum and to introduce strategies across the board that would touch on the various learning styles. McCarthy’s categories of learners are: §
Imaginative
§
Analytic
§
Commonsense
§
Dynamic
Figure 3-10 4MAT System Model
Source: University of North Dakota (2002) The Complete 4MAT System Model, http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/msh/llc/is/4mat.html [Accessed: 18th December, 2002].
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4MAT is offered as a model, not as theory. While there is little research that has been conducted regarding the validity of the model, a large amount of evidence is derived from professional debate and publication (Blair and Judah, 1990; Kelley, 1990; Kelly, 1990; McCarthy, 1990; Scott, 1994; Weber and Weber, 1990). c. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences The theory of Multiple Intelligences developed by Howard Gardner (1993) proposes that traditional tests such as the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) have emphasised only two particular aspects of a person’s abilities: maths and verbal skills. This emphasis has been at the detriment of others. Intelligence in these tests is seen to be the ability to answer questions, the resultant measure is a static measure of intelligence that is deemed unchangeable over time. In contrast, Gardner identifies intelligence in the multiple intelligences as: … the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community (Gardner, 1993b:15).
Gardner’s idea of multiple intelligences was triggered by the inadequacies of existing views on intelligence and has drawn upon the diverse and relatively new areas of cognitive science (study of the mind) and neuroscience (study of the brain). From this basis Gardner presents a “pluralistic view of mind, recognizing many different and discrete facets of cognition, acknowledging that people have different cognitive strengths and contrasting cognitive styles” (Gardner, 1993b:6). An intelligence is defined as “the ability to solve problems, or to fashion products, that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (Gardner, 1993b:15). There are eight criteria for inclusion as an intelligence: §
the potential to be isolated by brain damage;
§
the existence of exceptional individuals who evidence the particular intelligence;
§
an identifiable core or set of operations;
§
a distinctive developmental history with an expert end state;
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§
an evolutionary history;
§
support from experimental psychological tasks;
§
support from psychometric findings;
§
susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system (Gardner, 1993a:63-66).
By identifying the individual intelligence strengths of people it is suggested that, as with all learning styles theory, that many more people will learn to a significantly greater level, and with less effort, than will occur with traditional strategies. The seven intelligences suggested by Gardner are: §
linguistic (e.g. poets)
§
logical- mathematical (e.g. sciences)
§
spatial (e.g. sailors, sculptors, surgeons)
§
musical (e.g. musicians)
§
bodily-kinaesthetic (e.g. dancers, athletes, surgeons)
§
interpersonal (e.g. politicians, teachers, salespeople)
§
intrapersonal (e.g. counsellors).
Combinations of these intelligences may be beneficial to different vocations or professions, such as: §
A logical- mathematical intelligence, with strengths in reasoning, calculating and thinking conceptually, combined with linguistic intelligence as demonstrated by an effective use of words both written and oral, may be a strong combination for a lawyer.
§
Visual-spatial intelligence shows an awareness of the environment, so combined with bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence may assist in the intricacies of surgery.
This combination for a surgeon may be mo re appropriate with
interpersonal intelligence, as characterised by having many friends and great
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empathy for others, in preference to intrapersonal intelligence which may come across as shyness, but with strengths as an independent learner in touch with inner feelings. §
Musical intelligence is reflected in sensitivity to rhythm and sound. Musical intelligence combined with bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, which is characterised by a keen sense of body awareness, may indicate ability as a dancer.
The sixth and seventh intelligences, interpersonal and intrapersonal, may correlate with Goleman’s Emotional Intelligences (Goleman, 1998). Gardner has also proposed an eighth intelligence, this intelligence relates more to the fields of the environment or nature (Checkley, 1997; Meyer, 1997). Each person would demonstrate intelligence across a variety of areas - not the just the two traditional ones. This multi-dimensional view of people would be reflected in the needs of the occupations they pursue which requires a range of skills. Within the realm of management an appropriate general intelligence profile may be someone who evidences strengths in the following range of intelligences: interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic and logical- mathematical. Other intelligences may be applicable as determined by the idiosyncrasies of particular specific professional areas. Gardner (1993a, 1993b) does not present a model of learning, despite Armstrong’s classification that way (Armstrong, 1994). What Gardner does present is a model of ‘potentiality’ as reflected in the framework of multiple intelligences. The idea of multiple intelligences is that we all have all intelligences, however, what may differ is the degree of competence held in one or more of the intelligences. Previous views on intelligence that have given rise to tests such as IQ tests, SAT and GMAT have implied that intelligence is assessable by focusing upon just the two areas of logical mathematical and verbal- linguistic. This emphasis has influenced the structure of schools, the modes of instruction and the means of assessment (consider that for many people English and Mathematics have been requirements in Higher School Certificates or similar). Individuals assessed by pen and pencil IQ tests as having a low IQ may be deemed less intelligent with little or no consideration for others strengths or talents that they may exhibit in areas such as music, sport or personal skills. With Goleman’s suggestion that effective leaders and managers have a high Chapter 3: Immersing in the Literature
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Emotional Intelligence (EQ), there may be additional support in the business world for Gardner’s theory (Gardner, 1993a; Gardner, 1993b). The strength of Gardner’s notion of multiple intelligences lies in the acknowledgment of a range of skills or competencies that are otherwise ignored or devalued in the realm of assessing and accounting for the diverse abilities of an individual.
In
addition the recognition that people need to be skilled in a range of areas in order to be able to effectively conduct themselves in their chosen profession is also addressed in the idea of multiple intelligences. The weakness of Gardner’s proposal is well identified in his own writings where he acknowledges that this is not an exact science but a good idea that needs to be further tested and developed (Gardner, 1993a:392). It has no research base of its own but rather draws upon the scientific bases of biological and cognitive sciences and writings in the fields of prodigies, giftedness, normality, special populations and cultural influences. What Gardner proposes may well be termed ‘common sense’ (this is not identified as an intelligence but rather a higher order cognitive capacity) which is defined as the “ability to deal with problems in an intuitive, rapid, and perhaps unexpectedly accurate manner” (Gardner, 1993a:287). d. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory Of all of the writers in the field of learning styles, Kolb (1984) provides what is possibly the most notable work in the context of experiential learning. Kolb not only wrote a significant work on the role of learning styles but also related that theory to what has become a most popular theoretical basis of experiential education, that is the Experiential Learning Cycle.
Kolb considers his work a “holistic, integrative
perspective on learning that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior (sic)” (Kolb, 1984:21). The Experiential Learning Cycle (Figure 3-2), which is a variation of Lewin’s experiential learning cycle (Priest and Gass, 1997), is based upon Jungian psychology and identifies a four stage learning. Given this cycle the most effective learner could be deemed to be the one who operates well in all four phases however Kolb recognises that each individual has strengths or preferences that are identified through the Learning Styles Inventory.
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The Learning Styles Inventory highlights the location upon the continuum of concrete experience versus abstract conceptualisation and the continuum of active experimentation and reflective observation.
The resultant learning styles are:
converger, diverger, assimilator and accommodator. Kolb does not see this learning styles assessment to be static, but rather it is situational and thus the complete learner would be one who adapts and applies different learning strategies to different learning environments. Figure 3-11 Kolb’s Learning Style Grid Concrete Experience
AccommDiverger odator Active Experimentation
Reflective Observation
tend to be extroverts
tend to be introverts
Converger
Assimilator
Abstract Conceptualization
Source: David Kolb (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
i.
Critiques of Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory
There has been quite broad support of Kolb’s model (Heron, 1992), however there has been a number of studies that have challenged its validity and reliability. Hopkins (1993) provides some of the most fundamental criticism of Kolb’s work focusing upon its structural reductionism while trying to explain experiential learning without a coherent theory of experience. Hopkins emphasises the difficulty of representing the intentionality of individual actions through an instrument structured to force the participant to locate themselves within one of the four learning modes (Hopkins, 1993). Geiger, Boyle and Pinto (1992) sought to duplicate the result of previous studies that identified bipolar dimensions different from Kolb’s, with two learning abilities (Geiger, Boyle and Pinto, 1992:754). In a study consisting of over 700 students, the
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findings did not support the construct validity of the revised LSI, but rather two bipolar dimensions running from Concrete Experience (CE) to Reflective Observation (RO) (feeling to watching) and Abstract Conceptualisation (AC) to Active Experimentation (AE) (thinking to doing).
This contrasts with Kolb’s finding of
dimensions running from AC to CE (thinking to feeling) and AE to RO (doing to watching) (Geiger et al., 1992:758). Cornwell and Manfredo (1994) also highlight the lack of empirical evidence for Kolb’s LSI, and that the use of an ipsative scale provide no avenue for psychometric evaluation or theory testing (Cornwell and Manfredo, 1994:319). The study attempts to test the propositions relating to the primary learning styles (PLS) of thinking, doing, watching and feeling as identified by the LSI through a combination of administration of the LSI, participation in a ‘doing’ task (origami). The primary learning styles are based directly on the ranking given by the subjects and not the difference between two sets of variables as in Kolb’s LSI. The results supported the existence of the primary learning styles but not the validity of Kolb’s learning style types (accommodator, diverger, converger and assimilator). In addition there was support (within the study’s sample) that the thinking PLS was associated with a higher score of mental ability as measured by the Wonderlic Personnel Test, with ‘doing’ being associated with a higher performance in the origami task and a moderate mental ability. ‘Watching’ and ‘feeling’ styles were more likely associated with lower scores on the Wonderlic (Cornwell and Manfredo, 1994). Hickcox (1995) cites a previous study by Curry that ranked the reliability and validity of various learning style models. In this study the Kolb model rated as having a strong level of reliability and but only a fair level of validity. Yuen and Lee (1994) also highlight validity as one of three concerns with Kolb’s LSI: the low test-retest reliability, the potential for response bias and also the lack of clarity over the congruence of the LSI with othe r learning style instruments (Yuen and Lee, 1994). In seeking to address questions of validation, Yuen and Lee sought to test the LSI in a non-Western society, that is, Singapore. Their findings, in general, confirmed the hypothesis that learning style (in undergraduates) is connected to academic discipline (arts, social sciences, sciences, medicine, law and architecture). However they did not achieve the same findings for two academic disciplines (computer science and
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business administration) possibly due to failures in their research design (Hickcox, 1995). Goldstein and Bokoros (1992) conducted a small study comparing Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) with Honey and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ). Their findings suggest that the four learning styles in the four quadrants of the LSI (accommodator, diverger, assimilator and converger) had some degree of congruence with the four dimensions of the LSQ (activist, reflector, theorist, pragmatist). To overlay the two requires a 45o rotation of the LSQ as represented in Figure 3-12. Honey and Mumford’s LSQ is discussed further below. Goldstein and Bokoros’s study did not address the question of which is more effective at measuring learning style (Goldstein and Bokoros, 1992). Figure 3-12 Rotated LSQ placed on LSI
Concrete Experience
LSI: Accommodator LSQ: Activist
LSI: Diverger LSQ: Reflector
Active Experimentation
Reflective Observation
LSQ: Pragmatist LSI: Converger
LSQ: Theorist
LSI: Assimilator Abstract Conceptualization
Source: Adapted from Marc Goldstein and Michael Bokoros (1992) 'Tilting at Windmills: Comparing the Learning Style Inventory and the Learning Style Questionnaire', Educational and Psychological Measurement, p. 704.
Each of these studies supports the questioning of the validity and reliability of the LSI, which, with the critiques of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle as raised in 3.2.6.a, should be of concern to those who freely, and unquestioningly, adopt Kolb’s models. e. Honey and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire Honey and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) and the resultant Learning Cycle was developed as a result of dissatisfaction with the validity of Kolb’s LSI
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(Honey, 1991:126). The questionnaire has eighty questions measuring how people prefer to learn and the amount they are likely to learn (Furnham et al., 1999) across four scales: activist, reflector, theorist and pragmatist. These preferences correlate to the different stages of learning identified by Honey and Mumford: Stage 1: having an experience Stage 2: reviewing the experience Stage 3: concluding from the experience Stage 4: planning the next steps Figure 3-13 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Cycle
Source: Learning to Learn, http://www.ic.polyu.edu.hk/posh97/student/Learn/Learning_to_learn.htm
While Kolb’s LSI was an important development base for the LSQ, there are some distinct differences in its construction. As an instrument developed for managers and other professionals, the questions used relate to real life work situations rather than abstract ideas as in the LSI. Secondly, in contrast to Kolb’s LSI, the LSQ locates a person across the four learning preferences opening the way to develop skills in the areas of least preference in order to become an all-round learner. The benefits of adopting this self development strategy (as opposed to focusing on matching of instructional strategies) is that the individual is enabled to learn more effectively from
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a variety of experiences and not just those linked to a learning preference (Honey, 1991). Onsman (1991) discusses the work of Honey and Mumford who provide another perspective on learning styles through their LSQ. Their work is primarily directed towards adult training and, as with McCarthy, is based upon the work of Kolb. The four styles highlighted by the LSQ are the closely linked to the categories of McCarthy: activists (dynamic), reflectors (analytic), theorists (common sense) and pragmatists (imaginative).
3.7. Conclusion Outdoor management development programs, or corporate experiential learning programs, have a strong history in the realm of experiential learning. They have been offered as a panacea to many ills of corporate life: adaptability to change, finding new directions, improving teamwork, self esteem and leadership skills (e.g. Badger et al., 1997; Beeby and Rathborn, 1982; Cacioppe and Ad amson, 1988). The supporting evidence from research of the effectiveness of the programs may be considered scant and often flimsy, with much reliance being placed upon the anecdotal evidence of the training providers or the returning participants. Further investigation needs to be conducted, not only into the area of the effectiveness or transfer of the learning to the workplace, but also what elements may facilitate the effectiveness.
An essential
component of the program is the processing or debriefing activities that seek to assist in the transfer of the learning. It is proposed that future research needs to focus upon this crucial aspect of the program in conjunction with the influence of the learning style preference of the participant. With due consideration given to the limitations of the work of Ibbetson and Newell (1996) and the lack of evidence for the influence of learning style, it is believed that an avenue exists to further pursue the relationships that exist between the preferred learning style of the participant, the outcomes of the program from an individual and a group level and the preference for different processing activities designed to target the diversity of learning styles.
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3.8. The LSA, After the Fact Is the LSA something that can scientifically be demonstrated or is it a bit like reading your stars each morning? Do I look at the LSA and pick those things that suit the me I would like to be or are there insights that I can gain from reading it? I suppose one problem is that it is a self- report instrument and that as an adult I may have developed various, flexible learning styles to meet the needs of different learning situations. An example is the following two statements: You are a talker! When you learn, study or concentrate you really need to interact verbally with other people (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6). There is a lot of self-talk going on in your head! You find it much easier to learn, study or concentrate when you have an inner dialogue about the topic. Rather than talking to other people you might often just like to talk to yourself (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6).
It would seem from these that I have a split personality, but as I sit and seek a rational explanation, I can see that at different times in the learning process and with differences in the complexity of material I may have these preferences. I can see that when I am first coming to grips with material I may want to have that inner dialogue, but as I progress I may then seek some confirmation or challenge from others, before returning to my own self- talk. My exploration of my experience of learning becomes the core of the following chapter in my autoethnography as I continue to immerse myself in the experience of learning, moving from the theoretical to the practical. This ‘zooming in’ on the personal narrows the focus even more, a process that will begin to be reversed as the research begins to use another ‘lens’, the LSA, as explored in Chapter 5. The focus is broadened even further in Chapter 6 by using a ‘wide angle lens’ as other literature is explored.
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Chapter 4. What?: The LSA and Me as Learner: A Room of One’s Own … a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction (Woolf, 1929/1995:13)
4.1. Introduction Moustakas (1990) suggests that in a heuristic research process the researcher must be willing to “commit endless hours of sustained immersion and focused concentration on one central question” (Moustakas, 1990:14). For heuristic research patience is essential as one seeks to find the data within me and to face the challenge of discovering and explicating that data (Moustakas, 1990). Intuitively I have followed that path of searching for the ‘data within’ through immersing myself in the topic, spending more than a year writing, noting, thinking, reflecting upon my own experience of learning that compliments my immersion in the literature as presented in Chapter 3.
Presenting My Voice As an aid to increasing the ‘volume’ of my voice, the layout of the following text is such that my voice is written in the dominant font, while the ‘voice’ of the literature is presented using a smaller font and compressed line spacing. The ‘voice’ of my LSA is presented like a note on the side of the text, again in a smaller font. The ‘voice’ I want to appear dominant is mine.
Research About Yourself? Sitting and writing about oneself might seem somewhat self- indulgent. To do that and then call it a PhD could be considered a joke, or at least amusing to some of my friends. As expressed previously, an autoethnography was one of the last things in my mind regarding my research, initially, I wanted to ‘prove’ something, to come away with a new model or a new means of assessing learning styles, at least something that would be of ‘value’ to other practitioners. For the most part, my investigations have revolved around my own questions and insights, and it is through the medium of an
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autoethnography that these begin to be valued and validated in their own right, without the external validation that may occur through some quasi-positivist methodology. As discussed in Chapter 2, my search for a methodology and appropriate methods has been a journey in itself. What follows is a record of my thoughts and insights, at times crowded out by the ‘noise’ of life and living, and at other times lucid and free flowing. As I have written I have taken the time to read back through my musings and to begin to relate these to my Learning Styles Analysis (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000) as well as, at times, to other literature that seems pertinent to the points I have made. The autoethnography begins on 9th July, 2000. The only significance of this date, apart from the fact that it was the first day I sat down to record my thoughts, is that it is five years after my enrolment in the EdD/PhD, it has taken this long for me to value my own thoughts and insights enough to record them. The entries begin almost in a forced fashion. I do not know what I want to write nor why I am writing anyway and where it is all leading. Prior to this date I have made a few notes in a journal (a lovely leather-bound journal bought in New Zealand in 1998 for the specific purpose, with a spiral on the cover that was symbolic for me of my learning). However in the written format I have always been reluctant to put my thoughts down in ink – it does not allow the editing process, of thoughts, ideas and spelling that occurs as I type. The final entry is on 7th August, 2001, 13 months later, through which time the entries and reflections became a much more relaxed and natural process, my awareness began to be raised about when and where these moments of reflection where occurring, and what, to some extent, would create or hinder my own reflective space. As the writing has progressed so has the tendency to include other stimulus or images that have jumped to mind, these include works or art and cartoons. The use of the visual is just one aspect that emerges from these reflections and my Learning Style Analysis that is important to me. Other themes that continue to surface include issues related to the physical space, emotional space, movement and views. The timetable about when, how or what to write, was not pre-determined, it was only determined as I felt the need to write or to not write. The time period covers a significant decision I made to move from Sydney, a city of over 4 million people and
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just 60km to work, to Jindabyne, with a summer population of less than 2,000 and over 400km to work.
Was the move initiated by the reflections of the
autoethnography or was the autoethnography able to happen because of the move? Or are they too entwined to be able to differentiate the two? I am not sure.
4.2. The Story Begins Attempts at Beginning 9 July, 2000, Granny Flat, Caringbah For the duration, to-date, of my enrolment in the PhD I have been ‘holed-up’ in a room where, as one person has suggested, I need to go outside to swing a cat. This place has been one of expediency, of economic advantage and of seemingly simplicity. Yet as I begin to ponder about what and how I learn I begin to feel the deep frustration I have with this location in terms of not just the space to be and to learn but also a space to expand, to socialise and to share. Let me explain …. The room, or bed-sit for want of a better term, consists of a room and a bathroom. In this room of approx 400 square feet I have a lounge, a desk, a bed and a dining table as well as a compact kitchen. … and to see their houses with their dark, cramped rooms, to realize that no woman could have written poetry then (Woolf, 1929/1995:65) There is one window that looks out over the backyard and onto the back fence. When the curtains are open, not only can the other residences of this place see in, so can the neighbours. Over the top of the fence and the neighbour’s house I can see the sky. In the morning the sun comes in, but by early morning it goes, leaving this place in coolness. With no insulation in the roof, the room is hot in summer and cold in winter, difficult to cool and difficult to heat. The only other window is one that sits high and looks over the roof of another neighbour providing little light and even less inspiration.
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If a woman wrote, she would have to write in the common sittingroom (Woolf, 1929/1995:73) Even with the little furniture I have the room is cramped, with a small amount of space on the floor where I can sit (my preferred space often times). The lounge is old, it came with the room (I think my land lady didn’t know what else to do with it!). To make the lounge more comfortable I put spare blankets under the cushions to fill the gaps that are a result of sagging springs and failing stuffing. I cover the lounge with a crocheted rug my mother made that consists of colours that even the rainbow would refuse ownership of! The only chair I have is also propped up with old blankets and towels covered with a lovely throw rug purchased at the Melbourne Art Gallery. It seems such a contradiction to have such a sad chair draped with a creative and quality throw. The hope was to make this a chair of reading and learning, and yet I can hardly remember the last time I sat in it. There is something about it that is just not right (sounds a little like Goldilocks!). What is right with this chair? What is wrong with this chair? Is it the colour, the size, the location or maybe the comfort? What chairs have I sat in when I wanted to work? What did they look like?
Where were they placed?
What is important about
‘chairness’? The only one that really comes to mind is in the sitting room of a Bed and Breakfast in Bundanoon, suitably called “Idle a Wile”. It is a large chair with big square arms. I can sit in that chair with my legs curled up with my work resting on the big, broad arms. The muted natural light flows in from behind and there is a lamp stand next to the chair giving out a soft and warm glow. The open fireplace is just near by; the walls of the room are dark and warm. Outside the days can be bitterly cold, yet inside all is warm and comfy with much work achieved. It is in this place where I have most recently sat and worked well. I concentrated, completed and corrected many exams and essays. The environment for me was one were my learning was focused. But was it just the chair and the light? Bundanoon is also a place where I can play. A place to ride, a place to walk and to talk. The food is great, the environment friendly and there are people about. Mobility: Whether you need to move while you learn, study or concentrate strongly depends on your interest in the topic or the learning situation itself. When you lose inte rest or get bored with a learning task you often need to move a lot more. … Light: You definitely prefer to learn and study in low light
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areas … For best results you need to read, study or learn in indirect, subdued lighting, away from bright sunlight or artificial light. … Temperature: … you prefer your environment to be more warm than cool … Study Area: … You do your best thinking, reading or studying on a bed, lounge chair, floor or carpet in an informal environment and a relaxed posture (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:7-8).
A Room of One’s Own … Intellectual freedom depends upon material things. Poetry depends upon intellectual freedom. And women have always been poor ... Women have had less intellectual freedom than the sons of Athenian slave (Woolf, 1929/1995:112) What is my picture of a place of learning? Where do I see my self set up writing furiously, inspired, challenged, enthused about my learning and my writing? What would the environment be like to support my process of reflection? The picture I see is one where all is ordered, where there is abundant space for books, files, papers and notes. A whiteboard for plotting and planning and a place for writing and dreaming. This ‘room’ would have a view, a view that inspired, challenged and encouraged me. The view would be of nature not of Colorbond fences and tiled rooves. Contrary to my previous thoughts my ideal place is not one of an urban environment, but a rural retreat, preferably with water and mountains. My heart yearns for a place of space. Where music can play, birds fly and the ideas may flow and grow. There would be a place for sitting at a table, for drinking coffee while reading an article. There would be room for walking and talking, for entertaining where ideas may be germinated, encouraged and shared with others. Has my resistance and reluctance for writing been a result of not having created my own learning space? How have I considered creating an environment for myself that encourages learning just as I consider the needs of my students and participants? Maybe, again, I should walk my talk. Phenomenology also offers valuable insight into the physical, ecological, and energy dimensions of locality, community, and place. An ecological phenomenology of physical environment and landscape asks how people -in-places work experientially and behaviorally as ecological units. A major concern is whether stability and rootedness in place promote a more efficient use of energy, space, and environment than today's predominant-place relationship emphasizing spatial mobility and the frequent disruption and destruction of unique places (Seamon, 1984:3).
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The LSA in my Own Life Looking to my learning style I see that my preferred environment is one that is informal, warm, muted light and with sounds. (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000). I am not the only woman who needed to find the ‘right’ place in order to write, but, as noted above, Woolf suggests that having the place is often linked to having the money. For me, the right place means a mortgage – hopefully not on my life. Having a mortgage is possible only as a result of a change of job in July, 1999. My experience is not new, there are other women who have had similar experiences of needing to ‘get away’: Virginia Woolf, well known author: It was a thousand pities that the woman who could write like that, whose mind was tuned to nature and reflection, should have been forced to anger and bitterness. But how could she have helped herself? … She must have shut herself up in a room in the country to write (Woolf, 1929/1995:67).
Lene Gammelgard, Danish mountaineer and writer of her experiences on Mount Everest in 1996 when eight climbers died: when I returned to Denmark, my Danish publisher … tries to help me get going on the book project with various words of advice. Unable to respond, I finally told him that he needed to trust my inner creative process, to have faith and leave me in peace for a while. I knew the book was already written inside of me: ‘The book is finished; I can feel it – it just needs typing.’ I spent the late summer of 1996 at a writing retreat … In seclusion I was finally able to feel (Gammelgard, 1999:xiv).
Barbara Prashnig, author and teacher of learning styles: Knowing my own learning style, how I could work most effectively and which environment I needed to be creative, I had been dreaming about the perfect place for a long time. Armoured with my laptop computer, a lot of sun tan lotion, a suitcase full of reference books, and half my collection of classical CD’s I retreated to Fiji for a few weeks over the Christmas break (Prashnig, 1996:v).
What Place Jindabyne? … the mind of an artist, in order to achieve the prodigious effort of freeing whole and entire the work that is in him, must be
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incandescent. ..There must be no obstacle in it, no foreign matter unconsumed (Woolf, 1929/1995:63) Does the possibility of moving to Jindabyne open the doors to ‘my own room’?, a room where I can have the space to explore ideas and to reflect upon my learning? Jindabyne is a place I have often retreated to for peace and solitude. A place of refreshment and rejuvenation and a place of exertion. Jindabyne is the gate to the
Figure 4-1 View from a Room, Jindabyne
Snowy Mountains, a place where my heart thrills at the places to explore and play.
Yet is this
what I need to ensure I complete my PhD?
Am I clutching at
straws only to have it all collapse around me? How important to my learning is the creation of a ‘room of my own’, my own personalised
learning
space?
How can I use the LSA to help create my own unique learning space? What are the risks? Are they worth the cost: financial, physical, social and emotional? This journey may not reveal its answers until the very end.
Clearing the Head 13/08/00 21:09, ‘The Cupboard’, a.k.a. the Granny Flat. After a week or more of doing little, both in terms of work (marking, class preparation, just the normal) and study, I went for a swim today. I have not exercised for over a week and I could feel the effects: stressed, uptight, short tempered and impatient. But I jumped into the pool and did a fairly hard 1km. Got home, felt abuzz, went shopping, then home again. After dinner I then drifted to doing some work, finalising an exam paper, typing a whole pile of feedback on presentations as well as some class preparation (all the tedious stuff that I had been avoiding). All the time I was sitting on the floor in a warmish environment wearing comfy clothes. Then
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as I was sitting watching TV (nothing very engaging) at about 8pm, my mind started drifting to thoughts about this PhD. I thought I’d make a quick few notes about deconstruction as a starting point for that section. What is it about doing something physical and then ‘clearing the head’ by getting some work out of the way. What is it about place and space (physical, emotional and cognitive)?
Noticing 4/09/00 9:47, Office, Uni of Wollongong, trying to mark MGMT 908 Essays Over the last few days (and even into weeks) I have been in the process of buying the unit in Jindabyne. Last Thursday the contracts exchanged, finally! On the weekend I began searching for house-type things more earnestly. One area I want to change is the bathroom, maybe by adding a border across the top of the tiles. What I needed was a tile shop. I knew that BBC has tiles as well as Harvey Norman, as I had been to these two shops many times in the last 5 years of living in the area. But, I had no clue where there might be a specialist tile shop. After looking in the phone book, I found the address and went to the shop. It was next door to an auto parts shop that I have also been to several times before, yet I had never noticed the tile shop next door. It is not new, nor is it hidden; I had just not ‘seen’ it before. It was only when I needed to see it that it became obvious. After ‘finding’ the shop I then began to ‘see’ other things, including advertis ing about this shop that I had never ‘seen’ before. What relevance does this have to learning and to facilitation? Does this suggest about frontloading (Priest and Gass, 1993) being the way to go? Can we expect people to ‘find’ things in the experience when they don’t know what it is they are looking for? Do we need to give them the filters, frames and focus (such as the topics and the things to be learned) before the experience, rather than hoping that afterwards they will see the same thing? In the area where the tile and auto shops were there were also places to buy furniture and Gyprock (I think I noticed these because I had also been thinking about furniture and Gyprock). If I were to take a group there what would they notice? What else is
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there that I didn’t see? What different things would I see if I had other things on my mind? In some ways it is like buying a new car. It is only when you have bought it that you ‘notice’ that everyone else seems to own the same car, yet you never noticed that before. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) writes about consciousness within a phenomenological model based on information theory. In this model the focus is upon the “events – phenomena - as we experience and interpret them, rather than focusing on anatomical structures, neurochemical processes, or unconscious purposes” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The catalyst to translate an experience into consciousness is intent or attention. Without the focus of intent, or attention, the experience will only occur as information, with intent that information can be translated into action. Crotty (1998) relates a story about the impact of framing or lenses on the interpretation of an experience through the story of students in a poetry classroom. Stanley Fish, a language and linguistics teacher, commenced a poetry class with a list of names still on the board from a previous class. Rather than clean the board, he placed a border around the list and told his poetry class that the words were a poem. The students then proceeded to deeply explore the meaning of this “poem” resulting in significant meanings being attributed to the words and the structure. “In Fish’s story we find human beings engaging with a reality and making sense of it. Obviously, it is possible to make sense of the same reality in quite different ways … strikingly diverse understandings can be formed of the same phenomenon” (Crotty, 1998).
Jindabyne Settlement Day 18/09/00 13:30, Lounge Room, Jindabyne Today I officially own this place (well I should in a few hours, but I am in here already). Over the last week or so it has been very clear how much I like things to be just right when it comes to my study: the time, the place, the space. It all has to be the way I picture it. The pressure I put on myself to get into the unit this week was immense, and even possibly illogical. I have had in mind that I would spend this week (not last week, not next week, not the week after) focusing on the topic of deconstruction. It was irrelevant that I have another two weeks of the break, it had to
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be this week. I spent much time and energy making it happen. And here I am. The weather is perfect, the sun is shining, I have my books and I have my computer. My study is not ready, but I am making progress. Today I am using a sampler pot of paint to test the colour, hopefully tomorrow I can paint and then move everything tomorrow night. I am going for a dark colour for a subdued feel and a comfortable setting. “Visual (internal – visualising): …You have the ability to ‘see’ the solution for difficult learning situations in your mind” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:7)
Being here I am much more relaxed. I am where I want to be, in a place that I can call my own (well, mine and the bank’s), and a place where I can live, work and play. This place provides an environment that goes beyond a room of one’s own, it also provides a place where I can indulge my desire for practical, hands-on things such as painting walls and restoring furniture. Does this reflect my desire for movement? “Mobility: Whether you need to move while you learn, study or concentrate strongly depends on your interest in the topic or the learning situation itself” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:7)
If things are not in place I get stressed and I miss “the flow”. I seem to work best when the moment is right, whenever that is. My preference for having everything just right even comes down to the chair I sit on. It has to be comfortable and preferably one with movement such as a swivel or rocking chair. The thought of not having a swivel desk chair was causing me stress and I even considered buying another. When it appeared that my sister was unable to bring my old desk chair down from Grafton I was beginning to almost panic! It had to be there to make things just right. Anything else and I did not feel as if I could concentrate. My LSA profile mentions my preference for a comfortable and informal environment. My desire for a swivel or rocking chair may even be reflected in my kinaesthetic/tactile learning style. “Light: … For best results you need to read, study or learn in indirect, subdued lighting, away from bright sunlight or artificial light. … Study Area: Your need for formal/informal furniture and classroom set-up while learning or studying is dependent upon what you do but you prefer not having too much formality” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:9)
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Colour and Space, Movement and Magnificence 21/09/00 9:22, Study, Jindabyne I am sitting at my desk in my new study, with walls painted in a colour called Deep Henna. The colour is a cross between a burnt orange and a deep ochre. It is strong, dark and rich. The light is subdued, the TV is playing in my right ear, I am sitting on my swivel desk chair and I can look out over a beautiful view of a sunny Lake Jindabyne, and life is just right! I am working, thinking and I am relaxed, comfortable and ‘operational’. “Sound: You often work with some kind of sound present – maybe music, voices, sounds of nature or even traffic noise” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:8)
29/09/00 9:36, Study, Jindabyne Outside it is blowing a gale. With the wind-waves, the lake looks more like a massive river moving towards the dam wall. The combination of wind and sun gives a sense of movement and activity that differs from the norm. Even sitting in the lounge this morning I had the curtains wide open. The sense of space creates a much more inspirational place for learning than when I sat in my caged cupboard in Caringbah. I remember many years ago seeing a tiger in a small cage. She moved backwards and forwards in that small space, there was nothing around her that would look like a natural environment. People had unlimited ability to look into her living area, there was nowhere she could hide, no where she could get away from the stares and nowhere where she could run. I felt sorry for her and her plight. Often, during the time that I lived in Caringbah, I had a sense of being like that tiger. I had no where to move and when I opened the windows or walked out the door there where always people seemingly looking in. I need space in the area in which I which I live and I need the space in my own head where there is the room to bounce ideas around. That solitude is essential, I can achieve this in long drives, in walking to the shops, in going for a swim. But always on my own and normally when I am doing something like moving, walking or driving. Maybe this is why I enjoy the Snowy Mountains region: the big skies, the views that go forever, the colour and the inspiration. “Visual (external –watching): You have a strong preference for seeing/watching/observing … Looking at works of art or things of beauty
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might quite excite you and your visual sense is probably very important to you.” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6)
While I like being alone there is also a sense that people are of importance. As I read my LSA Report I read the following: “Pairs: You really need a friend or fellow student to learn or study with. When you have someone else to solve problems or exchange ideas with, you find it more enjoyable and achieve better results …. Peers: You are very flexible and usually have no problems fitting in a learning group consisting of peers. However, you don’t always need people around you to learn or study with or think problems over” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:9)
The people component is important. Who they are, what they know and what they have to contribute are important factors. This may explain why I feel as if my family are an obstacle to my learning. They do not understand what I am doing; they do not understand my area of interest whether it be about learning or about experiential activities. I don’t want to go back to explain what I am doing, I want to move on, to clarify, to redefine to find the next step. (In the intervening weeks I am back teaching, marking, and preparing to go overseas, life is too busy just to stop and think)
Not Now! 1/11/00 22:07: Tucson, AZ, Inn Suites, Hotel As a presenter and as a student I am looking for the absolutely ‘right’ way. Often I get bogged down until it ‘feels’ right. I can’t just sit down and work when I have to or need to.
If the moment is right the ideas seem to flow.
What is right doesn’t
necessarily have any consistency or external measure. Right is more about feeling right. As I have walked the streets over the last two days I have written nothing, I have attempted to write and plan the workshop, but the ideas don’t flow. There are many pieces in my mind, parts of a puzzle that are out there floating, but the big picture is not clear. I cannot ‘see’ where they fit. One of the pieces that is missing at the moment is what the room looks like and who will be there. What is the feel? What are the resources such as paper, data projectors, flipchart etc.? How many people are likely to be around? Today I bought some toys to use, but the whole thing is not together. I know that the pieces will fall into place when they need to, that is Chapter 4: What?: The LSA and Me as Learner: A Room of One’s Own
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usually just before I have to do it, but while there are some pieces missing I can’t force it to work. Something that is also missing from this presentation is lack of motivation. I don’t really want to be here. I am tired after this year and am looking forward to a break. Presenting to an audience that I am not excited about is not helping. I am guessing that I will get the adrenaline rush when I do it, but with little excitement about being here and about the conference, the external motivators are lacking. Even if I thought there would be some critical thought from the audience or that there might be some professional challenge in presenting the topic or from the calibre of the audience I may also be motivated, however at this stage I am just going through the paces. People who show a strong right brain dominance: Seem to be less organised…,Are more creative …,Are often non-conforming, Tend to live and work in ‘creative chaos’, only follow through if they have to …, Prefer to use their imagination and intuition …, Need variety …, Are more often found among females …, The implications of these findings are: Over organisation leads to ‘mindlessness’…, The harder these people try to stick to the rules the more stressed, frustrated and unproductive they become …, Nothing in the world will make people motivated and productive if they can’t or don’t want to work under strictly organised conditions (Prashnig, 1996:203-5).
It all sounds so simple and straightforward! Why don’t they tell people these things? I remember sitting in a PhD progress meeting being told that I should just sit down each day and write. I tried explaining to the Chair of the committee but they did not understand at all. For that person learning seemed to be about discipline, about structure. For her I was an example of being undisciplined and what she determined was necessary was for my supervisor to send me regular, semi- threatening, notes to keep me moving forward (little did she know!). It was pure Theory X/Theory Y motivation theory (Fulop and Linstead, 1999). If only the chair could have stood back far enough to see how her beliefs influenced the quality of her advice. She had much to offer if only she could stand in my shoes for just a few moments. She didn’t, I thought about her advice, briefly, then ignored her. She left. I went on my way. Is this stubbornness or just a clear manifestation of avoiding the state where “over organisation leads to ‘mindlessness’ … and can become counter-productive” (Prashnig, 1996:205)?
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The LSA doesn’t necessarily explain the need for things to be ‘right’.
That is
something that seems to have greater connection to DiSC Behavioural Styles, by Carlson Learning, with C, conscientious, providing more explanation for my behaviour than my learning style.
Making Connections in The Big Apple 8/11/00 12:53, Friends’ Apartment, Manhattan, New York The ultimate compliment for the artist is that their work becomes useful to their society, not in the monumental ways of the narrow utilitarian manner but as a natural, enlivening element belonging to the unselfconscious spirituality of everyday life where in people spontaneously make whatever sense they can of existence, In this vast, ordinary turmoil that artists work is inevitably rearranged, embellished, twisted, hybridised or broken down and destroyed by forces beyond the understanding or control of the original creator, To bear this gladly, to see it as an achievement or feel it as a relief the artist must believe in and delight in arts transitional, inconclusive nature, its ongoing, independent life and its vigorous tendency towards mutation and transfiguration because ultimately, what the artist is most interested in and enchanted by is not the form that art takes but the movement that is made, for its truth is not static – it moves, it can be felt, it is animated! (Leunig, 2001) Wandering the streets of New York I can feel the energy. There does not seem to be enough time to go everywhere, see everything. Each place needs time to sit and absorb, to read and to reflect. Streets are too long to explore in a day, bookshops have more books than one could read in a lifetime and museums have more artefacts than can be appreciated in several lifetimes. Yet, in the midst of this busy-ness there seems to be a few constant themes or streams of consciousness as I walk and think about experience and learning. These do not necessarily clearly connect in some linear way but they do connect in my experience. Some of the pieces that keep coming to mind include: Csikszentmihalyi on Flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997), Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture, and notions of space, place and noticing. These are not necessarily new ideas; in fact Frank Lloyd Wright dates back to my High School art studies when the outstanding notion, for me, of Lloyd Wright was the concept of form following function. As I walked around the Metropolitan Museum of Art (The Met) in New York today two other perspectives seem to connect with these,
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Dali’s The Persistence of Memory (Figure
4-2)
and
Figure 4-2 The Persistence of Memory
Escher’s
drawings (Figure 4-3 and Figure 4-4) which both portray images that challenge how we see and experience the world and thus the potential
to
challenge
our
understandings of the world. Dali’s The Persistence of Memory (Figure 4-2), with images of watches
sagging
over
other
Source: Salvador Dali (1931) The Persistence of Memory, http://libray.thinkquest.org/17039/Normal/dali17.html?tqs kip=1
structures, makes me think of seeing things differently. Time is fluid, flexible. We would normally consider a clock as a hard, static object, yet this picture conveys an image of the watches like pieces of fabric, draped over a line. Time is flexible in our dry and barren land. What I would normally expect to see may not be what is there. What is Dali’s reality may not be mine. Escher and Dali challenge my thinking and perceptions. “Visual (external - watching) : … Looking at works of art or things of beauty might quite excite you and your visual sense is probably very important to you” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6)
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Escher takes wha t might be taken for
Figure 4-3 Rind
granted and twists it. What appears to be a ‘head’ in Figure 4-3 may appear as an orange peel to another and a ribbon to someone else. To another they may only see the clouds in the distance. The stairs in Figure 4-4 appear to be ‘real’ but as my eye climbs those stairs, my reality is twisted and I shifted through a range of perspectives, arriving at where I began. Reality is reinterpreted, and what I thought I knew I now find myself questioning and having to
Source: M. C. Escher (1955) Rind, http://www.escher.freeserve.co.uk/escher/RIND.jpg Figure 4-4 Relativity
refocus and explore the meaning. It is not just Escher, but also others, those looking at the picture and those within the picture. Each of us have different perspectives, each of us may see and experience the world in a different way. The visit to The Met followed a conversation last night with a long time
Source: M. C. Escher (1953) Relativity, http://www.worldofescher.com/gallery/
friend with whom I went to high school. We briefly talked about school and what we are doing, yet there is a part that she does not understand about me, the part that does not learn in the traditional way. I survived school and did quite well (though not exceptionally). The more exceptional part was the little amount of work I actually put into the study. I would say now that when I got to Stuvac at the end of Year 12 I did not know what to do, I didn’t know how to study, I still don’t think I know how. Stuff goes in and bounces around and somehow it links up with some other ‘stuff’ that is in my head. While talking last night I noticed myself trying to do what Bacon may call a transderivational search (Bacon, 1983), I was trying to make connections between what I was hearing (about the purpose of work) to what I had been reading that day
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(Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). I wanted the connection, I wanted to make those links, those connections, but was too tired to help it happen; yet if I don’t try, sometimes it just happens. The process of learning is wondrously spectacular and messy, and it does not easily fit within a closely defined, classroom-based curriculum (Abbott, 1997:6).
Why Now and Not in Tucson at the AEE Conference? Last week while in Tucson I had ample time to think and to write. There was plenty of room in the hotel room, lots of spare time between preconference and conference events. Even the need to prepare a workshop wasn’t so daunting as to stop me thinking. What seemed a bigger issue for me was that I felt like that trapped tiger. I could not find a place for reflecting. A place of inspiration, a space for thoughts to roam around within my mind and to make connections. A group of international conference attendees spent a day travelling around the desert museum and going for a walk in the desert, but it was not a time to reflect. The most difficult aspect was that we were on someone else’s schedule. There wasn’t time to stop and enjoy the scenery, to ponder big and small things, to create the space in my head and my life to let the ‘free radical’ ideas flow. Busy- ness and lack of choice are like the antioxidants to the creation of free-radical ideas! Even now, as I sit here in NY, the opportunity to write and reflect is only possible as everyone else is out. I am here on my own. No children, no noise, no uncontrolled distractions (as distinct from music which I choose to fill the empty spaces and over which I control). I wonder what Csikszentmihalyi has to say about solitude? It seems that he suggests tha t people need people and that they don’t like solitude, but for me, without solitude there is no reflection, yet, I suppose also, without stimulus (e.g. people) there is no reflection. It is not just solitude it also about choice and control. In seeking to deconstruct the article by Priest and Gass (1993), one of the issues I raised is that of the perceived power of the instructor/facilitator. Priest and Gass seem to imply that the instructor/facilitator has great power over and in the process, yet maybe the exertion of that power will result in the risk of missed learning opportunities for the participants. Maybe in exerting their power through the design of programs, activities and reflective processes, the instructor/facilitator does so at the expense of the learning of the participant. This is
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an issue I considered to some extent in the design of the activities in the workshop in Tucson to ensure that people had some level of choice, although not total choice. The concept of having ‘space’ to learn, where that space is the mental and/or emotional space (as distinct from an external physical space) has correlation to Csikszentmihalyi’s reference to psychic entropy. Psychic entropy is the ‘noise’ or the disorder in consciousness. Information can “d isrupt consciousness by threatening its goals … a disorganization of the self that impairs its effectiveness.
Prolonged
experiences of this kind can weaken the self to the point that it is no longer able to invest attention and pursue its goals” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:37).
Losing Contact in Order to Make Connections 7/12/00 12:30, NRG Group, Commerce Common Room Today in our NRG research group
Figure 4-5 Searching for a Methodology
meeting we were talking about other people’s learning as we
3. Laughing at “wanks” Qualitative Research Methods
discuss the progress of each of our PhD’s and other research projects. I began to feel my mind ‘glazing’ over as I blanked out of the conversation. Am I bored? Am I out of my depth? Am I suffering
2. Tempted by “science”
4. Running with Autoethnography
Numbers, analysis, tables
Why, why not, review of literature
1. Looking for boxes and blueprints Wanting Structures, Simplistic Models, Overviews
overload? As they continue to talk I begin to draw the following on a scrap of paper Figure 4-5, who knows where it leads or what its significance is: “Auditory (hearing): You find it difficult to listen for longer periods of time, and may not easily remember what was said. In lecture-type learning situations, you probably ‘tune-out’ frequently and have to concentrate hard to ‘stay with’ the lecturer. In this case, use your other sensory modalities (visual, tactile, kinaesthetic and feeling) that are your strengths” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:5)
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“It’s Not the Destination that Counts, but the Journey” 28/12/00 20:58, Jindabyne, NSW {Preface to these thoughts: The following notes have been made all at the same time due to lack of opportunity to sit down and make these observations. The last few weeks have involved a busy time in Wollongong, then a week teaching in Singapore before returning on Christmas Eve to go straight back out to go camping for Christmas. The last few weeks seem to have been filled with people, places and activity. I have not felt like I have had the space and place to work. Singapore was busy with lesson planning, shopping and touring, but also the hotel room was not conducive to me working. The desk was small and cramped, with little room to stretch out. Since arriving back, I have spent most of my time with others either eating, walking, talking or driving. There has not been the necessary space in my head for ideas to rattle around and make connections where they will.} Bushwalking in a Crowd Yesterday I went bushwalking with a group along two tracks: The Waterfall Track and The Pallaibo Track, both in the Sawpit Creek area of Kosciuszko National Park. I had only ever walked with the lead ne ver with the other 10 or so people. The tracks we walked along moved through a variety of environments, with diverse plant life and changing geological structures. What seemed to occur was that for most of the group the aim was to get to the end, to finish the walk in as short a time as possible. Little time or opportunity was afforded to ‘stop and smell the roses’. However for one person, who was at the back, she walked much more slowly than most of the group (partly due to lower fitness levels) but she would also stop and notice the smallest of flowers, the variety of colours of blooms that ranged from white to pink to purple and yellow. She would also notice the intensity of the smells of the various eucalypts of the alpine environment. Picture this: An experienced facilitator and trainer walks into a room of 16 students who have been studying together for more than a few months. I decide to do a few ‘get to know you activities’. Usually I begin with something less ‘threatening’ (or so I thought) such as categories (Rohnke and Butler, 1995). This involves getting into
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groups with people who have similarities to you. I chose the categories such as interests in sport, number of children in the family (a learning for me: most Chinese people come from families with one child!), shoe colours etc.. But these didn’t work. People didn’t want to move. There seemed to be a reluctance for them to operate as individuals and to stand apart. The activities set the tone for the level of interaction and open independent talk for the remainder of the week. That was my experience the week before Christmas, that I spent teaching in Singapore. There were 16 students, 13 came from mainland China, 1 Taiwanese, 1 Singaporean and 1 Indonesian. I have taught overseas students before, but never a full class in another country. I had some very limited ideas of what to expect with respect to their views about teachers (they respected them) and their perceptions of power, ala Hofstede (e.g. Hofstede, 1993), however I was not fully prepared for their absolute focus on success in exams. I conducted the LSA with most of the students (some were not present on the day and did not complete the analysis during the remainder of the week). The Group Report enabled me to gain a greater understanding of the preferences of the majority of the group, but it still does not give me the depth that I am after. It does not give the cultural understandings that was prevalent with such a group. It wasn’t until I started reading a book entitled Why Asians are Less Creative than Westerners that I began to gain a further understanding of the cultural differences. These were the things that have been bugging me about the dominant experiential learning paradigms, it is these people’s experiences that bring to life the hunches that I refer to in the introduction to this thesis and the experience I had had observing an experiential program in Singapore in 1999. These students don’t seem use to being expected to have their own ideas. The ideas they are meant to have are the ones the teacher tells them to have. To explore, to think for oneself is to take a huge personal and social risk (Kwang, 2001). What Experiential Learning Cycle? For some time I have had concerns about the linear representation of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984). Typically Kolb’s experiential learning cycle is represented as a four phase cycle. At one stage (13th April,
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2000) I even download some images from the internet of other ideas of what experiential learning cycles might be for me (as displayed within this paragraph). The intent was to consider other ways of seeing the experiential learning cycle. To account for those times when the learning may begin with the theory or an experience or nothing at all. That learning isn’t always operating to some predetermined agenda set by facilitators and/or teachers. Only in the last few days have I had the experience of learning where, in one case, it started as a result of reading some theory and then applying, but in the other case it was a situation of reflecting upon the experience and connecting and/or developing some theory. What doesn’t really get considered in any of these representations is time, pace and nonlinear (potentially random or chaotic) learning experiences. If learning is not linear and culture is a dominant figure in the calculations, is it really What do I learn about learning from these situations?
possible to create meta models of how things work for all people in all times? I am guessing it is not. But what proof do I have? It is all my own assumptions and theorising. However, from reflecting upon my own experience (as per Kolb’s ELC??!!) it would seem that the basis
of societal expectations, political ideologies and religious and/or faith experiences begin to shape the learning experience beyond the simplified models we see.
Place, Space, Peers and Mutuality 21/01/01 18:31, Outward Bound Australia Base, Tharwa, ACT I have just returned from a week at the National Outdoor Education Conference in Bendigo, Victoria, with a conference theme of ‘A Sense of Place’. This would seem to fit into my thoughts and ideas at this stage. But I did not find my sense of place and I did not seem to be able to engage in the learning as I would have liked to. My role at the conference included presenting a workshop as well as facilitating two other workshops (the latter were about the conference process). Ten of us were facilitating this latter style of workshop in which we were meant to focus upon the issues raised
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by the keynotes and to look towards actions or recommendations as a result. This new process had not been tried at a national conference before. Figure 4-6 Larson Cartoon
Both workshop roles I found stressful, which was a combination of not knowing what the process should be, unsure where it was going as well as feeling underprepared for my own workshop (I am unsure where I most felt my professional reputation was on the line, or if that even matters).
Between these two roles (which
included many meetings), as well as the normal rounds of networking, I found I had little time to think about or process what was going on. To me it is about having ‘space’ for learning. The image that comes to mind is the Larson cartoon (Figure 4-6) where the student asks the teacher if he can be excused because his head is full – a place I often find myself. The space and place, for me, also extends to the physical, the emotional and the social. I know I spent time avoiding some people because I didn’t want to get into some conversations that didn’t go anywhere. Who I sat with and who I talked with became very important. Some people I was happy to sit and talk ‘industry things’ with, but they were usually the people who were doing something about it and were people with whom I have some similarity in direction. They would also be people whom I feel a mutuality in the relationship, while others I avoided tended to be people whom I felt where sapping my ‘energy’. Upon reflection, this was entirely selfish but it was, for me at that time, essential. In some respects, I didn’t want to be totally drained by the time I presented (on the last day).
I wonder what would have happened had I
presented on the first day? Maybe there are some comparisons to Tucson here when I presented on day 2 and then left! “Teams: …To be most effective make sure you have the right people set-up, that you are interested in the topic and that other preference in your learning style are met” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:9)
Stress or threat have been shown to influence our behaviours and may even cause us to “downshift into more automatic beliefs and practices” (Caine and Caine, 1994:106). Caine and Caine define downshifting as a “psychophysiological response to perceived
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threat accompanied by a sense of helplessness and lack of self-efficacy” (Caine and Caine, 1994:69-70). Thus downshifting can have a detrimental impact upon our ability to learn.
Stress, of the negative variety, can reduce the brain’s indexing
capacities as well the “the brain’s short-term memory and ability to form permanent new memories” (Caine and Caine, 1994:71). Caine and Caine further suggest, that this being the case the ongoing distress may have an impact upon our health and emotions while the more positive eustress or excitement can follow on from an appropriate level of personal challenge. This later observation appears to have direct correlation to Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of ‘flow’, or optimal experience, that occurs in situations where there is a match between skill and challenge (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Baker et. al. (1997) emphasises the need to create space and time for
conversations to occur through which participants reflect and share experiences. The contextual considerations they promote as creating an appropriate space include: making an effort to understand and be understood; creating a safe space through acceptance, respect and where judgment is avoided; the moderation of energy to ensure there is space for listening and reflecting; supporting the confrontation of difference; and engaging with the head and the heart (Baker, Jensen and Kolb, 1997:10) I have spent the time since Christmas, following my return from teaching in Singapore, trying to avoid my PhD, but I have also had the ongoing weight of thinking about the book (that a few of us are trying to pull together) as well as having significant energy going into the new subject I am teaching this semester: MGMT 946: Personal Learning: The Reflective Manager. It is ironic that my own head seems too ‘full’ with projects and ideas that it is unable to be reflective about my learning and yet that is what MGMT 946 is about! It is not just my head being full, but also my emotions or stress levels. I can feel anxiety leve ls rise as I try to push more ‘stuff’ into my head and it is not making sense. There is no room and I am missing essential connections. I can feel the need to dialogue with people about it, people who will discuss with me and not talk at me or just think what I am saying is extremely important! This week I am attending a Wilderness Leader’s First Aid Course. I have spent many hours doing the pre-course work, trying to recall things I learnt three and six years
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ago. As I worked yesterday and this morning I found myself being distracted my menial tasks such as copying a list of terminology and abbreviations, which, if I didn’t do them would be distracting to my learning, yet they are not significant to my learning. The other thing was last night I sat and discussed the pre-course worksheet with Vin, Stu and some of Vin’s family, (Vin and Stu have done the course before), and I found that the discussions and the explanations were better for my learning than the reading and the writing. Probably the most important was the explanations. I wonder if they ever use small group stuff in the course or whether small group discussions tend to be more informally constructed by the students over breaks and when worksheets are due? Vin and Stu would definitely be peers and colleagues. They are people whom I respect professionally, educationally and personally. I feel I can learn from them without they or I seeming to feel threatened. If it had just been me with Vin’s family I do not think it would have been the same learning situation for me. I needed that commonality, that mutual respect, and not an apparently one-way experience. “Auditory (external – talking/discussing): … Rather than just reading about a new topic, you often like to talk about it. Your understanding increases when you can discuss the content with other people and your memory improves when you can explain difficult learning concepts to someone else… If you have no-one to talk to you might find it harder to solve problems or sort out complex learning situations” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6)
MGMT 946 provides an interesting opportunity to construct a class around the needs of the individual and to focus on. This subject may benefit from my experience of presenting the two workshops in November and January.
My Head’s Full!: Stuck in the Mire of Reflecting Upon Reflection 9/02/01 12:24, Study, Jindabyne One could think that teaching others about reflection would be easy given that my PhD is generally about reflection, I read and write about reflection, yet as I read more now for MGMT 946 I am becoming aware of my own need to reflect upon what I am reading and thinking. What I want now is to stand back from the material and talk to someone who is like- minded and with an understanding of how I operate. I don’t Chapter 4: What?: The LSA and Me as Learner: A Room of One’s Own
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want to talk to someone who has little knowledge, or one who does not connect with my way of doing things. I feel a bit like a compost bin where someone has kept shoving stuff into it, and hasn’t given it time and space to do its job. If you keep shoving more in, it is only going to get worse, and could even result in maggots growing and destroying the process. But if you stop and pull stuff out, toss the contents around and then let it have time to decompose, then great things will result! And that product, the compost, can then be used to help other things grow. “Peers: You are very flexible and usually have no problems fitting into a learning group consisting of peers. However, you don’t always need people around you to learn or study with or think problems over.” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:9)
As I read I also notice (there’s that word ‘notice’ again) that I will come across an idea that my brain grabs hold of and I will want to go and follow up that straight away. I find it incredibly hard to read a whole chapter or book without wanting to go and refer to a dozen more! Yet I know if I don’t ‘seize the moment’ or the idea then it is probably going to be lost. That idea is a product of that moment. That moment can never be re-created, it is the sum total of aspects such as time, place, noise, reading, thoughts and feelings. Thus, I suppose, that is why I write this here and now and not later when other things have gone on. … information does not create ideas; ideas create information. Ideas are integrating patterns that derive not from information but from experience (Capra, 1996:70).
Most of what I write is ‘stream of consciousness’ stuff (the other night I was watching something on TV where they suggest that Ulysses was a stream of consciousness – I wonder if it is…). As I wrote that I began to think about finishing my PhD and so I calculated how long it might take to finish writing another 40,000 words if I wrote 500 per day (it would be just over two months). Thus one side of my head is being incredibly analytical while the other is trying to ‘go with the flow’. I wish they would just get together to get this finished! I want to write more (just for the sake of having written more), but to do so would be pushing out something that is not there yet. Back to the reading …
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Reflecting Upon Facilitation of Reflection 27/02/01 11:27, Study, Jindabyne Last week I taught the first intensive for MGMT 946. It was three days. The session I presented on what is reflection, two people sat in to listen. As we met before the class I talked of how I was trying to create a space and place for the students to reflect. By this I meant a space in their heads, their lives and without an excessive amount of written material to cope with. My plan was to slow everything down and to use the process as the content and to encourage them to notice what helped them have a reflective space. We were going to have long breaks (well, 30 minutes each for morning and afternoon tea and an hour for lunch). The students were also to do a 90 minute solo. This plan was in contrast to another subject one of the students was taking where in a four hour block they got a 15 minute break.
During our
conversation one of the people asked me how I was going to create my own space and place for reflection. As I look back now I know that I was not ‘walking my own talk’. I was doing what I was trying to stop my students from doing: being caught up in the busy- ness of life. I was so caught up with the theoretical content and the experience of the students that I have not had the space in my own life to reflect.
Too Busy ‘Doing’ to Think and Learn 30/03/01 9:39, Study, Jindabyne “Yet it is in our idleness, in our dreams, that the submerged truth sometimes comes to the top” (Woolf, 1929/1995:40) Sometimes I don’t think I am too bright! After a shit of a day yesterday with long hours on ‘peasant travel’ in Sydney (i.e. public transport) trying to get something fixed on my car I finally started to drive home to Jindabyne at about 6pm. In the dark and the fog of my brain I started to think (this is not too unusual now). My thoughts were roaming around why I was annoyed with expectations that I should drop everything to attend a meeting in Wollongong today (with only 24 hours notice) and then my thoughts went to why I am taking so long to finish my PhD. I enrolled in mid-1995 so I should be close to finishing ….
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And then I began to realise … §
For the first 4 years I worked 2 part time jobs and served on a range of boards and committees. In 1995 I was working with Anglican Youth Department (AYD) and TAFE, in 1997 I started casually at Uni while still working at AYD, I was on the Outdoor Recreation Industry Council (ORIC) Board and probably Sport and Recreation Industry Training Advisory Body (SRITAB), Outdoor Recreation Council of Australia (ORCA) etc…;
§
I completed enough subjects to graduate with an M Com in 1999;
§
I started a new fulltime job at Uni in mid-1999;
§
I have taught new subjects nearly every semester since I started;
§
I have worked over both summer semesters (hopefully not next time);
§
Last year I edited The Risk Management Document and this year I am trying to do a book with Tonia, Bruce and James;
§
This year, while trying to arrange my program so I have blocks of time, this has been stuffed up by low enrolments and the cancellation of a class.
One day I might learn about my own learning! How can I expect to be able to create anything new or insightful or to learn deeply when I haven’t got enough time for a life! Since moving to Jindabyne one of the benefits I have experience is that the time it takes me to drive gives my mind time to process things and time for body and emotions to relax. Thus, when I get home I have chewed over the ‘mess’ of uni or of boards and committees and have a much cleaner slate to be able to put some focus into my PhD.
If I bring home marking or
preparation then the ‘space’ has been lost. It is when I have large blocks that things begin to make sense. If I have trouble making space in my life and my head to learn, what does that mean for others?
How can we expect busy people to race into a training or learning
situation and do what they need to do, to learn and to go away and apply that material?
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What do they need to have an appropriate learning space and the opportunity to truly learn (i.e. achieve some change in behaviour) rather than just recall some facts? As I look back over my comments I see that I have not really learned, if I had then I wouldn’t continue to make the same mistakes of creating my own learning space. Asimov, in reflecting upon his own ‘writer’s block’ talks about how he creates a space for himself to resolve problems or how he finds new directions for his writing says that “It is my feeling that it helps to relax, deliberately, by subjecting your mind to material complicated enough to occupy the voluntary faculty of thought, but superficial enough not to engage the deeper involuntary one. In my case, it is an action movie; in your case, it might be something else” (Asimov, 1977:98). This is not a new idea as he also relates Archimedes’ famous experience of scientific discovery about measuring volume whilst taking a bath.
Feedback and The Big Picture 30/03/01 9:39, Study, Jindabyne On Wednesday I downloaded a Mindmapping program and I began to draw a mindmap of my thesis. The idea came from Eric. He said he had a mindmapping program that also enabled you to easily export files to Powerpoint. I was intrigued. Mindmapping is something I have wanted to do for ages, I had tried to do it last year using Powerpoint, but it didn’t work very well. Well, I fell in love with the program! As I plotted out my work and began to see the connections and also the extent of the work I have done the feedback was really encouraging. Things began to get clearer I could see where I was going. “Visual (external –watching) ….Your understanding of a study text increases when pictures, diagrams and/or drawings are included. Rather than readings text passages you often just like to look at the pictures. To enhance your learning, you could use colours, pictures, magazines, films, mind maps and written materials with pictures and graphs.” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:6)
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Why Is Your View Important? 25/04/01 10:20, In Car, Northbeach, Wollongong It has been sometime since I have written anything and it was only as I started to talk with a friend the other night that I realised why that might be. Just prior to Easter on 10 April, I presented a Seminar at work, that night I presented a talk in the Blue Mountains for ORIC and then on Monday this week I had a conference presentation at the Duke of Edinburgh conference. Then to add to the mix, I also had assignments for MGMT 946 to be marked by yesterday. The last month has been filled with being a performing ‘seal’ with little impact upon the progress of my PhD (except, I suppose, for this entry). I have wanted to do something but I just have not been able to sit and do it. It is almost painful to make myself sit and read or write when there are other things going on in my life that are filling my head and emotions. The only reason that I am sitting writing this is that it is ANZAC day (a public holiday), I am in Wollongong because I have dinner with other PhD students tonight, I had planned to do a walk today, but I just don’t want to. So I am filling a day after an intense month of presentations. Some retail therapy would be nice (walking, looking, occasional coffee), but the shops are closed and I have no money! I had thought about going back to my office at Uni to write this, but the chair is not comfortable, the views are no comparison to the beach and the harbour and the radio is better in my car. The seminar I presented for work was on deconstruction, and my aim was to present it in a way that was a-typical for those seminars, so I designed a Powerpoint presentation with music, pictures as well as being self-timed. Part of the presentation was to set the framework of why I was doing what I was doing: that most of the literature is coming from a particular paradigm of white North American middle class, well-educated males and that my aim was to present a different perspective, mine.
The most
outstanding moment of the seminar was when a colleague (mind you, white North American middle class, well-educated male) asked me why my point of view was important. My response was that “within the methodology I am using, the reason my point of view is important is because it is mine”.
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What is Knowledge and Learning? 27/04/01 10:25, Study, Jindabyne A while I go I sat in Cec’s dining room and we got onto a conversation about the difference between knowledge and learning. We were playing with these ideas and as we spoke I was coming to the conclusion that universities are good about knowledge but not about learning, but what is the difference between the two?
If I know
something, is it just in my head, so what makes it learning? What makes it so part of me that I change my behaviour or that I confirm that my current behaviour is the way I want to stay? What I reached was that learning is ‘embodied knowledge’. The knowledge that enables me to write a good essay, pass an exam or write a PhD has shifted from the head to the heart, the soul and the being. This is like the early Greek (?) philosophers who suggested that there was a divide between the brain and the soul. Is this what I am experiencing where on one hand I ‘know’ about learning styles, different facilitation methods and the benefits of experiential learning, but I have not ‘embodied’ that knowledge such that it has become part of who I am, not just what I saw. Maybe it is this transition that enables me to ‘walk my talk’. Today I was reading about deep, strategic and surface learning (Fazey and Lawson, 2000). The deep approaches are the ones that seem to matter, the ones where making connections and understanding patterns is more important than the regurgitating of facts in the typical surface approach of rote learning (Fazey and Lawson, 2000:5).
An
experiential approach enables you to explore the deep, to go beyond the surface of writing the ten most important things about teamwork, and to move to a situation where you have to behave, make decisions and ‘embody’ that list, to give some visible or behavioural expression of those facts. Csikszentmihalyi says that “(e)verything we experience … is represented as information. If we are able to control this information, we can decide what our lives will be like” (cited in Fazey and Lawson, 2000:6).
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A Sense of Being 28/04/01 15:30, Study, Jindabyne Last week on a day walk on the Main Range I was carrying my mobile phone. Unusual for me, it was switched on as Robyn had been trying to contact me and so I hoped she may be able to get me while I walked. After lunch, while struggling through some thick chest- high bushes, the phone rang – it was a student. Here I was, hot, sweaty, getting scratched and I am talking to a student about a questionnaire they had designed. I have grown-up in a time when I have been able to access all the ‘benefits’ of a fastpaced growth in technology and ‘toys’. As a child I had the transistor, then the cassette recorder, then my own stereo. I then moved onto the Walkman, the Discman, the mobile phone and the laptops and portable printers (I haven’t reached the point of having the mini-TV, yet!). I can go many places in the country and have music, communications and the ability to work. My parents didn’t have all the toys, even now my mother has never used a photocopier let alone a computer. In the outdoor industry we are being increasingly pressured into carrying all the technology available: the phone, the radio, the GPS and the EPIRB. But why do we go into the outdoors? Why do I carry my pack on my back, only to be able to be reached by students and friends? Why can’t I just get away and be? What do I gain if I can just ‘be’ and go with the flow? Csikszentmihalyi (1990) talks about the flow experience or the optimal experience. A time when you are doing something that is challenging, but achievable, requiring concentration, where there are clear goals and feedback, there is deep involvement, a level of control and increase in self and the perception of time is altered. These experiences are ones that may involve any skill, not just a physical skill. The climber can have it, the writer can have it, the art critic can have it. But can we expect it in the outdoors if our experience is open to the intervention of the ‘other’ world, by the beep of the phone or the pager or the knowledge that the world back there can intervene with quick calls home to see how things are?
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I sit in my study overlooking the beautiful Lake Jindabyne as I write this. There are many times I can sit at my computer in that flow experience, not hearing my stereo, nor hearing the drier in the laundry near by. I write, the words flow, the world passes me by and time is of little significance. But as soon as I think I should check my email, that ‘other’ world intervenes. The flow stops, the thoughts end, the music becomes loud once more. This flow, this optimal experience is one that I would love to see and experience in an experiential learning situation and the reflection upon that experience, where the participants are so engaged that the ‘other’ world is nowhere to be seen. Yet, in reflecting we are breaking that flow. The mere fact of intervening with a question, an uncertainty, or a refocus is an intervention in the experience, breaking the concentration, breaking the flow.
Supervisors, What Supervisors? 2/05/01 14:30, Office, Wollongong Driving to work this morning from Jindabyne (the short 4.5 hour commute!) I began to think about my supervisors. This had come to mind partly due to problems a friend has recently been having with her PhD supervisors and partly due to my consistent thinking about whethe r I have the ‘right’ supervisors (whatever that might be). I realised that I have not met with both of my supervisors for several months. I have spoken with Tonia at different times and given her a mindmap or two, but generally I feel as if I have a fair idea of where I am going and that I just need to keep my head down and do it. One problem with this is that my PhD Progress Report always asks if I have been meeting with my supervisors and thus I have this imposed paradigm of learning that seems to be trying to pull my strings, or leash. “Authority: You don’t like being controlled and prefer to learn or study unsupervised. You find it easier to perform well when nobody is checking up on you … You need freedom to carry out your learning tasks with very little supervision” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:9)
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Slowing Things Down to Create the Space 3/05/01 14:52, Office, Wollongong As I was reading through some of my thoughts about life as a learner, the themes of space and place kept jumping out. This reading was also interrupted by a conversation with a colleague about learning in our postgraduate classes and how we have shifted to 10 * 4 hour classes, instead of 13 * 3 hour. Some people seem to be struggling with this, I, howeve r, have chosen to use block delivery, where I have a 3 day block and a 2 day block. I began to think about MGMT 946 and how I had used this block delivery process and how I had deliberately slowed things down in order to create more opportunity for ‘deeper’ learning of less material as opposed to having larger amounts of material covered in a more superficial way. One activity was a 90 minute ‘solo’ where I sent them away to do nothing for an hour on their own. For the other 30 minutes they could then write in their journals about what they noticed and thought about. This seemed to have a profound impact upon some students who were really challenged by doing ‘nothing’. Some even didn’t think they could do it. Dewey suggests that “A primary responsibility of educators is that they not only be aware of the general principle of the shaping of actual experience by environing conditions, but that they also recognize in the concrete what surroundings are conducive to having experiences that lead to growth. Above all, they should know how to utilize the surroundings, physical and social, that exist so as to extract from them all that they have to contribute to building up experiences that are worth while” (Dewey, 1938/1976:40). Caine and Caine refer to deep meanings as providing “a sense of direction because they govern what people look for and what they are willing to do … in part, deep meanings are a source of the energy that people are capable of bringing to bear on a task or activity” (Caine and Caine, 1994:105-106).
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“Remember, if it is Jazz it only happens once!” 8/05/01 9:10, Study, Jindabyne Last weekend I went to the Thredbo Jazz Festival. This is the first jazz festival I have attended and I wasn’t too sure what to expect. My previous experience of jazz has been pretty limited, but I was very pleased with what I experienced. The thing that really stood out for me was the ability of the really good musicians to improvise. They could pull a band together from any mix of musicians and with only a little bit of communication they could be playing and improvising within minutes. They didn’t need a full score, often the most they had was a chord progression, even if they played piano or brass. You could see them listening to the melody and picking up the tune and the key and then they slipped into playing their own improvisations.
Key
changes, repeats and duets occurred with a simple hand signal or a nod and a wink. Any familiar tune can be reshaped to become a soulful melody, a celebration of life or an invitation for sex! Their improvisations led me to think about facilitation. My experience of really good facilitators is that they have the ability to sense the ‘melody’ of the group, the key and the pace. They feel who is ‘in tune’ and who is trying to play a variation on the theme. A really good facilitator is creative, making do with what is around them, creating new ideas, new ways of reflection based upon the experiences and resources in the ‘here and now’. They don’t need great amounts of expensive resources to be able to facilitate and process experiences; all they need is their creative, innovative selves. Jazz improvisers are interested in creating new musical material, surprising themselves and others with spontaneous, unrehearsed ideas … there is no clear prescription of what is to played … the art of jazz improvisation demands that the musician create something different (Barrett, 1998:608).
In talking about the role of the leader/facilitator as artist, Knapp (unknown) highlights the skills as being “flexible and respond with intuition and emotion at appropriate times …Some of these more artistic skills need to be learned over many years through awareness and internalized experience” (Knapp, Unknown:10).
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Seeing What I Need to See 13/06/01 12:16, Study, Jindabyne Over the last couple of days I have been reading sections from various books and articles. Some of them I have read before, I have even made notes and underlined. I have only owned one book for less than a year – yet I do not recall what I have read before. But as I read I ‘see’ new and different things. It is as if those things were not there until I needed to see them. It reminds of the idea of text having multiple layers and how different people reading the text will see and/or experience those different layers. Your ability to see those layers depended upon your experience, your preparedness and maybe even your maturity. It is almost as if there is a higher power holding the information until you are ready to really need or see it, timing the release for my optimal learning. If only this were so! This is not a new observation for me, yet I do not know how to empower or control this process. The interrelationships of the words notice (verb), consciousness (noun) and attention (noun) are demonstrated by their dictionary definitions.
The Oxford Dictionary
defines notice as “to become aware of something … or to pay attention to” (Crowther, 1995:791), consciousness is defined as “the state of being aware” (Crowther, 1995:244) and attention is defined as “the action of turning one’s mind to something or noticing something” (Crowther, 1995:65). Baars (1999) suggests that there is a difference between consciousness and attention both at the common sense level, but also at the physiological level. Baars suggests that attention is a selective process while consciousness is an experiential state. The interconnection of the two is the result of the attentional processes being influenced by and having an influence upon the conscious contents, an ongoing cyclical process. Baars further suggests that the two events occur in different parts of the brain, attention in the prefrontal cortex and consciousness in the cortex. Thus, conscious events can influence the selections made in activities such as reading (Baars, 1999).
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Like Climbing a Mountain 24/06/01 12:37, Study, Jindabyne Today I went out for breakfast and as I was walking back I was thinking about photos and picture frames (I have wanted to display some of my pictures for some time). My thoughts crossed to a newspaper article I have that I have wanted to get framed for some time.
It is from the travel section of a Reno newspaper about Craig, a
photojournalist, and his experience of climbing Mt Kilimanjaro.
I climbed My
Kilimanjaro with Craig. The story below relates that experience. I don’t know what this has to do with learning, yet, but I will go with it anyway … In 1994 I travelled to Africa, partly because I had an around-the-world air ticket that enabled me to travel there and partly because I had always been interested in going there. I didn’t have any clear plans, just to travel between Nairobi and Harare (my entry and exit points). Between those two points is Mt Kilimanjaro. I decided to climb it. This mountain is the highest on the African continent at 5,895 metres (approximately 19,000 feet). I had never been that high before. Before travelling in Africa I had been to Europe where I had done a bit of walking, but the highest I had been was on Schilthorn in Switzerland at around 10,000 feet. The difference meant I needed to approach this climb carefully. I arranged to go with a local company who provided a guide and a cook. The guide had summitted several times before. The original plan was that there would be small group of us travelling together, but the others dropped out leaving me on my own with my two ‘staff’. The plan was to take 5 days, allowing an acclimatisation day at around 14,000 feet. I set off from about 6,100 feet and travelled to the first hu t at about 9,500 feet at Mandara Hut – there is no rush, the plan is to get use to the altitude. Along the way a I met up with a couple of Americans who were walking to the same plan, so we joined together as we ate and walked – it was nice to have the company. The second night we slept at about 12,500 feet at Horombo Hut, this is where we were to spend two nights. The third day we did an acclimatisation walk to about 14,000 feet towards Mawenzi. It was a fabulous day, we walked, we talked, we stopped, we breathed. We then returned to Horombo Hut at 12,500 feet for another night. The fourth day we walked to the next hut, Kibo Hut, at approximately 15,500 feet. Here we were to stay for a short time before getting up at about midnight to attempt to “summit”. Apparently, most people suffer from altitude-induced insomnia, I had the opposite, all I wanted to do was sleep. At midnight, at the beginning of the fifth day, we arose for our walk in the dark. I drank some energy drink, given to me by someone else - bad move! I proceed to vomit most of that up as I climbed the scree.
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I arrived at Gilman Point, at the top of the scree, for sunrise. As I lay there feeling like shit, I thought to myself that I had achieved enough, I had climbed higher than I had ever done before and I tried to convince myself that I would be satisfied with that. I told the guide this. He gently encouraged me to go further, I wasn’t so convinced. But he knew the terrain, I had climbed the hardest part, the rest was flatter, so I decided to go on. I made it to the top – I was the last of those of us who had set out from Kibo Hut to summit that day, but as I turned to go back down, my energy rose and I literally ran down the scree back to Kibo – I was the first back down!
The sequence of topics, while connected, is not logical, but reflects the different issues going on in my mind at the time. I didn’t intend thinking about mountain climbing, but that’s where my thoughts ended. “Brain Processing: You are definitely a simultaneous, right-brain processor who always needs the big picture or overview first. … As a multi-task learning, you tend to live and/or learn in ‘creative chaos’ and often use a random thinking style.” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:5)
As I continued my walk back home after breakfast, I began to see that climb as an analogy for learning and my experience of doing a PhD.
The decision was not
necessarily a well- informed decision, more a gut reaction, which has been followed by a long preparation phase. As the terrain has gotten steeper, as the demands of the PhD have increased, I have needed to pace myself, to take into account the environment around me and adjust what I do to the external circumstances. There have been times when I have tried to convince myself that a Masters or an EdD would be enough, that I didn’t need to go on and complete the hard yards to get a PhD. But I have continued on. If I try to go too fast for me, the environment, the stress will beat me. With a PhD you set off on a solo trip, with supervisors there to guide and nourish you, a bit like the guide and the cook on Kilimanjaro. Along the way you may meet people who are having similar experiences as you, who you can support and they can be supported by you. But in the end, the decision is mine, the progress is mine. I have to take those steps, I have to do the writing, I have to feel the pressures of things like time, money and waning enthusiasm. Others may be there on the sidelines, encouraging and pointing the way, but in the end it is me. I climbed that mountain, I walked those steps, I was supported, but I did it! I’m glad I listened to that guide. I’d like to go back to that mountain before I am finished…
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How much is learning like a challenge such as climbing Mt Kilimanjaro? The choices, the preparation, the support and nourishment, the guidance and taking things one step at a time. “Motivation: You are a self starter! … You get a sense of accomplishment from achieving, and this keeps you motivated. It is important for the quality of your learning to have a lot of input in how you go about your studies. You need self -designed goals and objectives, your own pace and self -evaluation of your study progress.” (Dunn and Prashnig, 2000:10)
Taking things one step at a time is a theme mentioned by Hayhurst when considering the demands of climbing Mt Everest.
For Hayhurst it was important to “set an
incremental goal; you don’t have to do it all at once. Break the challenge into little pieces, little goals and chew them off, one at a time. That’s how you take on a huge challenge.” (Hayhurst, 1997:44) A joke: How do you eat an elephant? One piece at a time!
More of the Same? 16/07/01 16:20, Study, Jindabyne “All of my possessions for a moment of time”, Elizabeth I of England Over the last month I have had visitors for about half the time. I didn’t think it would affect me, but it appears as if it has. I have found it hard to work and write with others around, the place is too ‘full’, with no place to be apart and let my brain do its thing. During this time I have also been trying to write an article, it too kept being moved to the back burner until everyone had left. The other thing I did during this month was work on a half-day team-building program. The program design has some similar aspects to my life: too busy, not enough time to think and reflect and doubtful achievement of the stated outcomes. I had hoped I would have the time to seriously consider how I was going to facilitate that program, but I didn’t have details about the client, the program goals or the activities until about an hour before the program began. There wasn’t even enough time to ensure I was familiar with the layout of the area so that I could use and/or adapt things as the program progressed. As I approach a three day block delivery for Uni, I have some similar concerns, I don’t have time,
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many of the people I do not know and the location is new to me and I am uncertain about how well it will work. These experiences raise questions, maybe again, about learners having ownership of their learning process and also having the space and place to reflect upon their experience and also the questionable reality of facilitators having power-over the participants’ learning.
Creating That Space For Me 16/07/01 16:38, Study, Jindabyne As I sit here now and I dream of what my ideal place of learning and writing would be I cannot think of a better geographical location than where I am now. This morning I worked to finish off that article and then over lunch I went for a ski. Upon my return, with one project out of the way, my adrenaline running from exercise and an exhilarating environment, I returned to my desk with its view over the lake, to write for the first time in a month. Yet, there is a feeling in the pit of my stomach of work undone and things to do – and mostly they relate to the Outdoor Recreation Industry Council (ORIC). This morning I received about 10 emails about ORIC and that was after sitting up until 11pm last night working on ORIC-related material. Even the two phone messages I received today are about ORIC. This is just another thing filling any available space in my head. Yet, as I write this I also think of a student from last session, Mike. Mike has this amazing story of business crises, pressure from a difficult set of Uni subjects and a life to live. He was able to clearly set aside the pressures from one to clearly focus on what needed to be achieved.
He didn’t need time or space (from what I could
observe) to separate himself from one task before moving on to the next, he did it with apparent ease. He intrigues me the way he was able to do it, I am interested to explore further with him how he is able to do it. Many other people I have met need to talk through one thing before moving onto the next, but not Mike. We are different.
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Who Stole the Time? 7/08/01 12:26, Study, Jindabyne Over the last two weeks I have conducted two block sessions for Uni. They were for MGMT 908 Human Resource Development, with each block taking 3 days. One was in Wollongong the other in Sydney. Each student had been asked to complete the LSA prior to the course, my intent had been to spend time looking at their individual profiles as well as the group profiles so that I could more effectively take into account their learning differences. This didn’t happen! With about 20 hours or more of classes in each block, my head and my emotions were wrapped up in getting prepared and overcoming the anxiety of teaching for that length of time. (It had been my choice to do the block delivery as I believe it fits my own learning style more effectively as I am able to concentrate on one task at a time, as opposed to juggling a range of tasks.) In addition, for the first block, I did not know what classroom I was using, sometimes until the day before. Management of self was important, managing the process was the ideal. The other contributing factor was students who had not handed in their LSA in time for me to enter their data. Thus, as I was sending most of the class off to read their material I was spending my own ‘down time’, or head-space time, punching in data and spitting out LSA Reports to give the students time to read their LSA before we met again. As I was reflecting, amid my insanity, the following images (Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8) came to mind about creating space. The images, I believe, may originate from Stephen Covey, but I see parallels to where my thoughts have been going in relation to learning. If my ‘head’ or my learning space is already mostly full (as in Figure 4-7) with other ‘stuff’ (eg: emotions, stress, family) then my ability to add extra things and to integrate that into my existing knowledge and experience is limited – there is no room to realign, and make new connections.
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If, however, I am not already full
Figure 4-7 Full of ‘Stuff’
Figure 4-8 Room for More
of other ‘stuff’ (as in Figure 4-8) then I may be able to more effectively
integrate
additional
information and ideas. In looking at various students around me, I believe that each person’s ability to cope with different amounts of pre-existing ‘stuff’ varies greatly. For some they can deal with lots going on in their lives, such as family crises, work pressures as well as study demands. For others they need more space to juggle what is going on. Is there any correlation to the LSA? Maybe, or maybe it has connections to personality, stress coping skills, support mechanisms etc… If it is the case that your ability to take on new information in a training/learning environment may be limited by what is already going on in your life, could we look at some form of intake inventory? This inventory could assist participants reflect on what is going on in their lives so that they may begin to identify what available space they have for new ideas.
4.3. Conclusion: And the Point is … ? The risk of an autoethnography is that it could be a self- indulgent process of navel gazing. But as I look back over my entries I see the themes of space, place and noticing emerging as common threads. My usage of these terms has, generally, been uninformed, drawing upon my own tacit understanding and usage of them. Yet I know from interactions with others who have read widely in areas of urban planning, human geography and others that there is a strong basis for the use of these terms, a direction that will be explored further in Chapter 6. What follows, in Chapter 5, is a gathering of insights of the learning of individuals using results from Learning Styles Analysis as well as results from surveys of people’s practice from participants in workshops I have conducted at two conferences in 2002. Together these will help point to further considerations of how to help create space for individuals to learn as discussed in Chapter 7 where the aim is to draw together these diverse perceptions and perspectives into a coherent process of facilitation.
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Chapter 5. So What?: Insights from Others “this is what learning is. You suddenly understand something you’ve understood all your life, but in a new way” Doris Lessing, 1969, writer, playwright (Partnow, 1993:470).
5.1. Introduction We are different. Not just Mike, a former student, and I, but every person in every group that I have and will ever facilitate. We all are different. We have different life stories, different learning experiences, different learning expectations and, of course, different learning styles. This chapter moves from the ‘lens’ of my own personal experience, as discussed in Chapter 4, to look through another ‘lens’, that of the insights from the Learning Styles Analysis (LSA). Parallel to, intertwined with and connected to my experience as a learner is my experience as a facilitator. What follows are insights and information gleaned from several sources. They are: §
Pilot Studies with students in MGMT 908, 1999 and members of NRG
§
Gaining Insight through the ‘Lens’ of the LSA with students in MGMT 908, 2001; MGMT 946, 2002 and EDGP 912/3, 2002.
§
NRG Interviews
§
Survey of Workshop Participants from two international conferences as well as students in EDGP 912/3.
The section on the Pilot Studies presents a summary of the results of the LSAs of the students in MGMT 908, 1999 and also three members of NRG (n=28). The second section presents a summary of the results of LSAs of students in MGMT 908, 2001 (Sydney and Wollongong), MGMT 946, 2002 and EDGP 912/3, 2002, (n=45). The results are presented in table format with percentages given for each section of the LSA for preferences (a total of the categories of ‘Strong Preferences’ and ‘Preferences’ for each individual LSA), non-preferences and flexibilities (a total of the categories of ‘Flexibility’ and ‘Strong Adaptability’ for each individual LSA). The
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sub-categories of ‘Preference’, ‘Non-Preference’ and ‘Flexibility’ are generated by the Group Reporting sub-program of the LSA. Further insight is sought from the 73 LSAs by conducting a range of analysis of variance looking at the impact of aspects such as gender, age, nationality and subject choice. The NRG Interviews are extracts from one email ‘conversation’ and one face-to-face interview with NRG members who were reflecting upon their own individual learning needs. The final aspect is the results from surveys of workshops participants (n=76) addressing questions of what they are actually doing when facilitating experiential learning situations. While this latter aspect does not specifically relate to the LSA it does, in some senses, bring the ‘conversation’ full circle by exploring what individual facilitators are actually doing. What these surveys do confirm is what was the trigger for my journey – that the dominant paradigm of sitting in circles and discussing in groups exists across the world, yet many people have never investigated what and how people may learn.
5.2. Pilot Studies Two pilot studies were conducted in 1999, the first with students of MGMT 908 and the second with members of NRG. Each was to involve completion of the LSA and then follow-up interviews, but both ended up with a resounding lack of usable information from the interviews – in part due to the process of interviewing and in part due to asking the wrong questions of these particular people.
5.2.1. Pilot Study 1: MGMT 908, 1999 In an effort to begin a process of gathering data related to the LSA and the feedback from participants on its application in their lives, I conducted a Pilot Study of students in MGT 908: Human Resource Development and the Learning Organisation during the Spring Semester of 1999. a. Participant LSA’s MGMT 908, 1999 As discussed in Chapter 2, the 25 students in MGMT 908, 1999 came from at least 9 difference countries.
The LSAs were completed in Week 1 of the semester and
returned several weeks later. The learning style preferences, non-preferences and
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flexibilities (from the complete LSA reports) of students in MGMT 908, 1999 are presented in Table 5-1. Table 5-1 MGMT 908, 1999: LSA Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities Group Profile, n=25 Pref % Non-Pref % Flex % Brain Processing Sequential 0 24 40 Simultaneous 44 0 20 Thinking Style Reflective 40 12 40 Impulsive 24 20 48 Sensory Modalities: Hearing, listening 28 8 64 Auditory External, talking 64 4 32 Internal, self talk 64 0 36 Visual Words, reading 68 12 20 External, Seeing 32 8 60 Internal, visualising 72 0 28 Tactile Touching, handling 44 0 56 Kinaesthetic External, doing 60 4 36 Internal, feeling 64 4 32 Mobility Stationary 12 32 56 Movement 52 8 40 Intake None 16 44 40 Needed 56 0 44 Time of Day Early Morning 48 28 24 Late Morning 32 32 36 Afternoon 4 72 24 Evening 40 32 28 Sound Quiet 60 8 24 Sound/Noise 20 44 28 Light Bright light 48 8 44 Low light 12 72 16 Temperature Cool 20 36 44 Warm 56 0 44 Study Area Formal 60 4 32 Informal 20 12 64 Working Groups Alone 20 32 32 Pair 36 8 48 Peers 60 0 24 Team 40 12 36 Authority Supervised 36 24 36 Unsupervised 20 12 64 Motivation Self starting 88 0 12 Externally motivated 4 44 52 Persistence High 60 8 12 Spontaneous 4 16 64 Low 0 36 56 Conformity Conforming 16 0 64 Non-conforming 40 4 36 Responsibility High, strong 80 0 12 Low 0 48 44 Structure, guidance Other directed 56 0 24 Self directed 12 8 60 Variety Routine 28 12 48 Change Oriented 36 12 40
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When looking at the key variables from the perspective of Non-Australian (i.e. students born overseas) versus Australian students, a different profile comes to light as presented in Table 5-2.
From the perspective of sensory modalities, the notable
differences, as indicated by using an arbitrary difference of 25 percentage points, relate to preferences for Auditory (internal: self talk, self dialogue), Visual (reading) and Visual (external: seeing, watching). These three areas each required a shift in perspective of how to incorporate these into a learning experience to enable there to be sufficient time and space for them to occur. The magnitude of the difference chosen could, in reality, be almost anything. However the choice of 25 percentage points was purely in order to gain a sense of where notable differences may exist. There was no intent that the magnitude of the difference would suggest any specific statistical significance.
Thus these results, while highlighting differences in learning style
preferences, do not indicate their level of significance. This is explored further in 5.3.5. Table 5-2 MGMT 908, 1999 Summary of Sensory Modality Preferences Australian NonAustralian Auditory: listening 23% 37% Auditory: external talking/discussing 64% 62% Auditory: internal self talk, inner dialogue 47% 100% Visual: reading 58% 87% Visual: external, seeing, watching 23% 50% Visual: internal, visualisation, imagination 70% 75% Tactile: touching 47% 37% Kinaesthetic: external, experience, doing 58% 62% Kinaesthetic: internal, feeling, intuition 62% 62%
Total 28% 64% 64% 68% 32% 72% 44% 60% 64%
b. Interviews As indicated in Chapter 2, the effort to conduct interviews was not a success and thus no results are presented here.
5.2.2. Pilot Study 2: NRG, 1999 The second Pilot Study involved members of the research group: ‘NRG’.
After
surveying three members and giving them copies of their LSA Reports, it became obvious from follow- up conversations that seeking to get any further data through interviews and/or further training was not going to achieve my desired outcome of gaining further insight into the facilitation of learning as occurred in Pilot Study 1. Chapter 5: So What?: Insights From Others
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Albeit, one unexpected insight gained was the lack of insight of many people on how we learn. Thus I put that plan aside without any intent of pursuing it further. This insight into the lack of understanding of individual learning differences is supported by the findings of the survey of facilitators as discussed in 5.5. It was not until some opportunistic moments arose in 2002 that I was able to gain further valuable insights from two members of NRG. This is presented in 5.4.
5.2.3. Conclusion The Pilot Studies highlighted the need to seek out people who are more experienced in facilitating experiential learning, rather than hoping that individuals who are learners of facilitation themselves would be able to inform my search for understanding. This is pursued through the survey of facilitators of experiential learning 5.5, however there was still valuable data to be gained from the LSA itself as is discussed next.
5.3. Gaining Insight through the ‘Lens’ of the LSA 5.3.1. Introduction The following three sections summarise the LSAs for the each of the key study groups: MGMT 908 (n=25), MGMT 946 (n=11) and EDGP 912/3 (n=9). In Section 5.3.5.a the LSAs are further analysed by the groupings of: Australian, Non-Australian, Female and Male, with outcomes of analyses of variances presented in 5.3.5.b. In this context, the LSAs may be considered as an example of the type of participants that may participate in a corporate experiential learning program given that 36 of the respondents are postgraduate Commerce students with a few summary comments made for each group allowing for more in-depth analysis in 5.3.2.
5.3.2. MGMT 908, 2001 MGMT 908 was offered in two places (Wollongong and Sydney, n=25) one week apart during Intake A, 2001, with a combination of a three day block and a two day block four weeks later.
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a. Two Different Experiences: While it may be inferred that my experience of the two block sessions would be alike, this is far from the reality. Both sessions were for postgraduate students, both drew on the same program and materials (all handouts, including overhead handouts, were photocopied at the same time). Yet the size and mix of the group as well as the physical locations impacted upon the feel, for me, and the process of the programs. Some of the key differences are noted in Table 5-3. Table 5-3 Comparison of MGMT 908 Groups Wollongong, n = 20 Timing 3 day and 2 day block, 9.00 – 4.30 Rooms Faculty Tea Room: Lounge chairs and Used Café tables (Thurs.: all day, Fri.: a.m.) Lecture Theatre: fixed tables and chairs, Computer, video, chalkboard, overhead (Fri.: p.m.) U-shaped Lecture Theatre. fixed tables and chairs, Computer, video, chalkboard, overhead (Sat.) Intake Coffee and tea available Perceived Having moved to 38.G07 several Benefits students expressed a preference for and/or the more informal nature of the tea Disadvant room. I enjoyed the relaxed ages environment, however, for me, the sitting and chatting placed a greater emphasis upon me, rather than being able to maximis e the use of the colour and images of Powerpoint. Additionally, the lounge chairs did not allow me to easily get up and move as I talked.
Sydney, n = 5 3 day and 2 day block, 9.00 – 4.30 Seminar Room: u -shaped layout of rectangular tables, swivel chairs, Computer, video, whiteboard, overhead, flipchart paper and stand, flipchart holding rails
Water only allowed in room Having access to the one space for the whole time, enabled me to ‘create’ the learning space that I wanted and then work within that. I had the lecture space, the small group space as well as an activity space. This provided variety as well as opportunities for participants to get up and move around. After conducting the games and activities, I was able to use the fact that we were still in the same room to physically point to the place where we did the activities each time I referred back to them over the next two days. This provided a visual connection to the thoughts and ideas we were exploring. Additionally, the ability to hang all the flip chart paper that I had used gave that same visual connection and reference point as the time progressed.
Table 5-4 summarises the LSAs of the Wollongong group (n=20) while Table 5-5 summarises the students in the Sydney class (n=5).
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Table 5-4 MGMT 908 Wollongong, 2001: LSA Group Results: Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities Group Profile, n=20 Pref % Non-Pref % Flex % Brain Processing Sequential 15 5 70 Simultaneous 45 0 45 Thinking Style Reflective 60 5 30 Impulsive 25 30 40 Sensory Modalities: Hearing, listening 25 15 60 Auditory External, talking 65 0 35 Internal, self talk 65 5 30 Visual Words, reading 40 5 55 External, Seeing 40 5 55 Internal, visualising 60 15 25 Tactile Touching, handling 55 0 45 Kinaesthetic External, doing 75 0 25 Internal, feeling 65 0 35 Mobility Stationary 15 25 60 Movement 40 10 50 Intake None 30 45 15 Needed 35 10 45 Time of Day Early Morning 30 30 40 Late Morning 50 30 20 Afternoon 10 65 25 Evening 30 35 35 Sound Quiet 75 0 25 Sound/Noise 15 55 30 Light Bright light 55 10 30 Low light 5 45 45 Temperature Cool 10 40 50 Warm 60 0 40 Study Area Forma l 45 15 35 Informal 40 20 35 Working Groups Alone 15 10 45 Pair 20 0 80 Peers 25 0 50 Team 20 20 50 Authority Supervised 50 5 40 Unsupervised 5 30 60 Motivation Self starting 80 0 20 Externally motivated 5 55 40 Persistence High 40 0 50 Spontaneous 15 25 55 Low 5 50 30 Conformity Conforming 30 0 60 Non-conforming 45 0 45 Responsibility High, strong 100 0 0 Low 0 50 50 Structure, guidance Other directed 60 0 25 Self directed 10 25 50 Variety Routine 25 15 50 Change Oriented 30 5 55
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Table 5-5 MGMT 908 Sydney, 2001: LSA Group Results: Preferences, Non-preferences and Flexibilities Group Profile, n=5 Pref % Non-Pref % Flex % Brain Processing Sequential 0 20 20 Simultaneous 20 0 20 Thinking Style Reflective 40 20 40 Impulsive 40 0 60 Sensory Modalities: Hearing, listening 40 0 60 Auditory External, talking 60 0 40 Internal, self talk 60 0 40 Visual Words, reading 20 0 80 External, Seeing 40 20 40 Internal, visualising 60 0 40 Tactile Touching, handling 60 20 20 Kinaesthetic External, doing 80 0 20 Internal, feeling 60 0 40 Mobility Stationary 40 20 40 Movement 40 0 60 Intake None 40 40 0 Needed 40 0 40 Time of Day Early Morning 60 20 20 Late Morning 40 20 40 Afternoon 20 80 0 Evening 0 60 40 Sound Quiet 40 0 60 Sound/Noise 0 40 60 Light Bright light 20 0 80 Low light 40 20 40 Temperature Cool 40 20 40 Warm 0 0 100 Study Area Formal 60 20 20 Informal 20 0 80 Working Groups Alone 0 20 20 Pair 0 20 60 Peers 40 0 40 Team 40 20 20 Authority Supervised 60 20 20 Unsupervised 20 0 80 Motivation Self starting 100 0 0 Externally motivated 0 80 20 Persistence High 60 0 40 Spontaneous 20 0 60 Low 0 60 20 Conformity Conforming 20 0 40 Non-conforming 40 0 20 Responsibility High, strong 80 0 20 Low 0 40 60 Structure, guidance Other directed 20 0 40 Self directed 40 0 20 Variety Routine 40 20 20 Change Oriented 40 20 20
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c. Discussion MGMT 908 is generally a fairly structured subject that would probably appeal more to those who like structure and guidance (60% of Wollongong and 20% of Sydney). The set up of the classes, as presented in Table 5-3, allowed for both formal areas (as preferred by 45% of Wollongong and 60% of Sydney). The timing of the class is predetermined and does not take into account those who prefer evening study (30% of Wollongong and 0% of Sydney). These results help provide evidence of the diversity of learning styles present in anyone group, but this, along with the results for MGMT 946 and EDGP 912/3, present only one facet of the person and do not consider the process or the outcomes/results of the class. Further research on groups such as this could address questions regarding the students’ experience of the class (given the differences in location, set up and size) and an evaluation of the outcomes of the subject in comparison to preferred learning styles.
5.3.3. MGMT 946: Personal Learning: The Reflective Manager, 2002 In Intake A (February – April) 2002 I had the opportunity to run a postgraduate class entitled Personal Learning: The Reflective Manager (n=11). The summary of the LSAs is presented in Table 5-6. As mentioned previously, the LSA provides one facet of the learner and does not take into account the subject process or the learning outcomes. This is itself could be another study. a. Discussion In contrast to MGMT 908, this class was presented in a highly informal way with high levels of interaction, experiences outside (including interviewing people in the street as well as a solo time in an inner city park), and a significant use of a personal learning journal. This would seem to have greater appeal to those with a preference for mobility (18%), informality (9%) and individual and small group work (9% to 54%).
Of interest is the 18% who are change oriented (with 63% who have a
flexibility), given the nature of this subject was not just to learn academically but also
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to seriously reflect upon one’s personal life. While class time would fit with those who preferred being directed by others (45%), the small group project that required some degree of creativity and lateral thinking (conformity preferred by 27%, nonconformity preferred by 36%), lots of self direction (preferred by 18%) and a high level of responsibility (preferred by 81%).
5.3.4. EDGP 912/3: Facilitation Techniques in Outdoor Education EDGP 912/3, a postgraduate education class (n=9), had only Caucasian students, eight from Australia and one from North America – reflecting, perhaps, more on the connection to ‘outdoor education’ than anything else. This class included people with nil to a wide range of facilitation experiences in outdoor and experiential settings. The LSAs, summarised in Table 5-7, were completed prior to the first block and returned and discussed during the first block.
Students in this class also completed the
Workshop Survey as discussed in Section 5.4.3. a. Discussion With a class focused upon outdoor education, which also draws upon physical education students, it is not unexpected to see that 77% prefer movement, however it is also interesting to note that 88% prefer quiet. Given the degree of interaction and discussion, it raises questions about how the ‘noise’ may affect them, or whether their preference for a formal learning environment (66%) may be a socially imposed expectation that contradicts their preference for mobility. It may be that, in order to concentrate in that environment, they find they need quiet. The high level of selfstarting is also consistent with the other postgraduates, many of whom are studying and working at the same time.
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Table 5-6 MGMT 946, 2002 Preferences, Flexibilities, Non-Preferences MGMT 946
Group Profile, n=11
Pref %
Flex %
Non-Pref %
Brain Processing
Sequential Simultaneous Reflective Impulsive
0 81 54 0
90 9 36 72
0 0 9 27
Hearing, listening
36
36
27
External, talking Internal, self talk Words, reading External, Seeing Internal, visualising Touching, handling External, doing Internal, feeling Stationary Movement None Needed Early Morning Late Morning Afternoon Evening Quiet Sound/Noise Bright light Low light Cool Warm Formal Informal Alone Pair Peers Team Supervised Unsupervised Self starting Externally motivated High Spontaneous Low Conforming Non-conforming High, strong Low Other directed Self directed Routine Change Oriented
45 36 54 9 45 54 45 54 36 18 45 9 36 9 9 45 36 0 54 9 27 27 45 9 9 45 54 45 18 18 63 9 63 27 0 27 36 81 0 45 18 27 18
45 63 18 72 45 36 36 45 36 45 27 63 45 54 27 9 63 63 27 36 54 54 45 54 54 45 27 36 63 63 36 27 36 72 45 45 54 18 63 36 63 36 63
9 0 27 18 9 9 18 0 18 27 18 18 18 36 63 45 0 36 9 45 18 18 9 36 27 0 9 18 9 9 0 63 0 0 54 18 0 0 36 18 18 36 18
Thinking Style Sensory Modalities: Auditory
Visual
Tactile Kinaesthetic Mobility Intake Time of Day
Sound Light Temperature Study Area Working Groups
Authority Motivation Persistence
Conformity Responsibility Structure, guidance Variety
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Table 5-7 EDGP 912/3, 2002 LSA Group Results: Preferences, Flexibilities, Non-Preferences Group Profile, n=9
Brain Processing Thinking Style Sensory Modalities: Auditory
Visual
Tactile Kinaesthetic Mobility Intake Time of Day
Sound Light Temperature Study Area Working Groups
Authority Motivation Persistence
Conformity Responsibility Structure, guidance Variety
Pref %
Flex %
Non-Pref %
Sequential Simultaneous Reflective Impulsive
11 55 22 11
66 44 66 55
22 0 0 22
Hearing, listening
22
55
22
External, talking Internal, self talk Words, reading External, Seeing Internal, visualising Touching, handling External, doing Internal, feeling Stationary Movement None Needed Early Morning Late Morning Afternoon Evening Quiet Sound/Noise Bright light Low light Cool Warm Formal Informal Alone Pair Peers Team Supervised Unsupervised Self starting Externally motivated High Spontaneous Low Conforming Non-conforming High, strong Low Other directed Self directed Routine Change Oriented
77 77 55 11 77 66 100 77 0 77 0 66 66 22 11 33 88 0 55 0 11 11 66 11 22 33 55 33 11 11 100 0 55 11 0 11 44 55 0 55 22 0 22
22 11 44 66 22 33 0 22 33 22 44 33 22 44 11 22 11 22 22 55 55 88 11 44 44 55 33 44 77 88 0 22 11 88 33 22 11 44 66 44 44 66 77
0 11 0 22 0 0 0 0 66 0 55 0 11 33 77 44 0 77 22 44 33 0 22 44 22 11 11 11 11 0 0 77 11 0 44 22 0 0 33 0 33 33 0
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5.3.5. Insights from the Learning Style Analysis The results of all 73 participants (including NRG members) are summarised in Table 5-8, Table 5-9, Table 5-10, Table 5-11 and Table 5-12, with an analysis of variance conducted across age, gender, nationality and subject choice as reported in 5.3.5.b. a. Summarising the Results The total number of reports of all results from the Learning Styles Analysis for postgraduate students (including NRG) collected through the various classes discussed previously is 73. The breakdown of the participants is presented in Table 5-8. Table 5-8 Learning Styles Analysis Participants All, n= 73 NATIONALITY Australians Non-Australians: Asian European Pacific Islander Other AGE < 26 Years old 26-32 Years old > 32 Years old No age indicated GROUP NRG MGMT 908, 1999 MGMT 908, 2001 MGMT 946, 2002 EDGP 912/3, 2002
Female 45
% 61.6%
Male 28
% 38.4%
All 73
% 100%
26 19 16 2
35.6% 26.0% 21.9% 2.7%
1
1.4%
16 12 5 3 2 2
21.9% 16.4% 6.8% 4.1% 2.7% 2.7%
42 31 21 5 2 3
57.5% 42.5% 28.8% 6.8% 2.7% 4.1%
18 15 12
24.6% 20.5% 16.4%
8 5 13 2
11.0% 6.8% 17.8% 2.7%
26 20 25 2
35.6% 27.4% 34.2% 2.7%
3 14 15 9 4
4.1% 19.2% 20.5% 12.3% 5.5%
11 10 2 5
15.1% 13.7% 2.7% 6.8%
3 25 25 11 9
4.1% 34.2% 34.2% 15.1% 12.3%
The predominance of females (61.6%) reflects the enrolment record of subjects such as MGMT 908 and MGMT 946, which, in my experience, have tended to attract mostly female participation. The next three tables (Table 5-10, Table 5-11 and Table 5-12) present the learning styles preferences, non preferences and flexibilities of all 73 participants. The results have been further divided by Australian and non-Australian, and then female and male. Differences of greater than 25 percentage points are bolded. Shading is used to emphasise those scores over 65% in the Table 5-10. Using the arbitrary difference of 25 percentage points as an indicator that there may be some significant difference between groups such as Australians and Non-Australians and Females and Males, Table 5-9 summarises those areas with ‘notable differences’ of 25 percentage points
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or more.
The most notable differences indicated purely by these percentage
differences indicate that the most number of differences exist between the groups of ‘Australian’ and ‘non-Australian’ participants. The grouping of ‘non-Australian’ is problematic given that it includes students from Asia, Europe, North America and South America, not a very homogenous group! Later in Section 5.3.5.b, using two tests of variance (ANOVA and t-test), the differences, based on age, gender, nationality and subject-choice, are investigated further. Table 5-9 Notable Differences in Learning Style Preferences Learning Style Preference Australian % NonAustralian % Auditory External (talking) 76 48 Intake none 4 48 Intake needed 59 19 Time – early morning 54 29 Sound – quiet 76 48 Light - bright light 61 35 Motivation – self starting 95 70
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Female %
Male %
75
46
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Table 5-10 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Preferences
Sequential (Left) Simultaneous (Right) Reflective (Left) Impulsive (Right)
5 50 45 19
Australian n=42 % 7 50 40 19
Hearing, listening External, talking Internal, self talk Words, reading External, Seeing Internal, visualising Touching, handling External, doing Internal, feeling Stationary Movement None Needed Early Morning Late Morning Afternoon Evening Quiet Sound/Noise Bright light Low light Cool Warm Formal Informal Alone Pair Peers Team Supervised Unsupervised Self starting Externally motivated High Spontaneous Low Conforming Non-conforming High, strong Low Other directed Self directed Routine Change Oriented Analytic (Left) Holistic/Global (Right)
27 64 60 53 27 63 53 65 64 17 45 23 42 43 32 9 32 64 10 50 9 17 45 53 21 16 28 45 32 34 13 84 4 54 12 1 20 43 80 0 50 16 2 28 56 5
28 76 54 52 23 69 57 71 66 21 47 4 59 54 35 11 23 76 11 61 9 16 42 54 26 19 26 40 30 35 14 95 2 52 7 0 14 52 76 0 47 21 26 28 59 4
All n=73 %
Preferences Brain Processing Thinking Style Sensory Modalities: Auditory
Visual
Tactile Kinaesthetic Mobility Intake Time of Day
Sound Light Temperature Study Area Working Groups
Authority Motivation Persistence
Conformity Responsibility Structure, guidance Variety Learning Styles Tendencies
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NonAust’n n=31 % 3 51 51 19 25 48 67 54 32 54 48 58 61 12 41 48 19 29 29 6 45 48 9 35 9 19 48 51 16 12 32 51 35 32 12 70 6 58 19 3 29 32 87 0 54 9 22 29 51 6
Femal e n=45 %
Male n=28 %
4 48 40 17
7 53 53 21
35 66 55 57 31 62 57 64 66 26 40 31 46 46 28 8 31 75 4 53 8 13 51 51 20 11 24 44 28 40 6 86 2 55 13 0 24 40 84 0 48 17 26 24 64 4
14 60 67 46 21 64 46 67 60 3 53 10 35 39 39 10 35 46 21 46 10 25 35 57 25 25 35 46 39 25 25 82 7 53 10 3 14 50 75 0 53 14 21 35 42 7
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Table 5-11 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Non-Preferences
Sequential (Left) Simultaneous (Right) Reflective (Left) Impulsive (Right)
15 0 8 23
Australian n=42 % 14 0 11 21
Hearing, listening External, talking Internal, self talk Words, reading External, Seeing Internal, visualising Touching, handling External, doing Internal, feeling Stationary Movement None Needed Early Morning Late Morning Afternoon Evening Quiet Sound/Noise Bright light Low light Cool Warm Formal Informal Alone Pair Peers Team Supervised Unsupervised Self starting Externally motivated High Spontaneous Low Conforming Non-conforming High, strong Low Other directed Self directed Routine Change Oriented Analytic (Left)
16 2 2 9 12 5 2 4 1 30 10 43 5 26 31 69 38 2 52 9 53 34 2 10 20 21 5 2 15 15 15 0 57 4 12 45 9 1 0 43 4 16 20 10 1
14 0 2 9 14 4 2 2 0 38 11 61 0 21 33 73 42 4 52 4 52 35 2 14 19 19 7 2 9 16 11 0 61 4 11 40 11 2 0 42 2 14 19 11 2
19 6 3 9 9 6 3 6 3 19 9 19 12 32 39 64 32 0 51 16 54 32 3 6 22 25 3 3 22 12 19 0 51 3 12 51 6 0 0 45 6 19 22 9 0
13 0 2 8 11 6 2 2 2 17 15 42 8 24 28 66 35 2 60 6 62 42 2 11 15 20 2 2 13 8 15 0 57 4 11 46 13 0 0 51 4 20 22 6 2
21 7 3 10 14 3 3 7 0 50 3 46 0 28 35 75 42 3 39 14 39 21 3 10 28 25 10 3 17 25 14 0 57 3 14 42 3 3 0 32 3 10 17 17 0
Holistic/Global (Right)
15
14
16
15
14
All n=73 %
Non-Preferences Brain Processing Thinking Style Sensory Modalities: Auditory
Visual
Tactile Kinaesthetic Mobility Intake Time of Day
Sound Light Temperature Study Area Working Groups
Authority Motivation Persistence
Conformity Responsibility Structure, guidance Variety Learning Styles Tendencies
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NonAust’n n=31 % 16 0 3 25
Female n=45 %
Male n=28 %
11 0 8 20
21 0 7 28
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Table 5-12 Learning Style Analysis All Results: Flexibilities
Sequential (Left) Simultaneous (Right) Reflective (Left) Impulsive (Right)
58 28 41 52
Australian n=42 % 59 30 42 54
Hearing, listening External, talking Internal, self talk Words, reading External, Seeing Internal, visualising Touching, handling External, doing Internal, feeling Stationary Movement None Needed Early Morning Late Morning Afternoon Evening Quiet Sound/Noise Bright light Low light Cool Warm Formal Informal Alone Pair Peers Team Supervised Unsupervised Self starting Externally motivated High Spontaneous Low Conforming Non-conforming High, strong Low Other directed Self directed Routine Change Oriented Analytic (Left) Holistic/Global (Right)
56 32 36 36 60 31 43 30 34 50 42 27 46 30 35 20 28 30 34 36 34 47 52 32 54 41 60 36 42 46 67 15 38 28 67 42 50 35 16 53 31 53 46 52 42 79
57 23 42 38 61 26 40 26 33 40 40 28 35 23 30 14 33 16 33 33 38 47 54 30 54 35 61 40 45 42 69 4 35 26 66 45 50 21 23 57 35 50 52 57 38 80
All n=73 %
Flexibilities Brain Processing Thinking Style Sensory Modalities: Auditory
Visual
Tactile Kinaesthetic Mobility Intake Time of Day
Sound Light Temperature Study Area Working Groups
Authority Motivation Persistence
Conformity Responsibility Structure, guidance Variety Learning Styles Tendencies
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NonAust’n n=31 % 58 25 38 48 54 45 29 35 58 38 48 35 35 64 45 25 61 38 41 29 22 48 35 41 29 48 48 35 54 48 58 32 38 51 64 29 41 32 67 38 51 51 6 48 25 58 38 45 48 77
Female n=45 %
Male n=28 %
60 26 42 53
57 32 39 50
51 33 42 33 57 31 40 33 31 53 42 26 44 28 42 24 33 20 33 40 28 44 46 33 60 42 66 35 46 46 73 13 40 31 68 46 42 40 13 46 33 48 40 57 33 80
64 32 28 42 64 32 50 25 39 46 42 28 50 32 25 14 21 46 35 32 42 53 60 32 46 39 50 39 35 46 57 17 35 25 64 35 64 28 21 64 28 60 57 42 57 78
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b. Analyses of Variance The results of each individual LSA were statistically analysed. Data were coded by allocating numerical values to the different preference levels. It is acknowledged that these categories of preference levels do not reflect discrete categories, rather they are ordinal categories. Thus the validity of the analysis of variance is limited. However, while this presents a limitation, the process may still highlight aspects that can be investigated in future studies. The numerical values assigned to the levels were: §
1= non-preference
§
2= strong adaptability
§
3= flexibility
§
4= preference
§
5= strong preference
‘Strong adaptability’ and ‘Flexibility’ are grouped together as ‘Flexibility’ in Table 5-10 to Table 5-12, while ‘Preference’ and ‘Strong preference’ are grouped together as ‘Preferences’. A range of analyses of variance was conducted to explore the impact of aspects such as age, gender, nationality and subject choice on the learning styles preferences.
i.
Impact of Age Range
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the impact of age on learning style preferences with respect to sensory modalities (i.e. auditory, visual, tactile and kinaesthetic). All participants were divided into three groups according to their age to present three groups with a similar number of participants: §
Group 1: 25 years or less (n=26)
§
Group 2: 26 to 32 years and (n=20)
§
Group 3: 33 years or greater (n=25)
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Of the 71 responses (two were excluded as there was no response) there were no significant differences identified. A further one-way between groups analysis was conducted to determine the impact of age on learning styles preferences for all women (n=45). A statistically significant difference at p
