Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
Factors Affecting the Incidence of Occupational Accidents among Farmers Somayeh Moradhaseli1 , Homayoun Farhadian2 *, Enayat Abbasi3 , Fazlollah Ghofranipour4
Abstract Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of occupational accidents among farmers with an emphasis on the role of extension and education in reducing these incidents. Methods: This study was conducted through a literature review. For this purpose, we investigated books, documents and articles related to research topics in t he period of 2000 to 2017. Findings: Various factors are effective on the incidence of occupational accidents as well as on the type, amount and severity of injuries resulting from accidents at work. Farmers and agricultural workers are not excluded from occupational accidents. The affecting factors on occupational accidents in agriculture are classified in three categories: farmers’ characteristics, agricultural environment, and agriculture technologies. Conclusion: Occurrence of incidents in agricultural occupation is inevitable. Identifying the factors affecting the incidence of accidents can help to reduce the occurrence of incidents among farmers. The agricultural extension and education according to the abilities and talents in the field of agriculture and rural society can reduce accidents and workrelated risks and improve the farmers’ occupational health. Keywords: Agriculture, Occupational accidents, Factors affecting
1. Ph.D. Candidate of Agricultural Extension and Education, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agriculture, T arbiat Modares University, T ehran, Iran Email:
[email protected] 2. Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agriculture, T arbiat Modares University, T ehran, Iran Email:
[email protected] 3. Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agriculture, T arbiat Modares University, T ehran, Iran Email:
[email protected] 4. Professor, Department of Health Education, Faculty of Medical Sciences, T arbiat Modares University, T ehran, Iran Email:
[email protected]
37
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
Introduction
Studies have shown that low-educated or
Since the Creation, human beings have been
illiterate people or those with low knowledge
struggling to fulfil their living requirements. In
about how to take safety measures often cause
that in most cases, a great effort has been made
work-related dangers. Although this was
in the type of their technical activities with the
reported among educated people, the reason
advancement of science and technology. These
why they happen is impulsiveness. Hence, the
activities (performed in simple or complicated
major part of accidents involves some social
manner) are referred to either as job or work.
and personal requirements, as well as the lack
The health of the body and the purity of the
of observance of safety standards during work.
soul are ensured by virtue of work, which is, a
In this regard, throughout human life spans,
fact, stressed in the words of Imam Ali (AS):
physicians and scientists have taken steps to
“What
is
promote the health of workforce. The history
Prophet
of social damages dates back to the fourth
Muhammad (PBUH) holds that one who
century BC. For example, Hippocrates, for the
endeavors to earn his family’s bread and butter
first time, detected the workers’ lead poisoning
is like a Mujahid who fights in the cause of
in
God. As such, the importance of job is realized
Ramazzini, who is called as the father of
not only from the economic and material
medicine, was the first who advised physicians
aspects, but it also embodies spiritual and
to ask for the patients’ occupational history
ideological values [1]. There are covert and
along with queries from them, because it is
overt risks in doing jobs, some of which
likely that there is a close connection between
happen, sometimes, due to ignorance, lack of
job and disease [1].
makes
working”.
human
In
another
being
smooth
Hadith,
the
fourth
century
BC.
Moreover,
safety observance (negligence), lack of proper equipment, etc. Kurdrostami (2011) states that
Importance
it is an unplanned event during a series of
accidents
planned activities. In other words, accident is
Occupational accident is one of the main
an event whose occurrence causes damage to
causes of disability. It imposes high costs on
property and the environment, or human loss
families, healthcare and other systems in the
or injuries [2]. According to the International
society [4]. Research shows that workplace is
Encyclopedia
an
one of the most important fields causing
unexpected event that causes injury and harm
accidents. Every year, 313 million non-fatal
[3].
occupational injuries occur worldwide, leading
of
Work,
accident
is
38
of
studying
occupational
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
to at least four days’ absence from work. Each
factors that affect incidents:
year, more than 350,000 people die from occupational injuries [5]. Also, in agricultural
Factors
sector, according to the International Labor
occupational accidents
Organization (ILO) estimates, at least 170,000
No effect is undoubtedly without cause. As the
agricultural workers are killed every year [6].
French scientist Lavoisier contents: “Nothing
The direct and indirect costs of accidents
comes to existence on itself unless a reason
impose millions of dollars of losses annually
gives way to it”. Disasters and accidents are
on employers. According to the European
born of factors whose reasons are human
Agency for Safety and Health at Work
beings
(EASHW), six million job-related accidents
Henrich holds that one needs to focus on
occur in the EU states annually, resulting in a
accidents and their causes in the first place in
loss of 146 million hours of work. It means
order to take preventive measures (unsafe
that approximately 6.2 to 8.3% of the EU's
actions and unsafe conditions), and pay less
total domestic gross product is lost every year
attention to the effects of accidents like
[7]. The estimated cost in a seven-year study in
damages and their immediate damages [10].
2010 was calculated between $ 21 to $ 31
Prevention of accidents is possible with a clear
million. Most of the costs involved are indirect
understanding of key affecting factors [11].
costs such as efficiency loss at work and at
The
home. Fatal injuries in the first place and
technologies in various industries, particularly
admissions to hospitals at the next level consist
in risky industries, has changed the philosophy
the highest direct costs [8]. About 45% of
of safety from post-occurrence approach to
accidents cause damage to property, 30% lead
pre-occurrence approach. The new approach is
to loss of time, 21% lead to medical attention,
built on the recognition of root causes of
and 2.67% end with mortality [9]. The
accidents ahead of occurrence [12]. Accident
economic
happens typically at three levels;
illnesses
burden of such incidents and is
considerable
on
affecting
the
incidence
of
themselves or human-made tools.
development of
highly sophisticated
individuals,
1) Basic cause level: At the lowest level of
companies, families and even the general
causes, accidents just occur when a person or
community. But according to the safety
object encounters a quantity of energy or a
experts, each incident has one or more causes.
risky substance and perceives it as if it cannot
To prevent an accident, one must identify the
be understood in normal state. This energy or
cause of the incident. The followings are the
risky substance is the direct cause of accident. 39
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
2) Direct cause level: The direct causes are
occupational accidents, and to the type, level
usually the result of one or more unpredictable
and degree of damages caused by these
and irreversible conditions, or both. Unsafe
accidents, many studies conducted in this
actions or conditions are always referred to as
regard have been reviewed. Generally, factors
indirect causes.
affecting
3) Indirect cause level: Indirect causes are
classified
often because of poor management policies,
characteristics, agricultural environment and
wrong management decisions or unfavorable
agricultural technologies, and use of protective
environmental or personal factors. These
equipment.
occupational accidents into
three
classes:
can be farmers’
causes are called root causes [3]. In this regard, in agriculture sector accidents
Farmers’ characteristics
and damages arising from agricultural works
Since human resources is seen as the most
are a remarkable health problem worldwide
important yield factor in the agriculture sector,
[13] in the sense that agricultural safety is a
farmers’ characteristics can contribute to the
central issue
agricultural productivity
accidents of this sector as well as their
That is to say, with the
preventive measures. In this sector, some
improvement. expansion
of
of
agricultural
technologies,
characteristics of farmers and their roles in
agricultural workers will face a growing health
accidents have been investigated.
concern, causing them to face new job sanitary and health threats in addition to former health
A. Demographic and personal characteristics
and sanitary threats. However, even in the
It has been widely accepted that human factors
countries where primary health cares have
are influential in accidents [17]. Human factors
been developed well, occupational sanitary
in the occurrence of workplace accidents
cares often cease to exist in the agricultural
include lack of knowledge, lack of adequate
sector [14]. Accident in the agricultural sector
motivation, negative attitude, wrong beliefs,
is defined as any unpleasant or destructive
unsafe behaviors, work incompetency, lack of
event that happens unexpectedly or by chance,
appropriate rules and proper instructions, and
and leads to injury, loss of life, asset or time,
enhancement
etc. [15]. In addition to long-term effect on an
Cartiyon and Reyeshineen (2013) state that
individual, agricultural damages affect the
individual characteristics, decreased ability,
farmers’ families and society as well [16].
skeletal-muscular problems and respiratory
Since a variety of factors contribute to
diseases were shown to make a significant 40
of
unsafe
behaviors
[18].
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
difference to accidents and damages [19].
[29]. However, women are active labor force
Farmers’ resistance to change is one of the
in the agriculture sector as they can work on
factors affecting the occurrence of accident, in
farms even during pregnancy. In some cases,
that it is triggered by adverse weather
due to falling down and displacement, abortion
conditions. This is mainly because of a strong
occurs in farms. On the other hand, fatigue,
connection with traditional agriculture and
malaria, exposure to pesticides, and the like
rural ideology [20].
that cause accidents and diseases are on the
Age is a serious factor with regard to a
rise among them [30]. The low level of
potential risk of damage among farmers. Since
education is a factor of risk among farmers
older farmers are not under any compulsion to
[31]. Studies have shown that farmers with
plan for retirement, many farmers may have
higher education levels are less likely to
still desire to do certain tasks beyond their
sustain
abilities [21, 22]. Older farmers are subject to
education levels [32]. Other individual and
accidents due to long hours of work and lack
personal factors are also at work in this sector,
of rest [23]. However, risks of damages to
which we can refer to in what follows:
older farmers may be due to their more work
Farm work mechanization has some clear
experiences, lower risk-taking and reduced
advantages in terms of productivity, but its
interference with heavy manual works [24]. On
potential
the contrary, many deaths happened among
consideration on obesity and overweight risks
young workers because of the lack of
[21]. Overweight and obesity are among the
experience and insufficient attention to work
risk factors of occupational injuries [33].
[25]. A wide range of accidents happen at ages
People to whom farming is a secondary job are
over 18 [26].
less likely to pay attention to job safety due to
In addition to age, gender is an important
lack of self-confidence and experience in
factor in fatal injuries in farms [21]. Most
farming
occupational accidents have happened to men
accidents
[27]. A review of 16 studies indicates that the
sustained damages is more than in other
risk of injury in men is 3.3 times higher than
workers, but their recovery can be deferred
that in women [28]. Agricultural risks are
nonetheless [35]. Daytime sleepiness, job
reported to be more in men in the summer
status, drinking alcohol, and smoking are
during mid-day owing to the loss of control of
factors contributing to threats among farmers
agricultural machineries
[31].
during harvesting 41
injuries
than people
effects
[34].
should
The
among the
with lower
be
occurrence
taken
into
level of
workers previously
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
As work experience grows, accidents would
play a key role in preventing work-related
fall [36].
including
injuries and diseases. The lack of proper
depression, stress, social support and anger are
training and monitoring of the implementation
also contributing to accidents among farmers
of safety rules is the underlying cause of
[37].
accidents [42]. Lack of knowledge about how
Failure to use personal protective equipment
to do a job is considered one of the important
by workers, impulsiveness and carelessness,
factors in causing an accident [43]. Lack of
unprotected or technically broken devices,
knowledge about dangers of workplace can
failure
to procure and deliver individual
end up with accidents in farms [44]. To protect
equipment, failure to train workers, and the
health and achieve safety at the workplace, the
employer’s failure to supervise them contribute
transfer of these concerns requires preventive
to accidents [38]. The most common causes of
measures as a challenge and priority for the
accidents among farmers are to rush to work,
career of agricultural health [45]. Some studies
irregularities, and not observing the original
have also shown that farmers not trained in the
safety rules [39].
use of personal protective equipment suffer
Psychological factors
from a higher incidence of occupational B. Economic conditions
accidents, injuries and illnesses [46]. Sikkaland
Farmers’ concerns for making household
(2012) demonstrated that Norwegian farmers
expenditures have lowered individual attention
are aware of dangers; however, they do not
and
always properly handle this risk. Many farmers
safe
activities.
behaviors
during
In addition, farmers
day-to-day are
less
seem to perceive risks as natural part of their
interested in observance of safety measures
lives. Dangers are considered something they
and their health owing to economic problems
are forced to live with; on the other hand,
as well as costs reduction and costs saving
many farmers are not well aware of the
[40]. Inadequate economic situation is among
beneficial effects of safety [47].
the disastrous factors to farmers [34]. Poverty of farmers has limited the provision of
D. Duration of agricultural activities
protective equipment among them and has
Time pressure due to increased seasonal
increased the risks of pesticide poisoning [41].
workload has caused farmers and workers work longer hours during the day and more
C. Safety training and knowledge
days during the week. This itself causes stress
Worker training regarding the farm safety can
and fatigue, which is a known risk factor for 42
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
injury [48, 49]. Long working hours are a risk
washing conditions have reduced the safe use
factor known for damage among those who
of pesticides, leading to the occurrence of
work in agriculture [49, 50].
accidents and diseases caused by toxins [57].
Sleep less than 7 to 7.5 hours by day and night
In
causes injuries on farmers [13]. Effect of
systems, planting and harvesting technology,
sequential long shifts and the duration of rest
and use
of
between changes are determining risk factors
accidents,
which
in the occurrence of accidents [51]. There is a
monitoring systems, governmental regulations,
relationship between what time of day, fatigue,
and the introduction of genetically modified
work pressure, and events. Prolonged work
breeding [58]. Investment in farm yield and
periods during the summer months have
mechanization may have positive effects on
increased the health risks for farmers [52, 53].
work quality and quantity as well as work
The duration of work on the farm is associated
safety [19]. Weather conditions affect the
with the severity of damage occurred, in that
severity of the incident [59] as the degree of
more accidents happen to those who work over
the environment temperature, humidity, wind,
35 hours a week [54]. Work shifts and long
dust storms, precipitation and solar radiation
working hours can reduce work performance
can cause potential and significant risks on the
and increase the risk of obesity. They can also
farm environment [60].
bring about a wide range of chronic diseases
For farmers, there are perturbing occupational
and other accidents and injuries [55].
factors in the farm environment, including time
this
regard, farm vehicles, irrigation pesticide
are
require
influential in a
change
in
pressure with respect to seasonal workload and unpredictable factors, e.g. machinery failure
Farm environment In
addition
to
functioning
farmer’s
[61]. The amount of accidents in farms where
workplace, farm is considered a person’s living
work is full time is over twice that of farms
environment, because dangers can menace his
where work is part time [62]. Larger farms,
family as
person himself.
doing agricultural activities alone, long-term
Therefore, the environment of the farm is a
work experience, and old working conditions
dangerous environment that has an ongoing
are seen as accident-causing factors [19].
impact on the work and life of the people on
Failure to rest adequately when it comes to
the farm. Regardless of whether people are
injury and adverse workplace conditions gives
working on the farm or not [56], the lack of
rise to the occurrence of life threatening
farm resorts for farmers and the lack of proper
accidents [63]. Farmers may not have access to
well as
the
as
43
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
sanitary and welfare facilities on the farm; for
etc. By his new ideas and thoughts about how
instance, it is possible that workers become
the accidents occur and taking necessary
unable to wash their hands during the day or
actions for controlling them, Henrich had
have no access to washing machine or bathroom
important role in the Safety Science [69].
after work. Even if such possibilities are
Thus, as time goes by and new progresses
accessible, due to excessive workload, they
come along in this science, safety experts have
have not enough time to take care of their safety
begun to conclude that human being is the
[64]. Type of work on farms like tractor
main cause of accidents, and decided to direct
maintenance, livestock breeding, and the like is
their focus on human aspects of accident
known as a factor creating risk to farmers [54].
control. Therefore, they began to realize the importance of unsafe actions [70], because
Farm technologies and use of protective
efforts at controlling the rate of accidents and
equipment
reducing the resulting damages have shown
Negligence in maintenance and improper use
that human performance is the main cause of
of devices and equipment can cause dangers
accidents.
and accidents to farmers [29]. Equipment and
In the agricultural sector, yield of agricultural
use of machinery have a high potential for
crops depends on the power and physical
inflicting serious damages and accidents [65].
capacity of farmers. Thus, productivity of this
Use of unsafe and old methods, obsolete
sector is heavily influenced by the health of
machinery or lack of appropriate tools can also
workforce. Farmers are subject to particular
cause accidents to farmers [66]. Farmers’ main
job risks based on the type of activity, the
reasons for not using protective equipment
amount of using agriculture equipment and
include the lack of comfort, unpleasantness,
devices, and the amount of using pesticides.
inaccessibility to buy them or disturbance of
This
machinery noise [67]. The rattling sound of
measures for preventing the diseases and
machineries, long use of them, and lack of
accidents caused by work in this sector. It
protective equipment use are problematic to
further highlights the role of institutions like
farmers [68]. Generally, in the past, it was held
agricultural extension and education to have a
that adverse environmental conditions can
close link with farmers more than ever.
reveals
the
importance
of
certain
cause accidents; that is why little preventive measures are taken to individuals apart from
Agricultural extension and education
some training programs using safety posters,
In 44
the
twenty-first
century,
agriculture
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
continues to stay at the forefront of the most
cultivation
and
farming
practices
and
vital means of progress and poverty decrease
techniques, increasing the efficiency of yield
as well as social and economic welfare
and income, and improvement of living level
increase. A farmer is in need of investment,
and social and educational standards of farmer
energy, knowledge and sufficient skills to
life [77]. By adding education attribute to
boost his work so that he can gain enough
extension, Moscher proposed it as extension
profit. In fact, as the main function of village,
education. He holds that the nature of an
farming assumes a vital role in boosting
extension process is to help farmers through
welfare and eradicating poverty [71].
informal education [78].
Given that agriculture is a basis of daily life sustainability and one of the main sections in
Importance of agricultural extension and
support of national and local economy [72],
education in reducing the accidents caused
the development of this section is crucial,
by agricultural work
which requires the application of proper tools
Traditionally,
in this regard. As one of the rural-related
known as one of the main factors in
institutions, agricultural extension is the most
determining quantity and quality of human
important and key tool used to achieve human,
capital. It is expected that health and sanitation
agricultural and rural development [73, 74].
as a part of human capital have a positive
Agriculture extension is a kind of service or
impact on productivity. In other words, the
system that assists people through training
share health and sanitation of workforce is
practices
conventional
higher in yield and productivity. Physical
agricultural techniques and boost their yield
capital per capita representing yield technique
and efficiency. Since most of the developing
is directly linked with the efficiency of
countries have a rural economy, the actors
workforce. Substituting capital in the form of
involved in the development of the country
equipment and machineries for workers can
play a vital role [75]. Rivera & Sulaiman
contribute to yield increase for work/hour
(2009) express it as the engine of knowledge
individual, so yield per capita of workforce
transfer, innovation and development [76].
and thus efficiency of workforce can increase.
Monder in the reference book “Food and
In addition, the
Agriculture
that
capacities has a positive impact on the
agricultural extension is a service or system
efficiency of workforce, the measurement of
that contributes
which is based on actual yield-to-potential
to
modify
their
Organization”
to the
believes
improvement of 45
health
and sanitation were
amount of using yield
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
yield ratio [79]. Promoting health through
agricultural extension and education program
lifetime increase and decrease of working days
could bring success in many less developed
when the workforces lose because of their own
countries like West Africa. Farmers’ ability to
or
maintain biodiversity, food security, society
relatives’
productivity
disease can improve labor and
indirectly
affect
yield.
education,
human
health
protection
and
Moreover, health promotion can increase life
political reforms are clear parts of the success
expectancy, thereby increasing tendency for
of this program [82, 83]. On the other hand,
saving among people, and hence, investment
extension educators are required to use leading
and faster economic growth [80]. Agricultural
theories and patterns in education when
extension and education can properly play a
implementing their educational programs in
role in reducing the accidents and dangers
order to achieve better result and increase the
caused by work, considering abilities and
efficiency of pedagogical programs, as well as
talents
between
using the latest pedagogical methods and tools.
farmers and rural society. On the other hand,
Theories and models are useful in different
education is the main leverage of extension in
stages
relationship
evaluation
offered
with
for
relationship
farmers.
The
role
of
of
planning, of
an
implementation, intervention,
as
and they
education in human resource improvement and
contribute to the understanding of desired
promotions and its economic effect, i.e.
sanitary behavior and explanation of its
productivity and yield increase, is undeniable
dynamics and effect of external factors on
[81]. Conversely, educational programs should
behavior, so that the most appropriate goals
cover all those involved in farms including
can be determined for programs, change
managers
and
practices, and assessable results [84]. In this
temporary workers. If there is any kind of
regard, some experts believe that one of the
migrant, illiterate or disabled worker, a variety
causes of pedagogical program failure is the
of training programs and new pedagogical
lack of attention to causality studies and their
methods should be used for them [60].
groundwork regardless of psychosocial models
This institution should seek for promotion of
as
farmers’ occupational health and sanitation
educational planning [85].
and supervisors, migrants
a
specific
intellectual framework of
awareness level about accidents, diseases and damages caused by work. Promotion using a
Conclusion
variety of methods can deal with farmers’
Agriculture is the most important and essential
training in safety and health; for instance, an
section of satisfying human life requirements, 46
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
and the concept of developed world is not
extension is working with rural people in order
feasible without agriculture. Agriculture sector
to improve their living conditions by changing
is one of the main resources of employment
their knowledge, attitudes and skills. This goal
and income generation in many countries of
cannot be realized with neglecting the farmers’
the
health and safety. Thus, agricultural extension
world,
countries.
especially in the It
is
further
developing
responsible
for
and education can hold training courses and
providing security and food safety as a national
other educational activities in this regard in
target.
cooperation
On the other hand, agriculture is closely linked
professional health unit.
with
other
institutions
like
to different aspects of the farmers’ lives and their families, and their jobs continue to be
Conflict of interest statement
passed down from generation to generation. In
The authors declare that they have no conflict
other words, several generations thrive on the
of interest
farms, so that they no longer are able to continue working on farms. People of every
Sources of support
age are busy working on the farm though the
This study is a part of the PhD dissertation in
rate of accidents in agriculture is high. It can
Agricultural
be said that the high rate of agricultural
supported originally by a grant from Tarbiat
accidents is to some extent because of working
Modares
in special conditions as in mud, snow and rain,
Agricultural Extention and Education.
Extention
University,
and
Education
Department
of
and at high and low temperatures. In addition, it is likely that tasks entrusted to each member
References
of family are not commensurate with their
1. National Vocational and Technical Training
capacities and education levels in terms of
Organization.
safety and health, which can cause deadly
accidents
events for other family members. Studies have
Available from:
shown that worker education on farm safety
http://svr.irantvto.ir/uploads/130_605_Hava
can possibly play a crucial role in preventing
des%20Kar%20va%20Asib.pdf
occupational injuries and diseases. The lack of
Vortex
and
-
Work-related
social damages, 2010.
2. kurdrostami A. The concept of safety in the
proper training and monitoring of safety law
industry-the
enforcement are among the underlying and
conditions. 2011. Available from:
basic
http://iranhse.blogfa.com/post- 8.aspx. [In
factors
of
accidents.
Agricultural 47
unsafe
conditions
and
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
Persian]
JA, Alexander BH, Lindgren PG, Williams
3. Halvani Gh, MirMohammadi SJ. Safety in
AN. The Economic Impact for Farm Injury
the industry, based on the chapter on
in Minnesota, 2004-2010. J Agromedicine
occupational safety and industrial safety
2016; 21(2): 171-7.
students.
Tehran: Sobhan Publications,
9. Yohanna JK, Fulani UA, Ode S. Impact
2007; p: 10-6. [In Persian]
Assessment of the Causes and Prevention
4. Hashemi Nejad N, Mohammad Fam I,
of Farm Accidents on Mechanized Farms of
Jafari Nodoshan R, Dortaj Rabori E, Kakaei
North Central Zone/States of Nigeria.
H,
AESS 2012; 2(2): 171-6.
Kakaei H. Assessment of unsafe
behavior types by safety behavior sampling
10. Brauer RL. Safety and health for engineers.
method in oil refinery workers in 2009 and
2nd Edition, Translated by Halvani G.
suggestions for control. TKJ 2012; 4(1, 2):
Tehran: Sobhan Publications, 2006; p: 80-
25-33.
110.
5. International Labour Organization. Creating
11. Hinze J, Devenport JN, Giang G. Analysis
Safe and Healthy Workplaces for All.
of construction worker injuries that do not
Report prepared for the G20 Labour and
result in lost time. J Constr Eng Manage
Employment
2006; 132(3): 321-6.
Ministerial
Meeting
Melbourne, Australia, 10–11 September
12. Center
for
Chemical Process
Safety
2014. Geneva: ILO, 2014. Available from:
(CCPS). Guidelines for chemical process
http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2014/ILO-
quantitative risk analysis. 2nd Edition, New
safe_and_healthy_workplaces.pdf
York: American Institute of Chemical
6. International
Labor
Organization.
Engineers (AIChE), 2000; p: 250-300
Agriculture: a hazardous work [Internet],
13. Jadhav R, Achutan C, Haynatzki G,
2009. Available from:
Rajaram S, Rautiainen R. Review and
http://www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/h
Meta-analysis of Emerging Risk Factors for
azardous-work/WCMS_110188/lang–
Agricultural Injury. J Agromedicine 2016;
en/index.htm.
21(3): 284-97.
7. Rikhardsson PM, Impgaard M. Corporate Cost
of
14. Olowogbon ST, Fakayode SB, Jolaiya AJ,
Occupational Accidents: An
Adenrele AY. Economics of farm safety:
Activity-based Analysis. Accid Anal Prev
The Nigerian scenario. J Dev Agric Econ
2004; 36(2): 173-82.
2013; 5(1): 7-11.
8. Landsteiner AM, McGovern PM, Nyman
15. Adamade 48
CA.
Causes,
Impacts
and
Moradhaseli et al.
Prevention
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
of
Farm
Accidents
on
RJ. Patterns of fatal machine rollovers in
Mechanized Farms. Proceedings of the 8th
Canadian agriculture. Chronic Dis Inj Can
International Conference of the Nigeria
2011; 31(3): 97-102.
Institution of Agricultural Engineers at
22. Marsh SM, Fosbroke DE. Trends of
Yola. 2007; 29: 14-6.
Occupational
16. Landsteiner AM, McGovern PM, Nyman
Fatalities
Involving
Machines, United States, 1992–2010. Am J
JA, Alexander BH, Lindgren PG, Williams
Ind Med 2015; 58(11): 1160-73.
AN. The Economic Impact for Farm Injury
23. Tonozzi TR, Layne LA. Hired crop worker
in Minnesota, 2004-2010. J Agromedicine
injuries on farms in the United States: A
2016; 21(2): 171-7.
comparison of two survey periods from the
17. Wagenaar W, Groeneweg J. Accidents at sea:
multiple
causes
and
National Agricultural Workers Survey. Am
impossible
J Ind Med 2016; 59(5): 408-23.
consequences. Int J Man Mach Stud 1987;
24. Russell H, Maître B, Watson D. Trends and
27: 587-98.
Patterns in Occupational Health and Safety
18. Green LW, Kreuter MW. Health promotion
in Ireland. Research Series Number 40
planning: An education and ecological
2015; 1-126. Available from:
approach. 4th Edition. New York: McGraw-
http://www.hsa.ie/eng/Publications_and_Fo
Hill, 2005; p: 150-70.
rms/Publications/Corporate/Trends_and_Pa
19. Karttunen
JP.
Rautiainen
RH.
tterns_in_Occupational_Health_and_Safety
Characteristics of and risk factors for compensated
occupational
injury
_in_Ireland.pdf
and
25. Gholipour
C,
disease claims in dairy farmers: a case-
Ghaffarzade
control study. J Agric Saf Health 2013;
Characteristics
19(3): 191-206.
Traumatic
20. Brumby Kremer
S,
Ananda Chandrasekara
A,
Shams
Vahdati
S,
Kashi
Zonouzy
K.
E, of
Fatal
Injuries;
Occupational
Drama
in
East
Azerbaijan Province of Iran. Bull Emerg
P, Torres S, McCoombe S,
Trauma 2015; 3(1): 27-31. [In Persian]
Lewandowski P. The effect of physical
26. Mascarenhas MD, de Freitas MG, Monteiro
activity on psychological distress, cortisol
RA, da Silva MM, Malta DC, Gómez CM.
and obesity: results of the farming fit
Emergency room visits for work-related
intervention program. BMC Public Health
injuries: characteristics
2013; 13: 1018: 1-16.
factors - capitals and the Federal District,
21. DeGroot JM, Isaacs C, Pickett W, Brison
and
associated
Brazil, 2011. Cien Saude Colet 2015; 20(3): 49
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
667-78.
Health 2011; 17(3): 214-22.
27. Groborz A, Tokarski T. Accidents on
33. Janssen I, Bacon E. Pickett W. Obesity and
Polish family farms. Nordic Meeting on
its relationship with occupational injury in
Agricultural Occupational Health & Safety
the Canadian workforce. J Obes 2011;
2012 August 27-29, 2012 Ystad, Sweden.
2011: 1-6.
Available from:
34. Van
den
Broucke
S,
Colemont
A.
https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/9290/7/lundqvist_
Behavioral and nonbehavioral risk factors
p_121205.pdf
for
28. Salminen S, Tallberg T. Human errors in
problems
fatal and serious occupational accidents in
35. Thierry
29. Kogler R, Quendler E, Boxberger J. accidents
with
among
injuries
and
health
Belgian
farmers.
J
Agromedicine 2011; 16(4): 299-310.
Finland. Ergonomics 1996; 39(7): 980-8. Occupational
occupational
AD,
farmworkers
mowing
debilitating
Snipes delay
injuries?
SA.
Why
treatment Thematic
do after
analysis
machines in Austrian agriculture. Ann
explains if, when, and why farmworkers
Agric Environ Med 2015; 22(1): 137-41.
were treated for injuries. Am J Ind Med
30. Muilerman S. Occupational Safety and
2015; 58(2): 178-92.
Health on Ghanaian cocoa farms. Baseline
36. Gyekye S, Salminen S, Ojajärvi A. A
report. Sustainable Tree Crops Program,
theoretical model to ascertain determinates
International
Tropical
of occupational accidents among Ghanaian
Agriculture (IITA), Accra, Ghana. 2013.
industrial workers. Int J Ind Ergonom 2012;
Available from:
42(2): 233-40.
Institute
of
http://oldlrinternet.iita.org/c/document_libr
37. Xiao H, Stoecklin-Marois M, Li Ch,
ary/get_file?uuid=50b4bf19-b1bd-44a2-
McCurdy SA, Schenker, M. Depression,
9ac0-56a590c7c36e&groupId=25357
perceived stress and nervios associated with
31. Pickett W, King N, Lawson J, Trask C,
injury in the MICASA Study, a California
Brison RJ, Hagel L, Janssen I. Farmers,
farm worker population. FACTS Reports
mechanized work, and links to obesity.
2010; 10: 1-8.
Prev Med 2015; 70(2015): 59-63.
38. Najimi MR, Abedini M, Kolahdozi M,
32. Davies H, Koehlmoos TP, Courtice MN,
Kohnavard B. Investigating the Factors
Ahmad SA. Occupational injury in rural
Affecting
Bangladesh:
using
Recorded in Referents to the Department of
household survey. Int J Occup Environ
Labor, Social Co-operation and Social
Data
gathering
50
Occupational
Accidents
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
Welfare of Yazd during a 7-year period.
knowledge,
IJSTS 2016; 3(1): 14-22. [In Persian].
associated with pesticide exposure in rural
39. Pawlak
H,
Nowakowicz-Dębekb
Agriculture:
accident-prone
B.
practices
and
injuries
farming villages in Tanzania. BMC Public
working
Health 2014; 14: 389.
environment. Agri Sci Proc 2015; 7: 209-14.
47. Sikkeland IJ. Zero accident at my farm -
40. Buranatrevedh S, Sweatsriskul P. Model
The farmers mental HES-challenge? Nordic
development for health promotion and
Meeting
control of agricultural occupational health
Health & Safety 2012; 27-29, 2012 Ystad,
hazards and accidents in Pathumthani,
Sweden. Available from:
Thailand. Ind Health 2005; 43(4): 669-76.
https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/9290/7/lundqvist_
41. Tansey
R.
Eradicating
the
pesticide
Occupational
48. McCurdy SA, Kwan JA. Agricultural injury
1995; 92: 55–9.
risk among rural California public high
42. Kim H, Räsänen K, Chae H, Kim K, Kim
school students: prospective results. Am J
K, Lee K. Farm Work–Related Injuries and
Ind Med 2012; 55(7): 631-42.
Risk Factors in South Korean Agriculture. J
49. Reiner AM, Gerberich SG, Ryan AD,
Agromedicine 2016; 21(4): 345-52.
Mandel
43. Williams JH. Employee engagement. Prof
Large
Machinery-Related
Region in the Midwest. J Occup Environ
44. Heiberg AM, Mattila TE, Kaustell KO, Factors
J.
Agricultural Injuries Across a Five-State
Safety 2008; 53(12): 40-6.
RH.
Agricultural
p_121205.pdf
problem in Latin America. Bus Soc Rev
Rautiainen
on
Med 2016; 58(2): 154-61.
affecting
50. Dembe AE, Erickson JB, Delbos RG,
occupational safety and health of Nordic
Banks SM. The impact of overtime and
foreign farm workers. Nordic Meeting on
long work hours on occupational injuries
Agricultural Occupational Health & Safety
and illnesses: new evidence from the
2012 August 27-29, 2012 Ystad, Sweden.
United States. Occup Environ Med 2016;
Available from:
62: 588-97.
https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/9290/7/lundqvist_
51. Tucker P, Folkard S. Macdonald I. Rest
p_121205.pdf
breaks reduce accident risk. Lancet 2003;
45. Hendricks KJ. Youth on racial minority
361: 680.
operated U.S. farms, 2008: demographics
52. Moyce S, Joseph J, Tancredi D, Mitchell D
and injuries. J Safety Res 2014; 51: 81-6.
Schenker M. Cumulative Incidence of
46. Lekei EE, Ngowi AV, London L. Farmers'
Acute 51
Kidney
Injury
in
California's
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
Agricultural Workers. J Occup Environ
D'Antoni J. Physical Characteristics of
Med 2016; 58(4): 391-7.
Farm Equipment Crash Locations on Public
53. Percival
N.
Contributing
factors
to
Roads in Tennessee. J Agric Saf Health
agricultural accidents in New Zealand. Nordic
Meeting
on
2015; 21(2): 85-94.
Agricultural
60. International Labour Organization. Draft
Occupational Health & Safety 2012 August
Code of Practice on Safety and Health in
27-29, 2012 Ystad, Sweden. Available
Agriculture. ILO, Geneva, Switzerland,
from:
2010; p: 5-29.
https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/9290/7/lundqvist_
61. Lovelock
p_121205.pdf
K,
Occupational
Cryer Health
C.
Effective
Interventions
in
54. DeWit Y, Pickett W, Lawson J, Dosman, J.
Agriculture Summary report no.5. Injury
Farm Activities and Agricultural Injuries in
Prevention Research Unit, University of
Youth and Young Adult Workers. J
Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Occasional
Agromedicine 2015; 20(3): 318-26.
Report OR 072. 2009. Available from:
55. Caruso CC. Negative Impacts of Shiftwork
http://psm-dm.otago.ac.nz/ipru/ReportsPDFs/
and Long Work Hours. Rehabil Nurs 2014;
OR072.pdf
39(1): 16-25. 56. Gross
N,
62. McNamara J, Kinsella A. Recent trends in Young
T,
Ramirez
M,
farm injuries in Ireland. Nordic Meeting on
Leinenkugel, K, Peek-Asa C. Characteristics
Agricultural Occupational Health & Safety
of Work- and Non-work-Related Farm
2012 August 27-29, 2012 Ystad, Sweden.
Injuries. J Rural Health 2015; 31(4): 401-9.
Available from:
57. Levesque DL, Arif AA, Shen J. Association
https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/9290/7/lundqvist_
between workplace and housing conditions
p_121205.pdf
and use of pesticide safety practices and
63. Douphrate
DI,
Nonnenmann
MW,
personal protective equipment among North
Hagevoort R, Gimeno Ruiz de Porras D.
Carolina farmworkers in 2010. J Occup
Work-Related Musculoskeletal Symptoms
Environ Med 2012; 54(12): 1550-6.
and Job Factors Among Large-Herd Dairy
58. Fragar L, Temperley J. Drivers of adoption
Milkers.
of safety innovations on Australian cotton
224-33.
farms. J Agric Saf Health 2011; 17(3):
J Agromedicine 2016; 21(3):
64. Arcury TA, Quandt SA, Cravey AJ, Elmore
209-26.
RC, Russell GB. Farmworker reports of
59. Mehlhorn Sandy, A, Darroch B, Wilkin H,
pesticide safety and sanitation in the work 52
Moradhaseli et al.
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
environment. Am J Ind Med 2001; 39(5):
Policy Paper 2007; no. 5. Stichting DLO:
487-98.
Wageningen. Available from:
65. Horsburgh S, Feyer AM, Langley, JD. Fatal work
related
injuries
in
http://www.boci.wur.nl/UK/Publications/
agricultural
72. Lange E, Hehl-Lange S, Brewer MJ.
production and services to agriculture
Scenario-visualization for the assessment of
sectors of New Zealand, 1985–94. Occup
perceived green space qualities at the
Environ Med 2001; 58(8): 489-95.
urban–rural fringe. J Environ Manage 2008;
66. Gorucu S, Murphy DJ, Kassab C. A MultiYear
Analysis
of
Fatal
Farm
89(3): 245-56.
and
73. Swanson
BE.
Changing
extension
Agricultural Injuries in Pennsylvania. J
paradigms within a rapidly changing global
Agric Saf Health 2015; 21(4): 281-98.
economy. J Rural Dev 2010; 1: 59-63.
67. Donham
KJ,
Medicine:
Thelim
Agricultural
VP.
Cyber
extension:
The
extension approach for new millennium.
Environmental Health for the Professions.
Manage Cyberary 2003; 18(8). Available
1
Edition,
Occupational
74. Sharma
and
st
Rural
A.
Ames,
IA:
Blackwell
from:
Publishing, 2006; p: 20-6.
http://www.manage.gov.in/managelib/facul
68. Meister H, Grugel L, Walger M, Wedel
ty/vpsharm a.htm.
HV, Meis M. Utility and Importance of
75. Tuttle S, Linder JR, Dooley KE. Historieal
Hearing-Aid Features Assessed by Hearing-
and eurrent extention systems in Dr.
Aid Acousticians. Trends Amplif 2010;
Arroyo, Northeastern Mexico. Proeedings
14(3): 155-63.
of the 22nd Association for International
69. Oldfied A, Ocock M. Managing Project
Agriculture
and
Extention
Education
Risk: the Relevence of Human factors the
Annual Conference, Cleawater Beach:
International. IPMA 1997; 1(2): 99-109.
Forida 2006; 18-25. Available from:
70. Baysari MT, Mcintosh AS, Wilson J.
http://www.aiaee.org/2006/Accepted/658.p
Understand the human factors contribution
df
to raiway accidents and incidents in
76. Rivera MW, Sulaiman RV. Extension:
Australia. Accid Anal Prev 2008; 40 (3):
Object of reform, engine for innovation.
1750-7.
Outlook on Agri 2009: 38(3): 267-73.
71. Meijerink GP, Roza. The role of agriculture in development. Sustainable
77. Axinn GH. Guid on alternative extension
Markets, Chains and
approaches. Translated by Kashani A, Mir
Development Strategy and
J. Tehran: Arghanon Publication, 2003; p: 53
Factors Affecting the Incidence of …
Health Education and Health Promotion (HEHP) (2017) Vol. 5 (1)
17-30.
82. Kenmore P. Integrated pest management.
78. Aghasizadeh F. Extention of Agriculture: Fundamentals
and
Concepts.
Int J Occup Environ Health 2002; 8(3):
Saveh:
173-4.
Publication of Saveh Azad University,
83. Noar
2008; p: 13-26.
SM,
Behavior
Zimmerman Theory
and
RS.
Health
cumulative
79. Amini A, Hejaziazad Z. An Analysis and
knowledge regarding health behaviors: are
Assessment of Health Contribution to
we moving in the right direction? Health
Increasing Labor Productivity: A Case
Educ Res 2005; 20(3): 275-90.
Study of Iran. JER 2007; 9(30): 137-63.
84. Simbar M, Ramezani Tehrani F, Hashemi
80. Marmot M. The influence of income on
Z. Sexual-reproductive health belief model
health: views of an epidemiologist. Health
of college students. Iran South Med J 2004;
Aff (Millwood) 2002; 21(2): 31-46. [In
7(1): 70-8. [In Persian]
Persian]
85. Ooi PA, Kenmore PE. Impact of educating
81. Shariatzadeh
Malek
farmers about biological control in farmer
Mohammadi A, Noroozi, A. Agricultural
field schools. 2nd International Symposium
training experts' opinions about the goals,
on Biological Control of Arthropods 2005;
plans
and
undergraduate
M,
Chizari
process
M,
of
recruiting
78-85. Available from:
agricultural
education
https://www.bugwood.org/arthropod2005/v
system. IAEEJ 2006; 2(1): 45-9.
ol1/6a.pdf
54